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• Carbon is unique
Hydrocarbons:
• A hydrocarbon is a compound consisting of only hydrogen and
carbon.
1-straight
2-branched
3-closed ring
Saturated compound:
Alkanes
End in –ane
• Methane CH4
• Ethane C2H6
• Propane C3H8
Properties of Alkanes:
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
Alkene
Thus, a ripe tomato placed in a sealed bag with green tomatoes will
help ripen them.
Alkynes
Cyclic Hydrocarbons:
• Carbon atom chains in form of rings
Halogens:
Halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2,) can all add to a hydrocarbon to form am
alkyl halide.
Alcohol Family:
• Produced industrially
Ethers:
• Two alkyl groups attached to same O
– Example :CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3
– Insoluble in water
– Highly flammable
Aldehyde: R-CHO
Ketone: R-CO-R’
Common Aldehydes
Common Ketones:
Carboxylic Acid:
Contains C=O and –OH group on same carbon
The red ants, like other ants, make the simplest of the organic acids,
formic acid. The sting of bees, ants, and some plants contains formic
acid, along with some other irritating materials. Formic acid is HCOOH.
Esters:
Derived from carboxylic acids and alcohols
Tend to be fragrant
Amides:
N bonded directly to carbonyl group
Heterocyclic Compounds
Occur in plants
Isomers
different structures
• There is only one possible way that the carbons in methane (CH4),
ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8) can be arranged.
Are isomers that differ because their atoms are connected in a different
order.
Stereoisomers Isomers :
Enantiomers:
Diastereomers:
Reagent:
a) Substitution:
ABBC ACBB
b) Addition:
All parts of the adding reagent appear in the product, two molecules
become one
ABB–C A –B –C
c) Elimination:
A –B –C ABBC
d) Rearrangement:
A –B –C A –C –B
e.g:
1. Mass ( Kg)
2. Length (m)
3. Time (s)
4. Temperature (K)
Derived Units:
units for quantities obtained by appropriate combinations of the base
units.
mx m
m2
m/s
18 إيمان مرزا-٣ ھديل الفرشي-٢ ريم السبيعي-١ :إعداد
ھتان بدر-٢ نورة نحاس-١ :تنسيق
Modified Units :
Modification of the basic units with decimal factors and prefixes
e.g.
1/10 = 10 -1
1/100 = 10 -2
1/1000 = 10 -3
Factor-label method:
Useful method in setting up unit conversion problems .
e.g.
Cm ------ dm
1. cm ------- m
2. m ------- dm
Temperature:
It is a quantity that determines the direction that heat will flow
spontaneously.
• Fahrenheit Scale
• Celcius
• Kelvin
• Freezing point = 0 C
100C = 180F
Kelvin (K) :
• SI temperature unit
Celcius : C= 5/9(F-32)
kelvin : K= C+273
Celcius : C=K- 27
• if it is 75 F what is it in K ?
Solution :
• First , convert to C
• Then convert to K
K=CB2G3
K=23.9B2G3=29G
Density :
ratio of an object mass to its volume
Cm 3 = ml
e.g
At 4 C , density of water is =1
Example:
Solution :
Unite conversions:
e.g :
5 Kg = 5 x 1000 = 5000 g
e.g :
Example:
(Kg mg)
Solution:
1- Convert from Kg to g
1 Kg=103 g
2- Convert from g to mg
Stoichiometry :
Quantitative measurement to carry out a chemical reaction
Mole concept :
e.g.
Solution:
e.g.
Solution:
The atomic weight is found in the periodic table below the element
e.g
Solution :
? g of Ca = 1 atom
Molecular weight :
Sum of atomic weights for a molecule
e.g.
e.g :
Solution :
X mole of C = 50.5x1/12=4.62
e.g.
