12th EM Notes 2019 PDF

ELECTRICAL
MAINTENANCE
STD. 12th
1
INDEX
Sr. Chapter Name Page No. Marks
No. Paper I weightage
(Approx.)
1. Electrical Symbols 3-10 2

2. Circuit diagram and panel wiring diagram 11-26 8-10
3. Fuses 27-32 4-5
4. Conductors, Gauge of a conductor,Insulators,Semiconductors 33-37 2-3
and High Resistance Heating Elements
5. Types of wires and wiring accessories 38-48 4-6
6. Wiring system 49-58 5-6
7. House wiring. Indian electricity rules and Overhead headlines 59-69 8-10
8. Underground cables 70-74 5-6

9. Illumination 75-86 5-6
10. Electrical Appliances 87-100 6-8
Sr.No. Chapter Name Page No. Marks

Paper II weightage
(Approx.)
11. Transformers 101-139 15-20
12. Single Phase Motors 140-151 6-8
13. Theory of rotating magnetic field and 3 phase induction motor 152-174 12-14
14. Synchronous Motor 175-180 6
15. Measuring Instruments 181-193 8-10
16. Electric Heating 194-198 4-5
17. Parallel operation of 3 phase alternator 199-202 6

18. HV substation 203-205 2
19. Maintenance 206-207 2
20. Question Bank 208-226
2
1. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
Sr. No. (A) General Symbol
1 Positive
+
2 Negative
-
3 DC cell
4 D.C supply source
5 A.C. supply source
Sr. No. (B) Switches, Fuses Symbol

6 One way switch
7 Two way switch
8 I.C.T.P. switch
9 Pendent switch
10 Pull switch
11 Intermediate switch
12 Isolator with fuse(H.R.C. fuse)
13 Fuse
14 Oil circuit breaker
15 Push button circuit

Closing Opening switch
16 Aerial
3
17 Jointing of conductor
(showing dot)
Crossing of conductor
18 Fault
19 Earthing
20 Lamp
21 Fixed resistance
22 Variable resistance
23 Inductive coil/winding
24 Fixed capacitor
25 Variable capacitor
Sr.No. (C)Meters Symbols

26 D.C. voltmeter
27 A.C. voltmeter
28 DC/AC voltmeter
29 DC/AC ammeter
4
30 D.C. ammeter
32 A.C. ammeter
33 DC/AC wattmeter
34 D.C. generator
35 DC/AC generator
36 DC motor
37 AC motor
38 Choke
39 Transformer
40 Auto transformer
41 Regulator
42 Frequency meter
43 Power factor meter
5
Sr.No. (D) Socket outlets Symbols
44 Socket outlet, 2 pin 5A
48 Socket outlet, 3 pin 5A With switch
49 Socket outlet, 3 pin 15A With switch
Sr.No. (E) Main and Distribution fuse board as Symbols

per I.S.I. standards
50 Main fuse board without switches, lighting
51 Main fuse board with switches, lighting
52 Main fuse board without switches, power
53 Main fuse board with switches, power
54 Distribution fuse board without switches,

lighting
55 Distribution fuse board with switches,
lighting
56 Distribution fuse board without switches,
power
57 Distribution fuse board with switches,
power
58 Main switch lighting
59 Main switch power
60 Energy meter
61 Control board
Sr.No. (F) Ceiling outlets Symbols
6
62 Single light pendant
63 Counter weight pendant
64 Rod pendant
65 Chain pendant
66 Light bracket
67 Button lamp holder
68 Watertight fitting
69 Bulk head fitting
Sr.No. (G) Bells,Buzzers Symbols

70 Bell push
71 Bell
72 Buzzer
73 insert number of ways)
74 Relay
75 Horn or Hooter
76 Siren
77 Fire alarm push
78 Automatic contact
79 Bell connected to fire alarm
80
of ways)
7
Sr.No. (H) Fixed apparatus symbols Symbols
81 Microphone outlet
82 Loud speaker outlet
83 Receiver outlet
84 Amplifier
85 Bracket fan
86 Ceiling fan
87 Exhaust fan
88 Regulator of fan
Sr.No. (I) Symbols for starters Symbols

89 Ordinary starter
90 Star delta starter
91 Rehostatic starter
92 D.O.L. starter
93 Auto transformer starter
94 Capacitor start; 1 ph motor starter
Sr.No. (J) Symbols for motors/generators Symbols

95 DC series motor
96 DC series generator
97 1 Ph Squirrel cage induction motor
8
98 3 Ph Squirrel cage induction motor
99 3 Ph slip ring motor
Sr.No. (K) Some other symbols Symbols
100 Lighting arrestor
101 PMMC type instrument
102 Induction type instrument
103 Dynamometer type instrument
104 Moving Iron type instrument
105 Ohmmeter
106 Tachometer
107 Galvanometer
9
108 Multimeter
109 Neutral link
110 Cartridge fuse
111 Immersion heater
112 Immersion heater with thermostat
113 Thermostat
114 Indicating lamp
10
2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND PANNEL WIRING DIAGRAM
CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF AMMETER, VOLTMETER, WATTMETER, ENERGY

METER IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT :
BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING 3-POINT STARTER WITH FIELD REGULATOR, I.C.D.P.

AMMETR, VOLTMETER, STARTER:
11
3-POINT STARTER FOR D.C. SHUNT MOTOR:
12
4-POINT STARTER FOR D.C. COMPOUND MOTOR:
13
SERIES MOTOR STARTER WITH N.L.R.:
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF MOVING-IRON ATTRACTION TYPE METER:
14
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF MOVING IRON REPULSION TYPE METER:
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMMC) INSTRUMENT:
15
CONNECTING ONE LAMP ONE SWITCH, INDICATING LAMP AND FUSE IN A CIRCUIT:
CONTROLING TWO LAMPS INDEPENDENTLY IN A CIRCUIT:
16
STAIRCASE WIRING (CONTROLING ONE LAMP FROM TWO PLACES)
GODOWN WIRING:
17
ONE LAMP CONTROLLED FROM THREE PLACES:
ONE POINT SERIES PARALLEL TESTING BOARD:
18
TWO POINT SERIES PARALLEL TESTING BOARD:
CALIBRATION OF ENERGY METER:
19
CALIBRATION OF D.C. AMMETER:
CALIBRATION OF D.C. VOLTMETER:
20
CONTROLLING TWO LAMPS AND A THREE PIN SOCKET INDEPENDENTLY:
CONNECT ONE LAMP, ONE HALF POINT FUSE AND INDICATOR IN A CIRCUIT:
21
CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF ENERGY METER, I.C.D.P. SWITCH, STAIRCASE WIRING,
TWO LIGHT POINTS, ONE 3-PIN SOCKET WITH SWITCH:
STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER:
22
AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTER:
23
STAR-DELTA STARTER:
24
DOL STARTER:
25
ROTOR RESISTANCE STATER FOR SLIP RING INDUCTION MOTOR:
CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM OF 1 ENERGY METER (KWH) METER:
26
3. FUSES
Definition: Fuse is a safety device which is placed in series with the live wire and fusing element in the fuse
melts when current exceeds its normal rated value and breaks the circuit.
Function of fuse:
1) If a short circuit occurs anywhere in the wiring system excessive current flows through the wire and fuse.
Fusing element melts cutting off the current and protects the appliance and accessories connected in the circuit.
If the fuse fails to operate, the wire may become hot enough to ignite the insulation possibly causing a fire.
2) Fuses also protect the circuit in case of overload. If too many appliances are connected to one circuit more
current will flow through the supply wires then the wires were meant to carry. It will cause the wires to burn
and appliances and accessories connected to the circuit will also be damaged.
Note:
1) Fuses are connected in phase wire.
2) It is used for protection of low voltage circuit.
3) Size of the Fuse wire should be according to rated current of the circuit.
4) Current carrying capacity of the fusing element should be 1.5 times the value of the rated current of the
circuit.
Materials used as a fuse wire:
1) Lead (up to 3 A) - Melting Point-3270C.
2) Lead-tin alloy (3A-15A) - Melting Point- 239.50C.
3) Tinned copper (above 15A) - Melting point- 10930C.
4) Silver (used in H R C Fuse) - Melting point -961.80C.
Selection of fuse wire:
1) Max current rating of circuit.
2) Current rating of smallest size of wire.
3) Type of load whether steady or fluctuating.
Terms used in fuses:
1) Rated current or current rating of fusing element: It is the maximum value of current which the fusing
element can normally carry without melting for indefinite period of time.
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2) Minimum fusing current: It is the minimum value of current at which the fusing element melts. Even that
current flows for a fraction of seconds.
3) Fusing factor: It is a ratio of Minimum fusing current to rated current of fusing element. Its value is always
more than one.
Properties of fusing element
1) It should not subject to oxidation.
2) It should not be brittle.
3) Material should be homogeneous which should not spread under pressure.
4) It should be free from deterioration due to oxidation.
5) It should have low cost.
Typesof fuses
NON-Rewirable[totally
Rewirable[semi enclosed] enclosed]
Round type
fuse or cut Kit-Kat fuse Cartridge fuse H . R. C. FUSE
out
Rewirable or Semi enclosed fuse:

1) Fusing element can be replaced.
2) Application: Domestic installation ICDP switch.
3) Types: i) Round type fuse unit ii) Kit-kat fuse
28
1) Round type fuse unit:
1) It is similar as a ceiling rose.
2) It is made of Bakelite and porcelain.
3) Base is fixed on wooden board with screw. There are 2 terminals on the base in which fuse element
are fitted.
4) Small holes are provided on the cover for air entrance to help the burning of fuse and to provide
passage for gases formed due to melting of fuse element.
Disadvantages:
i) One of the terminals is always energized with live wire. So it is difficult to replace fuse link.
ii) When fuse blows off there is too much arcing and unit may be damaged.
2) KIT-KAT FUSE:-
29
Construction:
1) Fuse link or fuse element: It is the part of fuse which melts if excessive current passes through it.
2) Fuse carrier: It is a removable holder which carries fuse link or fuse element.
3) Fuse base: It is the part of fuse which is fitted on wooden board and which carries fixed contact into which
fuse carrier is fixed.
4) Fixed contact: These contacts engaged with carrier contacts and are connected to fixed terminal.
5) Carrier contact: Carrier contacts are in fuse carrier.
Advantages:
1) Cost is less.
2) It requires minimum time to replace.
3) No maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1) Oxidation of fuse wire.
2) Lack of discrimination.
3) Low rupturing capacity.
3) H.R.C. FUSE [HIGH RUPTURING CAPACITY] :
Construction:
1) HRC fuse has a cylindrical body of ceramic or glass.
30
2) At both ends, there are 2 brass caps.
3) Between these two brass caps a fusing element is fixed.
4) Space around fusing element is filled with quartz or chalk powder. (Quartz or chalk powder is a cooling
material which carries normal current without overheating.)
5) Fusing element is made up of silver.
Operation:
1) When a circuit is carrying normal current temperature of fusing element is below melting point.
2) When any fault occurs in the circuit temperature of fusing element rises and fusing element melts.
3) In case due to high current if arc struck between the two ends, the quartz sand around fusing element
immediately quenches the arc.
4) It has the advantage that it can carry the short circuit current for a known time period, if in that time period
the fault is removed the fuse does not blow off.
5) These are available 2-800 A capacity.
Advantages:
1) Reliable.
2) Can be selected for proper discrimination.
3) Do not deteriorate with time.
4) Capable of clearing high as well as low current.
5) They are accurate.
6) Time lag can be provided.
Disadvantages:
1) After each operation, replacement of total fuse unit is required.
2) Cost is high.
4) CARTRIDGE FUSE:
1) It is totally enclosed form of fuse.
2) In this fuse, fusing element is placed in a peculiar shape just like a cartridge.
31
3) It is in the form of tube and its ends are enclosed with metallic caps.
4) Cartridge is filled with powder or granular material called quartz.
5) The container is heat resistant, a good insulating material and sealed completely.
6) If fuse goes off complete unit is to be replaced.
7) It has an index circle at the top, under normal condition it is clear and it becomes dark when fuse blows off.
Comparison between Fuse and Circuit Breaker:
Basis Fuse Circuit breaker

1.Working principle Works on the thermal and Works on the switching principle
electrical properties of the and electromagnetism
conducting materials
2.reusability Fuses can be used only once C.B. can be used for number of
times.
3.Switching action be used as an ON/OFF Can be used as an ON/OFF switch
switch
4.Function It provides both detection and It performs only interruption.
interruption process Detection is performed by relay
system.
5.Breaking capacity Low High
6.Operating time Very less ( approx. 0.002 sec) More than fuse( approx. 0.02 0.05
sec)
7.Mode of operation Completely automatic Manually as well as automatically
operated.
8.Cost Less High
9.Types Kit kat fuse ,HRC , Cartridge MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker
MCCB Molded Case Circuit
Breaker.
32
4. CONDUCTORS, GAUGE OF A CONDUCTOR, INSULATORS,
SEMICONDUCTORS AND HIGH RESISTANCE HEATING
ELEMENTS
Conductors:
(i) The substances through which the current can flow very easily are known as conductor.
(ii) A good conductor must have high good conductivity and least resistance e.g. Ag, Cu, Al, steel etc.
Properties of conductors:
(i) A good conductor must have high good conductivity and least resistance. E.g. Ag, Cu, Al, Steel.
(ii) It should have high tensile strength.
(iii) It should be malleable and ductile.
(iv) It should have low temperature coefficient of resistance.
1. Silver:
(i) Ag is the best of all conductors.
(ii) It is used in special cases i.e. in H.R.C. fuse.
(iii)It is very costly hence its application is limited.
(iv) Resistivity = 1.59 x 10-8 ohm-m.
(v) Melting point = 961.8deg. C.
(vi) It is malleable and ductile.
2. Copper (Cu):
(i) Next to silver, Cu is widely used.
(ii)It is malleable and ductile are hence can be hammered and drawn into thin wires.
(iii)It has high resistance against corrosion.
(iv)It can be easily soldered and welded.
(v) Resistivity of pure is 1.72 x 10-8 ohm-m.
(vi) Melting point = 1083 deg. C.
Transformers.
3. Aluminium (Al):
(i)Next to Cu. Al is widely used.
(ii)Al is lighter in weight.
(iii)Al is malleable and ductile; hence it can be hammered and drawn into thin wires.
(iv)Since Cu is costly, Al is widely used.
33
(v)It can be used for cables over head wires (A.C.S.R.)
(vi)Resistivity = 2.65 x 10-8 ohm-m.
(vii) Melting point = 675 deg. C.
4. Steel:
(i)It is made up carbon and iron.
(ii)It is mechanically very strong.
(iii)It conductivity is poor; hence its use as a conductor is restricted.
(iv)Used in traction as return wire and for short distance transmission wire.
(v) Tensile strength = 70 to 75
(vi) Resistivity =1.18 x 10 -8 ohm-m.
Gauge of the conductor wire:
The wire size is not expressed in terms of area or diameter but for simplicity it is expressed in a standard
form called as B.S.W.G. (British standard wire gauge)
Basically there are two types of conductors 1) Solid Conductor 2) Stranded Conductor
1) Solid Conductor:-Single rigid conductor having uniform cross section throughout its length is called
solid conductor.
2) Stranded Conductor: - For greater flexibility number of conductors are twisted together are called
stranded conductors. No. of conductors stranded together depends upon current carrying capacity.
Conductor with insulation is called wire. For measuring sizes of wire British standard wire gauge
is used.
S. W. G:-
1) The S.W.G. is an instrument which is used for
determining the size of a wire.
2) It consists of a thin circular plate of steel with a
number of slots on its circumference.
3) Each slot is marked with different numbers.
4) Higher the no. of wire gauge smaller is diameter of the
conductor.
5) Smallest wire gauge is of no. 40 having diameter .0048
inches while the largest gauge no. is named as
Seven zeros
34
How to check the wire gauge?
1. If the wire is enameled then, scratch out the enamel and if the wire is insulated then remove
insulation from conductor.
2. Insert the conductor in the approximate gap of various gauge numbers.
3. If bare conductor enters the gauge easily then that gauge no. is a gauge of conductor or wire. E.g. If
the conductor enters in gauge no.3 easily, in gauge no. 4 it is not easily entering and in gauge no. 2 it
is loosely entering, then the gauge of that conduction is 3.
4. Higher the gauge no. lesser is the diameter of that wire.
1/18 wire means
No. of conductor is = 1
Gauge of conductor is = 18
3/20 means
No. of conductors or no. of Strands = 3
Gauge of each conductor is 20
GAUGE OF A CONDUCTOR CURRENT RATING
1/18 5 amp
3/22 10 amp
3/20 15amp
7/22 20 amp
Insulators:
(i) The substances through which the current cannot flow are known as insulators.
(ii)A good insulator must have high resistivity and practically nil conductivity.
E.g. Rubber, plastic, wood, porcelain.
Properties of Insulators:
1. Resistivity should be very high.
2. It should be water resistant.
3. It
4. It should not be porous.
5. It should not contain any impurities.
6. It should be mechanically strong.
35
1. Porcelain:
(i) Porcelain is the best of all insulators.
(ii) It is made from chine-clay and quartz.
(iii)It is mechanically very strong.
(iv)It is not affected chemically.
(v)It is used for making fuses, socket, fan regulator, switches etc.
(vi) It is water and heat resistant.
(vii) Tensile strength is 400 .
(viii) Compression strength = 5000
2. Mica:
(i)Why mica is used as insulator.
(ii)It has high mechanical strength, high resistance.
(iii)It is fire resistant, moisture resistant.
(iv) It retains elec. and mech. properties at high temp.
(v)It acts as a very good thermal conductor hence used in electric iron for covering the heating element,
also used for making commutator segments.
(vi) Resistivity is to
3. Transformer oil:
(i)This oil is obtained by refining petroleum oils.
(ii)It is a very good insulator.
(iii)It is used for cooling purpose.
(iv)It acts as an arc quenching medium.
(v)It is used in transformer, circuit breakers and cables.
(vi) Density is between 087 to 0.89
Properties of transformer oil:
1. It should not contain any impurities.
2. Its viscosity should be low to facilitate cooling.
3. Even after long services no deterioration, oxidation, acid, sludge or moisture formation.
4. No rapid burning.
4. Asbestos:
(i)It has a fibrous structure and found beneath rock.
(ii)It is white and brown in color.
(iii)It can be given different shapes very easily.
(iv)It is fire proof.
(v)Used in electric iron, regulator etc.
(vi)Specific resistance = .
36
5. P.V.C. :
(i) Insulating material is synthetic compound. It is obtained from the polymerization of acetylene. It is
compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers.
(ii) P.V.C. has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide
range of temperature. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to many alkalies and acids.
(ii)It has low softening point.
(iii)It is unaffected by water but becomes brittle in air.
(iv)It is used for submarine cables.
*Semi-Conductors: The substance which has both the properties of conductor as well as insulators are
known as semi-conductors.
At low temperature, it behaves as an insulator but at high temperature it behaves as a conductor e.g.
Germanium, silicon.
*High-Resistance Heating element:

(i) Nicrome (Ni+Ch+Fe) and tungsten has very high resistance.
(ii) They have high melting point.
(iii) Nicrome is used as heating element in heater, Geyser, Room heater etc.
(iv) Tungsten is used as filament in lamps since it emits light.
Why Nichrome is used as heating element:

(i) High Resistance.
(ii) High melting point.
(iii) No oxidation.
(iv) Low temperature coefficient of resistance.
37
5. TYPES OF WIRES AND WIRINGACCESSORIES
Types of wires:
1. V.I.R. (Vulcanized Indian Rubber) Wire
2. Lead sheathed Wire
3. CTS or TRS(Cab Tyre Sheathed or Tough Rubber sheathed) Wire
4. Weather proof Wire
5. Flexible wires.
6. P.V.C. wires
I] V.I.R. or S.B.R.C. (single Braid Rubber covered):
a) In this type of wire, single tinned copper or aluminum conductor is used. Tinning of conductor
prevents the sticking of rubber to the conductor . Conductor is covered with a layer of rubber
insulation.
b) Over this rubber insulation is put up a cotton-protective braid which is usually saturated with flame
retarding and moisture resistant compound.
c) Finally it is finished with wax for cleanliness and helps pulling action of it into the conduits.
d) Thickness of rubber insulation depends upon the voltage for which wire is required; they are
available for 250 V or 600V.
II] Lead sheathed wire:
a) Ordinary V.I.R. wires are specified for dry locations.

b) In order to use rubber insulated wire in damp conditions, the ordinary rubber wires are covered with
continuous sheath of lead.
c) Lead covering is about 1.25mm thick.
38
d) Mechanical protection is good but wires are heavy and costly.
III] C.T.S or T.R.S Wire:
a) Ordinary wire is provided with rubber insulation is not water resistant.

b) But T.R.S. wires are provided with tough rubber compound which does not deteriorate even after long
exposure to moisture.
c) It can be used in wet locations
IV] Weather Proof wire:
a) Such type of wires consists of three layers of fibrous yarn provided over Cu conductor.
b) Before these braids are applied conductors are saturated with waterproof compound.
c) It is used for outdoor purposes, since it can withstand rain, sunlight, chemical action.
d) They are resistant to atmospheric variation.
V] Flexible wires:
a) Wires used for household appliances are very flexible.

b) Flexible wires consist of thin hair like conductors grouped together.
c) Flexibility is required firstly from the point of view of handling the equipment and secondly to prevent
wires from break.
d)
39
0.0076 inches or 0.1930 mm
It means 14 or 162 strands of Cu conductors having diameter 0.0076 inch.
VI] PVC wires (Poly vinyl chloride):
a) A modern thermoplastic material which is often used as an alternative to rubber.

b) It resists chemical action.
c) It resists adverse climate conditions.
d) It is lighter in weight.
e) It offers mechanical protection.
f) It has a tendency to crack at low temperature and soften at high temperature.
WIRING ACCESSORIES
1. SWITCHES
2. LAMP HOLDER
3. CEILING ROSE
4. SOCKET OUTLET
5. PLUG
6. DISTRIBUTION BOX
7. FUSE
8. WIRES
1. SWITCHES: A switch is a mechanical device used to make or break the electrical circuit contacts. A
switch should so operate that it should make the contact firmly and break the contact instantaneously.
For this action there is a spring provided to the movable blades. A switch can perform mainly two
functions- ON, by closing its contacts, or fully OFF, by opening its contacts. When contacts are closed,
it creates a path for the current to flow, and vice-versa, an open contact will not allow the current to
flow. In electrical wiring, switches are most commonly used to operate electric lights, permanently
connected appliances or electrical outlets.
Types of switches:
Sr Types of switches Specification Specification

