Science Reviewer

EXTINCTION
 Disappearance of the last individual of species when all of its members have
died

Causes
1. Physical
 How one affects the other

2. Biological
 Change in weather

Natural Causes
1. Global Cooling and Water
 Not able to adapt
 New breed may evolve

2. Ice Ages or Major Glaciations

 Temperatures drop

3. Fluctuations in Sea Levels

4. Global Reduction of Oxygen Level

 Volcanic Eruptions
 Gamma Radiation
 Diseases

ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES
1. Habitat Destruction
2. Pollution
3. Overexploitation
4. Introduction of Invasive Species

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Process wherein the plant gets sunlight in order for it to make their food
 Requires light energy
 Occurs in the chloroplasts

PARTS OF THE LEAF

1. Phloem
 Transportation of food and nutrients
 Sugar and Amino acids
 Part of the Vascular Bundle

2. Xylem
 Transport of water and minerals from ROOTS to AERIAL parts
 Part of the Vascular Bundle

3. Cuticle
 Protection for plants
4. Epidermis
  Helps prevent water loss

5. Palisade Mesophyll
 Contains a lot of chloroplasts
 Absorption of light
 Production of food and nutrients

6. Spongy Mesophyll
 Spherical- isodiametric
 Cells are loosely packed
 Allows the reactants to pass through

7. Lower Epidermis
 Protection of the leaf

8. Guard Cells
 Surrounds the stomata
 Help regulate transpirations

9. Stomata
 Tiny pores in plant tissue
 Located below to prevent direct sunlight
 Allows gas exchange

*TRANSPIRATION- water loss

CHLOROPLASTS
 Organelle where photosynthesis takes place
 Chlorophyll: pigment

Thylakoid
 Absorption of light
 Thylakoid Membrane
 Thylakoid Space
 Granum
o Bundle of thylakoids

Photons
 Composed packets of light

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 Convert the energy in food molecules into a usable form of energy called
ATP
 Reactants: glucose, oxygen
 Products: water, CO2
 Energy released: ATP
 Occurs in the double membrane organelle: mitochondrion

Light Dependent Reaction

Kinds
1. Aerobic Respiration
 Krebs Cycle & ETC
 Requires oxygen
 Produces 38 ATP molecules

2. Anaerobic Respiration
 Glycolysis
 Does not require oxygen
 2 ATP molecules

ATP
 Adenosine Triphosphate
 Energy stored molecule
 Made up of:
 Adenine (Nitrogenous Base)
 Ribose (Sugar)
 3 Phosphate Groups (attached to ribose)
 ATP Energy: molecular energy
 ATP for every glucose: 12-18

STEPS
1. Glycolysis
 Glucose is broken down into smaller pieces
 Substitutes: fats and proteins
 C6H1206
 Converts glucose into pyruvate
 Pyruvate: produced when the body breaks down

2. Krebs Cycle
 Citric Acid Cycle
 Produces one GTP & ATP
 Occurs in the Matrix (Mitochondria)

3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

 Proton Gradient is to power ATP synthase

FORMULA
C6H12O6 6CO2+6H2O+ATP
Light Independent Reaction
  Second phase of photosynthesis
 Does not need sunlight
 Can take place in the dark
 Calvin Cycle

MAKES USE OF
- ATP
- NADPH
- CO2

*Stroma- part of the chloroplasts

Steps
1. CO2 enters the leaf
2. Some H from light reaction combines with CO2
3. Sugar produced transported to mitochondria for use by cells
*Glucose needs 6 carbons
*Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell

CALVIN CYCLE
 Melvin Ellis Calvin

1. Carbon Fixation
 RUBP- 5 carbon sugar
 Rubisco
! Carries out photosynthetic fixation of CO2 in the chloroplasts
! Taking carbons from CO2

2. Reduction Phase
 PGA: 3 carbon organic acid
 G3P: 3 carbon sugar
! PGA+ATP+NADPH= G3P

3. Carbon Fixation
 G3P to Carbohydrates
 ATP & NADPH= 2

4. Regeneration Phase
 G3P+ATP= RUBP

*PGA- absorbs hydrogen atom

*Glucose harvested from plants are used to make SUCROSE (table sugar) and
starch

VOLCANOES
VISCOSITY
- Describes the magma’s thickness & stickiness
- Higher temperature, less viscous

*Thick Magma= Explosive Eruption (gases are trapped)

*Not thick= Effusive (gases can flow)
Types (STRUCTURE)
1. Composite
 Shape: gentle lower slopes, but steep upper slopes, concave upward
 Size: large, 1-10 km in diameter
 Type: explosive (more explosive, more viscous)

2. Cinder Cone
 Shape: steep conical hill w/ straight sides
 Type: explosive

3. Shield
 Shape: very gentle slopes, shaped like a shield
 Type: quiet

Volcanic Eruption
 Magma comes out of the volcano
 Why? Pressure and Tectonic Plates