Solution :
1 mole ----------- 16 g
X g of oxygen = 5x16/1 = 80 g
Examples:
Solution :
We have :
1 mole Cl 35.5 g
? 50 g
? : 1.4 mole Cl
M.W. of Ca = 40 g
Solution :
= 0.G moles x 40 g = 28 g of Ca
Summary:
Moles = weight (g) / M.W(g)
Example :
Solution :
= 0.54 x 10 15
= 3 x 0.54 x 10 15 = 1.64 x 10 15
Molarity (M):
M= number of moles of solute / volume of solution.
Examples:
Solution:
M= 10/2 = 5M
Solution:
Unit: (Mole) /( Kg )
Examples:
Solution:
=330/110.98 = 3 mole
solution:
so,
2 = (wt / 40 ) / 1 = 80 g.
Equivalent wt of solute
N= 1 L of solu<on
Examples:
Solution:
N= normality
n= valance
M= molarity
Example:
Solution:
N= 1x 2.3 =2.3
Mole fractions:
The ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of
moles of all component in solution.
Xa = n A / n A + n g +…..+n n
Example:
What is the mole frac"on of ethyl alcohol & H2O if 0.5 mol. Of ethyl
alcohol & 1,5 mol. Of H2O is mixed?
X(C2H5OH)=0.5/(0.5B1.5)= 0.25
Dilution of solution:
The process of reducing the concentration of a solute in solution usually
by mixing with solvent.
Example:
Solution:
M1=1.5M , M2=??
V1=100 ml , V2=2000ml
M2= 0.0G5M
Hydronium Ion is a
+
HC1 + H2O = H3O + CL solvated proton.
In water solvent it is a
hydrated proton.
HB(aq) = H3OB =
Hydronium ion
Dissociation:
a) Strong acids and bases:
Lowery-Bronested Theory :
-Acid: Substance that donates protons (HB)
HA B H2O = H 3 OB B A-
A- is conj.base of acid HA
Monoportic acid: An acid which gives one hydrogen ion per molecule
of acid
Diprotic acid : An acid that gives two hydrogen ions per molecule of
acid
Triprotic acid : An acid that gives three hydrogen ions per molecule of
acid
H2PO4- HB B HPO4--
HPO4-- HB B PO4---
Polyprotic acid :An acid that gives more than one hydrogen ion per
molecule, includes diprotic and triprotic.
pH Scale :
pH = G
pH < G
pH>G
[H3O+] = Kw / [OH- ]
[OH- ] = Kw / [H3O+]
Kw = 1 X 10-14
pKa = -log Ka
pKb = -log Kb
1- pH Meter
2- Acid – Base chemical indicators
pH Calculations:
1- [ H+] = 6.7 X10 -3 M
pH = - log [HB]
pOH Calculation:
pH B pOH = 14
pOH = 14 – pH , pH = 14 – pOH
Example :
pH = [HB] = 11.2
Ka = [A-] [H3O]
[HA]
Kb = [OH-] [BHB]
[B]
Percent ionization:
Percent ionization = [H+] × 100%
Solution :
Initial 0.5 M 0 0
Change -X BX BX
Final (0.5-X) X X
Ka = [HB] [HCOO-]
[CH3COOH
[0.5 – x]
X = 3.0 × 10 -3
Concentra"on of CH3COOH
= 0.50 – 3 × 10 -3 = 0.50 M
= 3.0 × 10 -3 M
Indicator (In) :
Are weak organic acid or bases
HIn --------- HB B In –
Neutralization Reaction:
Example:
Solution :
Na × Va = Nb × Vb
Va = 630 ml
pH of neutralized solu"on = 7
[HB] = O.1
pH = -log 0.066G
pH = 1.18
Because strong acid and strong base release some no. of HB & OH-ions
= 0.0025
= 0.0026
= 0.0001
= 0.00196 = 1.96 × 10 -3
pOH = 2.G2
pH B pOH = 14
pH= 11.3
[A-]
[HA]
Buffer solution :
Solution whose pH does not change very Much when H3OB or OH- ions
are added to it.
Buffer capacity :
Is the ability to absorb acids or bases without being affected much.
anxiety (hyperventilation)
-Metabolic acidosis :
-Metabolic alkalosis