No. (Lighting Circuits) (Power Circuits)
1 Surface switch 5A, 230V 15A, 230V
2 Piano switch/flush switch 5A, 230V 15A, 230V
3 Pull switch or ceiling switch 5A, 230V -
4 Grid switch 5A, 230V -
5 Rotary switch 5A, 230V -
6 Push button switch 5A, 230V -
7 Intermediate switch 5A, 230V -
8 Industrial iron clad switch 16A, 32A, 63A, 100A, 200A and so on.
230V, 440V
40
1. Surface switch (or Tumbler Switch): These switches are mounted on mounting blocks or directly
fixed over the surface of the wall. Such types of switches project out of the surface of the wall.
They are classified as:
a.One way/single way switch - This switch is provided with single pole. It has two contacts, which is a
common marked as COM or C. The common is for the live wire that supplies the input voltage to the
switch. The other terminal is marked as L1 and is the output to the light fixture.
b. Two way switches - A two way light switch is a simple single pole "changeover" switch with three
terminals. These are typically labeled COM, L1, and L2 (Some may label the L1 and L2 positions as "1
Way" and "2 Way").The advantage of a two-way switch is the ability to control a single device from two
separate locations. A convenient and apt use for them is for locations like stairways, a long corridor or a
very large room.
2.Piano switch (or Flush switch): These switches are enclosed in wooden board or P.V.C. board recessed
into the wall.Switches does not project out. Current carrying parts are not easily accessible.
41
Piano switch
3. Pull switches: Pull switches are fixed on ceiling and all live parts are out of reach of operator.
Pull cord is provided with a single pull on the cord for on/off positions. A pull switch is a switch that is
actuated by means of a chain or string. An electric pull switch is attached to a toggle type switch.
One pulls to switch on and next pull to switch off. The most common use of a pull switch is to operate a
ceiling electric light.
Pull switch
4. Grid switches: These switches are similar to surface switches, only they are lighter. So, they are useful
for portable machines and appliances.
5. Rotary switches: These switches consist of an insulated handle to which blades are fixed. These blades
move in steps by the movement of handle and make contact with the terminals. A rotary switch is a kind of
switch that has a rotating shaft attached to a terminal. That terminal is able to make or break a connection to one
(or more) other terminals. Rotary switches may feature different switch positions that can be set by rotating the
switch spindle in one or another direction. Some common examples where a rotary switch might be used is in a
multi-speed fan or as a band selector on multi-band radios.
42
Rotary switch
6. Push button switches: These switches open or close with quick action when pressed. It is used for
starting motors or ringing bells. They are widely used in automatic control applications as Normally Open
(Start) switch or Normally Closed (Stop) switch.
Push button switches
7. Intermediate switch: This switch has four contacts when dolly is up the top and bottom contacts are
bridged and when down, the contacts are cross connected. This kind of switch is used in a hall, go-downs, big
rooms, where different lamps are required to turn on and off from different places and in a multistory building,
the ground floor or car parking lights can be controlled from any floor .
8. Industrial iron clad switch:

a. This switch is used as a main switch by consumer to have self control of the electric circuit.
b. This switches are heavy duty and strong in construction.
c. This switch is combined with fuses.
d. Fuses are fitted in iron cover.
43
Two types are: I) I.C.D.P. (Iron clad double pole): It is used in single phase circuit.
II) I.C.T.P. (Iron clad triple pole) : It is used in three phase circuit.
For domestic installations switches are designed for

Voltage rating: 230v, 440v
Current rating: 16A, 32A, 63A, 100A, 200A so on
I.C.D.P I.C.T.P.
44
2. LAMP HOLDER: A lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required for lighting purpose. Lamp
holders are either molded or porcelain interior with a solid or spring plunger and wire terminals.
Types are:
a. Pendant holder
b. Batten holder
c. Bracket holder
d. Edison screw holder.
e. Fluorescent lamp holder
(i) Bi-pin type
(ii) Bayonet caped tube holder
f. Starter holder
Pendant holder Angle holder Batten holder
45
3. CEILING ROSE: A ceiling rose is used to provide a tapping to a pendant lamp holder through a flexible
wire or a connection to a fluorescent tube, ceiling fans. Ceiling rose consists of a circular porcelain or Bakelite
base provided with two or three terminal plates. To a threaded base porcelain or Bakelite cover is fixed.
4. SOCKET OUTLET: The socket outlets has insulated base having three terminal sleeves. The two thin
terminal sleeves are making connection to the two core cable with the third terminal sleeve thicker in cross
section is used for an earth connection.
5A socket outlets are used for lighting circuits.

15A heavy duty is used for power circuits.
5. PLUG: For tapping power from socket outlets three pin plugs are used. The thicker pin is used for earth
connection. Three pin 5A for lighting circuits and 15A three pin plugs are used for power circuit.
Round 3 pin 5A plug Round 3 pin 15A plug
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6. DISTRIBUTION BOX:
a. Distribution boards are iron-clad and houses fuse bank.
b. Fuses in D.B. can be easily removed.
c. D.B. is used for splitting the circuit.
d. For connecting neutral, D.B. is provided with neutral link.
7. FUSE: It is safety device connected in series with the phase wire. When current exceeds its normal rated
value fusing element in the fuse melts and breaks the circuit. Fuse element is made up of lead-tin alloy, copper
or silver. Following are the types of fuses:
Typesof fuses
Rewirable[semi NON-Rewirable[totally
enclosed] enclosed]
Round type
fuse or cut Kit-Kat fuse Cartridge fuse H . R. C. FUSE
out
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8.CONNECTOR BLOCKS:It of one or more brass connecting barrel with set screws to clamp the wires.
It is surrounded by molded blocks of insulated materials like Bakelite and porcelain. The brass barrel is fitted in
the connector block.
9. ADAPTORS: When the connections are made from lamp holders, the adaptor is used. It consists of
portable fitting temporary in place of fixed brackets, batten or pendent holders.The ends of the flexible chord
are connected from back side to the two plates in adaptor which make contact with plunger in lamp holder.
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6. WIRING SYSTEM
Types of Wiring System:

1. Cleat wiring 3. Casing & capping wiring
2. Batten wiring 4. Conduit wiring
a. C.T.S system
b. Lead-sheath system
Cleat Wiring:
Cleat made up of porcelain
1) Wires are supported in porcelain cleats.

2) Cleats are made in two halves. One of which is grooved to receive wire & other is put over it. Whole of
it is fixed on wall by means of screws.
3) This system is suitable for temporary purpose.
4) Cleats used should not be more than 60cm apart horizontally or vertically.
5) Sharp bends should be avoided.
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6) Spacing of the cleats under the bend should be reduced.
7) When wires are to pass through walls. They must be taken through conduits
Advantages:-
(i) Very cheap.

(ii) Skilled labors are not required.
(iii) Less time required for wiring.
(iv) Recovery of material can be made when wiring is no longer reqd.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Cannot be used for permanent job.

(ii) Appearance is shabby due to sagging and collection of dust & dirt.
(iii) Cannot be used in damp places, water-pipes, factories, smithy shop.
Application:-
(i) It is used for temporary purpose like Project work.
(ii) Temporary lighting at dry places.
BATTEN WIRING:
1. Lead covered or Metal sheathed
2. C.T.S. type of wiring system
1. Lead covered or Metal sheathed :
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a) This type of wiring system consists of rubber insulated conductor covered with an outer sheath of
lead alloy containing 95% lead which provides protection from mechanical injury and dampness.
Wires are fixed by means of metal clips spaced at regular intervals which must not be more than 30
cm.
b) Metal clips (joint clips) are fixed at an interval of 10 cm horizontally and 15 cm vertically on
wooden batten.
c) Lead sheath must be earthed. This is done to avoid electrolytic action due to leakage current, which
deteriorate the lead covering.
d) Also earthing provides safety against metal sheath becoming live.
Advantages:
(i) Protection from dampness.
(ii) Fault finding is easy.
(iii) Semi-skilled workers required.
(iv)Mechanical protection is good.
(v)Easy installation
(vi)Cheap in material cost
(vii)Appearance is better.
(viii)Customization is easy
(ix)Less chance of leakage current
Disadvantages:
(i) Costly.
(ii) Continuous earth wire should run along with lead wire in case of lead sheathed wiring system.
(iii)Not suitable for outdoor wiring
(iv)Humidity, smoke, steam etc directly affect on wires.
(v)Heavy wires are not recommended for this wiring scheme.
(vi)Only suitable for below 250 V.
(vii)High risk of fire
Application:-
1. It is used for domestic work.
2. C.T.S. type of wiring system:

a) In C.T.S. types of wiring system, C.T.S. wires are fixed by means of metal clips on wooden beams or
perfectly straight and well varnished wooden batten.
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b) Metal clips (joint clips) are fixed at an interval of 10 cm horizontally and 15 cm vertically on wooden
batten.
c) The wiring should not be given any right angle bend.
d) It is preferred to pass the wire through the conduit pipe when passing through the walls, ceiling or floor.
Advantages:
(i) Life is long.
(ii) Fault finding is easy.
(iii) Semi-skilled workers required.
(iv)Time required for installation is less.
Disadvantages:
(i)Appearance is shabby.
(ii) Fair possibility of fire.
(iii)Maintenance cost more.
Application:-
(i)It is used for domestic work.
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3. CASING AND CAPING:
1) This system of wiring is most commonly adopted for residential buildings.

2) It consists of rectangular wooden blocks made of teakwood called casing.
3) It has usually 2 grooves, into which wires are led.
4) Casing at the top is covered by means of rectangular strip of wood called capping.
5) Casing and capping are given double coating of varnish.
6) Nowadays, PVC casing capping system is used. It is more durable, less time required, cost is less & light
in weight.
7) Points to be considered while installing such wiring system.
(i) Teak wood should be used to avoid trouble of white ants.
(ii) In 20mm casing max no. of wires should not be more than 8.
(iii) T-junction boxes, outer & inner corners should be used at proper places.
(iv) Length of casing is generally 6 feet. Joints of casing and capping should not overlap each other.
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Advantages:-
(i) Life is long.
(ii) Cost is medium.
(iii) PVC capping casing can be used at moist places.
(iv) Mechanical protection is more than cleat & batten wiring.
Disadvantages:-
(i) In wooden casing capping possibility of fire is more.
(ii) Skilled labors required.
Application:-
(i) It is used for domestic work.
4. CONDUIT WIRING SYSTEMS:
a) In this system, VIR or PVC wires are run in tubes called conduits.
b) Conduits are of two types:
(i) Metal conduits are made of galvanized iron or High grade steel.
(ii) PVC conduits.
c) Conduits can be either buried under plaster or can be supported over the walls by means of saddles
or pipe hooks.
d) Wiring with conduit on surface of walls is known as surface conduit wiring used for workshops
e) Whereas wiring with conduits buried under plaster is called concealed conduit wiring.
f) Conduits are generally erected first and wiring is done later.
g) Wires are pulled through the conduits with the help of steel wires.
h) This drawing of wires is called fishing.
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Advantages:
(i) It provides protection against fire due to short circuit.
(ii) It provides protection against mechanical injury.
(iii) It provides protection against moisture, fumes in chemical industry & factories.
(iv) Concealed conduit wiring do not spoil the beauty of premises.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Fault finding is difficult inspection bends are necessary.

(ii) Continuous earth wire should run along metal conduit.
(iii) Skilled workers are required.
Application:-
(i)
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Precautions:
(i) Use High Grade steel pipe for surface conduit, G.I. for concealed conduit & PVC pipe for
general purpose.
(ii) Work must be done by the skilled persons.
(iii) Earth wire should be continuously run through the conduits.
(iv) Appropriate threading must be done not less than 1.5 cm.
(v) Pipes must be properly supported by saddles.
(vi) Inspection bends &tees must be used at proper places.
Selection of wiring:
Factors affecting wiring:
(i) Durability.
(ii) Safety.
(iii) Appearance.
(iv) Cost factor.
(v) Accessibility.
(vi) Maintenance cost.
Durability:-Type of wiring selected should be durable according to the type of building. Ex: Cleat wiring is
suitable for temporary purpose.
Safety:-While selecting type of wiring one has to look into the safety aspect .Ex: In chemical factory, where
fumes are produced, batten or wooden casing capping should not be used.
Appearance:-Wiring should not spoil beauty of premises.
Cost:- t within available resources.
Accessibility:-Extension and renewal of wiring should be possible.
Maintenance cost:-Maintenance cost should be low.
COMPARISON TABLE OF VARIOUS WIRING SYSTEMS
Sr. Particulars Cleat Lead C.T.S Casing & Conduit

No. Wiring sheath system Caping System
1 Life Short long Long long Very long
2 Maintenance Nil medium medium Medium Nil

Cost
3 Initial cost Low high medium medium Very High
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4 Applications Temporary Damp House House, Work- shops,
purpose places offices factories
5 Mechanical Nil Good Fair Fair Very good

Protection
6 Possibility of Nil Fair Fair In wooden Nil
Fire casing caping:
fair
In p.v.c. casing
Caping :nil
7 Protection from No Very high Good Wooden: slight Good
Dampness Pvc: good
8 Type of labour Skilled labours Semi- Semi- Wooden: highly Highly
Required not required skilled skilled skilled skilled
p.v.c.: semi
skilled
9 Appearance Shabby Not good Not good good Very good
10 Accessibility Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Not suitable
11 Recovery of Possible Not Not Not possible Possible

Material when possible possible
Wiring is no
Longer required
12 Time require for Very Less Less Less Less More
installation
HOUSE WIRING PROCEDURE:
1] Plan or layout is made which decides location of meters, points and switch board.
2] Energy meter should be installed outside the room.
3] Main switch should be provided immediately after the energy meter.
4] Depending upon number of points and their location number of circuits are decided
5] Proper distribution board is chosen considering the future demand.
6] Proper fuses and switches at proper places are installed.
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Before selecting wiring system, following points should be considered:
1. Safety 2.Life of wiring 3.Appearance of wiring 4.Cost
1. Safety: In workshops, laboratories, factories etc. the wiring must be completely protected from
mechanical damage and also be isolated from the operator. Hence conduit wiring is preferred. For moist
places, lead sheath wiring is used.
2. Life of wiring: If the wiring is required for temporary purpose, then cleat wiring is most economical.
For house wiring, open batten wire is sufficient. For offices, casing capping is desirable.
3. Appearance of wiring: In places like palace or V.I.P bungalow then the beauty is to be maintained.
The beauty of the bungalow should not be spoiled by running the wires along walls etc.The wiring
should not appear outside and hence concealed conduit wiring is used.
4. Cost: For low cost, CTS batten wiring is done. For medium cost, casing capping wiring can be done,
and if the consumer is capable of paying more, than PVC conduit or concealed conduit wiring can be
done.
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7. HOUSE WIRING, INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES AND
OVER HEAD LINES
Indian Electricity [I.E.] rules for general wiring Work:

1. Total load in the circuit should not exceed 800 watts and number of points should not exceed 10 in one
circuit.
2. Lighting and power devices should have different circuits.
3. For sub-circuits use 1sq mm copper wires or 1.5sq mm aluminum wires.
4. All distribution boards should be marked as power and light as per the case.
5. All metallic coverings containing electric supply wires metallic apparatus for ex: Iron clad switches,
distribution boards, refrigerators, energy meters, ovens, electric heaters should be earthed with an earth
electrode.
6. Earthing resistance should not be more than 1 ohm. Insulation resistance should not be less than
7. In domestic wiring 3 pin plug should only be used and should be earthed.
8. Bottom of ceiling fan should have a minimum clearance of 2.5 m from the ground.
9. Switch boards should be fixed at the height of 1.5 m.
10. Wiring should be done very close to the ceiling.
11. Switches and fuses should be connected to live wire.
12. Neutral should be linked.
13. Provide lightening arresters for high rise buildings. Insulation resistance value must be 1 mega ohm.
HOUSE WIRING METHODS:
1. Looping out from switch and ceiling rose.
2. Looping out from switch.
3. Looping out from ceiling rose.
4. Looping out with junction box.
1.Looping out from switch and ceiling rose:

a. In this type, the phase wire from main switch is connected to first switch, from where it goes to
second switch by looping.
b. Neutral wire is carried out by looping from one ceiling rose to next.
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Looping out from switch
a. In this type, special switches are used having two terminals and a connector.
b. Both phase and neutral wires are taken to the first switch and from the switch, these wires go to the
next switch by looping.
1. Looping out from ceiling rose

a. Special type of ceiling roses are used having terminals and a connector.
b. Both live and neutral wires enter in the ceiling rose and are looped for the second point.
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Looping out with junction box:
a. Phase and neutral conductor from the switches and the ceiling rose terminate in a junction box.
b. The wires are looped from the junction box for the next point.
HOUSE WIRING PROCEDURE:
1] Plan or layout is made which decides location of meters, points, switch board.
2] Energy meter should be installed outside the room.
3] Main switch should be provided immediately after the energy meter.
4] Depending upon number of points and their location number of circuits are decided
5] Proper distribution board is chosen considering the future demand.
6] Proper fuses and switches at proper places are installed.
BEFORE ENERGISING THE ELECTRIC INSTALLATION THE FOLLOWING TESTS

MUST BE CARRIED OUT :
1] POLARITY TEST
2] INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST: A] Insulation resistance test between conductor and earth.
B] Insulation resistance test between conductors.
3] CONTINUTY OR OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
4] SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
5] EARTHING SYSTEM TEST
POLARITY TEST: Neutral wire should be in the lamp and live wire should be in the switch. With the
help of tester or neon lamp we can test polarity. Neon lamp can glow on live conductor.
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POLARITY TEST WITH TEST LAMP:
Polarity test with test lamp is as shown in the diagram, in which one end of the testing lamp is earthed
and the other end of the lamp is connected to switch. If the lamp light, the switch is correctly installed in
the live wire & if it does not light, it means that the switch has not been correctly installed.
PROCEDURE FOR CARRYING OUT INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST BETWEEN

CONDUCTORS :
(i) This test is carried out with MEGGER. Megger is a portable instrument used to measure insulation
resistance of electrical equipments, machines and installations.
(ii) This test is conducted to find the value of the insulation resistance between live and neutral conductors.
(iii)On megger test terminals L and E are provided so as to connect a resistance under test and measure the
insulation resistance.
(iv) All the lamps should be removed and the main switch should be put OFF.
(v) All the fuses should be intact and all the switches should be ON. Put in all the fuses in the distribution
board.
(vi) Connect Megger terminals between phase and neutral of main switch.
(vii) Rotate Megger handle with constant speed of 160 r.p.m In this test the result should be less than 3M-
ohms. This is the insulation resistance between live and neutral conductors
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Conductor to conductor Test
PROCEDURE FOR CARRYING OUT INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST BETWEEN

CONDUCTOR AND THE EARTH:
In this test resistance between each conductor and earth is measured for determining the value of
leakage current .This calculated leakage current should not exceed 1/5000 part of full load current and
this can be calculated from resistance measured by megger.
Leakage current =
1. Put the main switch off

2. Remove all fuses from main switch
3. Insert all appliances, lamps, fans.
4. Connect E terminal of megger to the earth and the L terminal to the main switch.
5. Now rotate the handle of megger at 160 rpm and note the reading.
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OVER HEAD LINES:
An overhead line mainly comprises of the following:
1) Conductor 2) poles or Supports
3) Insulators 4) Pole fittings
5) Stays or Guy wires
6) Miscellaneous items such as lightening arrestors, guard wire, danger plate, earthing
TYPES OF OVERHEAD LINE CONDUCTORS:
1) Copper: Hard drawn copper is used for transmission and distribution.

a. Conductivity is best
b. Larger current density
c. Low specific resistance
d. It is durable and has high scrap value.
2) A.A.C.: All Aluminium Conductor.
a. Cheaper than copper
b. Lighter in weight
c. 60.6% conductivity in comparison to copper
d. For same Ohmic resistance its diameter is about 1.27 times of copper
e. jointing is difficult than copper.
3) A.C.S.R.: Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced.
A.C.S.R. conductors are most commonly used over head line conductor.
An aluminum conductor having a central core of galvanized steel wire is used for high voltage
transmission purpose. This is done to increase the tensile strength of aluminum conductor.
Galvanized Steel core is covered by one or more strands of aluminum wires.
4) Cadmium Copper: Copper alloyed with cadmium for 2 % addition of cadmium increases tensile
strength by 50%, conductivity reduced by 15%.These conductors are costly.
LINES SUPPORTS OR POLES:
Poles are grouted in the earth with cement concrete and one sixth of the pole is embedded in the earth.
Types of Poles:
1) Wooden poles
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2) Steel Tubular poles
3) R.C.C [Reinforced cement concrete]
4) Steel towers
1) Wooden poles:
a. Used for low voltages distribution purposes
b. Cheap and provide insulating property.
c. Tend to rot, life is short.
Fig. Wooden pole

2) Steel Tubular poles:
a. Stronger than wood, longer spans are possible.
b. They must be galvanized or painted.
c. For safety they must be earthed.
Fig. Steel tubular pole
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3) R.C.C. pole Reinforced cement concrete
a. Mechanically strong
b. Longer life, low maintenance
Fig. RCC pole

3) Steel towers: Generally poles are used for distribution. Towers are useful for long transmission lines.
Broad base lattice steel towers are used. Useful for crossing fields, valleys, railway lines, rivers.
Fig. Steel tower

OVER HEAD LINE INSULATORS:
In order to prevent the flow of current to the earth from supports, transmission lines or distribution lines
are secured to the supporting poles with the help of insulators.
Material of Insulators:
1. Porcelain Insulators
2. Glass Insulators
3. Steatite Insulators
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Types of Insulators:
Sr Types of Insulators Application

no
1 Pin type insulator Transmission purpose up to 60KV
2 Suspension insulators High Voltage Transmission above 66KV
3 Strain insulators When there is a dead end on the line or there is corner or a sharp curve
or line crosses the river, the line is to withstand great strain, strain
insulators are used.
4 Stay insulators For low voltage line the stays are to be the insulated from ground at a
height not less than 3 meters from the ground. The insulator used in the
stay wire is called as stay insulator.
5 Shackle or Spool Distribution or low voltage lines

insulators
1) Pin type insulator:
a. For lower voltages generally one piece pin type insulator is used.
b. For higher voltages multipart pin type insulators are used.
c. Pin type insulators are used only for straight run of the line.
d. Upto 66 Kv can be used.
e. For very high voltages, pin type insulators are heavy and construction is complicated.
f. In upper groove line conductor is placed.
g. Rain sheds are provided to prevent flash over.
Fig. Pin type insulators
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2) Suspension insulator: For higher voltages suspension insulators are used, number of them are
connected in series by metallic links to form a chain and line conductor is carried by bottom most
insulator.
a. Each suspension insulator is designed for 11 kV. String of insulators can be designed for any required
voltage.
b. In case of failure of one of the insulator replacement is easy.
c. Mechanical stresses on the string decreases.
Fig. Suspension insulator
3) Shackle insulators: Shackle or spool insulator is used in low voltage distribution network. It can be
used both in horizontal and vertical position.
Fig. Shackle Insulator
68
4) Stay insulator: These are used in stay wire to avoid the flow of any leakage of current to earth.
These are provided at a height of 3 meters from the level of ground.
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8. UNDERGROUND CABLES
Cable is any current carrying conductor either of solid or stranded type provided with over all insulation.
Underground cables are being mostly utilized for transmission and distribution of electrical energy. For
certain loads for example air-port, thickly populated areas it is necessary to use underground cable for
distribution, transmission and service connections.
Underground cable can be specified by number of cores, voltage they can withstand or type of
insulation.
Principle insulating material used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India rubber impregnated paper,
varnished cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
The type of insulation to use must have following properties.
1) It should have high specific resistance.
2) It should be tough and flexible.
3) It should not be hygroscopic.
4) It should be capable of standing high temperatures.
5) It should be non-inflammable.
6) It should not be attacked by acids and alkalies.
Comparison between Overhead system and Underground system