Types (ERUPTION)
1. Hawaiian
 Least violent
 Highly fluid lava: hottest
 Hawaii

2. Strombolian
 Continuous ejection of magma and gas
 Violent type

3. Vulcanian
 Dust clouds and gases
 Tephra: ash from the volcano

4. Plinian
 Fast- flowing pyroclastic debris
 Most violent type

EFFECTS
1. Positive
 Landscapes

2. Negative
 Can cause illnesses
 Global warming

Lava Flow
1. Pyroclastic
 Ashes and rocks mixed with hot gases

2. Lava
 Stream like flow

3. Tephra
  Shower of fine-to-coarse-grained volcanic materials

4. Lahar
 Rapid flow
 Thick mixture of volcanic materials and water

Debris Avalanche
 Volcanic landslide
 Massive collapse of a huge portion of volcano

Tsunamis
 Sudden displacement of water

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
How do we harness this?
1. Wells are drilled deep into the earth
2. Water becomes steam
3. Steam spins a turbine
4. Condenses the steam back to water
5. Pumped back to earth

CLIMATE
1. Microclimate
 Heavy urban areas are hotter than forests

2. Polar Climate
 Remains cold throughout the year

3. Continental Climate
 “micro- thermal”
 Very hot summers, very cold winters

4. Dry Climate
 Very little rainfall
 Deserts

5. Tropical Climate
 Areas close to the equator

6. Mild Climate
 “meso- thermal”

Factors that Affect Climate

1. Latitude
 Tropic
 23.5°
 Cancer & Capricorn
 Temperate
 66.5°

 Polar
  Arctic & Antarctic
2. Altitude
 Altitude increases, temperature decreases, air pressure increases

3. Ocean Currents
 Uneven heating of the oceans

4. Large Bodies of Water

 Winters are mild, summers are cooler

5. Rain Shadows
 Air rises (windward side), it cools, precipitation occurs (windward side),
air travels (to leeward side), air becomes arid or dry
 ^^ reason why there are deserts on the east side of the Rocky Mountains

6. Prevailing Winds
 Climate of the region is affected by dominant wind systems

GLOBAL WARMING
 Increase in the average global temperature
 Natural & human induced

1. El Niño
 Irregular warming

2. La Niña
 Brings weather extremes
 Cold counterpart of El Niño

3. Greenhouse Effect
 Absorption of heat by the greenhouse gases that trap heat in the earth’s
atmosphere

Effects
1. Climate Change
 Agriculture

2. Rise in Sea Level

 Melting of ice caps, thermal expansion, land subsidence, tsunami

STARS
 Massive, luminous ball of gas & plasma held together by gravity
 Milky Way Galaxy: around 200- 400 billion stars
 Nearest star: sun
The color and luminosity of a star depends on its temperature
COLOR TEMPERATURE (Kelvin)
Blue (Youngest) 11,000-28,000
Blue- White 7,740- 11,000
Yellow 5,000-6,000
Orange 3,600- 5,000
Red (Oldest) 2,000- 3,600
Sizes of Stars
 1. Main Sequence Star
o Most observed stars
o About the size of the sun
2. Giant Stars
o Larger than the sun
3. Supergiant Star
o Can be 1500 times larger than the
sun
4. Dwarf Stars
o About the size of the Earth

End of Star
1. White Dwarfs
o Hot, dense, slowly cooling sphere of carbon
2. Supernova
o Enormous explosion that destroys a star
3. Neutron Stars
o Dense core of neutrons that remains after a supernova
4. Black Holes
o An object whose gravity is so great that no light can escape

CONSTELLATIONS
 Different constellations are observed at different times of the year due to the
revolution of Earth around the Sun

ATOMIC BONDING
 Atoms and Ions bond because they tend to assume a stable condition
 Forces of attraction that hold molecules together
 Proton: + charge
 Neutron: no charge
 Electron: - charge

ATOMIC MODEL
1. Rutherford’s Model
 Positive nucleus orbited by electrons
 Problem: electrons should fall into the nucleus

2. Bohr’s Model
 Fixed orbit
 Problem: uncertainty principle

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

 Erwin Shrodinger
 SPDF (orbitals)
o S- 2
o P- 6
o D- 10
o F- 14
Noble Gases
  Outer shells are filled with electrons
 Up to 8 valence electrons
 EXCEPT HELIUM

Octet Rule
 Completion of 8 valence electrons for it to be stable

Valence Electrons
 Ones primarily involved in bonding
 Lewis Dot diagram

*Atoms with 8 valence electrons do not easily react with other atoms. They are
chemically stable
*Hydrogen and Helium: one energy level, chemically stable with 2 valence
electrons

CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Ionic
 Transfer of electrons
 Metal & non- metal
 Ions
o Cation- positive (kanya)
o Anion- negative (akin)

2. Covalent
 Shared electrons
 Non- metals only
 Poor conductors of heat & electricity
 Types:
 Non- Polar
! Shared EQUALLY
 Polar
! Shared UNEQUALLY

Electronegativity
 Attract electrons when present in a compound
 Electronegativity Difference
o Determines if a compound is non- polar, polar, or ionic
o Non- Polar: 0-0.5
o Polar: 0.6- 1.9
o Ionic: 2.0 & up