Overhead Underground
1) Repair-easy to repair Not easy to repair
2) Fault location is easy and quick Fault location is not easy
3) Initial cost is less Initial cost is more
4) Due to more spacing of the conductor Charging current is more
charging current is less in over head system.
5) Jointing is easy Jointing is difficult
6) Maintenance cost is more Maintenance cost is less
7) Safety is less Safety is more
8) Appearance is shabby Compact and invisible.
9) Affected by Lightning and thunderstorm. No effect of lighting and thunderstorm.
10) Interference to Telephone lines. No interference to Telephone lines.
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According to voltage they can be classified:
1) L.T. - (Low tension cable) up to 1000 V

2) H.T. (High tension cable) up to 11 kV.
3) S.T. (Super tension cable) from 22 kV to 33 kV.
4) E.H.T. Extra high tension cable from 33 kV to 66 kV.
5) Oil filled cable 66 kV to 132kV.
Types of Three Phase Cable or H. T. Cable as per construction:
1) Belted type
2) Screened type [H type]
3) S.L. cable [Separate lead]
4) H.S.L. cable [Combination of H and S.L. type]
5) Super tension cables
CONSTRUCTION OF CABLE:
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1) Conductor: All cables have solid or stranded Aluminum or copper conductor.
2) Insulation (core): Conductor with one layer of insulation is called core. All cables have one centre core and
number of cores. Different insulations used to insulate the conductors are paper varnished cambric impregnated
paper or P.V.C. Thickness of layer depending upon voltage to be withstand by the cable.
3) Metallic sheath: A metallic sheath is provided over the insulation so as to prevent the entry of moisture
into the insulating material. The metallic sheath is of lead or lead alloy. Metallic sheath protect the cable from
moisture, gases, acids and alkalies in the soil.
4) Bedding: Over the metallic sheath comes a layer of bedding which consists of paper tape compounded with
a fibrous material. Sometimes jute strands or hessian tape is also used for bedding to protect metallic sheath
against corrosion and mechanical injury due to armouring.
5) Armouring: Armouring is provided to avoid mechanical injury to the cable and it consists of providing one
or two layers of galvanized steel wires or steep tapes.
6) Serving: In order to protect armoring from atmospheric condition layer of fibrous material or P.V.C. is
provided over the armouring.
Lying of Cables:
Before laying a cable under the ground its route should be surveyed and the position of water mains or drains
should be ascertained.
The cable to be buried must have following properties:
1) The moisture should not enter the core of the cable.
2) It must have high insulation resistance.
3) It should be able to withstand heat produced due to flow of currents.
4) Armoured cable should be used.
5) It should not be very costly and bulky.
6) It should be sufficiently flexible.
Different Methods of Laying Under Ground Cable:

1) Direct in ground method [Trench Laying]
2) Pipe [duct] lying
3) Trough lying
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1) Direct Laying: In this method a trench of about 1.5 meters deep 0.5 m wide is dug. The trench is covered
with a layer of fine sand of about 10 cm thickness and cable is laid over this sand bed. The sand prevents entry
of moisture from the ground and protects the cable from decay. After the cable has been laid in the trench, it is
covered with another layer of soil of about 15 cm thickness. Bricks or tiles are laid on this layer of soil and
finally trench is filled by soil. When more than one cable is laid in the same trench horizontal, spacing of at
least 30 cm is provided.
Advantages:
1) Simple, cheap, clean and safe.
2) Favorable condition for dissipation of heat.
Disadvantages:
1) Alteration and extension cannot be made easily.
2) Localization of fault is difficult.
Pipe or duct laying or Draw In system: In this method conduit or duct of cast iron or concrete are laid in the
ground with man-holes at suitable position along the cable route. Cable is then pulled into position from man-
holes. The cables to be laid in this way need not to be armoured. This method is used in workshops, road
crossing.
Advantages:
1) Repairs alterations or additions can be made without
opening the ground.
2) Mechanical protection is strong.
Disadvantages:
1) Initial cast is high.
2) Unfavorable conditions for dissipation of heat.
Troughs lying or Solid system: In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes and troughs dug out in
earth along the cable route. Troughing is of cast iron, asphalt or treated wood. After the cable is laid in position,
the troughing is filled with bituminous or asphaltic compound and covered over with a lit. Trough is of U shape
and having one or three compartments to receive the cables.
Disadvantages:
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1) Expensive
2) Requires skilled labor so rarely used.
Cable Jointing
Two types of cable joints:
1) Straight through joints.
2) T-joints
General steps are as follows:
i) Marking of cutting point with an allowance of 5 cm overlap approximately. Tie up the ends with
binding wire at 15 to 20 cm from the jointing end.
ii) Removing insulation making conductor open for 3 cm.
iii) Twisting conductor ends.
iv) Soldering with the help of cotton tape or by pouring molten solder.
v) Insulating the joint with paper tape.
vi) Allow the joint to cool down.
vii) Sealing all the openings with adhesive compound.
viii) Paint the joint with corrosive resistive black paint.
Open circuit, short circuit and earth fault in the cable can be detected with the help of megger or test lamp.
WIRES CABLE
Conductor with insulation is called as wire When insulation is provided over group of wire is cable.
Flexibility is more Flexibility is less
Cost is less Cost is more
Mechanical strength is less Mechanical strength is more
Not used for HV or EHT lines Used for HT and EHT lines
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9. ILLUMINATION
Some Important Definitions:-
Light: It is a radiant form of energy from a hot or luminous body.
Luminous flux: It is defined as total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. Unit
of luminous flux is lumen.
Lumen: It is a unit of luminous flux. If the source is of one candle power, the luminous flux per unit solid
angle from source is one lumen.
Luminous Intensity: It is defined as flux emitted by lighting sources per unit solid angle. Unit of luminous
intensity is candela.
Illumination: It is luminous flux received per unit area. Its unit is lumen/m2 or also called Lux.
Lux: It is defined as the illumination of the inside of the sphere of radius one meter at the center of which
there is a source of one candle power.
Various types of electric lamps:

1) Arc Lamps.
2) Incandescent Lamps
3) Gas filled Lamps.
4) Gaseous discharge Lamps.
Various methods of producing light by electricity are:

a) By an Arc
Ex: Carbon arc Lamp, Flame arc Lamp, Magnetic arc Lamp.
b) By incandescence of heated filament.
c) By glow discharge.
Filament Lamp or Incandescent Lamp:

a) Lamp is made of glass globe.
b) The glass blub contains tungsten filament.
c) The bulb is evacuated to prevent oxidation of filament and also to prevent temperature being lowered by
radiation.
d) When electric current is passed through the filament, heat is produced in the filament due to its high
resistance and temperature increases.
e) At low temperature, it gives heat and at high temperature, it gives both heat and light.
f) Tungsten filament is most commonly used due to its
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(i) High melting point - .
(ii) High resistivity.
(iii) Low temp co-efficient
(iv) Being Ductile.
(v) Mechanically strong to withstand vibration.
g) Average efficiency is 10 lumens / watt.
h) Normal life is thousand working hours.
Advantages:
(i) Operates at unity power factor.

(ii) No effect of surrounding air temperature.
Disadvantages:
(i) If filament lamp is worked beyond it vaporizes quickly and blackens lamp.
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(ii) For higher efficiency, it is necessary to use working temperature more than which is
possible by filling the bulb with inert gas. They are called gas filled lamp.
Gaseous discharge lamps:

a) Gaseous discharge lamps have been developed to overcome these short comings.
b) It consists of glass quartz tube containing 2 electrodes and small quantity of gas or vapour at low
pressure.
c) In this lamp, light is obtained by applying P.D. to a gas contained by the lamp under suitable pressure.
d) Due to application of P.D., gas gets ionized and electric current flows.
Types of gaseous discharges lamps:
1) Fluorescent lamps
2) Sodium vapour lamps
3) Mercury vapour lamps.
4) Neon lamps.
GASEOUS DISCHARGE LAMPS:
1. Fluorescent lamp/tube or low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp:
(Also called low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp)

a) Fluorescent tube uses phenomenon of fluorescence.
b) In this lamp, discharge through vapour produces ultraviolet waves causing fluorescence in certain
materials called phosphor.
c) Inner side of fluorescent lamp is coated with phosphor or fluorescent powder which absorbs invisible
ultraviolet rays and radiates visible light rays.
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d) Tube contains small quantity of Argon gas and one or two drops of mercury globules.
e) Tube is provided with electrodes of tungsten and coated with electron emissive material.
f) Presence of Argon helps in quick vaporization.
g) Efficiency is 40 lumens/watt and life is 4000 working hours.
Operation :-
(i) When AC voltage is applied across tube light, thermi-ionic emission takes place at electrode.
(ii) But mains voltage (230V) is not sufficient to pull the electrons through tube.
(iii) In the beginning there is no stream of electrons formed.
(iv) The circuit remains incomplete.
(v) To complete the circuit, a starter is connected in parallel with tube as a bypass circuit.
(vi) Starter houses bimetallic strips.
(vii) When supply is switched on, the potential across bimetallic strip causes sparking in a small gap
of starter.
(viii) It causes glow discharge not enough to heat the electrodes but they are sufficient to heat
bimetallic strip.
(ix) Due to heating, strip bends and makes contact.
(x) In this way, circuit gets completed.
(xi) Due to this, choke gets fully charged.
(xii) After few seconds due to absence of sparking there is no heat given out and bimetal cools down,
breaking the contact.
(xiii) At that instant, choke discharges giving voltage impulse of about 1100 V across tube.
(xiv) Temperature gets raised and gas gets ionized.
(xv) A stream of electrons is formed in few such cycles. Due to repetition of this cycle for 2-3 times,
we see flickering of tube light. Once conduction begins through the tube, mercury globules are
evaporated and we get bluish light.
(xvi) When tube starts conducting starter circuit is cut off.
(xvii) Even if starter is removed, tube continues to glow.
Function of Starter: Starter puts the electrodes directly across supply mains and completes the circuit
at the time of starting, so that choke gets charged and electrodes get heated to emit sufficient electrons.
Function of Choke:
1) Provided a voltage impulse for starting.
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2) Acts as ballast or stabilizer for running period.
Distinguish between Incandescent lamp and Fluorescent lamp.

Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp
1) Power factor is unity 1) Power factor is lagging.

2) Light intensity is less. 2) Light intensity is more.
3) Produces glare on eyes. 3) Cool and pleasant light.
4) Cheap 4) Costly
5) Can work on reduced supply voltage. 5) Cannot work on reduced supply voltage.
6) Efficiency is 4 to 10 lumens/ Watt. 6) Efficiency is 40 lumens / Watt.
7) Life is 1000 working hours. 7) Life is 4000 working hours
8) Stroboscopic effect is not found 8) Stroboscopic effect is found.
2. SodiumVapour Lamp:
a) It consists of specially made discharge tube.

b) Over this discharge tube another glass tube is provided for conservation of heat.
c) Transformer is used to provide 470-480 V
d) Power factor is very low, i.e. 0.3 lag.
e) Capacitor is used to improve power factor.
f) Inner tube contains 2 electrodes, sodium gas and small quantity of Neon gas.
g) Operation:
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(i) When lamp is not in operation, sodium is usually in the form of solid deposited on side walls of
tube.
(ii) When lamp is connected across supply mains, discharge takes place in Neon gas and gives red
orange glow.
(iii) Sodium gradually vaporizes and ionizes giving yellowish light.
h) Efficiency is 50 lumens/watt.
i) Life is 3000 working hours.
j) Time for full glow=15 mins.
Application: Street lighting, outdoor lighting where discrimination of color is not required.
3. Neon Lamp:
a) It consists of glass bulb filled with neon gas with small percentage of helium.
b) The electrodes used are fixed only a few mm apart so that lamps maybe made for voltage as low as 110
V A.C. or 150 V D.C.
c) This lamp gives orange-pink colored light. Power consumption is low (about 5 watts).
d) Efficiency is 40 lumens/watt.
4. Neon Tubes Or Neon Signs:
a) Used for advertisement and decoration purpose.

b) Neon tubes are used in varying lengths up to 8m and are bent into almost any desired shape during
manufacturing.
c) Neon tube contains two electrodes one at each end of the tube.
d) Electrodes are made of steel or copper.
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e) Nickel wires are used for connection of letters in neon tubes.
f) Neon tubes are manufactured in different colors by changing composition of glass and by adding
different gases.
Fig.Circuit connection
Fig. Neon tubes used for advertising
Gas Used Color

1. Helium a. Pink
2. Nitrogen b. Golden yellow
3. Sodium c. Yellow
4. Xenon ,krypton d. Pale blue
5. Mercury Vapour e. Bluish white
81
5.Mercury Vapour Lamp:
a. It consists of inner tube enclosed in outer glass envelope.
b. In addition to two main electrodes, a starting
electrode is also provided.
c. Inner tube contains Argon + Mercury.
d. When supply is switched on, voltage is
applied between auxiliary electrode and
main electrode.
e. Discharge through Argon takes place.
f. This enables main discharge to commence.
g. As lamp warms up, Mercury vaporizes.
h. Discharge takes place between two main
electrodes.
i. Time taken for full glow 4 to 5 min.
j. Efficiency -50 lumens/watt.
k. Application :
(i) Shops
(ii) Street light
(iii) Show Rooms
(iv) Gate lights.
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Schemes of Lighting:
1) Direct lighting:
a. In this scheme more than 90%light is made to fall on the working plane.
b. This is most efficient scheme, but it causes shadows and glares.
c. Used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.
2) Semi Direct Lighting:
a. 60% of total light is made to fall directly downwards

b. 40% sent up wards diffused with the help of sheds and hanging type arrangements.
c. Such type of scheme is best suited for rooms with high ceiling.
3) Semi Indirect lighting :
a. In this lighting scheme,60% of total light flux is thrown to reflector or ceiling for diffused reflection
and rest 40% reaches working plane directly.
b. This lighting scheme is glare free.
c. Used for indoor light decoration purpose.
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4) Indirect lighting:
a. 90% of total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffused reflection by using inverted
reflector.
b. Glare is minimum.
c. Shadows are less prominent.
d. Used for decoration purpose in theatres and hotels.
The following table shows the Illumination required for different places:
Places Illumination in foot-candles
Cinema, Auditorium, Corridors, Stair cases Night 1 to 5
Clubs, Hospital wards etc.
Dining Halls, Hotels, Conference Hall, Reception 10
room
Street light, Railway bogie, banks 15
Reading, Writing, Office, Store room, Library, 20

Kitchen, Showrooms
Typing work, Design and drawing room, Office, Bank 30 to 50
Counters
For every delicate, precision, minute repairs, Clock, above 50
Watch-repairs, etc.
Laws of Illumination
In case of a point source the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance of the surface from the source of light.
1) Space - Height Ratio: It is defined as the ration of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to
height of their mounting.
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2) Utilization Factor:
Utilization factor=
It depends on:
a. Height of Lamps
b. Area of utilization
c. Scheme of lighting
d. Type of lamp
e. Wall paints
For direct lighting scheme, utilization factor is 0.25-0.5
For indirect lighting scheme, utilization factor is 0.1-0.25
4) Depreciation Factor: It is the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination
when everything is clean.
Depreciation factor =
It is always less than1.

Generally 0.75-0.8
Formula for finding total lumens Required :
Lumens Required=
Advantages of Good Illumination:

i) It increases production in the workshop.
ii) It reduces the chances of accidents.
iii) It does not strain the eyes.
iv) It increases the interior decoration of the building.
v) Glare free and shadow less illumination can be obtained.
vi)Optimum utilization of light.
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Flood Lighting:
a. It means flooding of large surface with light from powerful projectors.
b. Types of flood lighting are according to application:
(i) Aesthetic flood lighting.
(ii) Industrial & commercial flood lighting.
(iii) Advertisements.
c. It is necessary to concentrate the light from light source into a relatively narrow beam.
d. Projector used is known as flood light projector.
e. Reflectors are made of silver glass or chromium plate.
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10. ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
1. Electric Immersion Heater:

(a)
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(b) Working Principle: It works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
According to joules law, Heat = joules.
(c) Construction:
(i)Metallic tube: It is a hollow tube and made of Cu.
(ii)Heating element: It is made of nichrome and is placed centrally in the Cu tube.
(iii)Insulating powder: The gap between heating element and Cu tube is filled with MgO.
It is a good insulator and a good thermal conductor.
(iv)Supply chord: It is a V.I.R. wire connected with 3-pin plug for safety.
(d)Faults:
a) Short circuit faults: This can be checked by series test lamp by connecting the testing terminal to the
heating coil. If the series test lamp glow very bright it is a S.C. faults.
b) Open circuit faults: This can be checked by test lamp by connection the testing terminal to the
heating coil. If the lamp does not glow, it is a open circuit faults.
c) Earth faults: This can be checked by test lamp by connecting the first testing terminal to the body
and second terminal to the heating coil if the lamp glows this is an earth faults, this can be removed
by providing earthing to the body.
(e)Precautions:
1. Do not use the heater continuously for a longer period of time.
2. Do not use the heater without liquid.
3. Use proper capacity chord.
88
2. Electric Geyser:
(a)
(b) Working Principle: It works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
(c) Construction:
(i)Storage tank: The inner tank is made of tinned Cu in which water is heated and the outer cylinder is
made up of steel.
(ii) Glass wool: The space between the two tanks is filled with glass wool which is a good insulator and
a good thermal reflector.
(iii) Heating element: It is made up of nichrome and can be one or two in numbers in the storage tank.
(iv) Thermostat: To control the heating element temperature. It is connected with thermostat in the
storage tank.
(v)Earthing: To prevent electric shock, the body of the geyser is earthed.
(d) Faults:
(Same as above)
(i)Short circuit faults (ii) Open circuit faults (iii) Earth faults
(e) Precautions:
1. Make sure the water level is above heating element.
2. Use proper earthing.
3. Use proper supply chords.
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3. ELECTRIC IRON:
(a) Circuit Diagram :
(b) Working principle: It works on the heating effect of electric current. An electric iron relies on a basic
combination of heat and pressure to remove creases from clothes. When an electric current is passed
through a coil (or any other heating element present in the iron), it gets very hot. This heat is then
transferred to the base plate (the smooth, flat surface that you place against clothes while ironing)
through conduction, which elegantly and precisely irons your clothes.
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(c) Construction :
(i) Sole plate / Base plate: The sole plate is the thick, triangular-shaped slab of iron that forms the
base over which the electric iron is built up. It is made up of nickel plated steel. It is used to iron
the cloths.
(ii) Heating element: The heating element is present between the sole plate and pressure plate. It is
pressed hard between the two plates. The heating element consists of nichrome wire wound
around a sheet of mica. The two ends of the nichrome wire are connected to the contact strips.
The contact strips are connected to the terminals of the iron.
Properties of Heating Element:
i) High Resistance, ii) High melting point, iii) Low temperature coefficient of resistance, iv) Low
oxidation.
(iii) Mica: The mica is good insulator and good thermal conductors and has very high melting points.
Mica sheets are used to cover the heating element.
(iv) Asbestos sheet: This sheet is placed above the mica sheet; it is a good insulator and a good
thermal reflector to reflect the complete heat to the base plate. It separates and thermally
insulates the top plate from the heating element.
(v) Pressure / Weight plate: This plate is generally called the top plate as it follows the shape of sole
plate. The pressure plate has some holes through which the studs form the base plate passes
through. We should tighten the nuts on the studs in such a way that the pressure plate and sole
plate are pressed tight against each other. In some iron the pressure plate is heavy and made of
cast iron while in some other cases, it is a thin sheet of steel, about ¼ cm thick. The weight plate
is placed over the asbestos sheet for uniform distribution of heat.
(vi) Handle: Made up of wood or ebonite. It is used to hold the iron.
(vii) Thermostat: This is connected in series with the heating element to control the heat. The
thermostat in an iron uses a bimetallic strip, and as the name implies, a bimetallic strip is made
up of two different types of metal with dissimilar coefficients of expansion that are bonded
together.
At moderate temperatures, the contact point remains in physical contact with the bimetallic strip.
However, when the temperature of the iron exceeds a certain limit, the strip begins to bend
towards the metal with a lower coefficient of expansion. As a result, the strip ceases to be
physically connected to the contact point, the circuit opens and current ceases to flow.
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(a) Under normal temperature (b) When the iron becomes too hot
Given that the circuit remains open for some time, the temperature of the iron drops, the strip
acquires its original shape and the current flows again. This cycle is repeated until you switch off its
power supply from the main electricity source. This is the reason why your iron seems to power on
and off of its own accord.
(viii) Switch: To on or off the supply.
(ix) Chord: To Supply electricity to coil. It is covered with cotton layer.
(d) Faults:
(i) Short circuit faults: - Short circuited coil or burnt coil
(ii) Open circuit faults: - Due to breakage in heating elements, loose connection, and disconnection
of heating elements from the supply terminals.
(iii) Earth faults: - Due to damaged insulation coil may touch the body.
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4. CEILING FAN:
(a) Working principle: It works on the principle of rotating magnetic field.
(b) Circuit Diagram and Layout:
(c) Construction of ceiling fan motor: It consists of,
(i) Starting winding
(ii) Running winding
(iii) Capacitor (c).
(iv) Squirrel cage rotor
(v) Regulator
Single phase capacitor run and start induction motor, rated at 230 V ± 10 % at a frequency of 50 Hz, is
generally employed in ceiling fan.
This motor comprises two parts that are stator and rotor. The stator, build up of laminated silicon steel,
uses two windings termed as starting and running windings located 90 degree electrical apart.
The starting torque relies on sine of angle among starting winding and running winding current. Thus
Capacitor is used generate needed phase shift among these current and therefore to generate high
starting torque and will be connected in series with starting winding.
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Generally in ceiling fan, an electrolytic capacitor of 2.5 mF±5% will be employed. The capacitor and
starting winding will be in circuit throughout running as well and therefore enhance the power factor.
Thus this motor will also be termed as permanent capacitor induction motor. Rotor uses 1-phase squirrel
cage winding.
(d) Main parts of ceiling fan:
h) Bolts and shackle: They are used to hold the hanging rod onto the ceiling.
Fig. Bolts & shackle
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ii) Canopy: There are two canopies top/upper and bottom/lower canopy. Upper canopy is used to cover
the bolts and shackle, while the lower canopy is used to cover the capacitor housing. Bottom canopy is
mounted under and in the centre of the motor of the fan. This is employed to conceal and protect several
components that can involve wires, capacitors and switches. On fans which need oiling, the bottom
canopy frequently conceals the oil reservoir that lubricates the bearings .
Fig. Top & Bottom canopy
iii) Hanging Rod or Suspension Rod: Suspension rod is made up of rigid galvanized steel pipe of
suitable length and diameter. This metal pipe is employed to defer the fan from the ceiling. One end of
the pipe is bolted or screwed at the position particularly made on the motor body to receive the
suspension rod. Another end of the suspension rod is attached to 2 plates, to from a "U" shaped joint,
along with the help of a nut and bolt (with extra lock nut).
1. It suspends the body of fan (motor) from the ceiling.
2. It allows the wire to pass through it.
3. It also acts as a shock absorber.
iv) Motor: The motor used in ceiling fan is the single phase, permanent capacitor type motor. Following
are the main parts of the motor.
a) Stator: The stator has two winding, one is main winding and other is starting winding. Both the
winding are displaced from each other by 90 0 in the space. A capacitor connected permanently in
series with the starting winding. Since the capacitor is connected permanently in the circuit, it is
continuous duty rated time having its value in between 2 to 20 .
95
b) Rotor: Rotor surrounds the stator. The rotor is of squirrel cage type. The rotor winding are skewed to
avoid humming sound and magnetic locking between stator and rotor fields.
Fig. Squirrel cage rotor

v) Blades: The blades are built up of sheet steel or aluminum sheets. Aluminum blades are much lighter
than steel sheet plates and also enhance the efficiency of the fan. The ceiling fans generally comprise 3
or 4 angular blades. The four blade fan provides more air circulation compared to three blade fans. The
blades are 120o mechanically apart and might be curved at an angle of 10 o.There are generally three
blades connected to the rotor shaft. If the blades would have been flat, the air would have circulated only
in the area right below the fan.
vi) Terminal Connector: They are used to connect the supply wires with the windings.
Fig. Terminal connector
96
vii) Regulator: The speed of fan is controlled by speed regulator. The regulator consists of a number of
resistance steps in series. It is connected to the fan motor in series. The applied voltage to the motor is
varied by changing the resistance in steps till the fan works on the desired speed.
Fig. Regulator
v) Ball bearing: Friction free and noise free movements of rotating parts are make sure through
providing ball bearing among the rotating and stationary parts. The ceiling fan might comprise single or
double ball bearings. The bearings made up of high quality steel are frequently greased with superior
quality for the long life and noise free operation of it.
Common faults and Remedies: Open circuit fault, short circuit fault and earth fault are checked as
. usual by a series test lamp as explained earlier.
The fan becomes very hot, or the blades rotate slowly: This may be due to the damaged capacitor;
blade angle might be disturbed, short circuit or an earth fault, worn out brushes and bearings.
The fan produces noise: This may be due to defective blade angle, no proper lubrication, bending of
shaft, damaged bearings.
The fan body is not revolving: There may be a defect in the gear or the oscillating rod.
Study of table fan:
Study of different parts:
a) Gear Box: To rotate the fan about the vertical axis.
b) Capacitor: To start the motor instantaneously.
c) Stand: To give support to the motor.
d) Front and back guards: To protect the blades.
e) Blades: To circulate air.
f) Regulator: To control speed.
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g) Oscillating knob: To control oscillation of the fan.
h) Motor: Permanent capacitor type single phase induction motor.
Electric Toaster:
An auto toaster is a domestic electrical device which is used to bake the slices of bread.
Parts: - 1. Metal body 2.Bakelite base
3. Heating element 4.Lifting knob 5.Automatic adjustment knob
Constructional details
1. Heating element is made up of nichrome. It is a ribbon shaped and wound on a mica sheet.
2. Elements are mounted on the sides of slices kept vertically. Elements are connected in parallel.
3. Thermostat is used for temperature control in automatic toaster. Thermostat houses bimetallic strip it
functions on the principle that different metals have different rate of expansion when heated.
For ex. Brass has a greater coefficient of expansion than iron. If a strip is made of bimetal (i.e. Brass and
iron) and heated beyond the certain temperature it will bend downwards.
Working :
As soon as the toaster is switched on, current passes through the element and the bimetallic strip is
heated .If it is overheated it bends to a certain extent and breaks the circuit through timer switch. After
sometime it cools and comes to an original position pushing the lever and releasing a spring device,
which carries the slices upwards. This action completes the toasting of bread pieces by breaking the
circuit, main supply and the timer switch.
98
99
Electric Hot plate:
Hot plates are used for cooking food stuffs.
Construction and working
1. Spirally wound heating element made up of nichrome is embedded in between an insulating cemented
material like plaster of paris or fire clay.
2. This assembly is fitted inside the cast iron plate.
3. Heating element is independently controlled by a separate switch. When either switch is in ON

position it gives half of the full heat and when both switches are on the full heat is available.
4. It works on the heating effect of electric current. When current flows to heating elements heat is
produced.
Fig. Double burner electric hot plate
Fig. single burner electric hot plate
100
PAPER-2
11. TRANSFORMERS
Magnetic effect of Electric current:
When an electric current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is immediately brought into
existence in the space surrounding it. The strength of magnetic field depends on the:
1. Number of turns of coil.
2. Current in the coil.
Field strength No .turns x Current.
If such a coil is wound on a piece of iron rod, it behaves like a magnet. This simple arrangement of iron
rod wound with a coil is called as electromagnet.
According induction, statically induced EMF is defined as,

whenever stationary conductors are placed in changing magnetic field, EMF is induced in the
conductor.
Dynamically induced EMF can be defined as whenever a conductor is made to rotate in magnetic field,
EMF is induced in it.
According
flux.
SELF INDUCED EMF:
Whenever flux linking with coil changes due to change of current in coil itself, then EMF induced in
coil is called self induced.EMF
SELF INDUCTION: Coil A
d
e N
dt
1. When an AC potential is applied to the coil A, current starts flowing in the coil.
101
2. The magnetic flux linking with coil c st law of electromagnetic
induction E.M.F. is induced in the coil.
3. Since the E.M.F. induced in the coil is due to the change in current in the coil itself the E.M.F. is called
as self induced E.M.F.
MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF: EMF induced in second coil (Coil B) due to change of current in first
coil (Coil A) is called mutually induced EMF.
1. Whenever another coil B is kept near or over the coil A. If A.C. supply is given to coil A. Alternating
magnetic flux will be produced in coil A. The flux in coil A links with the coil B also.
2. electromagnetic induction. E.M.F. is induced in the coil B.
3. The E.M.F. induced in the coil B is due to the change in current in coil A. The E.M.F. induced in coil B
is known as mutually induced E.M.F.
es
Where,
es =self induced e.m.f,
N1=Number of turns of coil,
=rate of change of flux
em
Where,
N2= Number of turns of 2 coil
em = mutually induced e.m.f.
Transformer works on the principle of mutually induced e.m.f.
102
Definition of Transformer:
electric circuit with desirable change in voltage and current but witho
It steps up or steps down the voltage depending on the number of turns of the primary and secondary
winding. So by properly selecting and designing the no. of turns we can get the required voltage from
available voltage.
Basic Construction:
V1=Primary supply voltage
I1=Current in Primary winding
E1=EMF induced in Primary winding
N1=No of turns of Primary winding
V2=Secondary output voltage
I2=Current in secondary winding
E2=Secondary mutually induced EMF
N2=No of turns of secondary winding
F=Frequency of A.C. supply
= Max. Flux in the core.
103
1) A transformer has 2 windings made up of good quality enameled copper. These 2 windings supported on
the silicon steel core.
2) The windings are insulated from each other & from steel core.
3) One winding is connected to A.C. supply and is called primary winding it has N1 no of turns.
4) Other winding connected to the load is called as secondary winding and has N2 no of turns.
EMF equation of Transformer:

N1 =No of turns on Primary.
N2 =No of turns on Secondary.
m =Max flux in the core.
F = Frequency
Flux increases from 0 to its max value in one quarter of cycle i.e. in sec.
Avg. rate of change of flux = =
Rate of change of flux=induced e.m.f./turn (
Average e.m.f. per turn=4f m volts.
If flux varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying average value
with form factor.
Form Factor=
R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. / turn =
R.M.S. value of the induced e.m.f. in the primary winding = Induced e.m.f./turn x N1 in primary
104
E1 =4.44f m N1 volts
Similarly R.M.S. value of e.m.f. Induced in secondary is,
E2 =4.44f m N2 volt
Transformation Ratio (K):

1) From e.m.f. equation,
E1=4.44f m N1
E2=4.44f m N2
------ (1)
2) According to definition of transformer,

V1I1=V2I2
----- (2)
3) We know that,
But for Ideal case

& ------ (3)
From equation (1), (2) & (3) we have,
When K=1; N2=N1

K>1; N2>N1 Step of transformer
K<1; N2<N1 Step down transformer
105
Why rating of transformer is in VA or KVA?
Ans.: We know that output power:

1. Where, is the power factor which is dependent on load.
2. Load can have any power factor (i.e. lagging, leading or unity)
3. Hence, it is a general practice to neglect the power factor and express the rating only in VA or
KVA.
OR
1. There are two main losses in a transformer (Iron loss and Copper loss).
2. Fe loss depends on the voltage and Cu loss depends on current.
3. Hence the rating of transformer is in VA or KVA.
Explain working of Transformer.
Ans.:
1. When the primary of transformer is energized from A.C. source, E.M.F. is induced in the primary
Induced e m.f)
2. The flux of the primary also links with the secondary through the iron core and cuts the secondary
winding.
e.m.f)
4. Hence, the transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.
Numerical:
Example 1:
One winding of transformer has 400 turns and other has 1000 turns. State which is L.T. winding and
which is H.T winding. The L.T winding is connected to 500V supply. Find primary and secondary
voltage.
Solution: The voltage depends on number of turns.

Low voltage winding has less number of turns and high voltage winding has more number of turns
Hence, 400 turns winding is L.T
1000 turns winding is H.T
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Given: , 500 V, 1000
Ans.: The number of turn of first winding is 400
,
Since the supply voltage is of 500 V.
Than
Now, finding the by using the formula.
Example 2:
A transformer has Primary Voltage 600v and secondary voltage 250v. It has 56 sec. turns. Find primary
number of turns.
Solution:
Given :
According the transformation ratio K,
107
Example 3:
A 30KVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary side. The primary is
connected to 3000 volt 50 Hz ac supply.
Calculate: 1) I1and I2 at full load and half load 2) E2 3) Maximum Flux (Neglect Drop)
Solution:
Given: P = 30 KVA
N = 50 Hz.
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2) Since we know that
3) Now,
Numerical:
1) A 2000/200V, 10 KVA,60HZ transformer has 66 turns in sec. Calculate N 1 and current I1 and I2
2) A 1phase transformer 250/125V, 1KVA 50HZ connected to 250 V supply Calculate full load primary
and secondary currents.
3) A 1phase transformer has N1=8000, N2=2000 if primary winding is connected to 500V- Find out
secondary e.m.f. (Neglect Drop)
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4) For 30KVA 250/6000V, 1 transformer find rated current of L.T.winding. The H.T. winding turns are
4800, find L.T. turns.
5) The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000V, 50HV, 1 Transformer is 0.00012 wb/cm2. If
the e.m.f. induced per turn is 8.0V. Find number of turns and net cross-sectional area of the core.
(Hint: - A)
Classification of transformer:
1) According to type of supply:

i) 1 phase transformer ii) 3phase transformer
2) According to working voltage:

i) Step up transformer
ii) Step Down transformer
3) According to construction of core:

i) Core type
ii) Shell type
iii) Berry type
4) According to cooling system:

i) Natural cooled
ii) Oil cooled
iii) Air Blast cooled
iv) Water cooled
5) According to type of application:

i) Distribution transformer
ii) Power transformer
iii) Instrument transformer such as C.T and P.T
iv) Auto transformer
110
6) According to type of Mounting:
i) Pole Mounted. ii)Outdoor iii)Indoor
According to working voltage:

Step up transformer Step Down transformer
a) V2>V1 a)V2< V1
Secondary voltage greater than Secondary voltage less than primary voltage.
primary voltage.
b) N2>N1 b)N2 <N1
No of turns on sec greater than prim Number of turns on secondary less than primary
c) I2<I1 c) I2>I1
Sec current less than primary current Sec current greater than prim current
d) K>1 d)K<1
Where k =transformation Ratio
e) Symbol e)Symbol
According to construction:-
Core Type transformer Shell transformer
111
a) In core type transformer winding surrounds a a) Core surrounds considerable part of
considerable part of core. winding.
b)Only one magnetic path b)Two magnetic paths
c)Leakage flux is less c)Leakage flux is more
d)Useful for high voltage d)Useful for low voltage
e) Cooling is effective as more surface is e) Cooling is less effective
exposed to the atmosphere. f) Difficult for repairs
f)Easy for repairs g) Weight is more
g)Weight is less h)More mechanical protection to the coil.
h)Less mechanical protection to the coil. i)It has three limbs.
i)It has two limbs.
Transformer:
Core Type transformer:
112
For explanation of core type transformer refer comparison table
Shell Type Transformer:
For explanation of shell type transformer refer comparison table
Berry- Type transformer:
Explanation:
1) This type of transformer has magnetic cores in the shape of rectangular frames
2) The transformer core consists of laminations arranged is group which radiate out from the center
3) It has more number of magnetic paths compare to other transformers.
Advantages:
1) Relatively more rigid
2) Lesser weight and size per KVA rating.
3) Lower iron losses at higher operating flux densities.
4) Lower cost.
113
According to way of cooling:-
1) Natural cooled:
Small distribution transformer is natural cooled. It is provided with a small exhaust vent.
2) Oil cooled:
Medium size distribution transformer is generally oil cooled. In oil cooled transformer, windings
and cores are positioned in welded air tight steel tank.
Tank is filled with purified high quality insulating oil to convey heat from core and windings out
to the surroundings.
3) Oil immersed water cooled:
Large power transformer is generally oil filled water cooled. Winding and core are immersed in
oil but cooling tubes are provided through which cold water is kept circulating. Heat is carried
away by water.
4) Air Blast Cooled:-
For voltages below 25kv transformer can be built for cooling by means of air blast in which air is
blown from bottom to top by means of fan or blower.
According to Application:-
1. Distribution transformer:
Distribution transformer is used for low voltage distribution networks as means to end consumer user
connectivity.
They are generally step down transformer voltage ranges 11kv, 6.6kv, 3.3kv, 1.1kv, 440v, 230v
Fig. 3 phase distribution transformer Fig. 1phase distribution transformer

2. Power transformer:
Power transformer is used in transmission network of high voltage.
Voltage range: 400kv, 200kv, 110kv, 66kv, 33kv
114
Fig. Substation 100 KVA power transformer Fig. High voltage power transformer
Power transformer Distribution transformer

1.Generally step up 1.Generally step down
2.Used in transmission substation 2.Used in distribution substation
3.High capacity 3.Low capacity
4.Secondary is delta connected 4.Secondary is star connected
5.Load is not directly connected 5.Load is directly connected
6.Requires more protection and maintenance 6. Requires less protection and maintenance.
7.Weight more 7.Weight less

8.Costly 8.Cheap
Auto transformer:
115
Fig. Autotransformer Fig. Internal winding of autotransformer
It is also called as variac or Dimmerstat:
a) It is transformer with one winding only a part of this being common to both primary & sec.
b) In this transformer primary &sec. are not electrically isolated.
c) Because of one winding it uses less copper and is cheaper.
d) It is generally used where transformation ratio varies little from unity.
e) Tapping or sliding brush contact decides no of turns on secondary side.
f) Saving of copper=k x weight of copper in ordinary transformer
(Where k transformation ratio)
g) Application:
1) Used as a booster.
2) Used as a starter for starting of induction motor.
3) For interconnection of transformer
4) Control equipments of electric locomotives.
5) Laboratory
Ordinary transformer Auto transformer

a) Two winding One winding
b) Two windings are electrically isolated Primary and secondary windings are
and magnetically linked electrically as well as magnetically
connected
c) Copper required is more Copper required is less
d) Voltage transformation is fixed Voltage transformation is variable
e) Cannot be used as a starter Cannot be used as a starter for starting
induction Motor
f) Can be used as Distribution and Power Used for small variation of voltages.
transformer
116
Instrument transformer:
a) It is not practical to measure very high voltages & current of E.H.V. (Extra high voltage) or E.H.T.
(Extra high tension) lines.
b) To measure these quantities specially constructed accurate ratio instrument transformers are used.
c) Instrument transformer are of 2 types-
(i) Current transformer (C.T.)
(ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
Current transformer (C.T):-

(i) Current transformer is step up transformer used in conjunction with low range ammeter to
measure current in high voltage A.C circuits.
(ii) This transformer steps down the current in a known ratio.
(iii) C.T has primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire, connected in series with the line whose
current is to be measured.
(iv) Sec consists of large number of turns of thin wire and is connected to ammeter terminals.
(v) According to voltage this transformer is step up transformer.
(vi)
(vii) Tong tester or clip-on type C.T. is most commonly used.
(viii) Precaution
(1) Secondary should not be kept open; otherwise high voltage is induced in circuit and damage
the core.
(2) If ammeter is taken out, the sec terminals must be shorted.
117
Fig. Current transformer
Fig. Window and Bar Type CTs are the most common current transformers found in the field.
Potential transformer (PT):
118
(i) These transformers are highly accurate ratio step down transformers and used in conjunction with
standard low range voltmeter.
(ii) When secondary voltage is divided by transformation ratio it gives actual voltage on H.V. side.
(iii) Generally they are shell type oil immersed transformers.
(iv) Appropriate earthing & insulation should be provided for safety.
Comparison of 1 phase and 3 phase transformer for same capacity:
1 phase transformer 3 Phase transformer

a)Requires less space as compared to 3 phase More space.
transformer
b)Weight is less as compared to 3 phase Weight is more.
transformer
c)Cost is less Cost is high.
d)Maintenance less Maintenance more.
e) contains two coils, one on the primary side, Contains six coils, three for primary side, and
and another one on the secondary side another three coils for the secondary side.
f) It has four terminals, two on the input (phase It has twelve terminals with different
& neutral), and two on the output (phase & connection for them for star or delta
neutral), no delta or star connections are connections.
available
g) used in the household devices applications, Used as a power or distribution transformers,
such as TV, Microwave Oven, Phone Charger, with high rated KVA.
etc,
h)In most cases, no cooling system is required Have many cooling systems depending on the
for single phase transformer transformer rated power, may be by oil, forced
oil, air, forced air or by forced water.
Constructional Details of a Transformer:-
a) In all types of transformers, core is of silicon steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous
magnetic path.
119
b) Steel has high silicon content of high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
c) Laminations are provided to reduce eddy current loss.
d) Laminations are insulated from each other by varnish or oxide layer.
e) Thickness of lamination is 0.33-0.5mm.
f) Around the core there is an insulation drum around which winding of transformer are positioned.
g) Windings are made up of copper or Aluminium.
h) Generally paper insulation is provided to insulate the windings.
i) In large transformers, to extract heat produced, proper cooling system is adopted.
j) Supply and load terminal of transformer are brought out through porcelain bushing, for mechanical
and electric protection.
a) Large scale generation electric power is usually 3-Phase.

b) Instead of using interconnected 3 single phase transformers, Application of single three phase
transformer is economical.
c) As compared bank of 3 single phase transformers the main advantages of 3 transformers are:
(i) It occupies less floor space for equal rating.
(ii) Weight is less.
(iii) Cost is also 15% less.
d) To reduce the number of wires 6 terminals of 3 wires can be connected in star or wye connection [ ]
or in delta or mesh connection .
Fig. Laminated core
120
STAR CONNECTION [3 PHASE FOUR WIRE SYSTEM ] :
1. In star connection, terminals either starting or finishing of all the three windings are joined together.
2. From junction of this point a wire is taken out. This point is called as star point or neutral point and
wire is called neutral wire.
3. From remaining 3 terminals 3 wires are taken .Such a system is called 3 Phase 4 wire system.
4. 3 coils or 3 phases mounted on same axis and displaced from each other by 120 0.
5. Voltage measured across 2 terminals of a coil is called phase voltage Vph.
6. Voltage between any 2 lines is called line voltage demoted by VL.
a) VL= Vph
IL = Line current
Iph=Phase current
b) IL=Iph
Power = VLILcos
121
Delta connection:
a) If the finishing terminal of first winding is connected to starting of second winding to form a closed
mesh is called delta or mesh connection.
b) It is also called 3 -3 wire system.
c) Vph=VL
IL = Iph
Power = VLILcos
3 transformers connections:
Types Application
Star Star High voltage and high power transformers.
Star Delta Employed at the substation end of the transmission line. The main use with this
connection is to step down the voltage.
Delta Delta Low voltage transformer, generally used in systems where it need to be carry large
currents on low voltages and especially when continuity of service is to be maintained
even though one of the phases develops fault.
Delta-Star Step down power transformer, commercial, industrial, and high-density residential
locations, to supply three-phase distribution systems.
Open Delta V-V 3-phase to 2-phase transformation
NUMERICALS:
1. Find out the o/p and current of the primary and secondary winding of a 22000/400 V 3-phase
transformer when star connected load of 0.8 P.F. is connected to secondary. Take line current on
primary side = 5A.
122
Given primary line current = 5 Amp.
Phase primary current
Primary Phase voltage = Pri. Line Voltage.

= 22,000 Volts.
Secondary Phase Voltage =
Transformation Ratio =
Secondary Phase current = Primary phase current
= Amp.
This is also line current of secondary (Star connection).

Output =
=
= 15240 Watts.
= 15.24 KW
2. 3phase -connected 200KVA transformer voltage rating=6600/500V.Load is Y connected.
Calculate voltages and current on both sides.
123
3 PHASE TRANSFORMER OR POWER TRANSFORMER [MAIN PARTS]
PARTS:
1. Primary winding 10.Explosion vent
2. Secondary winding 11.Temperature gauge
3. Transformer oil 12.Buchholz Relay
4. Cooling Tubes 13.Conservator
5. Tank 14.Breather
6. Primary terminals 15. oil level indicator
7. Secondary terminals
8. Drain cock
9. Earth point
NOTE:
In power transformer winding connections are : primary winding star connected
Secondary winding delta connected
In distribution transformer winding connections are: primary winding- delta connected
Secondary winding star connected
1)
124
1) Primary Winding:
a) It is made of copper & connected either in star or delta connection.
b) Supply is given to this winding.
c) Sets up magnetic field.
2) Secondary windings:
a) It is made of good quality enameled copper & connected either in star or delta connection.
b) According to number of turns, e.m.f is induced in it.
3) Transformer oil:
a) Transformers are generally housed in tightly fitted sheet metal tank filled with special insulating
oil(Even after long services no deterioration, oxidation, acid ,sludge or moisture formation and no
rapid burning)
b) Transformer oil is a mineral oil, clean hydrocarbon oil is obtained by refining crude petroleum.
c) Transformer oil is used for insulation purpose having high dielectric strength (3kV/mm)
d) It is also used for cooling purpose as well as for arc quenching.
4) Cooling Tubes:
Tubes are connected to tank to carry away heat produced and to keep transformer cool.
5) Tank :
Sheet metal tanks are used for housing transformer.
6) & 7 ) Primary and Secondary Terminals:
a) Primary and secondary terminals of primary and secondary windings are to be taken out from tank
surface for connection purpose through a porcelain bushing.
125
8) Drain Cock:
a) It is used at bottom of tank.
b) It is used to replace transformer oil for filtration.
9) Earth Point:
Transformer body is earthed for safety and providing path for leakage current.
10) Explosion vent:
It is a safety valve which protects transformer from gases induced by any type of short circuit in
transformer.
11) Temperature Gauge:
Used for indicating the temperature of transformer oil.
12) Buchholz Relay:
a) It is a gas activated Relay.
b) It is a part of oil immersed transformer for providing protection against all kinds of faults.
c) It is used to give an alarm in case of slow developing or minor faults and disconnects transformer from
supply in event of severe internal faults.
d) In case of incipient faults, heat due to fault, causes decomposition of some transformer oil and
production of gas containing 70%hydrogen.
e) Due to pressure of gas float A tilts and mercury switch operates closing contacts of Alarm circuit to
sound an alarm.
f) If severe faults occur enormous amount of gas is generated in main tank.
g) Oil in the tank rushes towards conservator via Buchholz Relay completing trip circuit to open the circuit
breaker disconnecting transformer.
126
Fig. Buchholz relay
13) Conservator tank:

a) It is a sort of drum mounted on top of transformer
b) Conservator is connected through a pipe on transformer tank containing oil
c) This oil expands and contracts depending upon the heat produced and so oil level in conservator rises
and falls. Thus conservator provides space for oil expansion.
d)Pipe connected to conservator is left open to atmosphere through a breather so that extra air may go
out or come in.
127
14) Breather:
a) Presence of small amount of moisture in transformer oil is highly detrimental from insulation point of
view because it lowers the dielectric strength of oil considerably.
b) In very small transformer air tight construction is possible but not in large transformer
c) When transformer oil contracts, oil level falls and air enters in side. So Breather is provided
d) Breather is a box containing silica gel or calcium chloride which absorbs moisture from air entering
conservator.
e)The atmospheric moisture is entrapped in this breather and is not allowed to pass on to the oil.
f) Silica gel crystals are blue in color when dry and whitish pink when damp.
Fig. pink color indicates it contains moisture and need to be replaced, where as blue color
indicates that it is not affected by moisture and ready to absorb moisture.
128
15) Oil level indicator.
It is a glass tube which shows the oil level in conservator tank-
Losses in transformer:
Losses
Core loss or iron loss Copper loss or

or No load loss winding loss.
Hysteresis loss Eddy current loss
Two main types:

1) Core loss or iron loss or No load loss.
2) Copper loss or winding loss.
Short notes on losses in transformer.

Ans. : Cu loss or winding loss:
(a) Cu loss is a variable loss. It depends on the load.
(b) It takes places because of Ohmic resistance of the copper winding.
(c) It varies in square proportion of load and current
(d) Cu loss can be minimized by using good quality enameled copper.
(e) Iron loss or core loss or no load loss.
Fe loss { Iron loss or core loss or no load loss}

(a) Fe is a constant loss it is independent of the load.
(b) Fe loss comprises of (a) Hysteresis loss due to reversal of magnetization(b) Eddy current loss
(c) Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material and eddy current can be minimized
by using thin laminations / stampings.
129
(d) Collectively Fe loss can be minimized using silicon steel stampings.
Tests on transformer (Indirect Methods of testing):

For finding out performance of transformer following tests are carried out:
(i) Open circuit test for finding out core losses.
(ii) Short circuit test for finding out copper losses.
Advantages of Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test over Direct loading of Transformer:-
1] These tests are economical and convenient because they furnish the required information without
actually loading the transformer.
2] Time required is less.
3] Power loss is less.
4] Equivalent circuit can be drawn.
No load Test or Open circuit Test:
Fig. Circuit diagram of open circuit test
130
a) The purpose of this test is to determine no load loss or core loss and no load primary current.
b) One winding of transformer generally HV winding is kept open and other is connected to supply of
normal voltage and frequency.
c) Wattmeter W, Ammeter A, voltmeter V is connected to L.V. winding.
d) With normal voltage applied to primary normal flux will be set up.
e) Normal iron losses will occur in the core which is recorded by wattmeter.
f) As primary no load current Io is small copper losses are negligibly small in primary& nil in
secondary.
g) Hence wattmeter reading represents core loss.
h) High resistance voltmeter is connected across secondary.
i) The reading of voltmeter gives induced emf in secondary.
j) This helps find out Transformation ratio k.
Observation Table:
131
Short Circuit Test:
Fig. Circuit diagram of short circuit test

a) In this test, one winding; generally low voltage; is solidly short circuited by a thick conductor or
through an ammeter.
b) A low voltage usually 5 to 20% of normal voltage is applied to the primary winding.
c) Since in this test applied voltage is small % of normal voltage, flux is also small % of normal value.
d) Core losses are small and wattmeter represents full load copper loss.
Observation table :
Efficiency of transformer:
a) Efficiency of transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as ratio of output power to
input power.
b) Efficiency =
c) Iron loss is independent of load.

d) These losses are produced due to flux
e) But flux is constant at all loads.
f) Hence iron loss is constant at all loads.
g) Copper loss is variable loss.
h) It varies in square proportion of current of load.
132
Cu loss at load=Cu loss at full load
To find out efficiency of transformer by direct loading:
In this test primary is connected to the rated voltage and secondary is loaded by lamp banks.
% Efficiency =
The above direct loading test is suitable for small capacity transformers. But for bigger capacity
transformer indirect methods are adopted for testing.
Fig. Circuit diagram to find efficiency of 1 phase transformer
Voltage Regulation of transformer:
133
a) When transformer is loaded with const primary voltage, sec voltage decreases because of its leakage
reactance and internal resistance.
b) Definition :
Change in sec terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed as a % of no load sec voltage is
called regulation of transformer.
% Regulation = 100
Where V =No load sec voltage
V =sec terminal voltage at full load.

c) Lesser the regulation better is the transformer.
d) Regulation is negative when the power factor is leading.
e) For resistive and Inductive circuits the secondary terminal voltage falls but for capacitive load the
secondary terminal voltage increases.
Condition for maximum efficiency:
1. Efficiency of transformers varies as load.

2. Efficiency of transformer is maximum when copper loss=iron loss
3. x
All day Efficiency:

1) Transformers used for supplying lighting and general network are Distribution transformer having
their primary energized all 24 hours.
2) Although their secondary is supplying little or no load, much of the time during the day except
during the house lighting period.
3) It means that core losses occur throughout the day but cu losses occur when transformer is loaded.
4) Hence it is considered a good practice to design such transformer so that core loss is less.
5) Performance of such transformer is judged by all day efficiency or operational efficiency.
6) All day Efficiency = (for all day 24 hrs.)
134
Why the efficiency of transformer is always higher than any other rotating machine?
Ans.:
1. Transformer essentially consists of iron core and copper winding. Therefore, it has only Cu. Loss and
Fe loss.
2. Where as in other rotating machines in addition to copper loss and iron loss there is a third loss known
as mechanical loss (friction and windage loss). Hence efficiency of transformer is always higher than
any other rotating machine.
Important formulae:
* Efficiency =
% =
*Output in Kw =
*Cu loss at load=Cu loss at full load
*% Regulation = X 100
Numerical:
1.100 KVA transformer has full load copper loss 800 watt and Iron loss 600w calculate efficiency
of transformer at 25% full load, Power factor is 0.8 lag.
Ans.
Given : Rating = 100 KVA, o/p = 100 = 100
Culoss = 800 w
Iron loss = 600 w
Power factor =
Solution :
Output in kw = KVA P.F . =
=
i) o/p at 25% =
ii) Cu loss at 25 % =
135
iii) Fe loss at 25 = ( it is a constant loss)
2. A 100 KVA transformer has F.L. Cu. Loss of 3 KW and F.L. Iron of 2 KW. Find the efficiency
of the transformer at half load.
Ans.: Given : o/p =
Cu = 3 kw
Fe = 2 kw
To find = half of full load.
Solution : o/p in kw = op
=
=
i) O.P. at half load =
ii) Cu loss at half load =

iii) Fe at half load = 2 kw
Fe loss is a constant loss)
Now, at half load
efficiency at half load =
25
= 100
27.75
= 90 .09 %
3. 10kva transformer is on no load for 16 hrs/day and for remaining hours is fully loaded.
Calculate the all day efficiency at unity p.f. Full load cu loss=iron loss=1KW
Full day efficiency or all day efficiency
Ans. : o/p = 10 KVA

@ no load = 16 hr
At full load = 24 hr 16 hr = 8 hr
To find : % all day efficiency : ?
Solution : Assuming the Cu loss and Fe loss = 1 kw.

Cu loss = Fe loss = 1 kw ( this is the condition for maximum efficiency)
Output = KVA p.f. =
136
i) For 16 hrs No load
a. o/p in KWH = 0
b. Cu loss in KWH = 0
ii) For 8 hrs full load
a. o/p in KWH =
b. Cu loss in KWH = = 8 KWH
We know that Fe loss is a constant loss.

Fe loss for 24 hrs = = 24 KWH
% All day efficiency =
% All day efficiency =
4. A 60 KVA S.P.T. has an iron loss of 1.25 KW and F.L. Cu. Loss of 2 KW. Calculate the all-day
and on half-load unity p.f. for 8 hrs.
Ans. :
Given :Rating = 60 KVA, F.L. Cu loss = 2 KW, , Iron loss = 1.25 KW
Solution :
Output in KWH = hours
No load for 16 hours
Output for first 16 hours = 0
Output for next 8 hours = KWH
Total output for 24 hours = 240 KWH
Iron loss for 24 hours = KWH
Cu loss for 8 hours = KWH
All day efficiency =
=
= 87.91 %
NUMERICALS FOR PRACTICE

1. A 200 KVA step Down transformer has full load iron loss=800 watt and copper loss=2000 watt find out
efficiency at full load (cos =1).
And efficiency at half load (cos =0.8)
137
2. A 5 kvA, 2300/230 v 50 H2 transformer has iron loss=40 watt, cu loss=112 watt at full load calculate
efficiency of transformer at 0.8 p.f for following KVA output.
(i) 1.25 KVA
(ii) 2.5 KVA
(iii) 3.5 KVA
(iv) 5 KVA
(v) 6.25 KVA
(vi) 7.5 KVA
3. A 5 KVA transformer has 35 watt core loss and 40 watt cu loss at full load. It operates at rated KVA and
0.8 p.f lag for 6 hours. Half rated KVA and 0.5 p.f. lag for 12hrs and no load for 6 hrs.
Find all day efficiency.
4. A 100 KVA transformer has full load loss as of 3kw. Loss is equally divided as transformer iron and
cu loss. During a day it operates on full load for 3 hours. On half load for 4 hours and no load for remaining
hrs. Calculate all day efficiency.
Maintenance of transformer Includes:

1] Daily Maintenance
a) Check position of tap-changer.
b) Check relay panel, temperature indicators and confirm normal condition.
c) Check relieves vents.
2] Weekly checking.
a)Check tank and radiators.
b) Check that all control/alarm/power/supply circuit is well placed.
3] Monthly checking.
a) Check oil level in main tank.
b) Check and record oil temperature.
c) Tight terminal connections.
4] Half yearly maintenance.

a) Check earthing resistance.
b) Clean bushing surface.
5] Yearly Maintenance
a) Check circuit breakers and all power, control and alarm circuits.
b) Check dielectric strength of insulating oil.
c) Clean dirt and oil from radiating surfaces.
6] Five yearly maintenance.

a) Check foundation for crack and settlings.
b) See that screen and baffles in the vents and breathers are not obstructed or broken.
c) If breathers are dehydrating type check chemicals and replace if depleted.
138
d) Check motors and control.
e) Check external supply and drain piping for leaks.
f) Check for gas leaks.
139
12. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
Why Single Phase induction Motors are not self starting?

1 When a a.c. supply is given to a stator of motors only alternating flux is produced in stator.
It is not of rotating type.
2 .Hence rotational torque is not produced.
3. Alternating magnetic flux cannot move the rotor.
4. Therefore the motors are not self starting.
Broad Classification of motors
1. Split Phase motors (Resistance Start Induction Run Motors):
(a) Sketch Diagram:
140
(b) Construction:
(i) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for receiving single phase stator
winding.
(ii) Stator winding: - It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is split into starting
winding/auxiliary winding and running/main winding. The main winding has very low resistance and a
high inductive reactance whereas the starting winding has high resistance and low inductive reactance.
(iii) Rotor: It is a round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery for round Cu bars and is made of
silicon steel stamping.
(iv) Rotor conductors: These are round Cu bars embedded in the rotor slots & permanently short
circuited (squirrel cage rotor)
(v) Centrifugal Switch: It is connected in series with the starting winding.
(c)Working:
(i) When an A.C supply is given to the stator of the motor, the current ( ) splits into Im & Is flowing in
the main winding & starting winding.
(ii) The current (Im) lags the applied voltage by greater angle since more inductive & (Is) lags the
applied voltage by a smaller angle since more resistive less inductive.
(iii) The currents Im and Is produces it own flux having a phase angle difference which interact
and r.m.f is set and the rotor start rotating.
(iv) When the rotor reaches 70 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated and the
starting winding is disconnected electrically from the circuit. Hence the name resistance start induction
run motor.
(v)As starting torque is proportional to phase angle between Im & Is, starting torque is less.
D.O.R: can be changed by interchanging the connection of either starting winding or running winding
but not both at a same time.
Application: Small machine tools, duplicating machines, oil burners.
2. Capacitor motors:
(a) Capacitor start induction run motors
(b) Permanent capacitor motors.
(c) Capacitor start capacitor run motors.
141
(a) Capacitor start Induction run motor :
(i) Sketch diagram :
Starting Current =
(ii) Construction :
(a) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: it is made up of good Quality enameled Cu & split as starting winding and running
winding.
(c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made of silicon steel.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and permanently short
circuited (squirrel cage rotor).
(e) Centrifugal switch: It is connected in series with the starting winding
(iii) Working :
(a) When an AC supply is given to the motor, the current (I) splits into Im and Is flowing in the main
winding and starting winding.
(b) The current (Im) lags by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (I s) leads by a smaller
angle since more capacitive and less inductive.
142
(c) The current (I ) and (I ) produces its own flux and having a phase angle difference which
interacts and rotor starts rotating.
(d) When the rotor reaches 70- 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated and starting
winding is disconnected electrically from the circuit.
D.O.R Can we change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.
Uses:
(i) Refrigerator (ii) drilling machine (iii) lathe machine (iv) pumps (v) cooler (vi) printing press
(b) Permanent Capacitor motors
(i) Circuit diagram
(ii) Construction
(a) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is split into starting winding and
running winding
(c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made up of silicon steel
stamping.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and permanently short
circuited (Squirrel cage rotor).
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(iii) Working
(a) When an AC supply is given to the motor, the current (I) splits into I m and Is flowing in the main
(b) The Current (Im) lags the applied voltage by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (I s)
Leads the voltage by a smaller angle since more capacitive and less inductive.
(c) This creates a phase angle difference between main winding flux and starting winding flux and
rotating magnetic flux is set up .Thus rotor starts rotating.
(d) The capacitor remains permanently in the circuit even in the running condition
D.O.R Can be change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.
Uses: (i) Ceiling fan (ii) table fan
(C) Capacitor start Capacitor Run Motor
(I) Circuit diagram
(ii) Construction
(a) Stator. It is made up of silicon steel stamping of having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: it is made up of good Quality enameled Cu and is split as starting winding and
running winding
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(c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made of silicon steel.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded it the rotor slots and permanently short
circuited (squirrel cage rotor).
(e) Centrifugal switch: It is connected in series with the capacitor C1.
(iii) Working
(a) The two capacitors are used Cap1 and Cap2. Cap1 is of higher value but short duty and Cap2 is of
lower value but continuous duty.
(b) When the supply is switched on the current (I) splits into splits into I m and Is flowing in the main
(c) The Current (Im) lags by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (I s) leads by a smaller
angle since more capacitive and less inductive.
(d) This creates a phase angle difference between main winding flux and starting winding flux and
rotating magnetic flux is set up .Thus rotor starts rotating.
(e) When the rotor reaches 70- 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated and the cap1
is disconnected from the circuit whereas Cap2 remains permanently in the circuit.
(iv) Uses: (I) Room Cooler (II) Refrigerator (III) Compressor
(v) Specialty (i) p. f. is improved (ii) higher efficiency (iii) higher torque (iv) starts quickly
D.O.R: Can be change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.
(D) Shaded Pole Motor:

(I) circuit diagram
(II) Construction
(i) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having salient poles. A slot is cut in the pole and a Cu
coil is placed at one corner. Copper coil is known as shading coil. This part of the pole is known as
shaded part and the remaining as unshaded part.
(ii) Stator winding [field winding]: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and wound on salient
poles.
(iii) Rotor: It is cylindrical part made up of silicon steel stamping having slots for rotor bars.
(iv) Rotor conductors: Made up of round copper bars which are placed in rotor slots and are permanently
short circuited (sq. cage)
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(iii) Working:
Fig. A
(i) field current is rapidly increasing along OA in the field winding

produces flux in the poles. According to transformer action e.m.f. is induced in the shading coil
causing
of field current .Hence flux shifts mostly to the unshaded part and the magnetic axis lies along the
middle of unshaded part
(ii) Consider the moment when field current is near its peak value i.e. AB change in exciting field
current is less. So the induced current in the shading coil is very less. Hence the flux is uniformly
distributed over the pole face. So the magnetic axis lies to the center of the whole pole.
146
Fig. B
(iii) At one instance the current in the shading coil decreases very rapidly i.e. BC and hence the M.A
shifts towards the shaded pole. It seems as if the M.A is moving from the unshaded pole to shaded
pole and the rotating magnetic field is setup and the rotor starts rotating.
Fig. C
D.O.R: It is not possible to change the D.O.R. of these motor as the position of the copper rings are
fixed.
Uses:
The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light duty applications. Perhaps
their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the low torque, low efficiency and less
sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical for most industrial or commercial use,
where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the norm.
(I) Small fans (II) Toys (III) hair dryers
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(4) Repulsion Motor (Repulsion Start Induction Run Motor):
(I) Circuit Diagram
(II) Construction:
(i) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having non salient poles for stator winding.
(ii) Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is wound on the stator pole.
(iii) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for copper winding and is made up of silicon steel
stampings. It is same as the armature of D.C Motor.
(iv) Rotor winding: These are made up of good quality enameled cu and placed in the rotor slots the
ends of which are connected to the carbon brushes.
(v) Commutator: It consist of alternate layers of copper and mica segments
(vi) Brushes: Made up of carbon or graphite placed in the holder and ride against commutator .The
brushes are shorted by connecting them directly with a cu wire (jumper).
(iii) Working:
(i)When current is given to the stator winding field is set up .Let an instant the field is such that N pole
is at the top and S pole is at the bottom and the MA lies vertical.
(ii) The Brush Axis is neither horizontal nor vertical, but at an intermediate angle .
(iii) The like poles of the stator and rotor repel each other and the rotor starts rotating.
(iv) Since the rotor rotates because of repulsive force it is called Repulsion Motor.
(v) The speed of this motor can be changed by shifting the position of brushes.
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D.O.R: It can be change by shifting the brushes in reversed direction.
Uses: (i) Refrigerator (ii) mixing machine (iii) Floor polishing machine (iv) lifts (v) compressor
AC series Motor:
Introduction:-
Universal Motor is a small version of a.c. series motor. It works on A.C. supply as well as D.C. supply.
(I) Circuit diagram:
(II) Construction:
A.C. series motor is similar in construction as D.C. series motor and has the main parts.
(i) Field pole: It is made up of silicon steel stamping and salient type for field winding.
(ii) Field winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is wound on the field pole.
(iii) Armature: It is round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery for the armature winding.
(iv) Armature winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper placed in the armature slots
the ends of which are connected to the commutator.
(v) Commutator: It consists of alternate layers of copper and mica segments.
(vi) Brushes: There are made up of carbon or graphite.
(III) Working:
(i) If D.C. series motor is connected to AC. supply. It will rotate with unidirectional torque which can be
explained as follows.
(ii) For the instantaneous polarity the direction of the current in the series field coil and armature coil is as
shown in figure (a). As per the theory, When a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field
it experiences a force in certain direction and its direction is given by Fleming s Left Hand Rule.
149
(iii)In the first case, armature starts rotating in anticlockwise direction.
(iv) In the next half cycle of a.c. instantaneous polarities are changed as shown n the figure (b).the direction
of field as well as direction of current in the armature is also changed.
(v) By left hand rule, we find that direction of rotation of armature is same that is anticlockwise.
Thus we can conclude that to the D.C. series motor even if a.c. supply is given the motor develops at
unidirectional torque.
(vi) But for the good performance of a.c. series motor or universal motor some modifications are to be made
in the motor.
Sr. Problems Modification
No.
1 As magnetic field is alternating Structure is made of silicon steel Stamping
large eddy current and hysteresis
loss
2 Sparking due to poor Commutating poles are provided.
commutation
3 Power factor is low Compensating winding is provided.
D.O.R - Can be changed by reversing the terminals of armature with respect to field coil.
Application:-
(i) Vacuum cleaner (ii) Mixers (III) Sewing Machine (iv) Drill Machine
(v) Cinema projector.
Speed control of universal motor: (3 Marks)

1. Resistance Method
2. Tapping field method.
3. Centrifugal mechanism
1. Resistance Method: Motor speed is controlled by connecting a variable resistance R in series with the
motor.
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2. Tapping field method: Field pole is tapped at various points and speed is controlled by varying the field
strength.
Sr. No. Purpose Suitable Motor

1 Printing Press Capacitor Start Motor
2 Lathe Machine Capacitor Start Motor
3 Centrifugal Pump Capacitor Start Motor
4 Electric Drill Machine Universal Motor
5 Mixer Universal Motor
6 Sewing Machine Universal Motor
7 Radiogram Tape Recorder Shaded pole or synchronous motor
8 Shaving Machine Shaded pole or synchronous motor
9 Refrigerator Shaded pole or Capacitor Start / Run Motor
10 Cooler Capacitor Start Motor
11 Cinema Projector Universal Motor
12 Ceiling or Table fan Permanent Capacitor type Motor
13 Wall Clocks Shaded Pole or 1phase Synchronous Motor
14 Floor Polishing Machine Repulsion Type Motor
15 Vacuum Cleaner Universal Motor
16 Toy Motor Shaded Pole Motor
17 Tape Recorder 1phase Synchronous Motor
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13. THEORY OF ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD AND
3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Production of Rotating Field:
When two or three phase supply is given to stationary coils wound for two or three phase a uniformly
rotating magnetic flux of constant value is produced.
Two Phase Supply:
1. A 2 phase 2pole stator having two identical windings, having phase difference between them is of 900.
2. Magnetic flux produced due to current flowing in each phase is assumed sinusoidal. The assumed positive
direction of fluxes are as shown in fig.(a)
Fig. (a)
i) When
Flux produced by phase 1 [ ]= 0
Flux produced by phase 2 [ ] = Maximum negative
Resultant flux is in a downward direction.

ii)When
m
1 Positive,
2
m
2 Negative
2
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Resultant flux although shifted clockwise.
iii) When
1 Maximum positive
Resultant flux shifted by 900 from its original position.
iv) When
- positive
- Positive
Resultant flux shifted clockwise by another 45 0.
v) When
Resultant flux shifted through 1800 from its position at the beginning.
Hence we conclude :
1. Magnitude of the resultant flux is constant.
2. Resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by

Three phase supply :
1.When three phase supply is connected to 3 phase winding which are 120 0 apart from each other different
fluxes are produced which are 1200 apart from each other. The resultant of these three fluxes is a that
the rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced.
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2.The assumed positive direction of the fluxes. Let the maximum flux due to any one of three phases be .
The resultant flux at any instant is given by the vector sum of the individual fluxes due to three
phase. We will consider values of at four instants corresponding to points marked 0, 1, 2 and 3.
When
Magnetic flux produced by phase 1 = = 0.
Magnetic flux produced by phase 2 = - negative
Magnetic flux produced by phase 3 = - positive
When corresponding to point 1

3
1 m - positive
2
- negative
When
3
1 m = Positive
2
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= Negative
When
1 0
3
2 m Positive
2
3
3 m Negative
2
We conclude them:
1. Resultant flux is of constant value i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value of the flux
due to any phase.
2. Resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by .
Three phase Induction Motor:

Advantage of :
(i) Compact & Simple in construction
(ii) Shape & weight is small
(iii) Maintenance is less
(iv) Self starting
Drawbacks :
(i) Speed variation is difficult
(ii) Speed variation arrangement is not reliable
(iii) Starting torque is not more.
(iv) Efficiency decreases with speed variation
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Construction of I.M :
1. Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
Fig. Silicon Steel stampings for induction motor stator
2. Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is either star or delta connected.
3. Rotor: It is a round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery to receive round copper bars or rotor
winding.
There are two types of rotor: 1) Squirrel Cage Rotor used in squirrel cage induction motor.
Fig. Skew angle in squirrel cage rotor Fig. Squirrel cage rotor
156
2) Phase wound rotor used in slip ring induction motor.
4. Rotor winding: (a) Squirrel Cage. These are round copper bars which are embedded in rotor slots and are
permanently short circuited.
(b) Slip ring: This is made up of good quality enameled copper and is star connected. The
ends of which are connected to the slip rings through which external resistance can be added.
5. Slip rings: These are mounted on the shaft and are made of phosphor bronze.
Fig. Slip rings

6. Brushes: These are made of carbon and kept touching to the Commutator under the tension of the springs.
157
(a) Squirrel cage motor:
(b) Squirrel cage motor :
2. Slip Ring (Wound rotor) motor:
158
WORKING of 3 INDUCTION MOTOR:
Explanation: The poles are not present physically it is shown for simplicity.
1. When 3 supply is given to the stator, magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at
synchronous speed (Ns= ) is set up. Let an instant (a) stator field is acting downwards and rotating in
clockwise direction
2 .The flux passes through air gap and cut the stationary rotor conductor. Due to Relative speed between
rotating flux and stationary conductors EMF is induced in rotor conductors.
3. The direction of this e.m.f. can be found e.
4. This causes current to circulate in the rotor conductor, whose direction is shown by dot.
5. This current carrying conductor produces magnetic field according to right hand thumb rule is shown
in the fig (b).
6. These two fields interact and the resultant field is produced.
7. It is seen that the effective field on the L.H.S is stronger as they are in same direction whereas the
effective field on the R.H.S is weaker as they are in opposite direction.
8. This produces force on the R.H.S which can be proved by Flemings Left Hand Rule.
9. Hence the rotor starts rotating in the clock wise direction. In the same direction as stator rotating field.
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Synchronous speed: When 3-phase supply is given to 3-phase stator rotating magnetic field is produced in
stator.
The speed of rotating magnetic field in stator is called synchronous speed.
NS is synchronous speed of the stator magnetic field.
F = Frequency
P = No. of poles.
Slip speed and slip:

Rotor runs in the direction of stator magnetic field. Speed of the rotor is N is always less than NS.
Slip speed: Difference between rotating magnetic field of stator and actual speed of rotor or motor is called slip
speed.
Slip speed =
Slip: Slip speed expressed in terms of synchronous speed ( ) is called slip
Percentage Slip
Slip is about 3 to 5 percentage for induction motor.

Frequency of rotor current:
i) When rotor is stationary frequency of rotor current rotor is same as supply frequency. But when rotor start
rotating frequency of rotor current depends upon slip speed.
ii) Let at any slip speed, frequency of rotor current is
f = Supply frequency
Frequency of rotor current is
Dividing (ii) by (i)
Changing D.O.R of
R-Y-B of supply is connected to R Y B terminal of 3 motor. This is called as phase sequence.
160
By changing any of the two terminals, the phase sequence is changed & the motor starts to rotate in
opposite direction.
(i.e R Y B changed to R B Y or Y R B or B Y - R)
Suppose :
D.O.R. is clockwise D.O.R. is anticlockwise
supply Terminal Motor terminal Supply terminals Motor

terminals
What is meant by Skew shape or advantages of squirrel cage type rotor?

Definition: The rotor slots are not exactly parallel to the shaft but they are slightly inclined such a
shape is called as skew shape.
Advantages:
1. The motor starts quickly.

2. Humming sound is not produce
3. The magnetic locking effect of stator & rotor is reduced due to which rotor may refuse to start.
4. Rotor resistance slightly increases due to increased length of rotor conductor.
Necessity of starters for (2m)

1. When the supply is given to the stator winding, e.m.f is induced in the rotor circuit also, due
to magnetic induction.
2. Rotor circuit of squirrel cage I.M is just like short circuited secondary of transformer.
3. The rotor conductors being shorted draws heavy current (i.e 10 times F.L current)
4. Moreover , the rotor winding is of low resistance to withstand such a heavy current.
161
5. Thus, to limit the starting current motor of 5 H.P and above should always be started through a
suitable starter.
6.When motor picks up speed back e.m.f. is developed and running current gets automatically limited.
Back e.m.f. is proportional to speed. At stand still speed is zero and back e.m.f. is zero so large current
flows through the circuit.
(a) Due to high current windings may get damage.
(b) Line voltage drop increases.
Types of (2M)
(i) Slip-ring or wound Rotor motor.

(ii) Squirrel cage motor.
(iii) Double Cage motor.
(iv) Deep Bar cage motor
Types of Starters suitable for Sq. cage motors.
(i) Stator Resistance starter.
(ii) Star Delta starter
(iii) Auto
(iv) D.O.L starters.
Types of starters suitable for slip ring motor.
(i) Rotor Resistance Starter
(ii) D.O.L starter.
1. Stator Resistance Starter :
1. Three equal resistances are connected in each phase of the stator. As these resistances are connected
in series with stator windings of the motor, some voltage drops across series resistances and reduced
voltage is applied to the motor.
2. Thus, motor starts with a reduced voltage & draws less current.
3. When the rotor gains 70 to 80% of rated speed, back e.m.f is developed and current gets automatically
4. At this position the resistances are cut out & stator receives full voltage & the motor runs with the
desired speed
5. This starter is used up to 7.5 H.P. motors.
162
163
2.Star delta Starter:
1. It is a simple manually operated starter which connects the stator to the supply. At the time of starting
the stator windings are connected in star.
2. These reduces the voltage, per phase by times
3. This, motor starts with a safer value of current.
164
4. Once the motor gains speed back e.m.f is developed and current gets automatically limited.
the windings are connected in delta. In delta phase
voltage is equal to line voltage. Thus rated line voltage is applied to the motor in running condition.
3. Auto transformer starter: -

Explanation
1. Three auto transformers are used for each phase of a motor.
2. The tapings are identical for each autotransformer.
3. This steps down the voltage in every phase.
motor catches speed back e.m.f is
motor runs with it, rated capacity.
165
Starter for slip ring (Wound rotor) Motor.
Rotor resistance starter:
1. At start the three equal resistances in the form of a circular arrangement are connected in the rotor
circuit.
2. As external resistance is added in the rotor circuit, the motor starts with safe current.
off the resistances from the rotor circuit.

of the handle.
Direct online starter
166
Starter for both types of motors
D.O.L (Direct ON- LINE Starters): -
Explanation :
1
directly to the supply lines.
2. The working voltage of N.V.C is 440 V
3. It is suitable for motors upto 5 H.P
4.
and supply is given to the motor.

5. If supply fails the coil releases the armature and motor is disconnected from supply.
6.
Starting torque and Running torque :
Torque :It is running or twisting moment of a force about an axis.
It is measured by product of force and radius at which the force acts.
Starting torque :
The torque develop by motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
K = constant =
Ns Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
= Rotor E.M.F.
= Rotor resistance / phase
Xr Rotor reactance / phase
1. Tst Rr
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To obtained more starting torque rotor resistance has to be more.
2.
Running torque :
It is the torque which is required to run the motor at the normal speed and normal load.
When slip is S the rotor E.M.F. changes to and rotor reactance will be
In Normal Running Condition the slip is small.

= S (2 fL) is very small. Hence can be neglected w.r.t. .
1.
To obtained maximum running torque for a given motor, rotor resistance must be less.
2.
Torque of a machine is proportional to the square of applied voltage.

Double cage Motor :
Why such motors are developed?
= We know that,
In squirrel cage I.M the rotor resistance is low and we cannot add external resistance in squirrel cage rotor.
Therefore it has low starting torque.
The double cage motor is so developed that it overcomes the above difficulty (i.e it has high starting torque
with reasonable starting current and which maintains high efficiency and good speed regulation under normal
operating condition)
168
Double cage motor:
1. The outer cage is of high resistance iron or brass cage whereas the inner cage is of low resistance
copper
2. At the time of starting, the frequency of rotor current is = supply frequency (i.e. 50 Hz) ( = SF)
3. Therefore the copper cage becomes more inductive, therefore it accepts only a small amount of
current and the motor is started by the high resistance brass or iron cage.
4. As the motor gains speed, the frequency of the rotor current decreases, therefore the copper cage
accepts greater proportion of current; hence the motor runs with low resistance of copper cage.
5. Thus, this motor has high starting and running torque as well.
Important formula
1. Where, f= frequency
2. Slip speed = .
It is the difference between synchronous speed (Ns) and the rotor speed (N).
3. Slip (S) =
3. % Slip = X 100
4. Frequency of rotor current
Examples
(1) A 12 pole, I.M runs at a speed of 475 r.p.m. find the following
(i) Ns (ii) Slip speed (iii) % slip (iv) frequency of rotor current at this speed
Solution: Data , N = 475 R.P.M.
Solution: (i)
= = 500 R.P.M.
(ii) Ns N = Slip speed
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Slip speed = 500 475 = 25 r.p.m
(iii) % Slip = X 100
(iv) =
=
2. A I.M is wound for 4 poles supplied from a 50 c/s system, calculate.

(i) Ns
(ii) Nr when slip it 4%
(iii)
Solution:
(i) r.p.m
(ii) %
Nr = 1440 r.p.m
(iii) % S = 4%
= 2 c/s
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Comparison between Square Cage I.M and Slip Ring I.M
Square Cage I.M Slip Ring I.M
1. Starting torque is poor 1. Starting torque is good

2. Running torque is good 2. Running torque is not so good
3. Less maintenance is required 3. More maintenance is required.
4. Capacity is low 4. Capacity is high
5. Speed can be changed by changing poles 5. speed can be changed by adding
resistance in rotor circuit
6. Used for lathe machine, printing machine 6. Used in lifts, cranes
7. External resistance cannot be added in the 7. Additional resistance can be added in the
rotor circuit. rotor circuit.
8. Power factor is low 0.6 to 0.8. 8. Power factor is high 0.8 to 0.9.
9. Mechanically strong. 9. Mechanically not so strong.
10. Slip is less. 10. Slip is more.
Speed control methods of 3-phase induction motor: (3 Marks)

From stator side:
1. Speed control by changing frequency
2. Speed control by changing poles
3. Speed control by changing applied voltage
From rotor side:
1. Speed control by Rheostatic method
2. Speed change by cascade control
3. by injecting e.m.f. in the rotor circuit.
From stator side:

1. Speed control by changing frequency
(i) The frequency is directly proportional to the speed.
(ii) If the frequency is changed the speed also changes (i.e. if frequency is increased the speed will also increase
and vice versa)
(iii) This method is not practical and therefore it is costly. It is used for electrically driven ships.
2. Speed control by changing poles

(i) The pole changing methods effects the speed inversely (i.e. by increasing the poles, the speed is decreased
and vice versa)
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(ii) E.g. for 2 pole : = 3000 r.p.m.
for 4 pole : = 1500 r.p.m.
Used for elevator motors traction motors.
3. Speed control by changing applied voltage
(i) This methods is not used because to get a little change in speed a larger change in voltage is required.
(ii) This charge in voltage seriously disturbs the magnetic condition of the motor which is objectionable.
From rotor side :

1. Speed control by Rheostatic method
(i) This methods is suitable only for slip ring type motor.
(ii) Three external resistance of same value can be added in the rotor circuit through the brushes.
(iii) This involves more loss in the rotor circuit, therefore decreases the efficiency .
2. Speed change by cascade control

(i) The two induction motor are mechanically coupled.
(ii) The rotor of first induction motor phase wound whereas the rotor of second induction motor is either phase
wound or square cage rotor.
(iii) The supply is given to the stator of induction motor one whereas the stator of induction motor two receives
supply from rotor of induction motor one./
(iv) This methods is costly as too induction motor are used.
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Why Induction motor is called so?
Ans. : This motor is called as induction motor because there is no electrical connection of the rotor to the three
electromagnetic induction.
What is meant by single phasing? Explain its effect?

Ans. : If any one phase (out of 3-phase) is disconnected electrically then the remaining 2-phases are connected
electrically in series with each other, this effect is called single phasing.
(i) If this effect occurs when the motor is at stand still, the motor will not start as it will produce only
alternating field.
(ii) If the motor is already running, then it will continue to run but it will heat unduly and draw more current as
it behaves as if 1 motor is supplying 3 load.
MAINTENANCE OF INDUCTION MOTOR (6 Marks)

1. DAILY MAINTENANCE
a) Temperature of bearings be checked
b) Winding temperature be checked
c) Inspect load conditions, starters, protective devices.
2. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE
a) Put grease of proper grade and quantity in bearings if required.
b) Check air gap by feeler gauge.
c) Inspect ventilation ducts for any dust and dirt.
3. MONTHLY MAINTENCE
a) Trip circuits / oil circuit breakers be checked.
b) Controlling / starter devices be over hauled.
c) Brushes are checked as regards shape and tensions.
4. QUARTERLY MAINTENCE
a) Oil in bearings /grease be replaced.
b) Check alignment with sprit level or thread in case of belt coupling.
c) Clean all the contact points of starter with sand paper.
5. HALF YEARLY MAINTENANCE
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a) Replace the brushes.
b) Smoothen the surface of slip rings.
c) Windings be cleaned and re-varnished and supported.
6. ANNUAL MAINTENANCE
a) Resistance of earth connection be checked with earth tester.
b) Re-solder the joints of rotor bars and end rings.
c) Replace worn out bearings.
d) Check all the insulation resistance.
e) Complete over hauling.
Common troubles and possible causes in 3 phase induction motors
Trouble Possible causes
A. Running Hot 1. High Voltage
2. Blocked ventilating ducts.
B. Fails to start 1. Single phasing
2. Gone fuses.
C Runs slow 1. Low Voltage
2. Overload
D Stops after starting 1. Hot bearings
2. Single phasing in running condition.
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14. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Characteristic Features:
1. It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all.
2. It is not self-starting. It has to be run up to synchronous speed by some means.
3. It is capable of being operated under a wide range of power factors.
The constructional details:

1. STATOR It is stationary part made of silicon steel stampings having slots on inner periphery.
2. STATOR WINDINGS It is a star or delta connected super enamelled copper winding inserted in the
stator slots.
3. ROTOR Cylindrical part having poles on the surface. It is also made of silicon steel stampings. There
are two types of rotors :
a. Salient pole type
b. Smooth cylindrical shape
4. ROTOR WINDINGS Enamelled copper windings is put on the poles and excited by D.C. supply
received from exciter.
5. EXCITER It is a small capacity D.C. shunt generator generally mounted on same shaft of that of rotor
and when moving generates D.C. supply to be fed to rotor windings.
6. SLIP RINGS AND BRUSHES There are two slip rings made of phosphor bronze fitted on the shaft. Two
carbon brushes are kept touching with slip ring.
Working of synchronous motor OR

Why synchronous motor is not self starting?
1. When a 3- phase stator winding is fed by 3- phase supply then a magnetic flux of constant magnitude
but rotating at synchronous speed is produced.
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2. D.C. voltage from exciter is supplied through brushes and slip rings to the rotor. Thus rotor poles are
formed as N and S.
3. Suppose the stator poles are at that instant situated at points A and B, the two similar poles N of rotor
and Ns of stator as well as S and Ss will repel each other and rotor tends to rotate in the anticlockwise
direction as shown in the figure.
4. But half a period later, stator poles having rotated around interchange their position. Ns attracts S and Ss
attracts N. Hence, rotor tends to rotate clockwise as shown in (a)
5. Rotor is not subjected to unidirectional torque owing to large inertia. Rotor cannot respond to such
quickly reversing torque with the result it remains stationary.
How the motor can be started?

If the rotor poles also shift their positions along with the stator poles, then there will be unidirectional
torque. Hence by some mechanical force, rotor is rotated then there is magnetic locking between stator
and rotor poles. Even if now mechanical source is taken out, the motor keeps on rotating with the
speed=Ns.
Different methods of starting synchronous motor.

1. PROVIDING DAMPER WINDINGS
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1. Damper winding consist of copper bars placed in slots provided on pole faces of salient rotor poles.
2. These copper bars are short circuited with the help of short circuiting ring on both the ends.
3. This winding is similar to squirrel cage winding.
4. At starting, field winding is kept unexcited and motor is not loaded. Three phase voltage is applied to stator
winding.
5. The rotating flux is produced which links with short circuited damper winding and induces emf in it as per
Faradays first law of electromagnetic induction.
6. Motor starts as a three phase induction motor.
7. When it acquires speed near to synchronous speed the D.C. excitation is switched ON and the motor is pulled
into synchronism and runs as synchronous motor. This motor is called as Induction start synchronous run motor.
2. USE OF PONY M OTOR It is a small induction motor which can be geared to the synchronous motor.
This induction motor drives the synchronous motor and when the speed is nearly synchronous speed the
D.C. excitation is made on to the rotor, the motor pulls up into synchronism at the same time the
induction motor is switched off and may be disconnected detaching its gearing.
3. EXCITER USED AS A D.C. MOTOR Exciter can be run as a D.C. motor. Supply may be separately
available. This will drive the synchronous motor up to the required synchronous speed then the exciter is
switched ON and the rotor is pulled into synchronism.
4. D.C. GENERATOR AS A LOAD OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CAN BE RUN AS D.C. MOTOR The (load)
D.C. generator is run as a D.C. motor to drive the rotor of synchronous motor, when the rotor of
synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed the exciter is switched ON and the rotor is pulled into
synchronism. Now the same synchronous motor drives this D.C. generator.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR APPLICATIONS

1. Poly phase synchronous motor finds extensive applications.
a. Power factor correction: Over-excited synchronous motor (synchronous condenser) having
leading power factor are widely used for improving power factor.
b. Constant speed constant load drives: Driving D.C. generators, rubber mills, textile mills,
pumps, ship-propulsion, and compressors.
c. Voltage regulation: Because of inductive loads the voltage at the end of long transmission lines
varies greatly. As a voltage regulator, synchronous motor is used.
2. Single phase fractional H.P synchronous motors are widely used in clocks and stroboscope.
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V-CURVE AND INVERTED V-CURVE
V-CURVE
1. V-curves of synchronous motor show how armature current varies with its field current (exciting
current) when motor input is constant.
2. Armature current is more for low values and high values of excitation (though it is lagging for low
excitation and leading for high excitation).
3. It has minimum value corresponding to certain excitation.
4. Variation of armature current with excitation is known as V-curves because of its shape.
INVERTED V-CURVE
1. For the same input armature current varies over a wide range and so causes the power factor to vary
accordingly.
2. Over excited motor runs with leading power factor.
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3. Under excited motor runs with lagging power factor.
4. In between, power factor is unity.
5. Variation of power factor with excitation is like inverted V-curve.
6. Minimum armature current corresponds to unity power factor.
Hunting of synchronous motor:
When suddenly mechanical load on rotor shaft increases or decreases then

it causes rotor oscillations and rotor oscillates about its equilibrium (it falls
back or advances) position corresponding to mechanical load. Rotor
oscillations are called Hunting or surging or phase swinging.
Hunting is highly undesirable because if rotor oscillation frequency

becomes equal to natural frequency of rotor, mechanical resonance will
occur. Amplitude of oscillation will increase to a very high value and
There is possibility that rotor may fall out of synchronism.
For reducing hunting damper windings are provided. Damper windings are
copper bars provided on rotor pole shoes and short circuited on both sides.
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180
15. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION: Electrical instruments are classified as (1) Absolute instruments (2) Secondary instruments
Absolute instruments are those which give the value of the quantity to be measured in terms of the constant of
the instrument and their deflection only. The example is tangent galvanometer.
Secondary instruments are those, in which the value of electrical quantity to be measured can be determined
from the deflection the instruments, only when they have been pre calibrated by comparison with a standard
instrument. Without calibration, the deflection of the instrument is meaningless.
*Calibration: the error in the

instrument throughout
*Methods of calibration of meters:
(i) Calibration by using a potentiometer.
(ii) Calibration by comparison method: The given meter can be calibrated by comparing its readings with the
readings of an accurate meter throughout its range. The meters are connected in parallel in case of volt meters
and are connected in series in case of ammeters. The numbers of readings are taken by varying voltage or
current accordingly.
*Calibration of voltmeter by comparison methods:

In this both the voltmeters are connected in parallel with a variable rheostat which varies the voltage to
the desired value. At different positions the standard and faulty values are noted. Error and percentage error can
be found out.
(a) Circuit diagram
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- standard voltmeter
- Faulty voltmeter
Formula used :
Error =
Error =
(b)
Sr. No. Error =

Error =
Error =
If the error is negative the meter is fast.
If the error is positive the meter is slow.
Accordingly the values can be added or added or subtracted from the readings obtained after using faulty meter.
The following Graph can be plotted :
One mare graph can be plotted by taking standard value along x-axis and % error along y-axis
*Calibration of Ammeter by comparison method:

In this both the ammeters are connected in series with rheostat which varies the current to the desired
value. At different positions the standard and faulty values are noted. Error and percentage error can be found
out..
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(a) Circuit diagram:
Standard Ammeter Faulty Ammeter

(b) Definition of calibration:
(c) Formula used:
% Error =
(d)
Sr. No.
(e) If the error is negative the faulty meter is fast.
(f) If the error is positive faulty meter is slow.

Accordingly, the values can be added or subtracted from the reading of the faulty meter
(g) Graph:
*Calibration Energy meter:
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An energy meter is calibrated by comparing it with a wattmeter. The load is switched on gradually and
readings are taken at various intervals. The time in seconds is noted for a given number of revolutions. If
then meter is slow. Error can be removed by adjusting the distance of the brake magnet from the disc.
W watt meter
E Energy meter
W = Watt-meter, E = Energy-meter.
If the energy meter has the constant of 1000 revolutions/KWH, then for its 10 revolution it will record
the energy :
Then adjusting the load, say 1 ampere and counting the time for 10 revolutions and taking the watt-
meter reading the true energy is calculated.
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RANGE EXTENSION OF AMMETER/VOLTMETER:
Ammeter: By connecting lower value shunt resistance to parallel.
When such an instrument is used as an ammeter then range can be extended with the help of a
low-resistance shunt. This shunt is connected in parallel with the winding and therefore part of the
current passes through this shunt and thus higher currents can be measured. Shunted ammeter or
galvanometers can be made to record currents many times greater than their normal full scale
deflection current.
The ration of a maximum current (with shunt) to the full scale deflection current (without
shunt) is
Voltmeter: By connecting higher resistance in series.
The range of the instrument when used as a voltmeter can be increased by using a high
resistance in series with it. Total voltage of the line to be measured is divided in two:
1. P.D across volt meter coil.
2. P.D. across the series resistance, and therefore the voltmeters can be made to record
voltage many times greater than the full scale deflection voltage.
The ration of the maximum voltage (with series resistance) to the full scale deflection voltage
Example:
1. A. D.C. galvanometer has 0.1 resistances and reads 10 Amperes giving full scale deflection. Find
out the value of the shunt resistance if it is to be used for measuring 100 Amperes.
Solution:
As the shunt limit of the coil is 10 Amp, the voltage drop across the coil-
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= Current Resistance of coil.
volt.
The shunt resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer coil and hence voltage drop across
shunt is also = 1 volt.
Resistance of hunt
2. A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 3 and gives full scale deflection when carrying 30
mill amperes.
Show how it can be adopted to measure voltage upto 300 volts?
Solution:
Voltmeter as well as series resistance R carries the same current as 30 milli Amp i.e.
.
Voltage drop across voltmeter coil = V
V = resistance current.
=3 x (30/1000)
Volts.
Remaining voltage is to be dropped across R.
Voltage drop across R =
= 299.91 V.
Resistance R
= (299.91/0.03)
= 9997 ohm.
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*1 energy meter (KWH) meter:
(i) Connection Diagram:
(ii) Explanation:
(a) Energy meter has two laminated electro magnets.
(b) The one magnet is called as the series magnet which is connected in series with the load and produces flux
according to load current.
(c) The other magnet is called as shunt magnet connected across the supply and produces flux which lags the
flux produced by series magnet because of copper shading band. Shading band is provided on shunt
magnet. Position on shading band can be adjusted such that angle between two fluxes is 90 0.
(d) A thin aluminum disc is placed between shunt and series magnet.
(e) These two fluxes interact with each other and a rotating field is set up and the aluminium disc rotates.
(f) Rotating Aluminum disc cuts magnetic flux produced by braking magnet and e.m.f. is induced in it and
eddy current flows.
(g) Thus eddy current damping is provided by breaking magnet.
(h) The register mechanism records the energy which is directly proportional to the revolutions.
(i.) It consists of worm wheel mounted on the spindle. The worm wheel is connected to trail gears which are
connected to counting mechanism.
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Error:
1. Error due to temperature variations.
2. Frictional error.
3. Creeping error: i.e. slow but continuous rotation even if the load is not connected.
4. As the coils are not purely inductive the flux of shunt magnet does not lag exactly by .
*Ampere hour meter
Explanation:
1. It consists of amalgamated Cu disc mounted on the spindle and kept in the vessel filled with mercury.
2. The mercury reduces the pressure of bearings and acts as a conductor.
3. The current passes through the mercury, then to the Cu disc radially and then to the external circuit.
4. Thus a force is produced on the disc and it rotates. The magnitude of this force depends upon the strength of
the field and current {F = BIL} and direction of force is according to Flemings left hand rule.
5. The disc is moved between a pair of breaking magnets. E.M.F. is induced, hence eddy current is produced
and breaking effect is observed.
6. No. of revolutions of AL disc are proportional to the amount of current flowing through the circuit and the
time duration for which observations are being taken.
7. Recording mechanism records the energy in ampere-hours.
8. This is mercury motor type D.C. meter.
*Frequency Meters: These meters are used to measure the frequency of A.C. There are two main types of
frequency meters.
(a) Mechanical Resonance (Vibration reed type frequency meter)
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Construction :
1. There is an electromagnet on which the coil is wound and connected to the A.C. supply whose frequency is
to be measured.
2. The metallic reeds 4mm wide and 0.5mm thick are arranged in row and are mounted side by side on a
common and slightly flexible base. as shown in the figure.
3. Upper free ends are bent at right angles and painted white.
4. The natural frequency of vibration of each reed differs by half cycle.
Working:
1. When the coil is energized. The electromagnet exerts attracting force on each reed once every half cycle.
2. All the reeds vibrate but only that reed whose natural frequency is exactly double the supply frequency
will vibrate the most due to mechanical resonance.
3. The supply frequency is read directly by noting the scale mark opposite the white painted flag which is
vibrating the most.
(b) Electrical Resonance:
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Construction:
1. A fixed coil is mounted on the laminated core and connected to supply whose frequency is to be measured.
he moving coil. The value
of capacitance is such that when the frequency is at its normal value the coil occupies the mean position on the
iron core.
3. Pointer is attached to the spindle.
4. Dial shows normal/high/low frequency.
Working:
1. When the frequency is more than normal the fixed coil has more inductive reactance ( )
therefore less current through fixed coil and more current through moving coil as capacitive reactance (XC = 1/
is less. The moving coil moves away from the fixed coil such that Xc becomes equal to XL and pointer
show high frequency.
2.. When the frequency is low the X > X therefore the moving coil moves towards the fixed coil such that
Xc becomes equal to XL and the pointer shows low frequency.
*Multimeter:
1. This meter is P.M.M.C. (Permanent magnet moving coil) instrument.

2. It can be used to measure current, voltage, resistance etc. hence it is also called as AVO meter.
3. This meter is portable and the working energy is supplied by a dry cell.
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4. It is a multipurpose meter it is used in workshop, laboratories etc.
* P.F. Meters:
These meters are used to measure the p. f. of the lagging, leading or unity. There are two main types of p. f.
meter:
(a) Electro dynamometer type.
(b) Moving iron type.
(a) Electrodynamometer type p.f. meters:
Construction:
1. Fixed coil (f. f.) called as current coil and is divided into two sections into sections F1and F2. Being
connected in series with the supply, it carries load current.
2. Moving Coils C1 and C2 attached to the spindle to which the pointer is also attached.C1 has series
resistance R and C2 has a series inductance L such that R= .
3. I1 is in phase with supply voltage V. Whereas I2 lags behind V by 900 .

4. Moving coils C1 and C2 are wound in such a way that torques produced by them at any instant opposes each
other.
Working:
1. Consider the case when load power factor is unity. I1 is in phase with load current whereas I2 lags behind.
2. Consequently a torque will act on C1 which will set its plane perpendicular to common magnetic axis of F1
and F2. Pointer shows unity power factor.
3. When load power factor is lagging, load current lags V. Current I2 is in phase with load current and I1 will be
90 degrees out of phase. As a result torque acting on C2 will bring its plane perpendicular to common magnetic
axis of F1 and F2 (anticlockwise direction). Pointer will thus show lagging power factor on the scale.
4. When load power factor is leading, load current leads V. Current I2 is 180 degrees out of phase with load .
As a result torque acting on C2 will bring its plane perpendicular to common magnetic axis of F1 and F2
(clockwise direction). Pointer will thus show leading power factor on the scale.
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Moving iron type p. f. meter:
Circuit diagram
Explanation:
1. Current coil (C. C.) are placed 1200 apart from each other and are fixed.
192
2. Pressure coils (P. C.) are placed at connected between live and neutral and fitted on the spindle to which
the pointer is attached. Resistance R is connected to the p.c.
3. On energizing two magnetic fields are produced .They rotate in one direction .Due to the action and phase
difference of the fields, the assembly of moving coil moves and gets deflected on one side. The pointer moves
on the dial marked as unity, lagging and leading.
Phase sequence indicator:
1. It is used to observe phase sequence of three phase A.C. supply.
2. It works on the principle of rotating magnetic field.
3. There are three coils placed 120 apart to each other.
4. These three coils are to be connected to the 3-phase A.C. supply whose phase sequences are to be verified.
5. There is an aluminium disc. The rotating magnetic field produces Eddy currents in this aluminium disc. And
the aluminium disc starts rotating.
6. Clock wise rotation of the aluminum disc indicates that the phase sequence of the supply is R-Y-B.
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16. ELECTRIC HEATING
If the source used for producing heat is electricity it is called electric heating.
Electric Heating has the following advantages over conventional heating methods.
1) Cleanliness No dust, dirt, ash.

2) Absence of flue gases-No atmospheric pollution.
3) Ease of control-Simple, accurate and reliable temperature control.
4) Automatic protection- Using suitable switchgears, automatic protection against over currents or over
heating can be provided.
5) Uniform heating- Heating with no oxidation is possible.
6) Efficiency is more.
7) Better working condition-Noiseless operation and radiating losses are low.
8) Safety- Safe and respond quickly.
9) Less maintenance.
10) Low attention is required.
11) Operational charges are less.
Drawbacks:
1) Initial cost is high.
2) Due to load shading reliability of operation is less.
3) Controlling equipments are costly.
Types of electric Heating

1) Power frequency heating at 50 Hz.
2) Very high frequency heating.
Power Frequency Heating
Electron
Resistance Heating Arc Furnace
Bombardment
Direct Indirect
Direct Arc Indirect Arc
Resistance Resistance
Furnace furnace
Heating Heating
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High Frequency Heating
Induction
Dielectric Heating
Heating
Core Type core less type
Modes of transfer of Heat

1) Conduction 2) Convection 3) Radiation
1. Conduction:-In this mode of transfer of heat, one molecule of the substance gets heated and
transfer the heat to the adjacent one and so on.
2. Convection: - Air in contact with heating element in a room receives heat from element. Heated
air expands and rises. Cold air flowing into, take its place. This process is called convection.
3. Radiation: - In this mode of heat transfer, the heat reaches the substance to be heated from the
source without heating the medium in between.
Resistance Heating
In resistance heating, the body is heated by passing current directly through it. It is based on I 2R effect.
Direct Resistance Heating:

In this method, the material or charge to be heated is taken
as resistance and current is passed through it. Two
electrodes are immersed in a charge and connected to the
supply. Charge is covered with salt. Advantage of using salt
is to avoid oxidation and obtain uniform heat.Temp Range-
10000 to 14000C. Efficiency is high.
Applications:
1) Salt bath furnace
2) Electrode boiler
3) Hardening steel rules
4) Carbonizing
5) Tempering
6) Quenching of tools.
195
Indirect Resistance Heating:
In this type of heating, heating element is separate
than the charge .The charge does not carry the
current. Heat received by the charge is by
convection or radiation. In indirect heating
obtainable temperatures are very low.
Applications:-
1. Electric ovens
2. Room Heaters
3. Electric kettles
4. Electric iron 5.Water heaters
5. Soldering iron.
Arc Furnaces
When high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air gets ionized under the influence of electrostatic forces
and becomes conducting medium. Current flows in the form of continuous spark known as arc. Temp -3000 To
35000C
Direct arc furnace

In Direct arc furnace, charge acts as one of the electrodes and charge is
heated by producing arc between the electrodes and the charge.
1. Electrodes are graphite or carbon

2. Temp is 20000C
3. Cost cheaper.
4. Operation simple
5. Uniform temperature
6. Running charges are less.
Application Production of high grade steel and melting of metals.

Indirect arc furnace
In this case, arc is formed between two electrodes above the
charge and heat is transmitted to the charge by radiation.
Electrodes are initially shorted. High voltage is applied and
then they are separated. Temperature of charge is lower than
direct arc furnace. Since in this furnace, current does not flow
through the charge, there is no stirring action. So furnace is to
be rocked mechanically and it is cylindrical shaped.
Application: - Furnace is used for non-ferrous casting i.e.
196
Cu, Ni, gun metal etc.
Induction Heating
Metal heated and melted by induced currents.

1. Safe for operators.
2. Cheaper
3. Attain higher temperature.
4. No oxidation of metal.
Core type Induction Furnace

Primary winding is supplied with A.C. The charge is put in
crucible and it acts as secondary. The induced currents in the
secondary heat up the charge and it is melted.
Core less Induction Furnace

In this type, a coil is wound on the furnace and is connected to
A.C supply. The charge inside the furnace acts as secondary.
Induced currents heat up the charge.
Applications:-
1. Surface hardening for parts like hack-saw, blades, gears,
axels etc.
2. Deep hardening.
3. Tempering
4. Soldering
5. Melting of metals and extracting metals from the ores.
Sr. No Core type Induction Furnace Core less Induction Furnace
1 The charge is put in a crucible. The charge is put inside the furnace.
2 Less suitable for high power density heating Preferred choice for high power density
or frequent alloy changing. heating or frequent alloy changing.
3 More efficient. Less efficient.
4 Used for melting low melting point alloys or Used to melt all grades of steels and irons as
as a holding and superheating unit for well as many non-ferrous alloys.
higher melting point alloys such as cast
iron.
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DIELECTRIC HEATING:
When non-metallic substances such as wood, plastics are subjected to an alternating current,
dielectric loss occurs. The dielectric loss is utilized to heat the non-metallic substances.
When charge in the form of sheet is kept between the two plates connected across supply,
electric capacitance is formed. The heat dissipated due to capacitance is best utilized.
Wooden sheets are glued together by this method. It is also used for food processing .The
contents of tinned food can be easily processed by dielectric heating, without producing much
heat, avoiding any possible damage to the contents.
Dielectric loss is proportional to frequency and voltage.
Frequency is to 10 to 30 MHZ and voltage is 20 kV to 30 kV.
Applications:-
1. Processing of wood.
2. Textile Industry.
3. Dyeing process.
4. Sterilizing medical material
5. Processing of food:
(i) Roasting of seeds
(ii) Chocolate industries
198
17. PARALLEL OPERATION OF 3-PHASE
ALTERNATORS
Definition of Synchronization of Alternators: The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another
alternator or with common bus-bars is known as synchronizing.
Necessity of parallel operation of Alternators:
1. If the load demand of electric power is increased then 2nd, 3rd set of alternator can be switched on for sharing
the increased demand of power.
2. This is economical to run two smaller units with full capacity at higher efficiency rather than one larger unit
on low load with lesser efficiency.
3. For repair and routine maintenance work stand - by alternator may be switched on.
4. In case of fault stand by machine can be introduced and faulty machine can be disconnected.
Load supply can be increased.

High efficiency.
The operating cost is reduced.
Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
The generation cost is reduced.
Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
Reliability of the whole power system increases.
Conditions for parallel operation:
1. Phase sequence of the incoming machine must be the same as phase sequence of the running machine or
bus-bars.
2. Frequency of the incoming machine must be the same as bus-bar.
3. Voltage of the incoming machine must be the same as bus-bar voltage.
Phase sequence can be checked by synchroscope or phase sequence indicator or 3-lamp methods. Frequency
can be checked by frequency meter. Voltage can be checked by suitable voltmeter.
Methods of Synchronization:
1. Lamp Dark Method
2. Lamp Bright Method
199
3. By Synchroscope
1. Lamp Dark Method:
(a) Alternator is already on the bus-bars supplying the load, 2nd alternator is incoming alternator to be
synchronized.
(b) Lamp and respectively are connected across the poles of the switch.
(c) If phase sequence of incoming alternator is opposite to bus-bar lamp and become bright or dim
one after the other. In this case phase sequence is to be corrected.
(d) If 3-lamps are becoming bright at one time or 3 lamps are becoming dark at a time this shows the
satisfactory situation.
(e) The switch of the incoming alternator is ma

of the lamp.
Drawback of this method:
1. It does not show whether the incoming machine is slow/fast and hence frequency is same or not.
2. It is difficult to judge the moment exactly the
200
2. Lamp Bright Method:
(a) In this method, two Lamps and are cross connected and is connected to pole no. 3.
(b) If the incoming machine is slow, light wave from lamps seem to travel in anticlockwise direction and if
incoming machine is fast that will travel in clockwise direction.
(c) As per the above indication the speed of the prime-mover is adjusted.
(d) Observe the moment that lamp Light Wave moves very slow and switch on when Lamp is completely
dark and and are equally bright.
3. By Synchroscope:
(a) Synchroscope measures the difference in frequency of the two alternators.
(b) Pointer of synchroscope is free to rotate in a 3600 arc.
(c) It consists of small motor.
(d) Stator of the synchroscope is connected to bus bar supply.
(d) Rotor circuit of synchroscope is connected to supply of incoming alternator.
(e) Rotating flux will produce by stator and rotor.
(f) If frequency of incoming alternator is same as bus bar frequency two fields will rotate with same speed.
Indicator of synchroscope will not rotate and it will be on zero position (vertical).
201
(g) If there is a difference between frequencies of incoming alternator and bus bar, rotor of synchroscope will
rotate with the speed equal to difference between speeds of the two rotating fields. Thus indicator will show
slow or fast accordingly. According to that the speed of prime-mover of the incoming machine will be adjusted.
202
18. H.V. SUBSTATION
An electric substation is set of apparatus which transfers the characteristics of electric energy from one
form to another like stepping up or stepping down the voltage or changing the frequency. It may be defined as
place where the supply from the power station is received and distributed to the consumers.
LINE DIAGRAM OF SUB-STATION
Essential equipments of sub-stations

1. Feeders
2. Distributors
3. Transformer
4. Isolators
5. Circuit breakers
6. Bus bars
7. Lightening arresters
8. Current transformers
9. Potential transformers
203
10. Shunt reactors
11. Capacitors
12. Station service equipments
Functions of sub-station equipments

1. Feeders These are overhead lines which convey the electrical energy from distribution substation to
distributors.
2. Distributors These are overhead lines from which numbers of consumers are fed by electrical energy at
low voltage.
3. Transformer To step up or step down the voltage.
4. Circuit breakers Automatic protection devices which isolate a faulty circuit from the main line.
5. Bus-bars Bus-bars are long strips of conducting material such as power taps. Power is distributed
through these bus-bars eliminating all chances of sparking.
6. Isolators These are high voltage switches used for disconnecting the lines in case of fault or
maintenance.
7. Lightening arrestors At the highest possible point at the substation, lightening arrestors is provided. It
is safety device which diverts lightening in the area around the substation to the earth.
8. Current transformers It is a type of instrument transformer used to measure H.T. line current. It is a
step up transformer used in conjunction with low range ammeter.
9. Potential transformers It is a type of instrument transformer used to measure H.T. line voltage. It is
step down transformer used in conjunction with low range voltmeter.
10. Reactors To limit short circuit current.
11. Capacitors For improvement of power factor.
12. Station service equipments Station service equipments like megger, high capacity fuses, mobile stair
cases and other essentials like transformer oil, varnish, paints etc.
Station earthing system: One of the main feature of any substation is the earthing system. A number of earth
plates or earthing pipes at different points can be installed and coupled to the main earth bar.
If a power station building has a steel frame, the columns should be connected at a number of points to
the earth system and thus a low value of resistance is obtained via foundations and reinforcements. Electrical
machine frames thus be connected to the steel structure of the station building.
Earth resistance and therefore the effectiveness of the earthing will depend on dampness of the soil.
The station earth value is expected to be or less than 0.1 .
All main earth bars should be inter-connected and also to be connected to station earth.
Tests to be carried out before commissioning of transformer.
1] Insulation resistance test: - a) Insulation resistance between H.V. and L.V. windings.
b) Insulation resistance between windings and earth measured by megger should not be below 2000M
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2] High voltage Di-electric test:-Windings should be capable to withstand abnormal voltages due to transient
surges. Impulse voltage test is carried out.
3] Dielectric strength of transformer oil should not be less than 3kv/mm.
4] Drying out test:-Generally transformer received from the manufacture is completely coming with oil filled
but if not then drying out test be carried out.
5] Merz price protection system should be provided to safeguard the bigger transformers for faults.
6] Connecting and phasing out test.
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19. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance :-In order to obtain reliable service from the machine over a long period of time giving proper
attention, Inspection, repairs and over hauling of a machine is called maintenance of the machine.
Proper attention means lubrication, cleaning and timely inspection.
FAILUERS
1] Mechanical failure due to misalignment, vibration, unbalanced fatigue, worn out bearings.
2] Thermal failure due to overheating resulting from lack of lubrication or insufficient cooling.
3] Chemical failure due to high corrosion, abrasive particles in fluids.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Maintenance
Planned Unplanned
Maintenance maintenance
corrective Preventive Break down Emergency

maintenance Maintenance Maintenance maintenance
Break down maintenance:-Repairing and overhauling the machine after the occurrence of fault. [After the
shut down]
Preventive Maintenance:-Testing, observing, Inspecting and rectifying abnormality at primary stage and
improving the performance of machine is called preventive maintenance.
Advantages of Preventive Maintenance.

1) Life of machine prolongs.
2) Trouble free operation.
3) Accidents are avoided.
4) Continuity and Reliability is maintained.
5) Shut downs can be avoided.
206
6) Economy is achieved.
TESTING:
PURPOSE OF TESTING:
1] The machine suits the purpose.
2] It is as per specification.
3] Operation is smooth and noiseless.
4] Temperature rise is within limits.
5] Protective devices are operating.
6] Loss of power is less and efficiency is maximum.
TYPES OF TEST:
1] Routine test: Prior to dispatch the electric machine, each item is tested and checked.
2] Type test: Quality of the product is to be tested.
Specification should match the design
Assembly should be perfect.
Abnormality should be rectified at the primary stage.
Special test: These tests are not applicable to each product or machine but are carried out on the request of the
purchaser.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE
This is done before the fault has occurred This is done after the fault has occurred
Time required is less Time required is more
It requires less man power It requires more man power
Maintenance is less costly Maintenance is more costly
207
E.M. Board Questions for Paper I
Fill in the blanks:
1. (M-2011)
(i) Open circuit (ii) Only overloads (iii) Both overload and short circuit
2. one.(OCT-2014,MAR-2015)
(i) More than (ii) less than (iii) Equal to
3.
(i) Controlling (ii) Protecting (iii) Holding
4.
(i) Lead tin alloy (ii) carbon (iii) Gold
5.
(i) Kit-kat (ii) HRC (iii) Cartridge
6.
(i) Phase (ii) Neutral (iii) Earth
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Define fuse, what is the use of fuse? (MAR 2011)
2. What are the different types of fuse? (MAR 2012)
3. Describe construction of kit-kat type fuse. (OCT 2014)
4. Name different Materials used as fuse Element. (MAR 2015)
5. Define the term fuse current and rated current of a fuse.
(3 marks questions)
1. Explain the kit-kat type fuse with neat sketch & advantages. (MAR 2016, 2017)
2. Define:
(1) Current rating of fuse
(2) Minimum fusing current
(3) Fusing factor (MAR 2012, 2015, 2016, OCT 2014)
3. Explain construction and working of HRC fuse.(MAR 2011,2012)
208
Chapter 2 (Conductor & Gauge of cond.)
Fill in the blanks:
1.
(A) 18 (B) 22 (C) 36
(2 marks questions)
1. Compare conductor with insulator .(MAR 2017)
2. Write short notes on standard wire gauge what is mean by 3/20 wires. (MAR 2011,OCT 2014)
3. Draw a neat and labeled diagram of 3 point starter with DC shunt motor?
4. Draw neat labeled constructional diagram of moving iron attraction type Instrument?
5. Draw a neat and labelled panel wiring Diagram of DC compound Motor with a 4 point starter?
6. Draw a neat and lebelled diagram of PMMC Instrument?
7. Draw neat and labeled constructional circuit diagram of single phase energy meter
8. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of four point starter?
9. Draw a neat and labeled panel wiring diagram of 3 point face plate starter for operating DC shunt Motor?
(3 marks questions)
1. State desirable properties of good insulating materials. (OCT 2014)
Chapter -3 (Types of wires & wiring accessories)
Fill in the blanks:
1.
(MAR 2012)
(i) More than (ii) Equal to (iii) less than
2.
(i) 10 (ii) 5 (iii) 28
3.
(i) By tinning the corrosion is restricted.
(ii) By tinning the rubber is prevented to stick up with the conductor and also avoids chemical
reactions.
(iii) The tinning makes the conductor stronger and increases its thickness to carry more current.
4. Weather proof wires are

(i) Outdoor (ii) Indoor (iii) Underground
209
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Name different types of wires with their uses. (OCT 2014)
2. Explain the meaning of 7/22 copper wire. Write the current capacity for the same. (MAR 2016)
3. Name the different types of switches. (MAR 2017)
4. Write short note or lead sheathed wiring system. (MAR 2017)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Write short vote on VIR wire. (MAR 2012)
Chapter- 4 (Wiring system)
Fill in the blanks:
1.
(i) Cleat (ii) Wooden casing & capping
(iii) Metal conduit
2.
(i) Casing capping (ii) Batten (iii) Metal conduit
3. It is
(i) Cleat (ii) Batten (iii) Concealed conduit
4.
(i) Metal conduit wiring
(ii) CTS wiring
(iii) Cleat wiring
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Write precautions to be observed while carrying out metal conduit wiring. (MAR 2012)
2. Explain how cleat wiring is installed? State its limitations. (MAR 2015)
3. State advantages and disadvantages of casing capping wiring system. (MAR 2015)
4. State the precautions to be taken while installing surface conduit wiring. (MAR 2016)
5. Write short note or lead sheathed wiring system. (MAR 2017)
210
6. Draw a neat and labeled circuit diagram of staircase wiring.
7. Name the test to be performed before energizing a new installation.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. With a neat diagram explain cleat wiring system.(MAR 2012)
2. What are the points to be considered before selecting a wiring system? (MAR 2011,2015,2016)
3. Explain with neat diagram conduit wiring system. (MAR 2011)
4. Describe CTS wiring systems. (OCT 2014)
5. Compare CTS wiring with conduit wiring. (MAR 2015)
6. List any six accessories used in surface conduit wiring. (MARCH 2014)
7. Explain installation process of CTS wiring system state advantages & disadvantages of this wiring.
(MAR 2016)
8. State advantages of cleat wiring and metal conduit wiring. (MAR 2016)
9. What are the different types of domestic wiring systems? Write the applications of any two.(MAR 2017)
Chapter 5 (Underground cables)
Fill in the blanks:
1.
(i) 11 (ii) 1 (iii) 13.2
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Write classifications of underground cables. (MAR 2011,2012,OCT 2014)
2. Compare between overhead line system & underground cable system .(MAR 2011)
3. Write short note on direct underground (Trench laying) cable laying system .(MAR 2017)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. What are the methods of laying U. G cable? Explain any one .(MAR 2012,2015,OCT 2014)
2. What are the points to be considered for selecting U.G cable? (MAR 2011)
211
3. Explain constructional details of U.G cable. (MAR 2015,2017)
4. Compare overhead line with U.G cable. (MAR 2016,2017)
5. Explain different types of general U.G cable. (MAR 2017)
Chapter 6 (Illumination)
Fill in the blanks:
1.
(i) Fluorescent (ii) Incandescent (iii) Arc
2.
(i) Utilization factor (ii) Depreciation factor
3.
(i) Choke (ii) Capacitor (iii) Transformer
4.
(MAR 2015)
(i) Equal to (ii) Less than (iii) Greater than
5.
(i) Fluorescent lamp (ii) Carbon filament lamp
(iii) Metal filament lamp
6. of lamps. (MAR 2016)

(i) Nichrome (ii) Tungsten (iii) Tantalus
7.
(i) Domestic (ii) Street lighting (iii) Advertising
8. The capacitor provided inside the starter of a fluorescent lamp hel
(i) improve pf (ii) reduce radio interference (iii) increase the capacity
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Compare between Incandescent lamp and fluorescent. (MAR 2012)
2. Draw a neat & labeled diagram of Neon sign tube. (MAR 2011)
3. Mention suitable properties of Tungsten as lamp filament. (MAR 2011)
4. State advantages of fluorescent tube light. (OCT 2014)
5. Define utilization factor & depreciation factor. (MAR 2015)
212
6. State any four properties of good illumination scheme (MAR 2016)
7. What are the different lightning schemes? briefly describe any one with advantages and disadvantages.
8. Draw a neat & labeled diagram of sodium vapour lamp & explain its construction and working.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Define: Space height ratio (MAR 2012,2017)

Utilisation factor
Depreciation factor
2. Draw a neat and labeled circuit diagram of fluorescent lamp and explain its working. (MAR 2012)
3. What are the different lighting schemes? Briefly describe any one. (MAR 2011,2015,2017,OCT 2014)
4. Short note: High pressure mercury vapour lamp. (MAR 2011)
5. Compare Incandescent lamp with fluorescent tube.(OCT 2014,MAR 2015)
6. Write short note on Incandescent lamp with sketch. (OCT 2014,MAR 2016,MAR 2017)
Chapter 7 (IE rules & OVERHEAD LINES)
Fill in the blanks:
1.
(i) ACSB (ii) Aluminium (iii) Copper
2.
(MAR 2015,2017)
(i) Meggar (ii) Clip on meter (iii) Synchronoscope
3.
current.
(i) 1/1000 (ii) 1/8000 (iii) 1/5000
(2 marks questions)
1. Compare conductor with insulator.(MAR 2017)
2. What are the common faults in Domestic Electrical installation?(MAR 2017)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Name different types of O.H line insulators and give their specific uses. What are they made of?
213
(MAR 2012)
2. With a neat diagram explain insulation resistance test between the phase and neutral conductors in a
wiring installation.(MAR 2012)
3. With a neat diagram explain insulation resistance test between conductors and earthing of wiring
installation .(MAR 2011,2015)
4. Name any four overhead line insulation and explain any one with neat diagram (MAR 2016)
5. Write down the types and properties of overhead insulation .(MAR 2017)
Chapter 8 (ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES)
Fill in the blanks:
1. 2011)
(i) Copper (ii) Nichrome (iii) Aluminium
2.
(i) Regulator (ii) Thermostat (iii) Pilot lamp
3.
(i) Its windings are short circuited
(ii) It is over lubricated
(iii) Its bearing are damaged
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Explain use of mica and asbestos in electrical iron. (MAR 2012)
2. List our different parts of geyser. (MAR 2014)
3. A table fan runs slow and become hot also state any four reasons.(MAR 2015)
4. Explain with circuit diagram the working of thermostat in electric iron.(MAR 2016)
5. Draw the circuit diagram of electric iron and write down the working principle. (MAR 2017)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Explain with a diagram construction and working of electric hot plate. (MAR 2011,2017)
2. Write short notes immersion water heater. (MAR 2011)
3. With a neat diagram explain construction and working of geyser.(MAR 2012)
214
4. Describe construction of automatic electric iron? (OCT 2014)
5. A ceiling fan does not start. State any six reason.(MAR 2015)
6. Explain with neat sketch the construction of immersion heater state any two common faults in it.
(MAR 2016)
7. Give reason: (MAR 2017)
(i) The fan rotates slowly.
(ii) Automatic electrical iron becomes very hot
(iii) Immersion heater giving shock.
(6 marks questions for all paper- 1 topics)
1. Write twelve important IE rules for wiring installation. (MAR 2011,2015)
2. What are the different systems of wiring? Compare than in a tabular form. (MAR 2012,OCT 2014)
3. Explain continuity test and short circulation test between conductor and Earth by megger for a new
wiring installation.(OCT 2014)
4. Compare various wiring systems in tabular form. (MAR 2016)
5. What test are to be carried out before energising new electrical wiring installation? Explain any two
test in details. (MAR 2017)
215
E.M. Board Questions for Paper II
TRANSFORMER
1 Marks Questions Transformer (paper II)
1. stant (M-2011)
i. Core
ii. Copper
iii. Friction
i. One
ii. two
iii.three
i. self Induction
ii. Mutual induction
iii. None of these
4.
i. step down
ii. Isolation
iii. step up
m
5 magnetic paths (M 2015)
I. core
ii. shell
iii. Berry
6.
i. only current
ii. only voltage
iii. voltage & current
216
7.
i. step up
ii. step down
iii. Either step up or step down
8.
i. conservator
ii. Breather
iii. oil Gauge
9.
i. less than
ii. equal to
iii. more than
10.
i. eddy current
ii. hysteresis
iii. copper
(i) KVA (ii) KW (iii) KWH
(2 Marks Questions)
1 Explain with neat sketch the construction and working of an autotransformer (M 2011, 2015)
2 Find out the full load primary current & transformation Ratio of a single phase 10 KVA , 22200 v/ 110 V
transformer (M 2011)
3 Explain short circuit test of a transformer (M2011)
5 Compare power transformer with Distribution transformer (M 2011)
6. Compare core type transformer with shell type transformer (M2012, 2017 )
7. Write a short note on Berry type transformer. (M 2012)
8 Explain the functions of C.T & P.T ( M 2012)
9. What is transformer? Why is it a called a static device (M 2012)
10. Classify transformers according to ( M 2012)
i. Number of phases
217
ii. Voltage (Pri & Sec )
11. A single phase transformer of 2000/200V, 200KVA has 66 turns in the secondary calculate
primary turns & primary & secondary full load current (M 2013)
12. Write a short note on current transformer (M 2013)
13. Explain functions of Breather & Buchholz Repay (M 2015)
14.Compare step up transformer with step down transformer (M 2015)
15.Why Rating of transformer is always given KVA (M 2015)
16.State functions of conservator & Breather (M 2015)
17. Classify transformers according to (M 2015)
i. Construction
ii. Transformation Ratio
18.Explain the working of C. T with neat circuit diagram ( M 2016)
19. Define
i. All day efficiency of transformer.
ii. Percentage regulation of transformer. (M 2016)
20. State any two properties of transformer oil. (M 2016)
21. Why cooling is necessary for transformer. (M 2017)
22. Compare autotransformer with ordinary transformer. (M 2017)
24. What are the different types of transformer.
25. A 20 KVA, single phase,50Hz transformer gives the following test result:
Iron loss=0.2KW Cu loss=0.24KW Determine the % efficiency at full load, 0.8 pf.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Name various methods of finding losses in transformer , Explain any one with neat circuit diagram .(M 2017)
2. Compare core type transformer with transformer with shell type transformer. (M 2017,2011)
3. Describe 3 phase core type transformer with neat sketch. (M 2013)
4. The maximum flux density in the core of 250V / 3000 V , 50 Hz , transformer is 0.00012 Wb/ cm2 ,If the emf
induced per turn is 8.0V . find number of turns & net cross sectional area of core . (M 2013)
5. Write short note on Annual checking of 3phase transformer (M 2013)
6. Write down function of Buchholz Relay , Conservator & Breather (M 2012)
7. A 200 KVA step down single phase transformer has full load iron loss is 800 watt & copper loss is 2000 Watt.
i.find efficiency at F.L. unit P.F
ii.Efficiency at half load 0.8 pf (M 2012)
218
8. A 30 KVA 6.6 KV/0.4 KV distribution transformer has F.L CU loss 1kw & Iron loss 800 W . Calculate
efficiency on F.L at 0.9 P.F. (M. 2011 )
9. A 1 phase , 500 V/ 250 V , 100 KVA transformer has full load copper loss 1200 W & iron loss of 800 W
.Calculate efficiency of transformer at half & full load at 0.9 pf. (M- 2015)
10. Write the emf equation of transformer .What do you mean by transformation ratio.
11. A single phase 230/460V transformer has 180 turns in the secondary winding.Find the primary number of turns
when the transformer is connected to full load, the terminal voltage falls to 437V,Calculate % Voltage regulation.
(6 Marks Questions)
1. Write down the maintenance schedule of a transformer (M 2011, 2015)

2. Draw a neat sketch of D phase power transformer & label the following parts (M 2012)
i.Secondary Bushing
ii.Exhaust vent
iii.Explosion vent
iv.Temperature Gauge
v.Breather
vi.Conservator
3.
2016)
4. A 3 phase 11 KV/ 0.4 KV, 50 KVA Distribution transformer is loaded during a day as under
i.At F.L for 12 hours at 0.9 P.F
ii.On half F.L for 8 hours at 0.9 P.F unity P.F.
iii. On no load for remaining period the iron losses are 3 KW & F.L Cu losses 3 KW find out all day efficiency
.(M 2017)
SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
1mark Questions
1. The centrifugal switch is connected in series with running winding
say true / false (M 2017)
2.
i.improve P.F
ii.Improve speed
iii.Improve starting Torque (M- 2017)
3. - 2013)
i.25 A
ii.16 A
iii.18 A
4.
i.squirrel cage
ii. Armature
i. wound rotor (M- 2015_)
5. the inductance of running
219
i.less
ii.more
iii.neither less nor more
6.
i.split phase
ii.capacitor start
iii.shaded pole
(a) running (b) starting (c) none of them
(a) ceiling fan (b) table fan (c) electric mixer
( 2 Marks Questions)
1.Which motors are used in
i. Mixer ii. Ceiling fan
2. Explain why single phase induction motor is not self starting ? How it is made neat self start.
(M 2016 , 2011, 2012)

3. Explain with neat circuit diagram the construction & working Of shaded pole induction motor
( M- 2011)
4. Name any two methods of speed control of Universal motor. Explain anyone.(M 2011)
5. Explain working of shaded pole motor.(M 2016,2012)
6. How will you change direction of rotation of :(1) Split phase Induction motor.(M 2015,2012)
7. Explain the function of centrifugal switch in a capacitor start induction run motor.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Describe working of permanent capacitor motor. Give applications.(M 2012)
(6 Marks Questions)
1.Name any 6 types of single phase motors. Write down construction & working of single phase motor used in
table fan.(M2013)
3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
220
(1Mark Questions )
1.The winding in 3-
i) 180°
ii) 120°
iii) 360°
i) Increases
ii) Decreases
iii) Remains same
i) DOL
ii) Star-delta
iii) Rheostatic
011)
i) f'=sf
ii) f'=s/f
iii) f'=f/s
(M 2012)
i) equal to
ii) less than
iii) greater than
i) 5HP
ii) 10HP
iii) 20HP
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Name various methods of speed control of 3- phase induction motor.(M 2017,2015)
2.why starters are used for 3 phase induction motors.(M 2017)
3.Explain the construction of squirrel cage rotor with net sketch.(M 2016)
4. how will you change direction of rotation of 1) 3 phase induction motor (M2015,2012)
5. Define 1) synchronous speed 2) slip (M2015)
221
6.Draw neat labeled circuit diagram of autotransformer starter(M 2011)
5.Mention type of starters(M 2013)
7.What do you understand by synchronous speed? Calculate synchronous speed of 3phase,
50Hz 400v,50Hz induction motor(M2013)
8.Explain necessity of starter for 3phase squirrel cage induction motor. Name starter to
be connected to a 3 phase 440V,25HP squirrel cage induction motor(M 2011)
1. Write working principle of 3 phase induction motor.(M 2012)

2. Draw a neat and labeled block diagram of star delta starter used for operating 3 phase squirrel cage induction
motor.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. A 3 phase ,4 pole ,440V, 50Hz induction motor is running with 2% slip. Calculate rotor speed and rotor
current frequency at full speed. (M 2017)
2. Compare slip ring induction motor with squirrel cage induction motor (M 2017,2016,013,2012)
3. Explain the working of star delta starter with neat circuit diagram.(M 2017
4. compare 3phase induction motor with synchronous motor. (M2016)
5. Explain with neat circuit diagram the working of DOL starter. (M 2015)
6. Explain working of 3 phase slip ring type induction motor(M 2013)
7.What are the main parts of 3 phase induction motor? Explain in short each with construction sketch
(M 2012)
8. Why starter is necessary for starting of 3 phase induction motor. Name different types .
9. An 8 pole, 3 phase , 50 Hz induction motor runs at the speed of 725rpm find the following 1.synchronous speed
2.Slip speed
3.% slip
4.Frequency of rotor current at this speed (M- 2012)
(6 Marks Questions)
1. Write down the maintenance schedule for 3 phase induction motor (M 2017)
2. State the necessity of the starter for induction motor. Explain the construction & working of
auto transformer starter with neat circuit diagram.(M 2016)
222
4. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
1 mark questions
1. leading P.F. (M 2017)

i. Under excited
ii. Over excited
iii. 100% excited
2. The slip speed of a 4
i. 0 R.P.M ii. 50 R.P.M iii. 1500 R.M.P
3. Slip of synchronous
(i) 3% (ii)0 (iii)100%
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Write advantages of disadvantages of synchronous motor (M2016 )

2. Explain working principle of 3 phase synchronous motor (M 2013)
3. Compare synchronous motor with induction motor.
(3marks Questions)
1. State various methods of starting synchronous motor. Explain any one of them. (M 2017, 2011, 2012)
2. Compare 3 phase induction motor with synchronous motor (M 2016)
3. Describe 3phase synchronous motor (M 2011)
4. Explain why synchronous motor is not self starting? (M 20111)
(6 Marks Questions)
1. Explain why synchronous motor is not self starting? What are various methods of starting synchronous motor ?
Explain each in brief. (M 2015)
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
(1 Mark Questions)
1. Say true /false (M 2016)

The range of ammeter is extended by connecting resistance across it.
2. M.I. type ammeter always rea
i. peak ii. Average iii. R.M.S
(i) Multimeter (ii) p.f meter (iii) megger
223
4. A moving Iron instrument can be used to measure both A.C & D.C. quantities. Say true or false (M.2011)
(2 Marks Questions)
1 Write a short note on vibrating reed type frequency meter (M 2017)
2. How will you calibrate D.C. voltmeter (M 2017, 2016)
3. Explain the working of P.M.M.C. type instrument with neat sketch (M 2017)
4. Draw neat circuit diagram of single phase energy meter (M 2015)
5. Describe resonance type frequency meter (M 2013)
6. Write a short note on multimeter. (M 2013)
7. Write a note on reed type frequency meter.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Write a note on megger with neat circuit diagram (M 2016)
2. What is meant by calibration? How will you calibrate D.C. ammeter (M 2015)
3. How will you calibrate 1phase KWH meter? (M- 2013, 2012)
4. Explain with neat circuit diagram the construction & working of single phase KWH meter (M 2011)
5. A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 5 & gives full scale deflection when, 100mA current show carrying how
it can be used to measure current upto 10A (M 2011)
ELECTRIC HEATING
i. Resistance ii.Dielectric iii.Induction.
i. Tungsten ii.Nichrome iii. Eureka
i. induction heating ii Arc heating iii Indirect resistance heating

4. The
i. Non-metals ii. Metals iii. Metals & non metals.
5. In
i. resistance ii. Arc iii. Dielectric
6. Indirect arc f
i. steel ii. Ferrous iii. Non-ferrous
(i) Indirect resistance heating (ii) dielectric heating (iii) direct heating
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Write any four types of electric heating (m 2017, 2016)
2. Write any four application of dielectric heating (M 2017, M 2011)
3. Write a short note on core type Induction furnace (M 2016)
4. Write a short note on direct arc furnace (M 2015)
5. Compare core type induction furnace with core less type induction furnace (M 2012)
6. Classify electric heating (M 2013)
7. Explain direct arc furnace.
Q 3 (3 Marks Questions)
224
1. Explain dielectric heating with neat sketch (m 2015)
2. Write short note on Arc Furnace (M 2015)
3. State advantage of electric heating (M 2011)
(M 2012)
PARALLEL OPERATION OF 3 PHASE ALTERNATOR
(1 Mark Questions)
i. Synchroscope
ii. Tong tester
iii. Megger
2. Synchroscope is
i. Transformer
ii.alternator
Iii.Induction motor
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Explain synchroscope method of synchronizing (M 2017), 2013.
2. State the necessity of synchronizing 3 phase alternators (M 2017)
3. Explain dark lamp method of synchronizing (M 2011)
4. State the conditions to be fulfilled while synchronizing two 3 phase alternators (M 2011)
(6 Marks Questions)
1. What is the necessity of synchronizing 3 phase alternators? Explain Lamp methods (both ) of synchronization with
ckt diagram (M 2012)
2. Explain the necessity of parallel operation of 3 phase alternators. State the conditions to be fulfilled for parallel
operation of 3 -phase alternators. Explain Bright lamp method with neat circuit diagram (M 2016), 2015.
MAINTENANCE
(3 Marks Questions)
1. What are the advantages of preventive maintenance (M 2016)
2. Compare preventive maintenance with break down maintenance (M 2016)
225

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ELECTRICAL

1. Electrical Symbols 3-10 2

6. Wiring system 49-58 5-6

8. Underground cables 70-74 5-6

Sr.No. Chapter Name Page No. Marks

11. Transformers 101-139 15-20

12. Single Phase Motors 140-151 6-8

16. Electric Heating 194-198 4-5

17. Parallel operation of 3 phase alternator 199-202 6

19. Maintenance 206-207 2

20. Question Bank 208-226

4 D.C supply source

5 A.C. supply source

Sr. No. (B) Switches, Fuses Symbol

7 Two way switch

12 Isolator with fuse(H.R.C. fuse)

14 Oil circuit breaker

15 Push button circuit

Sr.No. (C)Meters Symbols

43 Power factor meter

45 Socket outlet, 2 pin 15A

46 Socket outlet, 3 pin 5A

47 Socket outlet, 3 pin 15A

48 Socket outlet, 3 pin 5A With switch

49 Socket outlet, 3 pin 15A With switch

Sr.No. (E) Main and Distribution fuse board as Symbols

52 Main fuse board without switches, power

53 Main fuse board with switches, power

54 Distribution fuse board without switches,

59 Main switch power

63 Counter weight pendant

67 Button lamp holder

69 Bulk head fitting

Sr.No. (G) Bells,Buzzers Symbols

73 insert number of ways)

77 Fire alarm push

79 Bell connected to fire alarm

82 Loud speaker outlet

Sr.No. (I) Symbols for starters Symbols

90 Star delta starter

93 Auto transformer starter

94 Capacitor start; 1 ph motor starter

Sr.No. (J) Symbols for motors/generators Symbols

97 1 Ph Squirrel cage induction motor

99 3 Ph slip ring motor

Sr.No. (K) Some other symbols Symbols

100 Lighting arrestor

101 PMMC type instrument

102 Induction type instrument

103 Dynamometer type instrument

104 Moving Iron type instrument

109 Neutral link

110 Cartridge fuse

111 Immersion heater

112 Immersion heater with thermostat

114 Indicating lamp

CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF AMMETER, VOLTMETER, WATTMETER, ENERGY

BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING 3-POINT STARTER WITH FIELD REGULATOR, I.C.D.P.

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF MOVING-IRON ATTRACTION TYPE METER:

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMMC) INSTRUMENT:

CONTROLING TWO LAMPS INDEPENDENTLY IN A CIRCUIT:

ONE POINT SERIES PARALLEL TESTING BOARD:

CALIBRATION OF ENERGY METER: