Improving Steam Boiler Operating Efficie

IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY
AND
MODEL OF WATER TUBE BOILER
Author
Faisal Azeem BSTM-023R12-86
Thesis Supervisor
Engr. Syed Faizan Raza
Department Of Mechanical Engineering and

Technology
Southern School of Engineering and

Technology (SSET), ISP MULTAN
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IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

AND
MODEL OF WATER TUBE BOILER
Author
Faisal Azeem BSTM-023R12-86
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree

Of
BS MECHANICAL ENGINREEING AND TECHNOLOGY
Thesis Supervisor
Engr. Syed Faizan Raza
Assistant Professor
H.O.D Signature
Supervisor Signature
________________
__________________
Internal Examiner Signature External Examiner Signature
___________________ ______________________
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

Southern School of Engineering and 2
Technology (SSET), ISP MULTAN
A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

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We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and
organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
I am highly indebted to Sir Syed Faizan Raza for their guidance and constant
supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the
project & also for their support in completing the project.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents, teachers and group

member for their kind participation, co-operation and encouragement which
help me in completion of this project.
The much of material presented in this project report has been derived from
published sources.
Major contributions were taken from following;
1. STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY BY ENERCON

PAKISTAN
2. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF BOILERS BY
BUREAU OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY
3. IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF BOILER SYSTEMS
[2012] BY A. BHATIA, B.E.

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Boiler efficiency is ‘The percentage of the total absorption heating value of outlet steam
in the total supply heating value.’
Thermal is the main source for power generation in Pakistan. The percentage of thermal
power generation as compare to other sources is 65 %. The main objective of thermal
power plant is to fulfill the energy demands of the market and to achieve these demands;
plant requires technical availability with the parts reliability and maintenance strategy.
The current energy situation in Pakistan strongly advocates that the economic survival of
our country, its stability and future growth, and socio-economic welfare of the people, all
depend on the wise utilization of available domestic energy resources and energy
imported to meet our existing and ever-increasing energy demand. Our future lies in
taking extreme steps on a war footing basis to combat the wastage of energy caused by its
inefficient utilization, resulting from the use of inefficient equipment, and bad operational
practices.
Industrial and commercial sectors of any economy are its backbone. Being the major
users of energy, and few in number, they are easy to approach and target. Hence, they
offer substantial opportunities to harness large amount of wasteful use of energy in their
operations through implementation of appropriate energy efficiency measures. It is true
that residential unit is rather small in terms of use of energy, and fairy large in number.
However, we should not neglect it, since it is a nursery for cultivating energy efficient
habits as a nation. Further, one should remember that key to growth and success is
innovation. Hence, we, as a nation, need to think ahead and act quickly to utilize our
conventional energy resources and to exploit the use of innovative technologies to benefit
from abundantly available alternative energy resources in our country. This is the only
way out to improve the economy and make our products competitive in the international
market.
It is an established fact that efficient operation of the boilers is highly desirable to
minimize operating / production costs, save energy, and mitigate undesirable emissions.
Where feasible, one should consider the replacement of inherently inefficient boilers on
urgent basis.
It offers a review of following aspects:
 Basics boiler efficiency, and management areas
 Boilers energy performance assessment, and calculating efficiency.
 Factors affecting boiler efficiency. 5
 Identification and wise utilization of alternative renewable energy
resources

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It contains appropriate theoretical material and information, and is a practical guide for
the students to identifying and implementing energy efficiency and conservation
opportunities in steam boilers.
Our project deals with the determination of current operating efficiency of Boiler and
calculates major losses of boilers in thermal power plant. Then identify the causes of
performance degradation. Also improve efficiency of boiler. Boilers are widely used in
power generation, chemical & process industries. This project seeks to explore the
methods available to maintain & improve the boiler efficiency.

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CONTENTS
SECTION A
Chapter 1 ____________________________________________________________ 10
INTRODUCTION OF BOILER ______________________________________________ 10
INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________ 11
BACKGROUND OF BOILER: ___________________________________________________ 11
Boiler Classification: ________________________________________________________ 12
Fire-tube Boilers: ___________________________________________________________ 12
Water-tube Boilers: _________________________________________________________ 13
How Boilers Work: _________________________________________________________ 14
Boiler Terminology _________________________________________________________ 15
Chapter 2 BOILER EFFICIENCY ____________________________________________ 20

Efficiency _________________________________________________________________ 20
Types of Efficiency: _________________________________________________________ 21
Chapter 3 ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF BOILERS __________________ 23

Introduction_______________________________________________________________ 23
Purpose of the Performance Test ______________________________________________ 23
Performance Terms and Definitions ____________________________________________ 24
Scope ____________________________________________________________________ 24
Reference Standards ________________________________________________________ 24
The Direct Method Testing ___________________________________________________ 25
Merits and Demerits of Direct Method _________________________________________ 28
The Indirect Method Testing__________________________________________________ 28
Chapter 4 FACTORS AFFECTING BOILER EFFICIENCY ___________________________ 34

Introduction: ______________________________________________________________ 34
Stack Temperature and Losses: _______________________________________________ 34
Excess Air: ________________________________________________________________ 35 7
Radiation and Convection Losses ______________________________________________ 36
Heating Surface: ___________________________________________________________ 36

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Blowdown Losses: __________________________________________________________ 37

Fuel Specification: __________________________________________________________ 37
Ambient Temperature: ______________________________________________________ 38
Chapter 5 BOILER EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT _______________________________ 39

Main Areas for Improvement _________________________________________________ 39
Combustion Management ___________________________________________________ 39
Makeup, Feedwater & Slowdown Management __________________________________ 55
Steam Distribution Management ______________________________________________ 69
Boiler Energy Audit _________________________________________________________ 74
Chapter 6 MAJOR LOSSES OF BOILER EFFICIENCY _____________________________ 82

Stack Gas losses: ___________________________________________________________ 82
Combustible Heat Losses: ____________________________________________________ 84
Radiation and Convection Heat Losses: _________________________________________ 84
Continuous and Intermittent Blow down: _______________________________________ 85
Leaks: ____________________________________________________________________ 85
Excess Air Control: __________________________________________________________ 86
Soot, Scale Formation: ______________________________________________________ 87
Fuel Quality: ______________________________________________________________ 87
Incomplete Combustion:_____________________________________________________ 88
VFD for Pump and Fan Motor: ________________________________________________ 88
Chapter 7 IMPROVING METHOD OF BOILER EFFICIENCY _______________________ 89

Reduce Excess Air __________________________________________________________ 89
Decrease Flue-Gas Temperature ______________________________________________ 90
Reduce Boiler Pressure: _____________________________________________________ 91
Increase Fuel Oil Temperature: _______________________________________________ 91
Optimize Fuel Atomization Pressure: ___________________________________________ 93
Reduce Boiler blowdown ____________________________________________________ 93
Optimize Single-boiler Firing__________________________________________________ 93
8
Optimize multiple-boiler operation ____________________________________________ 93
Stop Steam Leaks __________________________________________________________ 94

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Stop Steam-Trap Leaks ______________________________________________________ 95

Reduce Deposits in Burner ___________________________________________________ 96
Reduce Scale and Soot Deposits on Fireside _____________________________________ 96
Reduce Scale and Deposits on Waterside _______________________________________ 98
Increase Combustion Air Temperature ________________________________________ 100
Increase Feedwater Temperature ____________________________________________ 100
Recover Heat Energy from Blowdown _________________________________________ 102
Energy Recovery from Excessive Steam Pressure ________________________________ 103
Reduce Heat Losses in Boiler, Steam and Valves _________________________________ 105
Use Fuel Oil Rather Than Natural Gas _________________________________________ 107
Change From Steam to Air Atomization ________________________________________ 108
Chapter 8 REDUCING THE LOSSES AFFECTING EFFICIENCY _____________________ 109

Excess Air Rate____________________________________________________________ 109
Firing Rate _______________________________________________________________ 111
Flue Gas Temperature ______________________________________________________ 112
Feed Water Temperature ___________________________________________________ 113
Condensate Recovery ______________________________________________________ 114
Combustion Air Temperature ________________________________________________ 115
Fouling of Heat Transfer Surfaces _____________________________________________ 116
Blowdown _______________________________________________________________ 118
Blowdown Heat Recovery ___________________________________________________ 122
Steam Pressure ___________________________________________________________ 123
Boiler Exterior Heat Losses __________________________________________________ 124
Effects of Fuel ____________________________________________________________ 125
Chapter 9 MODEL OF WATER TUBE BOILER ________________________________ 130

INTRODUCTION ___________________________________________________________ 130
Parts of boiler ____________________________________________________________ 131
How to boiler work? _______________________________________________________ 139
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION OF
BOILER
Summary of this chapter:
 Introduction
 Background of boiler
 Classification of boiler
 How boilers work
 Boiler terminology
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Introduction
Boiler is a closed pressure vessel in to which water can be fed and by applying heat
continuously, evaporated in to steam. The function of the boiler is to generate steam at the
desired conditions efficiently and with low operating costs. Low pressure steam is used in
process an application whereas high pressure superheated steam is used for generating power
via steam turbines. Boilers consist of a number of tubes for maximum heat transfer. These
tubes runs between steam distribution drum at the top of the boiler and water collecting
drums at the bottom of the boiler. Steam flows from the steam drum to the super heater
before entering the steam distribution system.
Background of Boiler:
Boiler, also called Steam Generator, apparatus designed to convert a liquid to vapor. In a
conventional steam power plant, a boiler consists of a furnace in which fuel is burned,
surfaces to transmit heat from the combustion products to the water, and a space where
steam can form and collect. A conventional boiler has a furnace that burns a fossil fuel or,
in some installations, waste fuels. A nuclear reactor can also serve as a source of heat for
generating steam under pressure.
Boilers were built as early as the 1st century ad by Hero of Alexandria but were used
only as toys. Not until the 17th century was serious consideration given to the potential of
steam power for practical work. The first boiler with a safety valve was designed by
Denis Papen of France in 1679; boilers were made and used in England by the turn of the
18th century. Early boilers were made of wrought iron; as the advantages of high
pressure and temperature were realized, manufacturers turned to steel. Modern boilers are
made of alloy steel to withstand high pressures and extremely high temperatures.
Most conventional steam boilers are classed as either fire-tube or watertube types. In the
fire-tube type, the water surrounds the steel tubes through which hot gases from the
furnace flow. The steam generated collects above the water level in a cylindrically shaped
drum. A safety valve is set to allow escape of steam at pressures above normal operating
pressure; this device is necessary on all boilers, because continued addition of heat to
water in a closed vessel without means of steam escape results in a rise in pressure and,
ultimately, in explosion of the boiler. Fire-tube boilers have the advantage of being easy
to install and operate. They are widely used in small installations to heat buildings and to
provide power for factory processes. Fire-tube boilers are also used in steam locomotives.
In the watertube boiler, the water is inside tubes with the hot furnace gases circulating
outside the tubes. When the steam turbogenerator was developed early in the 20th
century, modern watertube boilers were developed in response to the demand for large
quantities of steam at pressures and temperatures far exceeding those possible with fire- 11
tube boilers. The tubes are outside the steam drum, which has no heating surface and is
much smaller than in the fire-tube boiler. For this reason, the drum of the watertube
boiler is better able to withstand higher pressures and temperatures. A wide variety of
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sizes and designs of watertube boilers are used in ships and factories. The express boiler
is designed with small water tubes for quick generation of steam. The flash boiler may
not require a steam drum, because the tubes operate at such high temperatures that the
feed water flashes into steam and superheats before leaving the tubes. The largest units
are found in the central-station power plants of public utilities. Units of substantial size
are used in steel mills, paper mills, oil refineries, chemical plants, and other large
manufacturing plants.
Boiler Classification:
Boilers are classified on the basis of:
 General shape
 Boiler size or capacity
 Steam pressure
 Mode of circulation of working fluid
 Nature of heat source, type of fuel and mode of firing
 Position and type of the furnace
 Special features
Types of Steam Boiler:

The objectives of a boiler are:
 Releasing energy in the fuel as efficiently as possible.

 Transferring released energy to the water, and generating steam as
efficiently as possible.
 Separating steam from water ready for export to the plant, where the
energy can be transferred to the process as efficiently as possible.
For achieving these objectives, the designers have created innumerable configurations
and variations of essentially two general types, i.e., fire-tube and water-tube boilers.
Fire-tube Boilers:
Fire-tube boilers, also commonly known as shell boilers, rely on hot gases circulating
through the boiler tubes which in turn transfer heat to the surrounding boiler water. These
gases usually make several passes through the tubes, thereby transferring their heat
through the tube walls and causing the water to boil on the other side. Fire-tube boilers
are generally available in the range of 20 through 800 boiler horsepower (BoHP) and in
pressures up to 10 bars.
Exhibit 2-6: Fire-tube Boiler 12

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Water-tube Boilers:
Most high-pressure and large boilers are of water-tube type (Exhibit 2-7). It is important
to note that the small tubes in the water-tube boiler can withstand high pressure better
than the large vessels of a fire-tube boiler. In water-tube boilers the water is circulated
inside the tubes, with the heat source surrounding them. These water-filled tubes are in
turn connected to large containers called drums. With the increase in number of tubes of
smaller diameter, the heating surface area increases improving the efficiency.
Water-tube boilers are available in sizes ranging from a smaller residential type to very
large utility class boilers. Boiler pressures range from 1 bar through pressures exceeding
250 bar. They are mostly used in power station applications that require:
 High steam output (up to 500 kg/s).

 High pressure steam (up to 160 bar).
 Superheated steam (up to 550°C).
However, water-tube boilers are also manufactured in sizes to compete with shell boilers.
Small water-tube boilers are manufactured and assembled into a single unit, just like
packaged shell boilers, whereas large units are usually manufactured in sections for
assembly on site.
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Exhibit 2-7: Water-tube Boiler
How Boilers Work:

Both gas and oil fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to heat water. The key
boiler components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber, heat
exchanger, and controls.
The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an ignition
device, provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes place in the
combustion chamber, and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water through the
heat exchanger. Controls regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air supply,
exhaust draft, water temperature, steam pressure, and boiler pressure.
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Figure 1: Firetube Boiler

Hot water produced by a boiler is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment
throughout the building, which can include hot water coils in air handling units, service
hot water heating equipment, and terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows
through pipes from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an external
energy source such as a pump. Steam utilized for heating can be directly utilized by
steam using equipment or can provide heat through a heat exchanger that supplies hot
water to the equipment.
The discussion of different types of boilers, below, provides more detail on the designs of
specific boiler systems.
Boiler Terminology
MCR:
Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR (Maximum Continuous
Rating). This is the maximum evaporation rate that can be sustained for 24 hours and
may be less than a shorter duration maximum rating
Boiler Rating:
Conventionally, boilers are specified by their capacity to hold water and the steam
generation rate. Often, the capacity to generate steam is specified in terms of equivalent
o o
evaporation (kg of steam / hour at 100 C). Equivalent evaporation “from and at” 100 C.
o o
The equivalent of the evaporation of 1kg of water at 100 C to steam at 100 C.
Efficiency:
In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of efficiency:
15
Combustion efficiency:
Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to
completely burn the fuel. The boiler has little bearing on combustion efficiency. A well-

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designed burner will operate with as little as 15 to 20% excess air, while converting all
combustibles in the fuel to useful energy.
Thermal efficiency:
Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler. It does not take
into account boiler radiation and convection losses – for example from the boiler shell
water column piping etc.
Boiler efficiency:
The term boiler efficiency is often substituted for combustion or thermal efficiency. True
boiler efficiency is the measure of fuel to steam efficiency.
Fuel to steam efficiency:

Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either of the two methods as prescribed by the
ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) power test code, PTC 4.1. The first
method is input output method. The second method is heat loss method.
Boiler turndown:
Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler output and the boiler output when
operating at low fire. Typical boiler turndown is 4:1. The ability of the boiler to turndown
reduces frequent on and off cycling. Fully modulating burners are typically designed to
operate down to 25% of rated capacity. At a load that is 20% of the load capacity, the
boiler will turn off and cycle frequently.
A boiler operating at low load conditions can cycle as frequently as 12 times per hour or
288 times per day. With each cycle, pre and post purge airflow removes heat from the
boiler and sends it out the stack. Keeping the boiler on at low firing rates can eliminate
the energy loss. Every time the boiler cycles off, it must go through a specific start-up
sequence for safety assurance. It requires about a minute or two to place the boiler back
on line. And if there is a sudden load demand the start up sequence cannot be accelerated.
Keeping the boiler on line assures the quickest response to load changes. Frequent
cycling also accelerates wear of boiler components. Maintenance increases and more
importantly, the chance of component failure increases.
Boiler(s) capacity requirement is determined by much different type of load variations in
the system. Boiler over sizing occurs when future expansion and safety factors are added
to assure that the boiler is large enough for the application. If the boiler is oversized the
ability of the boiler to handle minimum loads without cycling is reduced. Therefore
capacity and turndown should be considered together for proper boiler selection to meet
overall system load requirements.
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Primary air:
That part of the air supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encounters.

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Secondary air:
The second stage of admission of air to a combustion system, generally to complete
combustion initiated by the primary air. It can be injected into the furnace of a boiler
under relatively high pressure when firing solid fuels in order to create turbulence above
the burning fuel to ensure good mixing with the gases produced in the combustion
process and thereby complete combustion
Tertiary air:
A third stage of admission of air to a combustion system, the reactions of which have
largely been completed by secondary air. Tertiary air is rarely needed.
Stoichiometric:
In combustion technology, stoichiometric air is that quantity of air, and no more, which is
theoretically needed to burn completely a unit quantity of fuel. ‘Sub-stoichiometric’
refers to the partial combustion of fuel in a deficiency of air
Balanced draught:
The condition achieved when the pressure of the gas in a furnace is the same as or
slightly below that of the atmosphere in the enclosure or building housing it.
Gross calorific value (GCV):

The amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion, under specified conditions, by
a unit volume of a gas or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of
which the water produced by combustion of the fuel is assumed to be completely
condensed and its latent and sensible heat made available.
Net calorific value (NCV):

The amount of heat generated by the complete combustion, under specified conditions,
by a unit volume of a gas or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination
of which the water produced by the combustion of the fuel is assumed to remain as vapor.
Absolute pressure:
The sum of the gauge and the atmospheric pressure. For instance, if the steam gauge on
2 2
the boiler shows 9 kg/cm g the absolute pressure of the steam is 10 kg/cm (a).
Atmospheric pressure:
The pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere. It is expressed in pounds per sq. in. or
2
inches of mercury column or kg/cm . Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 lbs. / sq.
inch, or 30 inch mercury column or 760mm of mercury (mm Hg) or 101.325 kilo Pascal
(kPa). 17

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Carbon monoxide (CO):

Produced from any source that burns fuel with incomplete combustion, causes chest pain
in heart patients, headaches and reduced mental alertness.
Blow down:
The removal of some quantity of water from the boiler in order to achieve an acceptable
concentration of dissolved and suspended solids in the boiler water.
Complete combustion:
The complete oxidation of the fuel, regardless of whether it is accomplished with an
excess amount of oxygen or air, or just the theoretical amount required for perfect
combustion.
Perfect combustion:
The complete oxidation of the fuel, with the exact theoretical (stoichiometric) amount of
oxygen (air) required.
Saturated steam:
It is the steam, whose temperature is equal to the boiling point corresponding to that
pressure.
Wet Steam:
Saturated steam which contains moisture.
Dry Steam:
Either saturated or superheated steam containing no moisture.
Superheated Steam:
Steam heated to a temperature above the boiling point or saturation temperature
corresponding to its pressure
Oxygen trim:
Sensor measures flue gas oxygen and a closed loop controller compare the actual oxygen
level to the desired oxygen level. The air (or fuel) flow is trimmed by the controller until
the oxygen level is corrected. The desired oxygen level for each firing rate must be
entered into a characterized set point curve generator. Oxygen Trim maintains the lowest
possible burner excess air level from low to high fire. Burners that don’t have Oxygen
Trim must run with Extra Excess Air to allow safe operation during variations in weather,
fuel, and linkage.
Heat transfer mediums:

18
There are different types of heat transfer medium e.g. steam, hot water and thermal oil.
Steam and Hot water are most common and it will be valuable to briefly examine these
common heat transfer mediums and associated properties.

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Thermic Fluid:
Thermic Fluid is used as a heat transfer mechanism in some industrial process and
heating applications. Thermic Fluid may be vegetable or mineral based oil and the oil
may be raised to a high temperature without the need for any pressurization. The
relatively high flow and return temperatures may limit the potential for flue gas heat
recovery unless some other system can absorb this heat usefully. Careful design and
selection is required to achieve best energy efficiency.
Hot water:
Water is a fluid with medium density, high specific heat capacity, low viscosity and
o o
relatively low thermal conductivity. At relatively low temperature e.g. 70 C -90 C, hot
water is useful for smaller heating installations.
Steam:
When water is heated its temperature will rise. The heat added is called sensible heat and
the heat content of the water is termed its enthalpy. The usual datum point used to
o
calculate enthalpy is 0 C.
When the water reaches its boiling point, any further heat input will result in some
proportion of the water changing from the liquid to the vapour state, i.e. changing to
steam. The heat required for this change of state is termed the 'latent heat of evaporation'
and is expressed in terms of a fixed mass of water. Where no change in temperature
occurs during the change of state, the steam will exist in equilibrium with the water. This
equilibrium state is termed 'saturation conditions'. Saturation conditions can occur at any
pressure, although at each pressure there is only one discrete temperature at which
saturation can occur.
If further heat is applied to the saturated steam the temperature will rise and the steam
will become 'superheated'. Any increase in temperature above saturated conditions will
be accompanied by a further rise in enthalpy.
Steam is useful heat transfer medium because, as a gas, it is compressible. At high
pressure and consequently density, steam can carry large quantities of heat with relatively
small volume.
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Chapter 2 BOILER
EFFICIENCY
Summary of this chapter
 Efficiency
 Types of Efficiency
 Testing Standards
 What makes a boiler “condensing”?
 Applications
Efficiency
The percentage of the heat energy contained in the fuel that is captured by the working
fluid (e.g. water) in the boiler is defined as the combustion efficiency of the boiler.
Combustion efficiencies of 80% or higher are usually possible for hot water boilers and
low pressure steam boilers for commercial buildings.
Efficiency is used as a measure of economic performance of any piece of equipment.
There are several terms used to define efficiency when used in the context of a boiler.
These include simply efficiency, combustion efficiency, thermal efficiency, boiler
efficiency, and fuel-to-steam efficiency. Following are their definitions.
Complete combustion results when a hydrocarbon fuel such as natural gas or oil burns
and produces only carbon dioxide, water and heat. If there is insufficient oxygen and/or
poor mixing of fuel and oxygen, then incomplete combustion will occur resulting in other
products of combustion including carbon monoxide and unburned fuel.
When incomplete combustion occurs, the chemical energy of the fuel is not completely
released as heat and the combustion efficiency is reduced. This is also a safety concern as
unburned fuel could ignite in the stack and cause an explosion. Boilers must be tuned to
achieve complete combustion. One strategy to ensure complete combustion is to provide
some amount of excess air. However, as shown in the figure below, a small amount of
excess air will improve combustion efficiency, but a large amount will reduce efficiency. 20
In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of efficiency:

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Types of Efficiency:
Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to
completely burn the fuel. The boiler has little bearing on combustion efficiency. A well-
designed burner will operate with as little as 15 to 20% excess air, while converting all
combustibles in the fuel to thermal energy.
Combustion efficiency equals the total heat released in combustion, minus the heat lost in
the stack gases, divided by the total heat released in combustion. For example, if 1,000
kcal/h are released in combustion and 180 kcal/h are lost in the stack, then the
combustion efficiency is 82%
The measurement and calculation of how well a boiler is burning a specific fuel and how
much heat is lost to the flue. Some of the factors included in the calculation are: excess
air content, net flue temperature, CO levels
 Does not consider heat transferred to the system.

 Determines whether a boiler is “Condensing” or “Non-Condensing”
Thermal Efficiency:
Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler. It does not take
into account boiler radiation and convection losses – for example from the boiler shell
water column piping etc.
 Gross energy output divided by energy input.
 Measures the heat transferred to the medium to be heated. Generally a
“steady state” measurement
 ANSI Standard Z21.13 is a thermal efficiency “steady state” test with 80ºF
inlet water and 100ºF ΔT
In practice Thermal Efficiency is less than Combustion Efficiency
Seasonal Efficiency:
 A term used to describe efficiency when the effects of sizing, cycling etc.
are considered.
 Will typically be lower than thermal efficiency
 Could be considered “real world” efficiency
 No test standard for commercial
21
AFUE:
 DOE test standard intended to account for operating and standby losses
(seasonal efficiency)
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 Applies to boilers with 300,000 BTU inputs and less

 Similar to the EPA millage ratings. Can be used for comparison but will
probably not match the actual installation.
Fuel to steam efficiency:

Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either of the two methods as prescribed by the
ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) power test code, PTC 4.1. The first
method is input output method. The second method is heat loss method.
A boiler operating at low load conditions can cycle as frequently as 12 times per hour or
288 times per day. With each cycle, pre and post purge airflow removes heat from the
boiler and sends it out the stack. Keeping the boiler on at low firing rates can eliminate
the energy loss. Every time the boiler cycles off, it must go through a specific start-up
sequence for safety assurance. It requires about a minute or two to place the boiler back
on line. And if there is a sudden load demand the start up sequence cannot be accelerated.
Keeping the boiler on line assures the quickest response to load changes. Frequent
cycling also accelerates wear of boiler components. Maintenance increases and more
importantly, the chance of component failure increases.
Boiler(s) capacity requirement is determined by much different type of load variations in
the system. Boiler over sizing occurs when future expansion and safety factors are added
to assure that the boiler is large enough for the application. If the boiler is oversized the
ability of the boiler to handle minimum loads without cycling is reduced. Therefore
capacity and turndown should be considered together for proper boiler selection to meet
overall system load requirements.
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Chapter 3 ENERGY
PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF
BOILERS
Introduction
Performance of the boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time, due to
poor combustion, heat transfer fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Deterioration
of fuel quality and water quality also leads to poor performance of boiler. Efficiency
testing helps us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away from the best
efficiency. Any observed abnormal deviations could therefore be investigated to pinpoint
the problem area for necessary corrective action. Hence it is necessary to find out the
current level of efficiency for performance evaluation, which is a pre requisite for energy
conservation action in industry.
Purpose of the Performance Test
• To find out the efficiency of the boiler
• To find out the Evaporation ratio
The purpose of the performance test is to determine actual performance and efficiency of
the boiler and compare it with design values or norms. It is an indicator for tracking day-
to-day and season-to-season variations in boiler efficiency and energy efficiency
improvements
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Performance Terms and Definitions
Scope
The procedure describes routine test for both oil fired and solid fuel fired boilers using
coal, agro residues etc. Only those observations and measurements need to be made
which can be readily applied and is necessary to attain the purpose of the test.
Reference Standards
British standards, BS845: 1987
The British Standard BS845: 1987 describes the methods and conditions under which a
boiler should be tested to determine its efficiency. For the testing to be done, the boiler
should be operated under steady load conditions (generally full load) for a period of one
hour after which readings would be taken during the next hour of steady operation to
enable the efficiency to be calculated.
The efficiency of a boiler is quoted as the % of useful heat available, expressed as a
percentage of the total energy potentially available by burning the fuel.
This is expressed on the basis of gross calorific value (GCV).
This deals with the complete heat balance and it has two parts:
• Part one deals with standard boilers, where the indirect method is specified
• Part Two deals with complex plant where there are many channels of heat
flow. In this case, both the direct and indirect methods are applicable, in
whole or in part.
24
ASME Standard: PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
This consists of
25 | P a g e
• Part one: Direct method (also called as Input -output method)

• Part Two: Indirect method (also called as Heat loss method)
IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing

Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753 and BS845 are
designed for spot measurement of boiler efficiency. Invariably, all these standards do
not include blow down as a loss in the efficiency determination process.
Basically Boiler efficiency can be tested by the following methods:
1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and
steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses
and the energy input.
The Direct Method Testing

Description
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency
can be evaluated using the formula:
25

26 | P a g e
Measurements Required for Direct Method Testing
Heat input:
Both heat input and heat output must be measured. The measurement of heat input
requires knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel and its flow rate in terms of mass or
volume, according to the nature of the fuel.
For gaseous fuel: A gas meter of the approved type can be used and the measured
volume should be corrected for temperature and pressure. A sample of gas can be
collected for calorific value determination, but it is usually acceptable to use the calorific
value declared by the gas suppliers.
For liquid fuel: Heavy fuel oil is very viscous, and this property varies sharply with
temperature. The meter, which is usually installed on the combustion appliance, should
be regarded as a rough indicator only and, for test purposes, a meter calibrated for the
particular oil is to be used and over a realistic range of temperature should be installed.
Even better is the use of an accurately calibrated day tank.
For solid fuel: The accurate measurement of the flow of coal or other solid fuel is very
difficult. The measurement must be based on mass, which means that bulky apparatus
must be set up on the boiler-house floor. Samples must be taken and bagged throughout
the test, the bags sealed and sent to a laboratory for analysis and calorific value
determination. In some more recent boiler houses, the problem has been alleviated by
mounting the hoppers over the boilers on calibrated load cells, but these are yet
uncommon.
Heat output
There are several methods, which can be used for measuring heat output. With steam
boilers, an installed steam meter can be used to measure flow rate, but this must be
corrected for temperature and pressure. In earlier years, this approach was not favoured
due to the change in accuracy of orifice or venturi meters with flow rate. It is now more
viable with modern flow meters of the variable-orifice or vortex-shedding types.
The alternative with small boilers is to measure feed water, and this can be done by
previously calibrating the feed tank and noting down the levels of water during the
beginning and end of the trial. Care should be taken not to pump water during this period.
Heat addition for conversion of feed water at inlet temperature to steam, is considered for
heat output.
In case of boilers with intermittent blowdown, blowdown should be avoided during the
trial period. In case of boilers with continuous blowdown, the heat loss due to blowdown
26
should be calculated and added to the heat in steam.
Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method: Calculation and Example

Test Data and Calculation:
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Water consumption and coal consumption were measured in a coal-fired boiler at hourly
intervals. Weighed quantities of coal were fed to the boiler during the trial period.
Simultaneously water level difference was noted to calculate steam generation during the
trial period. Blow down was avoided during the test. The measured data is given below.
Type of boiler: Coal fired Boiler:
Heat output data:

Quantity of steam generated (output): 8 TPH
2 0
Steam pressure / temperature: 10 kg/cm (g) / 180 C
Enthalpy of steam(dry & Saturated)

2
at 10 kg/cm (g) pressure : 665 kCal/kg
0
Feed water temperature : 85 C
Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kCal/kg
Heat input data

Quantity of coal consumed (Input) : 1.6 TPH
GCV of coal : 4000 kCal/kg
Calculation
27

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Evaporation Ratio = 8 Tonne of steam / 1.6 Tonne of coal = 5
Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
 Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
 Requires few parameters for computation
 Needs few instruments for monitoring
Demerits
 Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
 Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
 Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly wet due to water
carryover
The Indirect Method Testing

Description
The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers
using the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the direct method can be
overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat losses associated with boiler.
The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.An
important advantage of this method is that the errors in measurement do not make
significant change in efficiency.
Thus if boiler efficiency is 90% , an error of 1% in direct method will result in significant
change in efficiency. i.e.90 + 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9. In indirect method, 1% error in
measurement of losses will result in
Efficiency = 100 – (10 + 0.1) = 90 + 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
28

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The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler
L1- Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
L2- Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3- Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
L4- Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
L5- Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6- Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted*.
*Losses which are insignificant and are difficult to measure.
The following losses are applicable to solid fuel fired boiler in addition to above
L7- Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon)
29
L8- Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)
Boiler Efficiency by indirect method = 100 – (L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6+L7+L8)

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Measurements Required for Performance Assessment Testing

The following parameters need to be measured, as applicable for the computation of
boiler efficiency and performance.
a) Flue gas analysis
1. Percentage of CO2 or O2 in flue gas

2. Percentage of CO in flue gas
3. Temperature of flue gas
b) Flow meter measurements for

1. Fuel
2. Steam
3. Feed water
4. Condensate water
5. Combustion air
c) Temperature measurements for

1. Flue gas
2. Steam
3. Makeup water
4. Condensate return
5. Combustion air
6. Fuel
7. Boiler feed water
d) Pressure measurements for

1. Steam
2. Fuel
3. Combustion air, both primary and secondary
4. Draft
e) Water condition
1. Total dissolved solids (TDS)
2. pH
3. Blow down rate and quantity
The various parameters that were discussed above can be measured with the instruments
that are given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Typical Instruments used for Boiler 30
Performance Assessment.
Instrument Type Measurements

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Flue gas analyzer Portable or fixed % CO , O and CO

2 2
Temperature indicator Thermocouple, liquid in Fuel temperature, flue gas
glass temperature, combustion air
temperature, boiler surface
temperature, steam
temperature
Draft gauge Manometer, differential Amount of draft used or
pressure available
TDS meter Conductivity Boiler water TDS, feed
water TDS,
make-up water TDS.
Flow meter As applicable Steam flow, water flow,

fuel flow, air flow
Test Conditions and Precautions for Indirect Method Testing

A) The efficiency test does not account for:
• Standby losses. Efficiency test is to be carried out, when the boiler is
operating under a steady load. Therefore, the combustion efficiency test
does not reveal standby losses, which occur between firing intervals
• Blow down loss. The amount of energy wasted by blow down varies over
a wide range.
• Soot blower steam. The amount of steam used by soot blowers is variable
that depends on the type of fuel.
• Auxiliary equipment energy consumption. The combustion efficiency test
does not account for the energy usage by auxiliary equipments, such as
burners, fans, and pumps.
B) Preparations and pre conditions for testing

• Burn the specified fuel(s) at the required rate.
• Do the tests while the boiler is under steady load. Avoid testing during
warming up of boilers from a cold condition
• Obtain the charts /tables for the additional data.
• Determination of general method of operation
• Sampling and analysis of fuel and ash.
• Ensure the accuracy of fuel and ash analysis in the laboratory.
• Check the type of blow down and method of measurement
31
• Ensure proper operation of all instruments.
• Check for any air infiltration in the combustion zone.

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C) Flue gas sampling location

It is suggested that the exit duct of the boiler be probed and traversed to find the location
of the zone of maximum temperature. This is likely to coincide with the zone of
maximum gas flow and is therefore a good sampling point for both temperature and gas
analysis.
D) Options of flue gas analysis
Check the Oxygen Test with the Carbon Dioxide Test
If continuous-reading oxygen test equipment is installed in boiler plant, use oxygen

reading. Occasionally use portable test equipment that checks for both oxygen and carbon
dioxide. If the carbon dioxide test does not give the same results as the oxygen test,
something is wrong. One (or both) of the tests could be erroneous, perhaps because of
stale chemicals or drifting instrument calibration. Another possibility is that outside air is
being picked up along with the flue gas. This occurs if the combustion gas area operates
under negative pressure and there are leaks in the boiler casing.
Carbon Monoxide Test
The carbon monoxide content of flue gas is a good indicator of incomplete combustion
with all types of fuels, as long as they contain carbon. Carbon monoxide in the flue gas is
minimal with ordinary amounts of excess air, but it rises abruptly as soon as fuel
combustion starts to be incomplete.
E) Planning for the testing
• The testing is to be conducted for a duration of 4 to 8 hours in a normal
production day.
• Advanced planning is essential for the resource arrangement of manpower,
fuel, water and instrument check etc and the same to be communicated to
the boiler Supervisor and Production Department.
• Sufficient quantity of fuel stock and water storage required for the test
duration should be arranged so that a test is not disrupted due to non-
availability of fuel and water.
• Necessary sampling point and instruments are to be made available with
working condition.
• Lab Analysis should be carried out for fuel, flue gas and water in
coordination with lab personnel.
• The steam table, psychometric chart, calculator are to be arranged for
computation of boiler efficiency.
Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method: Calculation Procedure and Formula

In order to calculate the boiler efficiency by indirect method, all the losses that occur in 32
the boiler must be established. These losses are conveniently related to the amount of fuel
burnt. In this way it is easy to compare the performance of various boilers with different
ratings.

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However it is suggested to get a ultimate analysis of the fuel fired periodically from a
reputed laboratory.
Theoretical (stoichiometric) air fuel ratio and excess air supplied are to be determined first
for computing the boiler losses. The formula is given below for the same.
33

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Chapter 4 FACTORS
AFFECTING BOILER
EFFICIENCY
Introduction:
The logical approach for improving boiler efficiency is to identify the losses, determine
their relative magnitude and then to concentrate first on reducing the losses that have the
greatest impact on boiler efficiency. In general, the dry flue gas loss is usually a high
priority, while the heat losses by radiation and convection may also be important,
especially in older boilers and those operated significantly below their rated capacity.
When calculating industrial boiler efficiency using the ASME Energy Balance Method,
one needs to account for stack losses, radiation losses, and convection losses. But what
are the factors that affect these readings and, ultimately, boiler efficiency?
An obvious answer is the design of the industrial boiler itself. But there are also a host of
environmental factors that can impact boiler efficiency calculations. Knowing what they
are will help you identify shortcomings in your boiler system so you can resolve them
and put your system on the path to optimization
These are briefly discussed below.
Stack Temperature and Losses:

Stack temperature is the temperature of the combustion gases (dry and water vapor)
leaving the boiler. A well-designed boiler removes as much heat as possible from the
combustion gases. Thus, lower stack temperature represents more effective heat transfer
and lower heat loss through the stack. The stack temperature reflects the energy that did
not transfer from the fuel to steam or hot water. Stack temperature is a visible indicator of
boiler efficiency. Clearly, the hotter the gas in the stack, the less efficient is a boiler.
This is probably the largest single source of heat loss, and it can be reduced to a greater 34
extent through proper operation and maintenance of the boiler.
The flue gases may be too hot for one of the following reasons:

35 | P a g e
 The burner is producing more heat than is required for a specific load
on the boiler or air-fuel-ratio is not correct:
 This means that the burner(s) and damper mechanisms require
maintenance and re-calibration.
 The heat transfer surfaces within the boiler are not functioning
correctly, and the heat is not being transferred to the water:
 This means that the heat transfer surfaces are dirty, and require
cleaning.
The number of passes that the flue gas travels before leaving the boiler is
also a good criterion when understanding boiler efficiency. As the flue gas
travels through the boiler it cools and, therefore, changes volume. Multiple
pass boilers increase efficiency because the passes are designed to
maximize flue gas velocities as the flue gas cools.
It should also be kept in mind that too much cooling of flue gases may
result in temperatures falling below 'dew point', which will increase the
potential for corrosion due to the formation of:
 Nitric acid (from the nitrogen in the air used for combustion)
 Sulfuric acid (if the fuel has a sulfur content)
 Water formed due to condensation of water vapors
Excess Air:
The performance of boiler with regard to ‘excess air’ has been discussed in detail in the
Section 3.10 on combustion principles. The following paragraphs discuss the importance
of excess air control from the point of view of boiler efficiency.
Excess air provides safe operation above stoichiometric conditions. A burner is typically
set up with 15 to 20% excess air depending on the fuel. Higher excess air levels result in
fuel being used to heat the air instead of transferring it to usable energy, increasing stack
losses.
Accurate control of the amount of air is essential to boiler efficiency:
●Too much air will cool the furnace, and carry away useful heat.
Too little air will result in incomplete combustion; therefore, unburned fuel will be
carried over and smoke may be produced.In practice, however, there are a number of
difficulties in achieving perfect (stoichiometric) combustion:
35
●The conditions around the burner will not be perfect, and it is impossible to ensure the
complete matching of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules.

36 | P a g e
●Some of the oxygen molecules will combine with nitrogen molecules to form nitrogen
oxides (NOx).
To ensure complete combustion, an amount of 'excess air' needs to be provided. This has
an effect on boiler efficiency.
At present, the control of the air/fuel mixture ratio on many existing smaller boiler plants
is 'open loop' type. That is, the burner will have a series of cams and levers that have been
calibrated to provide specific amounts of air for a particular rate of firing. Clearly, being
mechanical items, these will wear and sometimes require calibration. They must,
therefore, be regularly serviced and calibrated.
On larger plants, 'closed loop' systems may be fitted which use oxygen sensors in the flue
to control combustion air dampers.
Air leaks in the boiler combustion chamber will have an adverse effect on the accurate
control of combustion.
Radiation and Convection Losses

Radiation and convection losses will vary with boiler type, size, and operating pressure.
The losses are typically considered constant in terms of kcal/hr, but become a larger
percentage loss as the firing rate decreases. Boiler design factors that also impact
efficiencies of the boiler are heating surface, flue gas passes, and design of the boiler and
burner package.
Because the boiler is hotter than its environment, some heat will be transferred to the
surroundings. Damaged or poorly installed insulation will greatly increase the potential
heat losses.
A reasonably well-insulated shell or water-tube boiler of 500 BoHP (5MW) or more will
lose between 0.3 and 0.5% of its energy to the surroundings.
This may not appear to be a large amount, but it must be remembered that this is 0.3 to
0.5% of the boiler's full-load rating and this loss will remain constant, even if the boiler is
not exporting steam to the plant, and is simply on standby.
Thus to operate more efficiently, a boiler plant should be operated towards its maximum
capacity. This, in turn, may require close cooperation between the boiler house personnel
and the production departments.
Heating Surface:
Heating surface is one criterion used when comparing boilers. Boilers with higher heating 36
surface per boiler horsepower tend to be more efficient and operate with less thermal

37 | P a g e
stress. Many packaged boilers are offered with 0.46 square meter (5 square feet) of
heating surface per boiler horsepower as an optimum design for peak efficiency.
Blowdown Losses:
Loss of boiler heat due to excessive blowdown can be a major factor in making the boiler
inefficient. Blowdown of boiler water may be intermittent or continuous. It is necessary
to control the level of TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) within the boiler. Blowdown lends
itself to the recovery of the heat content of the blowdown water and can enable in
realizing considerable savings.
Boiler blowdown contains massive quantities of heat, which can easily be recovered as
flash steam in case of continuous blowdown. After it passes through the blowdown
control valve, the lower pressure water flows to a flash vessel. At this point, the flash
steam is free from contamination and is separated from the condensate, and can be used
to heat the boiler feed tank (see Exhibit 3-5).
The residual condensate draining from the flash vessel can be passed through a plate heat
exchanger in order to reclaim as much heat as possible before it is dumped to waste. Up
to 80% of the total heat contained in boiler continuous blowdown can be reclaimed in this
way.
In case of intermittent blowdown, heat is transferred to any fluid; e.g. make-up boiler
feed water; by use of a heat exchanger. Heat recovery efficiency will depend on fluid
being heated and the design of heat exchanger.
Exhibit 3-5: Typical Heat Recovery from Continuous Boiler Blowdown
Fuel Specification:
It shouldn’t come as any surprise, but boiler fuel specification can also have a dramatic 37
effect on efficiency. Addressing this issue is simply a matter of establishing the right fuel
specification and ensuring that actual fuel meets the documented criteria.

38 | P a g e
Fuel specification should be of particular concern for industrial boilers that rely on
natural gas, due to the typically high hydrogen content. Some of this hydrogen inevitably
becomes water during combustion, which monopolizes energy that could otherwise be
used in the combustion process.
The main combustible in “natural gas” is methane (CH4) but there are also often lesser
traces of ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10) and pentane (C5H12). The
greater the hydrogen content in the gases being burned, the more water produced by
combustion. This means that natural gas with higher methane content and the lower
proportions of the other gases will burn more efficiently.
Ambient Temperature:
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the combustion air that enters the boiler —
basically the temperature of the air impelled by the forced draft fan. It can have a
noticeable effect on industrial boiler efficiency and boiler efficiency calculations because
it affects the net stack temperature, which is the difference between the ambient
temperature and the flue gas temperature.
While it may be tempting to try to reduce ambient temperature to lower flue gas
temperature, every 40-degree change in ambient temperature can affect industrial boiler
efficiency by 1 percent or more. Finding the right balance is a delicate give-and-take that
requires careful evaluation. Most industrial boiler efficiency calculations assume an
ambient temperature of 70° or 80° Fahrenheit
38

39 | P a g e
Chapter 5 BOILER
EFFICIENCY
IMPROVEMENT
The four important phases of operation to be managed for high boiler efficiency are:
 Combustion
 Feed water, Make-up & Blow down
 Steam Distribution Management
 Boiler Energy Audit
Good draft control, air-fuel mixture control results in high boiler efficiency. Maintaining
low amount of dissolved solids & acids helps in maintaining high efficiency &
prolonging equipment life.Proper piping design & maintenance helps in increasing boiler
efficiency
Main Areas for Improvement

 Combustion Management
 Makeup, Feedwater, Condensate & Blowdown Management
 Steam Distribution Management
 Boiler Energy Audit
Combustion Management
Combustion management or efficiency relates to a measure of how effectively the heat
content of a fuel is transferred into usable heat. 39
The efficiency of the combustion process is directly proportional to the flue gas
characteristics. At least nine flue gas parameters change over a wide range, as the amount

40 | P a g e
of air supplied to the furnace is varied from a dangerously low to a wastefully high level.
These are:
1) Opacity
2) Temperature
3) Unburned hydrocarbon
4) Oxygen (02)
5) Carbon monoxide (CO)
6) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
7) Nitrous Oxides (NO,)
8) Sulphur Oxides (SO,)
Several of these parameters can be used to determine the combustion efficiency. A visual
(opacity) technique to check change in flame shape, length, color, noise and smoke
characteristics is the first early indicators of potential combustion related problems. But
in practice, combustion efficiency is verifiable only with a flue gas analyzer. The stack
temperature and flue gas oxygen (or excess air) concentrations are primary indicators of
combustion efficiency.
Excess Air
There is theoretical or stoichiometric amount of air required for complete combustion of
fuel. In practice, combustion conditions are never ideal, and additional or "excess" air
must be supplied to completely bum the fuel. Excess air results in energy wastage and
affects the process in two ways
1. The high excess air quantity beyond what is theoretically required lowers
the flame temperature and results in a lower heat transfer.
2. Seventy nine (79%) of the air that's blown into the furnace is nitrogen. If
the level of excess air is higher than necessary, in addition to 02 even
more N2 (cold intake air) is heated, which leaves the boiler at high
temperatures taking considerable amount of useful heat with it.
A word of Caution: When the air falls below the stoichiometric value, there will be a
partial combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide (CO). The unburnt combustibles can
lead to explosion; losses of boiler efficiency, pollution build up and soot accumulation on
the fireside. Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or 40
poor distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the color or smoke, particularly so in

41 | P a g e
the case of heavier fuels. For natural gas combustion there shall not be any change in
smoke color.
From these facts, we can realize, how important is excess air monitoring and control to
boiler efficiency.
Correct amount of excess air is determined from analyzing flue gas oxygen or carbon
dioxide concentrations. The simplest way of determining the 02 and CO2 is to make an
ORSAT or FYRITE gas absorbing test kits or to use an electronic oxygen indicator in the
flue gas. The amount of excess air being used can then be calculated based on these
measurements.
Excess Air V/s Boiler Efficiency

The table below relates the 02 levels to the excess air and combustion efficiency when
seen together with stack temperatures.
On well-designed natural gas-fired systems, an excess air level of 10% is attainable and
for fuel oil system 15% is a reasonable figure.
An often stated rule of thumb is that 100% excess air reduces the boiler efficiency by 5%
or boiler efficiency can be increased by 1% for each 15% reduction in excess air.
Example: A boiler consumes 55 MMBtu per hour of natural gas while producing 5 lb/hr
of 150 psig steam. Stack gas measurements indicate an 02 level of 7% corresponding to
an excess air level of 44.9% and with a flue gas less combustion air temperature of
400°F. Estimate annual savings, if the boiler tune-up results in 02 level of 2%
corresponding to an excess air level of 9.5% and with a flue gas less combustion air
temperature of 300°F. Assume boiler operates 8000 hours per annum and the average
steam value is $ 5.0/MMBtu.
Solution:
The cost savings shall be provided by equation:
Cost Savings = Fuel Consumption x (1 — Eff. i red /Eff. Tune up) x steam cost
From the table, the initial boiler combustion efficiency is 78.2% and after tune-up the
boiler combustion efficiency increases to 83.1%. Therefore
Cost Savings = 55 x (1 — 78.2/83.1) x 5 = $ 16.2 per hour
Or the cost savings shall be $ 129,600 per annum for 8000 hours operation per year.
41
Optimum Excess Air
The table below gives the theoretical amount of air required for combustion of various
types of fuel.
42 | P a g e
When in doubt use 10-15% excess air corresponding to 02 levels of 2 to 4% (unless the
operating manual of your boiler states otherwise)
Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion and to allow
for the "normal variations in combustion" (refer below).
1. The density of air changes with temperature and pressure, for instance, if
pressure is fixed, the mass of air flowing will decrease when the
temperature increases. The variations in the ambient temperature and
humidity could easily change the air flow from excess air into deficient air
or too much excess air.
2. In addition, other variations, such as fuel rate, could easily make effect on
the air consumed and cause deficient air at some point. The excess air
offers a cushion to allow variations in air conditions without affecting
boiler efficiency significantly. The cushion air is not important when the
boiler burner controls are sensitive enough to respond to the varying
conditions.
3. Note that the amount of excess air is greatly dependent on the type of fuel
and the type of burner. New technology burners such as low NOx burner
or spud type burner require minimum excess percent oxygen to as low as
0.5 to 1%. For light oil applications, pressure atomized burners shall use
as little as 2% minimum excess percent oxygen.
Combustion Efficiency Indicators

1. As a rule, the most efficient and cost-effective use of fuel takes place
when the CO2 concentration in the exhaust is maximized. Theoretically,
this occurs when there is just enough 02 in the supply air to react with all
the carbon in the fuel.
42
2. The absence of any 02 in the flue gas directly indicates deficient
combustion air while presence indicates excess air. Ideally, the 02 levels
shall be maintained close to 2% to 4% (gas & oil).

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3. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a sensitive indicator of incomplete combustion;

its levels should range from zero to 400 parts per million (ppm) by
volume. The presence of a large amount of CO in flue gas is a certain
indicator of deficient air.
A general relationship is illustrated in figure below.
Combustion Gas Concentrations at Percent of the Theoretical Combustion Air
Proceeding from left to right, the curves highlight 4 things:

1. When too little air is supplied to the burner, there is not enough oxygen to
completely form CO2. It suggests incomplete combustion and is
characterized by large amount of carbon monoxide (CO) in the stack.
2. As the air level is increased and approaches 100% of the theoretical air,
the concentration of CO molecules decreases rapidly and CO2 reaches a
maximum value. This suggests almost complete combustion. 43
3. Still more combustion air, excess air begins to dilute the exhaust gases,
causing the CO2 concentration to drop and increase the concentration of

44 | P a g e
02. The CO level is practically negligible. A 10 to 15% excess air is

desired for safe and reliable operation.
4. The knee of the curve (zero CO), corresponds to the point of maximum
furnace efficiency. Carbon monoxide in the flue gas (measured in ppm of
CO), stays at a fairly low at high excess air, but rises sharply as excess air
is reduced below the optimum level.
Flue gas Analysis - What to measure, 02 or CO2?

Flue gases contain a composition of oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulfur
dioxide. All of these gases are easily detectable with modern instrumentation. Oxygen
monitoring is the most popular measure as it has a single value relationship with excess
air.
The disadvantage with CO2 measurement is that it does not let us know which side of the
stoichiometric curve we are on. For every level of CO2 detected. there are two possible
levels of air. The left side of the graph indicates insufficient combustion air resulting in
carbon monoxide and/or smoke production as well as inefficient operation. We always
want to be on the excess air side of the graph but that again not too much far. This makes
it necessary to measure a second parameter to distinguish between the two levels.
The CO in the flue gas stays fairly constant at high excess air. However, as excess air is
reduced below the optimum level, the CO content rises sharply. Smoke or unburned
hydrocarbons appear in the stack. Maximum combustion efficiency is obtained at the
zero CO content.
Approach to Optimum Combustion Control

Usually the cause of excessive or deficient combustion is:
1. The Draft
2. Proper Air-Fuel Mixture
Draft Control
The major cause of boiler losses, both avoidable and unavoidable is the boiler draft. Poor
draft conditions alters the flame pattern thus inhabiting the fuel from burning properly
and changing the air-fuel ratio.
 Insufficient draft prevents adequate air supply for the combustion process
and results in smoky incomplete combustion.
 Excessive draft allows increased volume of air into the boiler furnace. The
larger amount of flue gas moves quickly through the boiler, allowing less
time for heat transfer to the waterside. The result is that the exit 44
temperature rises and this along with larger volume of flue gas leaving the
stack contributes to the maximum heat loss.

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Ideally the draft conditions which allow the boiler to operate at 2% to 4% oxygen
maintain the maximum combustion efficiency.
If the boiler does not have a forced draft system, excess combustion air cannot be easily
or properly controlled. Strong consideration should be given to installing a forced draft
system under this situation.
Even with a forced draft system. it still may not be feasible to closely regulate the amount
of excess air because of burners that require proper air-fuel mix.
If you are unable to maintain the CO2 levels 212%. it indicates a worn out burner or
problem with the furnace draft. In these situations. The manufacturer representative
should be consulted to discuss upgrading the controls and equipment.
Air-Fuel Ratio
The efficiency of the boiler depends on the ability of the burner to provide the proper air
to fuel mixture throughout the firing rate, day in and day out.
The density of air and gaseous fuels changes with temperature and pressure, a fact that
must be taken into account in controlling the air-to-fuel ratio. For example, if pressure is
fixed, the mass of a flowing in a duct will decrease when the temperature increases. The
controls should therefore compensate for seasonal temperature variations and, optimally,
for day and night variations too (especially during the spring and fall, when daily
temperature variations are substantial).
The figure below shows, the effect of air temperature on excess air in the flue gas can be
dramatic.
45
Usually the cause of improper Air-Fuel ratio is due to inadequate tolerance of the
burner controls. A faulty burner or improper fuel delivery other than draft
46 | P a g e
conditions. Often, the burner cannot provide repeatable air control and
sometimes because of controller inconsistency itself, the burners are
permanently set up at high excess air levels. The fact is you pay substantial
dollars every time you fire the unit.
If you are unable to maintain the CO levels < 400 ppm, it indicates the poor
mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires can result from improper
viscosity, worn tips, carbonization of burner nozzle and deterioration of diffusers
or spinner plates.
Excess Air Control - Control & Automation

Excess air control (also referred to as 02 controls) is important for optimum
combustion and can be achieved by means of adjusting burner airflow to match
fuel flow.
Various types of air-fuel combustion controls are utilized for this purpose. A brief
description is as follows in order of sophistication and costs.
On-off and high-low controls:

The use of on-off and high-low controls is limited to processes that can tolerate
cycles of temperature and pressure, such as heating applications.
Position Proportional Control:

This type of control also known as mechanical jackshaft control is the simplest
type of modulating burner control used in small boilers with a fairly steady load.
In these controls same firing rate signal is presented to both the fuel and at control
elements and the 'Fuel/Air ratio is controlled by fixed positional mounted to the
positioning motor, typically a cam device. The play in the jackshaft and linkages
needs settings with higher than- necessary excess air to ensure safe operation
under all conditions. The range of oxygen control (oxygen trim) is limited. The
control response must be very slow to ensure that the burner reaches a steady state
before the oxygen trim acts.
Parallel controls:
These controls are usually applied to medium-sized boilers equipped with
pneumatic controls.
Separate drives in parallel controls adjust fuel flow and airflow taking their signal
from a master controller. Their performance and operational safety can be
improved by adding alarms that indicate if an actuator has slipped or calibration
has been lost. 46
Also, an additional controller can be added to provide oxygen trim. Parallel

controls have similar disadvantages to mechanical jackshaft controls.

47 | P a g e
Cross-limiting control:
These controls are usually applied to larger boilers firing typically above 13.000
lbsihr steaming capacity and having wide variations in load demands.
This design can provide very close control of the air/fuel ratio throughout the
burner's operating range without creating fuel-rich or air-rich mixtures, normally
experienced in position-proportional systems.
This control measures the flow of air and fuel and adjusts airflow to maintain the
optimum value determined during calibration tests. Fuel rich conditions are avoided by a
cross-limiting strategy, which uses high and low signal selectors to achieve a lead/lag
effect with the airside. This lead/leg effect forces the fuel to lead the air as demand
drops, thus creating a lean transition flame on loss of demand, and fuel to lag air on an
increase in demand, which again creates a lean transition flame on increased demand.
Operations are safer when airflow cannot drop below the minimum needed for the
existing fuel.
The cross-limiting when applied along with parallel control function, trims the Near
ratio to the best combustion ratio. This configuration allows a significantly greater
number of combustion points on the combustion curve to control the fuel/air ratio.
Oxygen Trim Systems

Every 1% decrease in excess 02 from the stack. results in as much as % increase in
thermal efficiency.
Automation plays vital role in controlling excess air and also benefits in process
consistency, flexibility to load demands, ability to monitor, trend and bill the utilities
in the process.
When fuel composition is highly variable (such as refinery gas, hog fuel, or multi-fuel
boilers), or where steam flows are highly variable, an on-line oxygen analyzer should
be considered. The oxygen 'trim' system provides feedback to the burner controls to
automatically minimize excess combustion air and optimize the air-to-fuel ratio. It
increases energy efficiency by one to two percent. For very large boilers efficiency
gains of even 0.1 percent can result in significant annual savings.
The use of 02 trim, only trims the amount of excess air above that required for
complete combustion for a specific furnace design while not creating a fuel-rich
furnace/stack environment. The burner design fuel selection and load swing are all
critical factors affecting the decision to 02 trim in any given boiler.
47
Unfortunately, high cost of purchasing and installing an oxygen analyzer discourage
its use to small or medium boilers. Typically, its use is advantageous in large boilers
that use between $100,000 and $1 million worth of fuel annually. But from the point
48 | P a g e
of view of limiting environment emissions and also to satisfy the authority having
jurisdiction, it may be appropriate to install oxygen trim for smaller boilers even
though the paybacks are little longer.
Efficiency considerations with Fuel Oil and Natural Gas

 Fuel oil Pressure and temperature directly affect the ability of oil to
properly atomize and burn completely and efficiently. Changes promote
flame failure, fuel-rich combustor, sooting, of buildup in the furnace, and
visible stack emissions. Causes include a dirty strainer, worn pump,
faulty relief valve, or movement in linkage or pressure-regulating valve
set point. Oil temperature changes typically are caused by a dirty heat
exchanger or a misadjusted or defective temperature control. When oil is
burned, an atomizing medium, either air or steam, is needed for proper,
efficient combustion. Changes in atomizing media pressure cause
sooting, oil buildup in the furnace, or flame failure. Changes result from
a regulator or air compressor problem or a dirty oil nozzle.
 Gas pressure is critical to proper burner operation and efficient
combustion. Irregular pressure leads to flame failure or high amounts of
carbon monoxide. It may even cause over or under firing, affecting the
boiler's ability to carry the load. Gas pressure should be constant at
steady loads, and should not oscillate during firing rate changes. Usually,
pressure varies between low and high fire. Therefore, readings should be
compared to those taken at equivalent (wing rates to determine if
adjustments are needed or a problem exists. Gas pressure irregularities
are typically caused by fluctuations in supply pressure to the boiler
regulator or a dirty or defective boiler gas pressure regulator. It is
important to provide automatic burner controls for safe and efficient
operation. Improperly set operating controls cause the burner to operate
erratically and stress the pressure vessel.
Negative Effects of Improper Combustion

The negative effects of combustion on the environment - particularly greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions; global warming and acid rain are one of the greatest challenges
facing the world today. Unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
sulphur oxides & nitrogen oxides are all products of combustion that provide the
greatest threat.
Carbon monoxide:
48
Carbon monoxide is a highly toxic gas associated with incomplete combustion.
The CO level in the flue gas depends solely on combustion efficiency- NOT on the
fuel, the burners or the design of the boiler. Inaccuracies on measurements due to
49 | P a g e
stratification might occur with sample type sensors but essentially flue gas CO
concentration is unaffected by air infiltration, and thus gives a more certain indication
of combustion. Efforts must be made to minimize its formation. This effort goes hand-
in-hand with improving fuel efficiency and reducing soot generation.
Carbon dioxide:
The CO2 content in flue gas reaches to a maximum, approximately at the ideal air/fuel
ratio, and falls off both with increasing and with decreasing excess air. Therefore,
applying energy efficiency measures that reduce fuel consumption is crucial to
reducing CO2 emissions.
Nitrous & Sulphurous Oxides:

SO2 and NO„ emissions are primarily due to sulphur content of the fuel and
combustion reactions of N2 at high temperatures. Emissions of SO2 and NOx
contribute to acid rain and condensation of these products inside the stack may lead to
corrosion of chimney.SO2 emissions can be controlled by limiting the allowable
sulphur content of the fuel and NOx emissions can be reduced by manipulating the
combustion process.Managing combustion processes better and improving the
efficiency of energy use & generation are two of the key strategies for reducing
atmospheric emissions.
Keeping boiler clean from Soot

Under conditions of incomplete combustion, unburned carbon particles get deposited
in the form of soot on the inside of fire tubes.
Except for natural gas, practically every fuel leaves a certain amount of deposit on the
fireside of the tubes. This is called fouling, and it greatly reduces heat transfer
efficiency of a boiler.
Tests show that a soot layer just 0.8 mm (0.03 in) thick reduces heat transfer by 9.5
percent and a 4.5 mm (0.18 in.) layer by 69 percent. As the layer of soot builds up, the
stack temperature rises by about 100°F for 1mm thick soot coating. For every 40°F
rise in stack temperature, boiler efficiency is reduced by 1%. That's a pretty good
argument for regular tube cleaning.
In the high temperature zones of a boiler system such as superheater, corrosion spots
may occur due to the melting of some of the components of the deposits having a low
melting point. Also in the heat recovery system like an economizer or preheater,
corrosion due to sulphur trioxide may show up. Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant 49
furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air heaters may be necessary to
remove these stubborn deposits.

50 | P a g e
Large boilers and those burning fuels with a high fouling tendency have strategically
located soot blowers as in integral part of the boiler. Soot blowers are machines that
mechanically drive bushes or scrapers through the tubes and clean the surfaces while
the boiler is operating. These machines, in turn, connect to powerful vacuums that
draw the loosened soot from the tubes, simultaneously, leaving the tubes, boiler room
and operator completely clean.
Small boilers, including natural gas-fired boilers should be opened regularly for
checking the deposition. The cleaning can be handled using portable powerful air
motors, which drive flexible shafts fitted with a wide variety of cleaning tools.
Reclaiming Boiler System Heat Losses
Flue Gas
A reduction in flue gas temperature will improve boiler efficiency by about 1%.
Even in an optimized combustion, good percentage of heat varying from 10 to 25% is

lost in flue gases. Typically, the temperature of flue gases leaving the stack range
from 350°F to 500°F. Thus, there is an ample opportunity to recover some heat from
these gases.
The waste heat recovery equipments such as economizer or preheater can be installed
to preheat the boiler feedwater or preheat the combustion air. Economizers typically
increase the overall boiler efficiency by 3 to 4%.
Economizers:
Economizers capture waste heat from the boiler stack gases and transfer it to the
feedwater. This raises the temperature of the feedwater and thus lowering the amount
of Btu input.
Economizers can save as much as 1-% fuel cost per 10-degree rise in feedwater
temperatures and most economizers raise feedwater temperature by at least 20-30
degrees. The potential for energy saving depends on the type of boiler installed and
the fuel used.
For a typically older shell boiler, with a flue gas exit temperature of 500° F, an
economizer could be used to reduce it to 380° F; increasing the feed water
temperature by 27° F. Increase in overall thermal efficiency would be in the order of
3%. This is one of the simplest and most economical additions to any boiler
installation. 50
The potential of heat recovery from the flue gases through the use of an economizer
may be seen from the following data:

51 | P a g e
Btu vs. Feedwater Tables
BTU Input Required to Bring Feed water to Steaming Temperature
Acid Dew point Temperature:

The waste heat recovery equipment (economizer) results in reduction of stack
temperatures. Maximizing economizer output means that the stack temperature should
be low as possible. However, it should not be so low that water vapor in the exhaust
condenses on the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing significant sulphur
as low temperature can lead to sulphur dew point corrosion.
The products of combustion in exhaust stack contain 02, CO2, CO, NOx, SO2 and
free water. These gases particularly CO2 and SO2 can start condensing at
temperatures as low as 250°F resulting in the formation of corrosive carbonic acid and
sulfuric acid, which can corrode the chimney. The most furnace and boiler
manufacturers therefore specify to size the waste heat recovery devices (economizer
or preheater) in a way that exhaust temperatures do not fall below 325°F on a
conservative side. Also, the location of the economizer in the stack is also critical
because stack gases tend to cool as they approach the stack outlet.
51
Designers must consider potential corrosion problems and provide design adjustments
wherever necessary. Two important aspects are

52 | P a g e
 Each fuel has its specific limit of low flue gas temperature, which
should be determined individually. When a clean fuel such as natural
gas, LPG or gas oil is used, the economy of heat recovery is much
greater.
 The flue gas temperatures are lower at lower loads. Economizers must
have some form of by-pass control that maintains the flue gas
temperature above a preset minimum.
Condensing Flue Gases:

To overcome the concerns of acid dewpoint in conventional economizers, the
condensing economizers can be used. Here water is sprayed directly into the flue gas,
which cools the flue gas below the dewpoint. This improves the effectiveness of
reclaiming both the sensible heat from the flue gas and latent heat from the moisture
that condenses. The operation is like a cooling tower working in reverse. Hot flue gas
is cooled and the heat recovered is used to provide a water source, as opposed to the
cooling tower where air is heated and the hot water stream is cooled. The benefits are:
 The resulting hot water can be used as feedwater or used in the process
areas after treatment to neutralize its corrosion potential. In some cases,
where natural gas is used, the water can be used directly in the process.
 For a modem 3-pass shell boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit
temperature of 280°F a condensing economizer would reduce the exit
temperature to 150°F increasing thermal efficiency by 5%.
 With condensing economizers, the overall boiler efficiencies can

exceed 90 percent. Heat pumps can complement a system for
recovering flue gas heat, further increasing the reclaim efficiency. 52
 There is an incidental advantage of direct-contact flue gas condensing:

it removes flue gas particles and acid gases such as SO2 from exhaust.

53 | P a g e
Combustion Air Preheat

Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feedwater heating. In order to improve
thermal efficiency by 1%, the combustion air temperature must be raised by 36° F.
Most gas and oil burners used in a boiler plant are not designed for high air preheat
temperatures.
Modern burners can withstand much higher combustion air preheat, so it is possible to
consider such units as heat exchangers in the exit flue as an alternative to an
economizer, when either space or a high feed water return temperature make it viable.
Flue Gas Recirculation

Flue gas recirculation method recycles some of the exhaust gases back to the burner.
While the heat content of the exhaust air contributes to heat recovery, the reduced
oxygen content of these exhaust gases lowers the flame temperature in the combustion
zone, thereby reducing NOx formation. This reduced flame temperature also lowers
the heat transfer, potentially limiting the maximum heating capacity of the unit. For
example, it would not be unusual for a boiler retrofitted with flue gas recirculation to
see a 10% reduction in maximum steam generating capacity. The advantage lies in the
reduced environment emissions.
Insufficient Heat Transfer Surface (Heat Recuperation)

A three-pass fire-tube boiler will have an exhaust temperature of about 450°F at high
fire; whereas a four-pass wet back fire-tube could have an exhaust temperature of only
350°F. Few installations could have the stack temperatures much above these figures.
What does all this mean...?
1. Insufficient heating surface of the boiler
2. Lower number of boiler passes
The heating surface (sq-ft per boiler hp') represents how hard the vessel is working.
For fire-tube boilers, 5 sq-ft heating surface per horsepower' is considered to be an
optimum design. Inadequate surface area shall mean higher losses.
The number of boiler passes simply represents the number of times the hot
combustion gas travels across the boiler (heat exchanger). A boiler with two passes
provides two opportunities for the hot gasses to exchange heat to the water in the
boiler. A 4-pass unit provides four opportunities for heat transfer. The stack
temperature of a 4-pass boiler will be lower than the stack temperature of a similar 53
size 2- or 3-pass boiler operating under similar conditions. Obviously, the 4-pass will
have higher efficiencies and lower fuel costs.

54 | P a g e
What should be done...?
For new purchases, it is prudent to invest on a product that meets the best efficiency
standards and do not require any waste heat recovery add-ons. A high efficiency
boiler must be built with an optimum cross sectional heating area ensuring proper flue
gas velocity and heat transfer.
For existing installations where, the flue gas temperatures exceed a limit of
approximately 230°F for natural gas and 270°F for fuel oil, heat recuperation is an
option. Experience shows that additional heat transfer surface in the form of air
preheaters or economizer can get a payout of one to two years for most boilers when
flue gas temperature exceeds 425° F.
[' Horse Power is a unit of measurement of the ability of a boiler to evaporate water,
usually given as the ability to evaporate 34 lb (15.6 kg) of water an hour. into dry
saturated steam from and at 212°F (100°C)1
Heat cascading
Plants with several heating needs provide an excellent opportunity to improve their
overall energy efficiency with heat cascading. The heat cascading implies that the heat
exhausted from one part of the process can be used to heat another. While the high-
grade heat supplied from fuel should be directed to the process needing the highest
temperature, its exhaust heat should be used in lower temperature applications. The
heat finally exhausted should be at the lowest temperature that can be economically
achieved.
Examples:
• Air or gas exhausted from a high temperature process is passed through a waste heat
boiler to generate low-pressure steam or hot water for space heating or hot service
water.
• Waste heat in industrial plants can also be used to operate a vapor absorption
machine for cooling purposes.
• Substantial energy losses in the boiler are caused by waste heat literally going "up
the chimney,' incomplete combustion and heat loss from exterior boiler surfaces.
Together, these losses can reach 30% of the fuel input, thus hurting efficiency.
• If boilers have a high stack temperature and operate there much of the time, it might
be cost effective to reclaim the waste heat and add heat recovery equipment such as 54
economizers or air heaters.
• The three basic strategies for minimizing stack gas heat loss are: (1) Minimize
55 | P a g e
excess air in combustion, (2) Keep heat transfer surfaces clean, (3) Add flue gas heat
recovery equipment where justified.
• It is important that the combustion air be delivered in just the amount needed for
complete combustion. An important point to note here is that the air/fuel ratio is based
on mass, not volume. The mass of air supplied to the mass of fuel being used (e.g. on
a lb to lb basis) must be controlled.
• As a rule of thumb, boiler efficiency increases about 1% for each 15% reduction in
excess air, 1.3% reduction in oxygen, or 40° F reduction of stack gas temperature.
• Economizers can save as much as 1-% fuel cost per 10-degree rise in feedwater
temperatures and most economizers raise feedwater temperature by at least 20-30
degrees.
A typical condition for efficient boiler operation is to minimize excess air level to 10-
20% corresponding to 02 level of 2 to 4% and CO2 level of resulting in 13-14%. • It is
estimated that 3 mm of soot can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5%.
• As a rule of thumb, reducing 02 by 1% say from 5 percent to 4 percent in the flue

gas — increases boiler efficiency by about 0.5 percent.
Makeup, Feedwater & Slowdown Management

Scale deposits and corrosion are the two most important adverse effects of feedwater
impurities which influence the energy consumption.
The makeup water depending on its source may contain large amount of soluble
impurities. Under heat and pressure most of these soluble components come out of
solution as particulate solids, sometimes in crystallized forms and other times as
amorphous particles. When solubility of a specific component in water is exceeded,
scale or deposits develop.
Makeup water also contains considerable amounts of dissolved oxygen, which is a

prime cause of corrosion. The high heat intensity of the evaporation accelerates the
oxidation, scaling and corrosion process. The pitting corrosion leads to boiler tube
failures and might damage the downstream equipment. Generally the higher the
makeup water, the higher shall be the impurities and the dissolved oxygen loading.
SCALE DEPOSITS:
55
The presence of hardness salts in boiler water leads to formation of deposits,
technically known as 'scale', which has a very low thermal conductivity and impacts
the evaporation rates.

56 | P a g e
The most important salts contained in water, which influence the formation of
deposits in the boilers, are the salts of calcium and magnesium, which are known as
hardness salts. Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate dissolve in water to form an
alkaline solution and these salts are known as 'alkaline' hardness. They decompose
upon heating, releasing carbon dioxide and banning a soft sludge, which settles out.
These are called 'temporary' hardness-hardness that can be removed by boiling.
Calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates, etc. when dissolved in
water are chemically neutral and are known as non-alkaline' hardness. These are
called permanent hardness and form hard scales on boiler surfaces, which are difficult
to remove. Non-alkalinity hardness chemicals fall out the solution due to reduction in
solubility as the temperature rises, by concentration due to evaporation which takes
place within the boiler, or by chemical change to a less soluble compound.
The key effects of scale deposits on boiler operation are:
1. Scale deposits act as insulators and slow heat transfer. Large amounts
of deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat transfer enough
to reduce the boiler efficiency significantly.
2. Scale in addition to its high insulating value; progressively narrows

pipe internal diameters, roughen tube surfaces and impede proper flow.
3. The insulating effect of scale deposits causes the boiler metal

temperature to rise, which increases the flue gas temperature. In
extreme cases, the tubes fail from overheating. 4) Scale causes fuel
wastage typically up to 2% for water-tube boilers and up to 5% in fire-
tube boilers. As a rule of thumb, one millimeter of scale build-up can
increase fuel consumption by two percent. The figures below bring out
the importance of the scales and its influence on energy consumption.
56

57 | P a g e
Example: Consider a 10000 lb/hr boiler operating at 150 psig uses a 100000 million
Btus of fuel while operating at 8000 hours per annum. Assuming the fuel rate of $3
per million Btu, how much shall be the dollar loss if scales build up of 1/32" is
allowed.
From the table above 1/32' thickness of scale shall correspond to 2% of fuel loss.
Therefore Annual Operating Cost Increase = 100000 3 0.02 = 6000
The result of tests made by University of Illinois and the U.S. Bureau of Standards on
the effects of boiler scale on the fuel costs is depicted in the figure below:
This brings out the importance of the scales and its influence on energy conservation
in a boiler. It is intuitively obvious that the presence of any scale in a boiler is
undesirable.
The best way to deal with scale is not to let it form in the first place. Scale formation
is prevented by:
 Pretreatment of boiler make-up water (using water softeners,

demineralizers, and reverse osmosis) to remove the scale forming
minerals before they enter the system.
 Chemical injection into the boiler feedwater for instance acid or

phosphates to keep the common scale forming materials in dissolved
form.
 Adopting proper boiler blowdown practices-Limit the concentration of 57

scale forming materials by controlling cycles of concentration. A part
of water is purposely drained off (blow down) to prevent minerals built
up. A cycle of concentration is the ratio of the make-up rate to the blow
58 | P a g e
down rate.
Monitoring Scale Formation:

Scale formation can be monitored by direct or indirect methods.
1. The direct method involves visual inspections of boiler tubes when the
unit is shut down for maintenance. Scale removal can be achieved by
mechanical means or acid cleaning. If scale is present, consult with
your local water treatment specialist and consider modifying your
feedwater treatment or chemical additives schedule.
2. An indirect indicator of scale formation is flue gas temperature. An

upward trend in flue gas temperatures over weeks or months usually
indicates that a deposit has built up on either the fireside or waterside
of boiler heat-exchange surfaces. The boiler should be inspected
promptly.
Water Treatment Approaches:

Two type of boiler water treatment methods: Internal water treatment and External
water treatment is discussed below:
Internal Water Treatment

Internal boiler water treatment is usually in form of chemical dosage/injection to
prevent the potential problems of scale by converting the scale-forming compounds to
free-flowing sludge's, which can be removed by blowdown. The corrosion inhibitors
in form of neutralizing or filming amines protect the boiler internals from corrosion.
The internal treatment alone is not recommended and is usually accompanied along
with the external treatment.
Where feedwater is low in hardness salts, the internal treatment alone might be OK,
but for high pressure boilers and those requiring large quantity of makeup water, the
internal treatment alone may not be economical. The blowdown rate in such situations
shall be very high and these become uneconomical from heat, water and chemical loss
considerations.
The common internal treatment chemicals are: • Polyphosphates and Sodium Meta
Phosphate for scale control • Sodium sulphite, Hydroquinone Hydrazine,
Diethylhydroxyamine (DEHA), Methyl ethyl ketoxime for dissolved oxygen •
Neutralizing and filming amines for corrosion control due to CO2 58
Internal treatment alone is not recommended.

59 | P a g e
External water treatment:

The first stage of treatment is to remove hardness salt and total dissolved solids
(TDS). Removal of only hardness salts is called softening, while total removal of salts
from solution is called demineralization. A brief overview is as follows:
Water Softener: Where hardness alone is a limiting factor, the most common
method is the water softener. In softening process, a cation-exchange zeolite resin
exchanges all calcium and magnesium ions (hardness ions) for sodium ions and
reduces hardness to nearly zero. Sodium zeolite softening has no effect on dissolved
solids, alkalinity or silica. Other softening techniques include,
 Cold lime softening: is performed at ambient temperatures by the

addition of hydrated lime to the water being treated. Maintaining proper
control of the lime feed reduces calcium hardness to 35 to 50 ppm as
calcium carbonate.
• Hot lime softening is carried out in a pressure vessel at temperatures

between 227 and 240°F. At these temperatures, hot process softening
reactions go essentially to completion.
• Hot lime soda: Adding soda with ash to the hot lime process increases
the effectiveness of the softening process further. It reduces hardness to
about 8 ppm and magnesium content to 2 to 5 ppm.
Dealkalization: Where hardness and alkalinity is the limiting factor, split-stream

dealkalization or chloride dealkalization is used. Split- stream dealkalization employs
two cation exchange units operated in parallel; one is conventional sodium zeolite
softener regenerated with salt, and the other contains the same type of resin but is
regenerated with acid. A portion of makeup water passes through the sodium zeolite
to remove hardness by exchanging calcium and magnesium for sodium, and the
remainder goes through acidified zeolite for removal of hardness and alkalinity.
Adjusting the ratio of sodium zeolite effluent to hydrogen (acid) zeolite effluent
obtains any desired alkalinity reduction. Split-stream dealkalization lowers the
hardness level to nearly zero, reduces alkalinity and removes dissolved solids to the
extent of alkalinity reduction.
Chloride dealkalization uses two ion exchange units operated in series. The first is a
conventional sodium zeolite softener containing cation exchange resin, and the second
is a dealkalization unit containing anion exchange resin. Both units are regenerated
with salt, which eliminates the handling of acids required in the split —stream 59
method. The sodium zeolite to remove hardness and the anion unit exchanges
bicarbonate and sulphate for chloride. Alkalinity of the final effluent is reduced to

60 | P a g e
nearly zero.
The chloride processes do not remove dissolved solids or silica. All anions, including
bicarbonate and sulphate, are exchanged; therefore, high-sulphate waters are costly to
treat by chloride dealkalization. Because this process removes nearly all alkalinity,
caustic soda is added to the system to obtain the necessary hydroxide alkalinity in the
boiler water.
Desilicization: If silica is the limiting feedwater constituent, it is removed by a

strongly basic anion exchange resin regenerated with caustic soda. Two systems are
used; the choice depends on whether a reduction in the dissolved solids level also is
required.
1. Desilicization uses a convention sodium zeolite softener, followed by a

strongly basic anion resin unit Hardness is reduced in the cation unit
and all anions and silica are reduced to nearly zero.
2. A cation exchanger in the hydrogen torn (regenerated with acid) is

followed by a strong base anion exchanger (regenerated with caustic
soda). All cations and anions are exchanged for hydrogen and
hydroxide respectively, thus removing all dissolved solids, including
silica to nearly zero. Demineralization result in a very pure effluent, but
the cost of operation is high and may not be justified for low to
moderate pressure boilers.
Desilicization using membrane systems is often preferred where dissolved ion

concentrations are high because of operating cost considerations. High silicate levels
are difficult and may require co-precipitation with other ions or high temperature
caustic regeneration of ion exchange system.
Demineralization: Where dissolved solids (TDS) is a limiting feedwater constituent,

demineralization approach is followed. Demineralizers consist of ion exchange resin
columns, a strong cation unit, and strong anion unit. Hydrogen cation exchange
converts dissolved salts to their corresponding acid forms, which are removed by the
basic anion exchanger. Demineralization removes all inorganic salts by ions
exchange. Demineralizer water approaches distilled water in purity, but the cost of
operation is high and may not be justified for low to moderate pressure boilers. The
other methods for removal of total dissolved solids include:
Caution: Before any of these external treatments are used, it is necessary to remove 60
suspended solids and color from the raw water, because these may foul the resins used
in the treatment sections.

61 | P a g e
Methods of pre-treatment include simple sedimentation in setting tanks or settling in

clarifiers with aid of coagulants and flocculants. Pressure sand filters, with spray
aeration to remove carbon dioxide and iron, may be used to remove metal salts from
bore well water.
FEEDWATER MANANGEMENT
Boiler feedwater consists of returned condensate plus the makeup water to satisfy
steam demands.
Condensate water, if not contaminated by the process is very pure and when returned
back to the boiler, is the most attractive methods of improving the boiler water quality
and plant's energy efficiency.
Makeup water usually contributes to most of the contaminants and therefore more the
condensate water, better shall be the feedwater quality.
Condensate recovery is important to the overall efficiency of a boiler for 3 main

reasons:
1. Condensate is usually hot (130°F to 225°F) compared to the

temperature of the makeup water (SOW to 60°F). Losing hot
condensate means loosing precious heat energy of heating makeup
water. Recovery of all condensate can improve overall efficiency by up
to 10%.
2. Condensate is very high quality water. The more condensate that is

returned, the less makeup water shall be used. The lesser the makeup
water, the lesser shall be the amount of contaminants introduce into the
boiler system. The lesser the contaminants, the lesser shall be the need
for both external and internal water treatment. This saves on the
volume of water on account of compensating makeup water and
associated cost of treatment/chemicals.
3. More the condensate recovery, lesser shall be the condensate that is

discharged into a sewer system and lower shall be the blowdown. This
shall reduce the sewer disposal costs.
Condensate recirculation is unsuitable only where there is possibility of condensate

being contaminated because of process leaks and direct process contact. The
contaminated condensate must be segregated from the pure stream; otherwise it may
61
lead to bigger failures, safety and efficiency issues. It should be avoided.

62 | P a g e
Heat Content of Condensate

The graph below shows the heat remaining in the condensate at various condensate
temperatures, for a steam system operating at 100 psig, with make-up water at 55°F.
A simple calculation indicates that energy in the condensate can be more than 10% of
the total steam energy content of a typical system.
tic = Enthalpy of condensate at 180°F = 148 Btu/lb hm = Enthalpy of makeup water at

55° F = 23 Btu/lb hs = Enthalpy of steam at 100 psig = 1189 Btu/lb Heat remaining in
condensate (%) = (tic- hm), (hs- hm)* 100 = (148 -23)1(1189-23) 100 = 10.7% As a
rule of thumb, every 10.7°F rise in the feedwater temperature, the fuel saving may be
up to 1%.
Energy Savings due to Return Condensate
Example-1
Consider a boiler produces 100000 lb/hr of steam and operates 8400 hours per year.
Raw make-up water is at 68°F. Currently all condensate is discharged to waste at
194°F. Raw water costs $0 002/gal and effluent treatment costs are $0.001/gal. The
boiler is 85% efficient, and uses gas on an interruptible tariff charged at $3.00 per
Million Btu. Assuming 75% of condensate is recovered; determine the annual value of
retuning the condensate
Part 1 - Determine the fuel cost

Each lb of condensate not returned to the boiler feed tank must be replaced by 1 lb of
cold make-up wat (68°F) that must be heated to the condensate temperature of 194°F.
(AT = 126°F). Heat required to increase the temperature of 1lb of cold make-up water
by 126°F is given by;
62
0 = m *Co* AT
Where: 0 = Quantity of energy (Btu/hr) m = Mass of the substance (lbs) c„ = Specific

63 | P a g e
heat capacity of the substance (Btunb °F)
AT = Temperature rise of the substance (°F)
m is unity; AT is the difference between the cold water make-up and the temperature
of returned condensate; co is the specific heat of water at 1 Btu/lb °F.
1 lb x 1 Btu/lb °F x 126°F = 126 Btu/lb
Condensate return = 100000 x 75% = 75000 lb/hr
For a plant in operation 8400 h/year, the energy required to replace the heat in the
make-up water is: 75000 lb/h x 126 Btu/lb x 8400 h/year = 79380 Million Btu/year
If the average boiler efficiency is 85%, the energy supplied to heat the make-up water
is: 79380 million Btu/year / 0.85 = 93388 million Btu/year, with a fuel cost of $ 3 per
MBtu, the value of the energy in the condensate is: Annual fuel savings = 93388
million Btu/year $3 = $280164 per annum
Part 2 - Determine the water cost

Water is sold by volume, and the density of water at normal ambient temperature is
about 8.33 lb/gallon. The total amount of water required in one year replacing non-
retuned condensate is therefore:
8400 hr 75000 lb/hr /8.33 lb/gallon = 75630252 gallons/year
At water cost of $ 0.002 per gallon, the annual water cost is = 75630252 0.002 =
$151260 per year
Part 3 - Determine the effluent cost

The condensate that was not recovered would have to be discharged to waste, and may
also be charged by the water authority. Total amount of water to waste in one year
also equals 75630252 gallons/year
At effluent costs of $ 0.001 per gallon, the annual water cost is = 75630252 0.001 =
$75630 per year
Part 4 - Potential Value of Condensate Return

The total savings due to 75% condensate return are therefore: Fuel Savings = $280164
per annum Water Savings = $151260 per year Effluent Savings = $75630 per year
Total Savings = $507054 per year 63
On this basis, it follows that for each 1% of condensate returned per 100000 lb/h
evaporated as in examples, a saving of 1% of each of the values shown in part 4

64 | P a g e
would be possible.
This calculation above does not include a value for savings due to reduction in the
costs of water treatment, chemicals and reduced blowdown, which will further
increase the savings. When assessing condensate management for a specific project,
such savings must also be determined and included.
Example-2
Consider a boiler producing steam @ 50000 Ilahr and is returning 25000 Ilahr of
condensate at 180°F.
The energy audit results on the plant indicate that by upgrading the steam traps and
distribution network, an additional 10000 lb/hr of condensate can be recovered. This
involves an investment of $ 100000. Determine simple payback for implementing this
decision.
Assume the system operates 8,000 hours annually with an average boiler efficiency of
82%, and the average makeup water temperature of 55°F. The water and sewage costs
for the plant are $0.002/gal, and the water treatment chemical cost is $0.002/gal.
Consider average fuel cost of $3.00 per Million Btu and for conservatism assume 12%
of flash steam loss, when saturated condensate is reduced to lower pressure.
Annual Fuel Savings:

(1 — Flash Steam Fraction) x (Additional Condensate Recovered in lbs/hr) x Annual
Operating Hours x (Makeup Water Temperature rise in °F) x (Fuel Cost in $/Btu) +
Boiler Efficiency
(1 - 0.12) x 10,000 x 8,000 x (180 — 55) x $3.00/ (0.82 x 106) = $32,195
Annual Water & Sewage:

Operating Hours x (Total Water Costs in S/gal) + (Water Density in lbs/gal)
(1 - 0.12) x 10,000 x 8,000 x 80.002 / 8.33 = $16,880
Annual Chemicals Savings:

Operating Hours x (Total Water Costs in S/gal) + (Water Density in lbs/gal)
(1 - 0.12) x 10,000 x 8,000 x 80.002 / 8.33 = $16,880 64
Total Annual Savings Due to Return of an Additional 10,000 lbs/hr of Condensate

= $33,760 + $16,880 +816,880 = $65,955
65 | P a g e
Simple Payback period = Investment / Savings = 100000 / 65955 = 1.52 years or 18

months
Flash Steam Recovery

Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is released to a lower
pressure and can be used for low pressure heating. The flash steam quantity can be
calculated by the following relation with the help of steam tables:
Flash Steam Available % = (S1- 32), L2 Where 51 is the sensible heat of higher
pressure condensate S2 is the sensible heat of the steam at lower pressure (at which it
has been flashed) L2 is the latent heat of the flash steam (at lower pressure)
Flash steam from the condensate can be separated in equipment called the flash
vessel. This is a vertical vessel, with diameter of vessel is such that a considerable
drop in velocity allows the condensate to fall to the bottom of the vessel from where is
drained out by a steam trap. Flash steam itself rises to leave the vessel at the top.
The steam so generated can be used on low pressure applications like direct injection
and can replace an equal quantity of live steam that would be otherwise required. The
higher the steam pressure and the lower the pressure of flash steam, the greater the
quantity of flash steam that can be generated. Generally, the simplest method of using
flash steam is to flash from a machine/equipment at a higher pressure to a
machine/equipment at a lower pressure, thereby augmenting steam supply to the low
pressure equipment (from the need of steam regularly through a reducing valve).
In general, a flash system should run at a lowest possible pressure sot that the
maximum amount of flash is available and the back pressure on the high pressure
systems is kept as low as possible.
Condensate Water Treatment and Monitoring:

Condensate water is very important to your facility and ignoring this unseen closed
loop component will soon cause failures, costing bottom-line dollars. In general, the
condensate is very pure, free of salts but it could be corrosive because it contains
dissolved CO2, and can add dissolved and suspended iron to the feedwater.
Carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinities in the makeup water break down under boiler
temperature and pressure to form carbon dioxide (CO2), which is liberated to the
steam. During steam condensation, the carbon dioxide dissolves to tom carbonic acid.
If untreated, the condensate return piping, valves and tanks experience severe
"grooving" corrosion. These products "neutralize" the acidic effects of the hot, 65
carbonic acid.
The condensate system do not require elaborate external treatment as with makeup
66 | P a g e
water but soft measures like condensate polishing or conditioning may be required to
insure the integrity of your equipment.
The remedies and cautions are as follows:
1. The most common method of dealing with this problem is through the
use of neutralizing amines These chemicals, better known as
morpholine and cyclohexylamine neutralize the carbonic acid, and
increase the pH of the condensate.
2. A filming amine, such as octyldecylamine, provides a non-wettable

protective barrier against both carbonic acid and oxygen. These create
an oil attractive, water repellent film on metal surfaces which is
resistant to both carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Energy Loss due to improper De-aeration of boiler feedwater:

Since makeup water contains considerable amounts of dissolved oxygen, corrosion
becomes a critical reliability concern because high heat intensity at the boiler tubes
accelerates the oxidation process. Therefore, feedwater to the boiler must be made
oxygen free.
Also steam with as little as 1% by volume of air in it, can reduce the efficiency of heat
transfer by up to 50%. Therefore, attention to the de-aeration process as well as to the
proper functioning of air vents is of significant importance.
BLOWDOWN WATER:
When water is converted to steam, the dissolved solids do not travel with the steam,
but are left behind in the boiler water. Fresh makeup water enters the boiler to replace
the amount lost through steam evaporation. When this new water is converted to
steam, more solids are left behind. As steam is continually produced, evaporated, and
replaced with new water, the amount of solids in the boiler continues to increase
indefinitely until the water is unable to dissolve its own impurities or hold them in
solution. These will inevitably collect in the bottom of the boiler in the form of
sludge, and are removed by a process known as bottom blowdown.
Cycles of concentration is an indicator of the amount of solids buildup in the water.
For every pound of steam generated, a pound of water must be replaced. The amount
of solids in the water will have doubled when the amount of new water that has
entered the boiler is equal to the amount of water that was used to originally fill the 66
boiler. When the amount of solids has doubled, there are 2 cycles of concentration in
the water; when the amount of solids has tripled, there are 3 cycles of concentration.

67 | P a g e
Effects of insufficient or Excessive blowdown:

Insufficient blowdown may lead to carryover of boiler water into the steam, or the
formation of deposits. Excessive blowdown will waste energy, water, and chemicals.
The optimum blowdown rate is determined by various factors including the boiler
type, operating pressure, water treatment, and quality of makeup water. Blowdown
rates typically range from 4% to 8% of boiler feedwater flow rate, but can be as high
as10% when makeup water has high solids content.
For example, consider a 50 000 lb Mr boiler operating @ 125 psig has a blowdown
heat content of 330 Btu/lb. If the continuous blowdown system is set at 5% of the
maximum boiler rating, then the blowdown flow would be about 2500 lb/hr
containing 825000 Btu.
At 80 percent boiler efficiency, this heat requires about 1050 cu- ft / hr of natural gas,
worth about 542000 per year based on 8000 hrs operation per year at S per 1000 cu-ft.
Blowdown rate & Cycles of Concentration:

Blowdown limits the concentration of impurities in the boiler water. A boiler
operating on high quality feedwater needs very little blowdown. The purer the
feedwater, the lesser is the blowdown required and higher shall be the cycles of
concentration. If the feedwater quality is improved so that it is concentrated 6 times
rather than 3, the blowdown rate for 100000 lb/hr steam boiler is reduced from 33.3 to
16.7 percent.
Increasing the cycles of concentration to twice the original value shall cut the
blowdown and energy losses in half. One way to maximize the cycles of concentration
of the boiler water is by controlling the boiler water at the highest allowable chemistry
limits and feeding recommended levels of treatment. The quantity of blowdown can
be minimized and the steam purity maintained. In actual practice, a combination of the
mechanical heat recovery and chemical treatment is best.
Blowdown calculations:
The quantity of blowdown required to control boiler water solids concentration is
calculated by using the following formula:
blowdown (%) = Feedwater TDS*(% makeup water)/ Maximum Permissible TDS in Boiler
Water
Methods for controlling blowdown:

67
Blowdown systems could be either manually or automatically controlled.
1. Manual control: The amount of blowdown is determined by performing tests

to determine the amount of dissolved solids in the boiler water. The operator
68 | P a g e
must be thoroughly instructed in the correct blowdown procedure. Mud or

bottom blowdown is usually a manual procedure done for a few seconds on
intervals of several hours. It is designed to remove suspended solids that settle
out of the boiler water and form a heavy sludge.
2. Automatic blowdown: The automatic controllers sense the boiler TDS in

terms of electrical conductivity and automatically open or close the surface
blowdown lines to control to exactly the right minimum level. The operator
must check that the controls are set for required blowdown and that they are
function properly. Automatic controls can have a significant impact on
efficiency, especially if steam loads vary widely. Surface or skimming
blowdown is designed to remove the dissolved solids that concentrate near the
liquid surface. Surface blowdown is often a continuous process.
Uncontrolled or continuous blowdown is wasteful. Automatic blowdown controls can sense

and respond to boiler water conductivity much more effectively.
Blowdown heat recovery:

Although reducing blowdown results in substantial fuel savings, the function cannot
be eliminated entirely. A boiler operating on high quality feedwater needs very little
blowdown, while equipment using feedwater containing solids, alkalinity or silica
requires a much higher rate, may be, even continuous discharge.
A comprehensive energy conservation program, apart from ensuring correct amount

of blowdown must include the use of flash tanks and heat exchangers to reclaim some
of energy wastage in boiler blowdown.
I) Flash Steam Recovery:

Flash steam heat recovery is a method for recovering at least 85% of the blowdown
heating value.
About half of the heat contained in the blowdown water is recovered in the form of
flash steam by discharging the flow to a flash tank, usually operated at 5 psig. A
portion of the blowdown flashes to steam at the lower pressure and is available for use
in the deaerator or for other low pressure demands.
Flash steam recovery is calculated using the formula:
A = (H — W) / L
Where
68
A = Flash steam %
H = Boiler blowdown water heat content, Btu/lb

69 | P a g e
W = Water heat/content at flash pressure, Btu/lb
L = Steam latent heat content at flash pressure, Btu/lb
2) Blowdown heat recovery:

Heat exchangers can reclaim the sensible heat from the blowdown that goes into
sewerage for heating boiler makeup water and the like.
In most cases, the heat exchanger is designed to reduce the temperature of the
blowdown water to within 20° F of the temperature of the makeup water.
Additional heat recovered is calculated from the formula
M= J x (1- A) x (W - P)
Where M = Additional daily heat recovery, Btu
P = Water heat content at exchanger outlet, Btu/lb
Steam Distribution Management

The primary purpose of an effective steam distribution system is to link the output of
the steam generation system to the steam end use equipment. The distribution system
should supply high-quality steam to the end use equipment at the required rate and
pressure, and with the minimum heat loss.
Key components include steam distribution piping, valves, and flanges, distribution
system insulation, steam traps, air vents, drip legs, and strainers.
Optimum Pipe Sizing:

Steam piping transports steam from the boiler to the end-use services whereas
condensate return piping transports condensate back to the boiler. Important
characteristics of well-designed steam & condensate system piping are that these are
adequately sized, configured, insulated and supported.
The steam flow through the pipe in terms of pressure and volume required is dictated
by the process needs. Proper sizing of steam pipelines help in minimizing pressure
drop. There are broad limits on the velocities of steam in pipes imposed by
considerations of related erosion rates etc. On the basis of practical experience,
acceptable velocities limits are
• Superheated 50-70 m/sec • Saturated 30-40 m/sec • Wet or Exhaust 20-30 m/sec 69
Velocities exceeding this are likely to generate noise and erosion, specifically if you
have wet steam. For shorter branch connections, it is advisable not to exceed 15 m/s.

70 | P a g e
The starting conditions at the beginning of the steam main are usually provided by the
boiler specifications. There are fraction allowances in a pipe, the friction factor 'F'
depending on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipes internal
surface, defined as the ratio of a mean roughness height 'k' to the pipe diameter. For
steel tubes of commercial, non-corrosive commonly used in steam and water service,
k may be taken to be 0.05mm. As the network in general will include tees, bends,
valves etc, these will also contribute to overall friction.
Proper Insulation of Steam Pipe

The steam distribution network including pipes, fittings, flanges, valves, traps and the
hot process equipment must be insulated to avoid excessive loss of heat to the
atmosphere. The insulation also benefits in way that the steam reaches the point of use
at the desired temperature and pressure.
Important insulation properties include thermal conductivity, strength, abrasion

resistance, workability, and resistance to water absorption.
Thermal conductivity is the measure of heat transfer per unit thickness. Thermal
conductivity of insulation varies with temperature; consequently, it is important to
know the right temperature range when selecting insulation. In general, lower the
thermal conductivity, higher shall be the resistance to heat transfer.
Some common insulating materials used in steam piping include calcium silicate,
mineral fiber, fiberglass, prelate, and cellular glass. The American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) provides standards for the required properties of these and
other insulation materials.
Insulation blankets (fiberglass and fabric) are commonly used on steam distribution
components (valves, expansion joints, flanges etc.) to enable easy removal and
replacement for maintenance tasks.
The following simple rules may serve as guidelines on insulation:
a) The smaller the pipe diameter, the thinner the insulation
b) Good quality insulation with low thermal conductivity is far better than
a poor quality material
c) The higher is the temperature of the surface to be insulated; the better is

the return on investment
70
d) It is the initial 7 W thickness of insulation, which is critical to heat loss.
It is more important that all steam pipework be insulated to some
degree, rather than having some pipework well insulated while other
71 | P a g e
sections are left bare and therefore it is always advantages to cover up

all fittings, valves, supports and flanges.
e) Running pipes in groups greatly reduce heat losses. All future

installations should incorporate this principle
f) Drafts and air movements greatly increase heat losses especially when
pipe are not well insulated
g) The optimized insulation is the most economic one.
Example: If only 10 flanges are not insulated on a 4-in. diameter pipe carrying steam
at 125 psig, the annual heat loss is equivalent to 2450 m3 of natural gas worth 5370.
Example: A 3-m (10-ft.) length of uninsulated 4-in steam pipe wastes more than
twice as much money in steam costs per year than the cost of insulating it with
mineral fiber and aluminum jacket.
Plugging Leaks
The first concern for efficient energy utilization is that there is no heat loss through
direct steam leakage from the faulty joints, valves and steam traps. Steam leaks
commonly develop around valve stems, pressure regulators, and pipe joints. This kind
of waste is easy to detect and shall not be allowed.
Even a small leak represents a significant loss of energy during the year. For example,
if steam at a pressure of 100 psi is leaking from an 0.8mm diameter hole, the steam
lost will cause up to 1500 liters of oil to be wastefully burned a year. The table below
provides a glimpse of energy loss from leaking steam.
Steam Trap and Associated Pipelines: 71

A steam trap is a kind of automatic valve which distinguishes between condensate
from steam and affects condensate removal. Three types of steam traps are commonly

72 | P a g e
used:
1. In the first one this distinction is made on the basis of their density difference.
These are also known as mechanical traps and include float traps and bucket traps.
2. In the second they react to the difference of their temperature. These are also called
thermostatic traps and include balanced-pressure traps, bimetal traps and liquid
expansion traps.
3. The third one operates on the difference in their flow characteristics. These are also
called the thermodynamic traps.
Steam traps play a very important role in steam distribution systems.
The identification of a correct steam trap is made on the basis of the proposed
application area and the working conditions (working pressure and the temperature).
An exact analysis of these conditions will give the proper data necessary for selecting
the type and size of the steam trap. After a careful selection, it must be properly
installed, tested, periodically inspected, cleaned and maintained.
The following facts must be noted:
1. Traps need cleaning periodically. A recommended practice is to drop a

short length of pipe vertically below the supply to the trap (called a dirt
leg) which can be cleaned easily and frequently.
2. Traps can be seriously damaged by scale and dirt. A good practice is to

install strainers ahead of the traps which should be inspected and
cleaned frequently.
3. Traps are subject to severe wear, if steam blows through continuously.

They should be inspected for worn valve parts or a change in operating
conditions.
4. When a steam trap fails to discharge, inspect the heating system and be
certain that all units are drained with separate traps, thus guarding
against short circuiting, loss of energy, and reduction of operating
efficiency.
5. Discharge lines should be short and self draining and traps should be
fitted with a dirt pockets, test valves, and drains.
72
6. Steam traps handling large volumes of air require more frequent
inspection and proper venting for efficient operation. Vents shall be
used to avoid air binding and ensure positive drainage.
73 | P a g e
Steam Use in Heating

The primary objective of the effective steam utilization is to maximize the transfer of
heat of the steam to the end use equipment. The following need to be noted:
Providing dry steam for process:

The best steam for industrial process heating is dry saturated steam-neither wet nor
superheated. If steam is wet, the trapped moisture particles reduce the total heat in the
steam (since they carry no latent heat), and increase the resistant film of water on the
heat transfer surfaces, thereby slowing down the rate of heat transfer. Superheated
steam is not so practical because it gives up its heat at a slower than the condensation
heat transfer of saturated steam.
Boiler without a super-heater cannot deliver perfectly dry saturated steam. At best, it
can deliver only 95% dry steam. The dryness fraction of steam depends on various
factors, such as level of water in the boiler drum, the effect of peak loads, the surging
within the boiler, the pressure on the water surface in the boiler and the solids content
in the boiler water. Any one of these factors can cause droplets of water to be a part of
the steam. A steam separator may be installed on the stem main as well as on the
branch lines to reduce the wetness in steam and improve the quality of steam going to
the user units.
Using Steam at Lowest Pressures:

Reducing the boilers steam operating pressure to the minimum needed by the end
user, or reducing the temperature of the fluid (not overheating the fluid), can
dramatically affect the energy savings. These savings come from burning less fuel in
the boiler or heater and lowering the amount of heat lost in the piping system.
To change the system's operating pressure or fluid temperature, verify that the boiler
and end devices can run at the lower pressure (temperature). The potential
environmental and dollar savings are worth investigating. Key end use equipment
includes, heat exchangers, unit heaters, vessels, tanks and other process-specific steam
use equipment.
In one of the liquor factory, the tanks were found to be operating at a temperature of
180°F when it was known that a temperature of 150°F was adequate for the particular
process. The unnecessary overheating was causing a wasteful use of about 13700
gallons of fuel oil a year. A simple temperature control device with temperature
sensor and 'On-Off' control valve on the steam can prevent this energy loss. 73
Caution: The energy manager should consider pressure reduction carefully, before
implementing it. Adverse effects, such as an increase in water carryover from the
74 | P a g e
boiler owing to pressure reduction, may negate any potential saving. Pressure should
be reduced in stages, and no more than a 20 percent reduction should be considered.
Heating by Direct Injection:

In plants where water or process liquor is heated by direct steam injection, one can
see the liquid in the tank boiling away, creating clouds of vapor. This is waste of
steam, besides it creates unpleasant working conditions. Ideally, the injected steam
should be condensed completely as the bubbles rise through the liquid. This is
possible only if the inlet pressure is kept low around 7psig and certainly not over 14
psig. Recommended arrangement includes a sparge pipe with large number of small
diameter holes (2 to 5mm), facing downwards, should be placed in the tank.
Proper Air Venting:

A 0.25mm thick air film offers the same resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick
copper wall. Air in a steam system will also affect the system temperature. The
presence of air inside the process equipment will reduce the partial pressure of steam
in the steam —air mixture, thus dropping the overall temperature of the steam air
mixture, which is the heating media. It is however, impossible to avoid the entry of air
into a steam system that is working intermittently. If the steam condenses during the
shut downs, air tends to be sucked in due to the partial vacuum created. Air is also
pushed into the process equipment from the steam mains a time of start up. The
situation can be improved by installing properly sized air vents at appropriate position
in the pipelines and equipment at the highest points. Automatic air vents for steam
systems (which operate on the same principle as thermostatic steam traps) should be
fitted above the condensate level so that only air or steam fair mixtures can reach
them.
Boiler Energy Audit

A good starting point to an energy efficiency program is to conduct an energy audit.
This starts with identification of the components of the system boundary and
encompassing two most important objectives:
 Define the status of the system in terms of overall efficiency.
 Identify areas where energy (dollars) can be saved Certain data must be
gathered and calculations completed in order to determine the status of
the system in terms of efficiency and sources of energy loss This
section presents some ideas that may be applied to the boiler efficiency
program. 74

75 | P a g e
Combustion & Waste Heat Recovery:

1. Check and verify the boiler efficiency regularly. Monitor and compare
the boiler performance related data to standard and targets regularly.
2. Monitor the flue gas combustibles and the combustion excess air
regularly. Adjust as conditions change. Operating your boiler with an
optimum amount of excess air will minimize heat loss up the stack and
improve combustion efficiency.
3. The optimum amount of excess air required for the combustion

reaction depends on fuel composition and the type of boiler used.
Heavier fuels require higher excess air and the stoker fired boilers need
more air than oil fired boilers.
4. Check for and eliminate the entrance of unwanted air into the boiler
and flue gas exhaust system.
5. Keep burners adjusted to optimum efficiency. Establish a burner

maintenance schedule. Inspect and replace fault burners.
6. Replace obsolete boilers with high-efficiency, low-emissions units

fitted with new burner technology and heat recovery options suited to
the required demand. Excess air needs of oil fired boilers depend on the
design of the burners and atomizers, and on the cleanliness of the
burner nozzles. Low excess air burners, which can operate efficiently at
much lower levels of excess air, are available for liquid and gaseous
fuels.
7. Consider using fuel direct injection (FDI) technology. A FDI

regenerative burner reduces NOx emissions by about 90 percent
compared with ordinary regenerative burners.
8. Convert fuel from oil to natural gas, where gas supplies are available.
(Although this may save more money than energy, it has some
operational and environmental advantages.)
9. Check all the control settings regularly. Fit controls with locks to
prevent tampering and unauthorized adjustment.
10. Maintain the best operating condition of air and fuel controls. 11)
Inspect the fireside and waterside heat transfer surfaces when the boiler 75
plant is shut down; keep the surfaces clean. Ensure that the fireside
anti-fouling equipment works properly.

76 | P a g e
11. Use continuous oxygen monitors and operator adjustments to minimize

excess air level. Use continuous oxygen trim to automatically minimize
excess air level.
12. Draw warmer combustion air form ceiling of boiler plant, where the
incoming air has the highest possible temperature year-round.
13. Install an integrated computerized management system for generating

and distributing thermal energy.
14. Consider alternate uses for the remaining heat in the flue gas. Use it
for space heating, process or drying the product or biomass fuel.
15. Install equipment to recuperate heat on the flue gas system. This
includes economizers, combustion air preheaters and flue gas
condensers (indirect or direct contact). If already in place, review its
efficiency and consider replacing or upgrading it.
16. Keep unwanted air out: Effective control of excess combustion air also
involves guarding against infiltration (ingress) of unwanted air into the
boiler combustion cavity or the flue system. The air enters through
cover leaks, observation ports, faulty gaskets and other openings.
17. 02 monitoring may be drastically distorted by air infiltration into the

furnace and the convection passages downstream of the burners. CO
concentration is unaffected by air infiltration, and thus gives a more
certain indication of combustion.
18. Avoid subjective judgments; many operators are in a habit of taking

judgments based on the appearance of flame or color of flue gas. This
usually results in pumping lots of excess air or Btus (dollars) blowing
out of the stack. Remember, the deficient air constitutes a safety hazard
and excessive stack emissions.
Make management:
1. Maintain records of the amount of makeup water used. This helps in
analyzing the presence of leaks or losses in the system. They also assist
in developing a more effective chemical treatment program.
2. Excessive water use indicates a change in system operation and, 76

therefore, a change in efficiency.
3. Maximize efficiency and capacity of existing pretreatment system.

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4. Use of alternative raw water sources of better chemical and heat

content quality.
5. Consider improved pretreatment systems to minimize boiler blowdown

losses.
6. Use of process heat exchangers to preheat makeup water.
7. Adapt a chemical treatment system in addition to the fixed water

treatment.
Feedwater, Condensate and Blowdown Management

1. Return a greater percentage of condensate to boiler.
2. Use condensate monitors to check the contaminants and quality of

return water.
3. Use of economizers to preheat boiler feedwater.
4. Maintain good steam quality with a program of regular water chemical

treatment and the blowdown regime.
5. Evaluate deaerating system to ensure maximum operating efficiency.
6. Consider use of boiler blowdown heat recovery to preheat makeup

water.
7. Use flash tanks to generate low-pressure steam from the blowdown

(and use it in other heating applications, such as the de-aerator).
Steam and Condensate Management:

1. Look for opportunities to rationalize and streamline the steam and
condensate network.
2) Return more condensate to boiler system. Consider installing a system

for closed-loop pressurized condensate return.
3) Locate the areas of steam/condensate leakages and correct the problem.
4) Repair insulation on steam and condensate lines. Add insulation where

it is inadequate. Evaluate the economics of upgrading or adding more
insulation on current energy cost trends. 77
5) Review whether the steam and steam condensate recovery network

(and heating coils and other steam-using equipment) has proper

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drainage. This will eliminate water hammer, losses and damage.
6) Shut down the steam and condensate branch system when it is not
needed. Plug all obsolete, unused and redundant piping.
7) Set up a steam trap inspection and maintenance program and

procedures. Repair and/or replace faulty steam traps.
Steam Generation Management:

1. Add measuring, metering and monitoring equipment to the boiler and
heat distribution systems for fuel, steam, heating fluid, condensate and
blowdown flows.
2. Try to stabilize heating demand. To do this, review the schedule for

process demand. This will minimize boiler load swings and maximize
boiler efficiencies. Try to operate boilers at full load.
3. Operate steam generator at proper cycles of concentration to control

blowdown losses
4. Minimize blowdown losses by operating at maximum cycles of

concentration with automatic blowdown control
5. Repair faulty insulation on boilers
6. Balance load factor on alternate boilers with respect to overall boiler

efficiency ratings
7. Replace worn out burners
8. Replace outdated, inefficient boiler with new systems
9. Repair lost steam generating tubes, baffles and refractory to improve

overall efficiency
10. Operate the boiler (heater) at the lowest steam pressure (or heating
fluid temperature) that meets the needs of the production process
11. Convert from indirect to direct steam heating, where appropriate.

Convert from steam to heating fluid heating, where appropriate.
78
SAMPLE QUESTIONAIRE:
The following questions will help uncover boiler inefficiencies.

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Management:
1. Is the use of steam and heating fluid throughout the facility budgeted?
Is it monitored? Are there consumption targets?
2. If so, are the users of thermal energy accountable for its use? How?
3. Are there approved procedures and work instructions governing

thermal energy generation, distribution, monitoring and other
processes?
4. Have employees learned about the significance of energy and utility

conservation, and do they use correct practices?
5. Are boiler and heater operators involved with the efforts to conserve
energy and utilities?
6. Are employees aware of how much energy and utilities cost and how
much is being spent for these in the facility? Are they significantly
interested in improving the results?
7. Is there a system for communicating to employees the results of efforts

to conserve energy and utilities?
Heat consumption:
8) Are there procedures for shutting off thermal energy-using production
equipment and auxiliary production equipment when not in use?
9) Are the above procedures implemented?
10) Is steam or heating fluid produced at temperatures or pressures greater

than those required by end-user processes, product, plant or equipment?
11) In multiple boiler installations, how is steam demand matched to boiler

deployment? How is it done on weekends, during non-production
periods and in various seasons?
Fuels:
12) Can a cheaper alternative source for thermal energy be used?
13) Can process by-products be used as an auxiliary fuel or fuel

supplement? 79
14) If natural gas is used, have the costs of uninterruptible versus

interruptible supply been evaluated?

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15) Is the boiler fitted with dual capability to use natural gas or fuel oil to
take advantage of interruptible gas supply contracts?
Fuel storage:
1. Are heated oil tanks and associated piping adequately insulated?
2. Is the external insulation for the above items watertight?
3. Is oil heated at the correct temperature?
4. Is solid fuel (e.g. biomass) protected against rain? Is it dried?
Boilers and steam distribution:

16) Is the flue gas free of combustibles?
17) Is the boiler efficiency checked on a regular basis?
18) Is a proper method for determining boiler efficiency being used?
19) Is the efficiency acceptable for the type of boiler and fuel?
20) Is the burner operating in the 'zone of maximum combustion

efficiency?
21) Are the heat losses of the boiler and system known and quantified?
22) Is the flue gas checked for combustibles, carbon monoxide and oxygen
content on a regular basis?
23) Is the content within an acceptable range?
24) How is the excess combustion air managed? How frequently?
25) Can unwanted air get into the boiler and the flue stack? What type of
air or fuel control is used? How is it maintained?
26) What type of equipment is used for controlling and monitoring the
system? What instruments are used?
27) Where is the combustion air intake located?
28) Is the combustion air preheated? If so, how?

80
29) Are the NOx levels in the flue gas known and monitored? Are they
within an acceptable range?

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30) What are the flue gas temperatures at various boiler loads? Are they
monitored?
16) Is heat being recovered from flue gas? What type? How efficiently?
31) Is there any evidence of soot buildup on the fireside surface of the
boiler?
32) Is there a program for inspecting and removing soot and scale from
heat transfer surfaces of the heater and boiler? From process
equipment?
33) Is the flame in the combustion chamber bright and clear? Does it fill
the combustion chamber without encroaching?
34) What is the blowdown rate, and is it at the level recommended by water
treatment specialists? Is it based on the content of dissolved solids (DS)
in the boiler water? Have the levels of DS content been calibrated to
conductivity?
35) How is the blowdown rate controlled?
36) Is there a system for recovering heat from the blowdown?
37) Is there redundant, oversized or undersized steam piping that causes

heat losses? Is there an inspection program for it?
38) Are steam lines, flanges, valves and condensate lines adequately
insulated? Is the insulation dry and protected against water ingress?
39) Is steam or condensate leaking?
40) Is the makeup water preheated? If so, how?
41) Is the condensate return rate adequate? Has it been verified?
42) Is the correct type of steam traps for the application being used?
43) Is there an adequate maintenance program for inspecting, repairing and

replacing steam traps?
44) How many of the traps are faulty? 81

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Chapter 6 MAJOR
LOSSES OF BOILER
EFFICIENCY
There are many losses of boiler efficiency. Boilers are a part of Chemical Process
Industry which is used to produce steam for Process applications and as well as power
generation. There are various causes for poor efficiency for Boiler as depicted below
Stack Gas losses:

The biggest energy loss in a conventional fossil fuel fired boiler goes 'up the chimney'
that is, out the stack. The loss could amount to as much as 30-35% of the fuel input in
worst cases. This stack gas heat loss consists of three different ways:
a) Heat loss due to dry flue gas.

b) Heat loss due to moisture in the fuel.
Heat loss due to dry flue gas (LDG)

Heat is lost in the "dry" products of combustion, which carry only sensible heat since no
change of state was involved. These products are carbondioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), oxygen(O2), nitrogen (N2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2).Concentrations of SO2 and
CO are normally in the parts-per-million (ppm) range so, from the viewpoint of heat loss,
they can be ignored. Calculate the dry flue gas loss (LDG) using the following formula:
LDG = [24 x DG x (FGT – CAT)] ÷ HHV,

82
Where
DG (lb./lb. fuel) = (11CO2 + 8O2 + 7N2) x (C + 0.375S) ÷ 3CO2

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FGT = flue gas temperature, ºF
CAT = combustion air temperature, ºF
HHV = higher heating value of fuel, Btu/lb.
CO2 and O2 = percent by volume in the flue gas
N2 = 100 – CO2 – O2
C and S = weight fraction in fuel analysis
Minimizing excess air reduces dry flue gas losses.
Heat loss due to moisture from Hydrogen (LH)

The hydrogen component of fuel leaves the boiler as water vapour, taking with it the
enthalpy – or heat content – corresponding to its conditions of temperature and pressure.
The vapour is a steam at very low pressure, but with a high stack temperature. Most of its
enthalpy is in the heat of vaporization. The significant loss is about 11 percent for natural
gas and 7 percent for fuel oil.
This loss (LH) can be calculated as follows:
LH (%) = [900 x H2 x (hg – hf)] ÷ HHV
Where,
H2 = hydrogen weight fraction in fuel analysis.
hg = 1055 + (0.467 x FGT), Btu/lb.
hf = CAT – 32, Btu/lb.
Where,
hg = the enthalpy of water vapour at 1 psig (pounds per square inch gauge)
FGT = The flue gas temperature
hf = the enthalpy of water at the combustion air temperature (CAT).
Only a condensing heat exchanger will reduce this loss appreciably.

83

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Combustible Heat Losses:

This is the second largest source of heat loss in coal stokers and is caused by unburned
fuel. It comes from three sources:-
a) Carbon in bottom ash:-
b) Carbon in fly ash:-
Carbon in the fly ash comes from small coal particles that have not been burned. Fly ash
re-injection from a mechanical dust collector will reduce this heat loss.
Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and this constitutes a loss of potential heat
in the fuel. To assess these heat losses, samples of ash must be analyzed for carbon
content. The quantity of ash produced per unit of fuel must also be known.
Radiation and Convection Heat Losses:

A portion of heat from combustion escapes from the wall of the furnace without being
absorbed by the boiler water. Heat loss from this occurrence is controlled through proper
insulation techniques and the maintenance of insulation layers.
This loss occurs from the external surfaces of an operating boiler. For any boiler at
operating temperature, the loss is constant. Expressed as a percentage of the boiler's heat
output, the loss increases as boiler output is reduced. Hence, operating the boiler at full
load lowers the percentage of loss. Since the boiler's surface area relates to its bulk, the
relative loss is lower for a larger boiler and higher for a smaller boiler. Instead of making
complex calculations, determine the radiation and convection loss using a standard chart
available from the American Boiler Manufacturers Association 84
Normally surface loss and other unaccounted losses is assumed based on the type and
size of the boiler as given below
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For industrial fire tube / packaged boiler = 1.5 to 2.5%

For industrial watertube boiler = 2 to 3%
For power station boiler = 0.4 to 1%
However it can be calculated if the surface area of boiler and its surface temperature are
known as given below :
L = 0.548 x [ (Ts / 55.55)4 – (Ta / 55.55)4] + 1.957 x (Ts – Ta)1.25 x sq.rt of
[(196.85 Vm + 68.9) / 68.9]
where
L = Radiation loss in W/m2
Vm = Wind velocity in m/s
Ts = Surface temperature (K)
Ta = Ambient temperature (K)
Continuous and Intermittent Blow down:

Boiler produces steam from the water in a continuous manner. But the circulating water
has dissolved solids and due to evaporation this concentration will raise over a period of
time. So, Blow down is given in the boiler by removing a part of circulating water from
the boiler to maintain the Dissolved solid level in control. Continuous blow down is
continuous removal of constant stream from boiler, as the name says. Intermittent Blow
down is operated based on the requirement. Whenever drastic increase in concentrations
of pH Silica, Phosphate, Conductivity or TDS this is used so that the fresh feed water
comes in and reduces the concentrations. The removal of hot water from the boiler
reduces its efficiency. So automatic blow down control based on TDS and/or
Conductivity will help to optimize the blow down water requirement. Apart from that
Flash steam Recovery will also help to extract the energy from the blow down as low
pressure steam.
Leaks:
Combustion air leak increases the load on the combustion Air fan driver as the
volumetric flow requirement goes high. Leaks Pre heated combustion air path results also
in heat loss through the leaky air. Flue gas leaks also causes heat energy loss and also
pollutes the ambient air. False air ingression in negative pressure regions results in
dilution of hot air and increases the fuel requirement. Internal and
External corrosion possibilities are to be periodically inspected and corrective action is to

be taken to avoid reduction in boiler efficiency. Ultra sonic leak detectors are available in
market which greatly helps to identify the leaks especially in low pressure regions. Steam
leaks in the boiler system also dampen the energy efficiency. 85

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Excess Air Control:

Excess Air is required for complete combustion of fuel in boilers. The range of excess air
requirement depends on the fuel type used. It is necessary to keep the excess air at
optimum level to reduce heat required to preheat the excess air to flue gas temperature.
Apart from that Thermal NOX formation is favorable at high temperature and high
excess air conditions. Portable and/or online Oxygen Analyzer helps to keep the excess
air in the required level during normal operations. During sudden load changes excess air
has to be controlled with care otherwise it is detrimental to the efficiency of the boiler.
Insufficient combustion air causes a reduction in fuel efficiency, creates highly toxic
carbon monoxide gas and produces soot. To ensure there is enough oxygen to completely
react with the fuel, extra combustion air is usually supplied. This extra air, called “Excess
Air,” is expressed as the percent air above the amount theoretically needed for complete
combustion. In real-world combustion, the excess air required for gaseous fuels is
typically about 15 percent. Significantly more may be needed for liquid and solid fuels.
A good estimate of excess air can be determined using the following formula. This
calculation uses the oxygen concentration measured in the exhaust. If the CO
concentration is very high, it may also be included in the excess air calculation.
This is shown in Appendix C, “Calculations.”
Although required, higher excess air comes with a price—it wastes fuel. There are a
number of reasons why this occurs but, stated simply, supply air cools the combustion
system by absorbing heat and transporting it out the exhaust flue. The more air, the more
the cooling. Consider, too, that nitrogen, which makes up about eighty percent of the air,
plays no role chemically to produce heat. It does, however, add significantly to the
weight of gas that absorbs heat energy.
86

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Figure 8 illustrates how increasing excess air reduces combustion efficiency.
Using too much excess air is one of the principal causes of poor fuel economy. For this
reason, optimizing excess air usage can be one of the simplest ways to achieve significant
fuel savings.
Soot, Scale Formation:

Soot is the black smoke commonly seen in the exhaust of diesel trucks, and is present
whenever fuel oils or solid fuels are burned. Excessive soot is undesirable because it
indicates poor combustion and is responsible for coating internal heat transfer surfaces,
preventing good thermal conductivity. Over time, serious damage to the heat exchanger
can occur.
Soot is primarily unburned carbon, and is formed for the same reasons CO is formed—
insufficient combustion air, poor mixing and low flame temperature. As with CO, it is
usually impossible or impractical to entirely eliminate soot formation for some fuel types.
We discussed already about scaling in reason for High stack temperature of boiler. Due to
improper treatment systems scaling may occur inside water tubes in water tube boiler.
Soot formation in Coal and Fuel oil fired boilers will cause scale formation and reduces
the effective heat transfer area in a fire tube boilers. Physical and Chemical cleaning
methods to be adopted to restore the heat transfer during the shutdown of the boilers.
During normal operation effective soot blowing operation is to be carried out to remove
the soot’s from the surfaces, which influences the boiler efficiency to a great extent.
Fuel Quality:
Loss of Heat due to Moisture & Ash content in the fuel will decrease the boiler 87
efficiency. The heat required for evaporating the moisture and bringing it to the flue gas
temperature goes vain. Therefore moisture in fuel and also in combustion air has to be
monitored and controlled carefully. The increase in sulfur concentration increases the
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dew point and therefore heat cannot be recovered by bringing the stack temperature
below the dew point. Ash content in the fuel also decreases boiler energy efficiency. Loss
due to unburnt bottom ash and fly ash is unrecoverable part of the energy.
Incomplete Combustion:
Incomplete combustion results in CO emission which pollutes the environment and also
decreases the efficiency. In Coal fired boilers particle size is an important parameter to be
controlled. Too fine particles increases the grinding mill power consumption and too
coarse particles results in incomplete combustion and unburnt losses will raise. Particle
size is optimized taking care of the two. In Fuel oil fired boilers proper atomization by
steam or air is very important for better combustion efficiency.
VFD for Pump and Fan Motor:

Older fashion of controlling the combustion air and flue gas was with the help of
dampers. Similarly Boiler Feed Water flow is controlled with the help of control valves.
Operation of damper or control valve provides additional pressure drop which in turn is
energy loss. So modern boilers are equipped with Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) for
Combustion Air Fan, Flue Gas Fan and Boiler Feed Water Pump motors. This helps to
keep the damper or control valve in a full open condition which offers less pressure drop
and saves considerable amount of energy. For Steam Turbines speed governor is installed
and looped with the control system for varying the speed of the turbine according to the
air and water requirement.
88

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Chapter 7 IMPROVING
METHOD OF BOILER
EFFICIENCY
In this chapter we should learn about improving methods of boiler efficiency. So we can
take following steps to reduce any loss of boiler and for better efficiency of boiler.
Method 1
Reduce Excess Air

Potential saving: 5%-10%
Problem: unneeded excess air is used, probably to dilute the flue gas so that
Smoke is not seen.
Solutions: reduce excess air to the minimum 10%-15% required.
Typical Excess Air Values
Flue Gas Loss Combustion Oil 89

90 | P a g e
The relationship between temperature difference flue gas and supply air, concentration in
2CO the flue gas, and the efficiency loss in the flue gas combustion oil, is expressed in
the diagram below
Method 2
Decrease Flue-Gas Temperature

Potential saving: 1% for every 40°F.the potential saving is 3%, since many stacks run
120°F too high.
Problem: Either excess air or fouling water and /or fire side tubes.
Solutions:
 If there is excess fuel, the fuel rate can be decreased to decrease the
temperature.
 If the tubes are fouling up, steam production will suffer, and the only
solution is to shut down and clean them up or blow soot on fireside.
 An economizer may be economical (see method 15)
The TDS inside a boiler should be maintained at recommended levels else it can lead to
scaling of the boiler tubes and eventually failure of the tubes which is a safety hazard
90

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Energy Loss from Scale Deposits
Method 3
Reduce Boiler Pressure:

Potential saving: 1%for every 70 psig reduction
Problem: the boiler is being operated at a pressure higher than necessary.
Solution: slowly reduce boiler pressure to a point where the amount of steam produced is
sufficient to fulfill plant requirements
Method 4 91
Increase Fuel Oil Temperature:

Potential saving: 5%

92 | P a g e
Problem:
Atomize the fuel at the right viscosity .Too high or too low a viscosity will yield poor
atomization and poor efficiency.
Solution:
Preheat the fuel at 212°F-230°F or more so that the fuel viscosity will be 100-300 sus
Fuels oils - their viscosity versus temperature
92

93 | P a g e
Fuel Oil Heating System
Method 5
Optimize Fuel Atomization Pressure:

Problem: The fuel atomization pressure is lower or higher than that specified by the
nozzle or burner design.
Solution: Adjust fuel pressure according to nozzle operating instructions.
Method 6
Reduce Boiler blowdown

Problem: excessive blowdown due to poor water treatment and /or poor operating
practices .the hot blowdown stream has energy that is lost unless it is recovered. (See
Method 16)
Solution: control feed water quality with the appropriate water treatment, review
operation Procedures.
Method 7
Optimize Single-boiler Firing

Problem: A boiler may come on for a few minutes and then be off for several minutes,
resulting in large energy losses due to the removal of useful heat when the boiler is off; or
a boiler may “hunt” i.e. the firing rate is continually adjusting, resulting in much more
excess air.
Solution: for an on –off boiler, fire the boiler at an intermediate rate or buy a smaller
boiler; for boiler that “hunt” adjust the firing so that larger steam – pressure fluctuation
are allowed.
Method 8
Optimize multiple-boiler operation

93
Problem: A plant has two or more boilers operates them without distributing the load
according to the efficiency each boiler.

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Solution: Obtain the efficiency of each boiler vs. load; adjust each boiler to operate at
peak efficiency.
Boiler efficiency vs. load
Method 9
Stop Steam Leaks

Potential: 5%-10%
Problem: piping leak
Solution: plug leak as soon as they appear.
• The biggest steam losses are caused by failing steam traps or leaks into the steam
system net. These uncontrolled leaks can lead to enormous losses and also enormous
costs. The leaking traps can cause problems with tracing of your equipment, problems
with back pressure into the condensate lines (which causes failure of groups of steam
traps), and make your cost for the production of steam much higher. Problems with
tracing in one unit can be caused by leaking traps in another unit on the other side of the
plant which indicates that monitoring steam traps important is for the proper working of
your steam system.
94

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Steam leak rates
Method 10
Stop Steam-Trap Leaks

Problem: steam traps malfunctioning and leaking steam.
Solution: check steam trap routinely and repair them.
Steam trap piping system 95
Method 11
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Reduce Deposits in Burner

Problem: organic and inorganic deposits build in burner, reducing atomization efficiency
and therefore reducing combustion efficiency.
Solution: use a fuel oil additive with detergent dispersant to keep burners clean.
Method 12
Reduce Scale and Soot Deposits on Fireside

Potential saving: 2% - 9%
Problem: soot and /or vanadium-based deposit decrease the heat transfer rate. If all
conditions are constant, this decrease is noticeable when the flue gas temperature
increases with time.
Solution: treat fuel with additives to minimize either soot deposits or vanadium-based
scale.
Use soot blowers if available
96

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Layers of deposit associated with coal-ash corrosion.
97
Soot and scale do not only increase energy consumption but are as well a major cause
of tube failure

98 | P a g e
Fuel energy loss due to soot

Method 13
Reduce Scale and Deposits on Waterside

Problem: inorganic scale and deposits decrease heat transfer rate; i.e. flue gas
temperature increase with time.
Solution: treat feed water properly using guidelines of boiler manufacturer or water
boiler standardizing.
Energy loss due to scale deposits 98

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Fuel energy loss due to scale
99
Fire tube with soot inside and scale outside

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Method 14
Increase Combustion Air Temperature

Problem: preheat combustion air .every 40 °F rise yields a 1% gain in efficiency.
Solution: there are several possible solutions relocate air intake duct so that a maximum
air duct temperature is obtained, or install an air preheater if possible and economically
feasible.
Recoverable heat from boiler flue gases
Air Heaters
Air heaters cool flue gases before they pass into the atmosphere, increasing fuel-firing
efficiency and raising the temperature of the incoming air of combustion. In low pressure
gas or oil-fired industrial boilers, air heaters function as gas coolers as there is no need to
preheat the oil or gas in order for it to burn.
Method 15
Increase Feedwater Temperature

Problem: raise water temperature 100

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Solution: the equipment needed is an economizer that uses the heat from flue gases, if
economically feasible. Also, the water can be preheated using the waste heat from
blowdown (method 16). 10°F rise in feedwater temperature raise efficiency 1%
Economizers
Economizers help to improve boiler efficiency by extracting heat from the flue gases
discharged from the final superheater section of a radiant/reheat unit or the evaporative
bank of a non-reheat boiler. Heat is transferred to the feedwater, which enters at a much
lower temperature than saturated steam.
Economizer
101
Location of Air heaters and Economizers
Method 16
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Recover Heat Energy from Blowdown

Problem: preheat water by recovering energy from blowdown.
Solution: add flash tank to system .the blowdown is flashed by lowering the pressure in
the flash tank; the steam produced is then vented into the feed water to boiler .some 50%
of the heat in the blowdown is recovered. Send blowdown at 220°F to waste.
 Also a flash tank may be added, followed by a heat exchanger to extract

one-third more energy from the blowdown before going to waste.
Recoverable heat from boiler blowdown
102
Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery System

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Install an Automatic Blowdown Control System
Saving through Installation of Automatic Blowdown Control System
Method 17
Energy Recovery from Excessive Steam Pressure

Potential saving: variable 103
Problem: use throttling or back pressure turbine.

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Solution: the idea is to utilize the energy from steam rather than to decrease its pressure
though a throttling valve.
Steam Turbine
Replace Pressure-Reducing Valves with Backpressure Turbo-generators:

Many industrial facilities produce steam at a higher pressure than is demanded by process
requirements. Steam passes through pressure-reducing valves (PRVs, also known as
letdown valves) at various locations in the steam distribution system to let down or
reduce its pressure. A non-condensing or backpressure steam turbine can perform the
same pressure-reducing function as a PRV, while converting steam energy into electrical
energy. In a backpressure steam turbo-generator, shaft power is produced when a Nozzle
directs jets of high-pressure steam against the blades of the turbine’s rotor. The rotor is
attached to a shaft that is coupled to an electrical generator. The steam turbine does not
consume steam. It simply reduces the pressure of the steam that is subsequently
exhausted into the process header.
Consider Installing High-Pressure Boilers with Backpressure Turbine-Generators:

When specifying a new boiler, consider a high-pressure boiler with a backpressure steam
turbine-generator placed between the boiler and the steam distribution network. A
turbine-generator can often produce enough electricity to justify the capital cost of
purchasing the higher-pressure boiler and the turbine-generator. 104

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Since boiler fuel usage per unit of steam production increases with boiler pressure,
facilities often install boilers that produce steam at the lowest pressure consistent with
end use and distribution requirements.
In the backpressure turbine configuration, the turbine does not consume steam.
Instead, it simply reduces the pressure and energy content of steam that is subsequently
exhausted into the process header. In essence, the turbo-generator serves the same steam
function as a pressure-reducing valve (PRV)—it reduces steam pressure but uses the
pressure drop to produce highly valued electricity in addition to the low-pressure steam.
Shaft power is produced when a nozzle directs jets of high-pressure steam against the
blades of the turbine’s rotor. The rotor is attached to a shaft that is coupled to an electrical
generator.
Method 18
Reduce Heat Losses in Boiler, Steam and Valves

Problem: heat is lost by radiation and convection through the walls of non insulated or
poorly insulated boiler surfaces and piping.
Solution: use a surface thermometer and determine where heat losses are present; then
insulate.
105
Digital Surface Thermometer

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Heat loss of uninsulated steam line
Pipe and Fitting Insulation
106

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Valve & Tank Insulation
Method 19
Use Fuel Oil Rather Than Natural Gas

Problem: If the price of natural gas is the same or higher than that of fuel oil, which is
more economical?
Solution: use fuel oil even if both cost the same per MMBtu, fuel oil gives about a 2%
higher efficiency than natural gas.
 The reason for this is that natural gas has more hydrogen atoms per unit
weight than fuel oil therefore, more water is formed from the gas, and the
latent heat of vaporization of water is lost when the water vapor leaves the
stack.
 MMBtu=Million Metric British Thermal Units
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Method 20
Change From Steam to Air Atomization

Solution: Uses are atomization for fuel oils. The energy required to produce they are of
atomization is a small fraction of the energy required to produce the steam of
atomization.
Air Atomization burner
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Chapter 8 REDUCING
THE LOSSES
AFFECTING
EFFICIENCY
The following discussion relates to the nature and magnitude of the effects of various
factors on boiler efficiency, which were introduced briefly in the previous chapter.
Graphical means of estimating quantifiable effects are presented, where possible.
Excess Air Rate

As discussed in a previous chapter, boilers should always be supplied with more
combustion air than theoretically required in order to ensure complete combustion and
safe operation. At the same time, however, boiler efficiency is dependent on the excess
air rate. Excess air should be kept at the lowest practical level, to reduce the quantity of
unneeded air which is heated and exhausted at the stack temperature.
If the air rate is too low, there will be a rapid buildup of carbon monoxide in the flue gas
and, in extreme cases, smoke will be produced (i.e. unburned carbon particles). In the
case of boilers firing gaseous fuels, the onset of smoke will not be as obvious as with oil,
bagasse, or coal-fired systems.
To check whether the air-to-fuel ratio is correct, the usual method is to analyze the flue
gases leaving the boiler. This is the basis for all boiler efficiency testing. By determining
the composition of these gases, the actual excess air can be estimated.
Exhibit 4-1 describes the relationship between the exhaust gas composition
measurements (CO2 and O2) and the excess air being fed into the boiler. The oxygen and
carbon dioxide compositions are related by chemical balance and each of their values
must give the same excess air percentage. If the excess air rates corresponding to the 109
oxygen and carbon dioxide compositions do not agree, there is some error in the
measurements.

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Exhibit 4-1: Relationship between O2, CO2 and Excess Air
However, burner performance is critical to boiler efficiency and is therefore addressed in

this section.
The function of a burner is to mix the fuel and air in proportions that are within the limits
of flammability, as well as to provide conditions for steady, continuous combustion. A
well designed burner will mix the fuel and air so that a minimum amount of excess air is
needed to achieve complete combustion. There are different types of burners
commercially available for all types of fuels, each burner having its own characteristics,
advantages and limitations. Their operation is discussed in more detail in the Chapter on
burners.
The performance of a burner directly affects boiler efficiency because of the excess air
required to obtain complete combustion at the burner. A poorly adjusted burner, or one
incapable of efficiently mixing fuel and air at all load ranges, will increase excess air
110
requirements and waste fuel.
Provided that the burners are clean and well maintained, the air to fuel ratio controls on
modern boilers should be able to maintain the recommended excess air through much of
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the turndown ratio of the burner, although the excess air will increase at low turndown
ratios.
Experience, however, shows that many burners are incorrectly adjusted. Changes take
place due to wear on cams, linkages, pins, etc., often resulting in a change in the air-to-
fuel ratio and a consequent loss of efficiency. Poorly maintained, worn or damaged
burner parts also contribute to inefficiencies. For example, a scored or scratched burner
tip on a pressure jet oil burner can lead to incorrect atomization of the fuel: some droplets
may be small, some large. This often results in inadequate mixing of fuel and air, and an
excessive formation of carbon monoxide. It is thus possible to have high oxygen levels in
the flue gas (i.e. high excess air) at the same time as having high carbon monoxide. A
similar effect can be caused by a burner tip which has been worn by “over-enthusiastic”
cleaning (using abrasive tools) of the small hole or jet nozzle in the center, whose
dimensions are critical for the proper atomization of a given fuel oil.
It is therefore important to understand that attaining the optimum excess air rate may be
prevented by the use of damaged or incorrectly adjusted burner parts. Whenever high
oxygen levels are found in conjunction with high combustibles (i.e. carbon monoxide or,
in extreme cases, smoke), the mechanical integrity of the burner and air distribution
system is suspect and should be checked. (Refer to Chapters 7 and 11 on burners and
performance monitoring respectively).
Firing Rate
Exhibit 4-2 illustrates that there are significant changes in losses and boiler efficiency as
the firing rate is varied. Especially obvious are the radiation and convection losses, which
increase in percentage terms at lower firing rates, and the dry flue gas losses which tend
to increase at higher firing rates (due to higher stack gas temperatures).
The highest efficiencies typically occur over the range of firing rates from 70 to 90% of
rated capacity, and therefore boiler efficiency can be kept high by using the equipment in
this range as much as possible. Indeed, where the process allows, it may be desirable to
shut the equipment down from time to time and operate at approximately 90% capacity
the rest of the time, rather than operate steadily at approximately 50% of capacity.
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Flue Gas Temperature

Flue gas temperature is second only to excess air level in importance as a parameter
controlling boiler efficiency. Exhibit 4-3 shows changes in combustion efficiency with
flue gas temperature at various excess air levels for a boiler fired on natural gas. It is
obvious that flue gas temperature must be held to a minimum in order to maximize boiler
efficiency.
The two basic causes of high flue gas temperature are:
● Insufficient heat transfer surface
● Fouling of heat transfer surfaces
The boiler heat transfer surface may be increased by installing an air pre-heater or
economizer to preheat combustion air or feed water, respectively. Proper feed water
treatment and external tube cleaning is effective in minimizing fouling of heat transfer
surfaces. The effects of feed water temperature, combustion air temperature and fouled 112
heat transfer surfaces on boiler efficiency will be discussed further in subsequent sections
of this chapter.

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It may be seen from Exhibit 4-3 that efficiency decreases much more rapidly with
increasing flue gas temperature at higher excess air levels. This emphasizes the
importance of careful control of excess air level on boilers with insufficient heat transfer
surface.
It is also well known that flue gas temperature cannot be reduced below its dew point as
this might result in corrosion problems. Another negative factor might be reduction in
stack draft or plume rise.
Feed Water Temperature

Boiler efficiency can be increased by preheating feed water in an economizer thus
recovering waste heat from the flue gas. Exhibit 4-4 illustrates typical magnitude of
efficiency improvements that might be expected from increased feed water temperatures.
These results are based on efficiency increases for feed water preheat for a boiler
113
originally producing saturated steam at 175°C from feed water at 90°C. In general, an
increase in feed water temperature of 6°C (11°F) will result in 1% less fuel being burned
at the boiler.

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It is important to note that, while an increase in boiler feed water temperature will
decrease the fuel used to generate steam, this will only affect the efficiency of the boiler
if the boiler exhaust gases are used to heat this feed water.
Condensate Recovery
Although this manual is not directly concerned with steam distribution systems and steam
usage, condensate recovery is an important aspect of efficient boiler house operation and
is discussed here.
When steam gives up energy in a typical process plant, it is often only the super heat and
latent heat which is utilized, the steam condensate normally being removed as it is
formed. This condensate is usually quite hot and thus contains much of the original
energy that was put into the boiler feed water. Provided no contamination occurs, the
condensate also represents a valuable source of pure water. Condensate can therefore be
ideal boiler feed water, being both hot and free of impurities. Whenever possible,
condensate should be recovered from the process and returned to the boiler house. In this
way, the temperature of the feed water will be increased and, every 6°C (11°F) rise in this
temperature will result in 1% less fuel being burned at the boiler.
Exhibit 4-5 indicates the levels of savings which can be obtained by increasing
condensate recovery in a plant. Of course, there may be situations where the capital cost
of installing condensate recovery lines and associated pumps cannot be justified by the
savings in water, fuel and water treatment costs, but this is relatively unusual. 114
Exhibit 4-5: Boiler Fuel Saved by Condensate Return

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One reason sometimes given for not returning condensate is that it can be contaminated
(or that there exists a risk of contamination, for example, in a sugar refinery). In such
cases, there may be other uses for hot condensate which do not depend on having an
entirely pure water supply. Alternatively, heat may be usefully recovered from
contaminated condensate by passing it through a heat exchanger. In other situations, the
condensate is passed through some type of "contamination detector" which will detect
traces of impurities in the water and give appropriate warning.
Combustion Air Temperature

Boiler efficiency can be increased by recovering waste heat from the flue gas and
preheating the combustion air. Exhibit 4-6 illustrates typical magnitudes of efficiency
improvements to be expected from increased combustion air temperatures. These results
suggest an efficiency increase of about 2% for every 55°C (100°F) increase in
combustion air temperature.
As with feed water preheat, air preheat only improves the boiler efficiency when the
boiler exhaust heat is used to preheat the combustion air. Any other source of heat,
however, while it will save fuel at the boiler, will not improve the boiler efficiency.
115
Exhibit 4-6: Boiler Efficiency Improvement by Combustion Air Pre-heating with

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Boiler Exhaust Gases
Fouling of Heat Transfer Surfaces

Deposits and fouling on the external tube surfaces of a water tube boiler, or similar gas-
side conditions on internal tube surfaces of a fire tube boiler, will inhibit the transfer of
heat from combustion products to the boiler water and thus lead to lower efficiencies.
Water-side deposits resulting from inadequate water treatment will also impede heat
transfer and lead to increased flue gas temperatures and reduced efficiencies. In the case
of water-side scale build-up, tube failures due to overheating can occur.
Gas-side fouling of tube surfaces will also be reflected in increased flue gas temperatures
when compared to "clean" conditions at a similar firing rate and excess air level. Exhibit
4-7 shows that the resulting loss in boiler efficiency is of the order of 1% for every 20°C
increase in flue gas temperature. Therefore, the cost of gas-side fouling of tube surfaces
may be estimated on the basis of an increase in stack temperature above "clean" baseline
temperatures.
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Exhibit 4-7: Boiler Efficiency Loss due to Stack Temperature Increase
Saturated steam boilers are usually designed to have stack temperatures of the order of
25°C to 40°C above the saturated steam temperature at high firing rates. In the absence of
any reference temperatures, this design criterion may be used to estimate temperatures at
"clean" conditions. Boilers equipped with economizers or pre-heaters would obviously
not fit to this design criterion. If necessary, the boiler manufacturer should be able to
supply a normal range of stack temperatures for a particular boiler design.
Fouling of water-side tube surfaces will retard heat transfer and increase tube metal
temperatures due to the insulating effect of the water-side scale. Increased stack
temperatures will indicate water-side tube fouling in the absence of gas-side tube fouling.
Even though the most important effect of water-side tube fouling is the probability of
tube failure, efficiency losses due to reduced heat transfer can also be substantial. Exhibit
4-8 presents typical percentages of fuel waste for various thicknesses of water-side scale
deposits. A proper water treatment program will minimize fuel waste due to fouling by
eliminating part or all of the scale-forming impurities introduced with the boiler make-up
water.
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Exhibit 4-8: Typical Fuel Wasted due to Scale Deposits
Blowdown
Loss of boiler heat due to blowdown can be a major factor in the inefficiency of a boiler.
This section presents a discussion of the factors necessitating blowdown, types of
blowdown, blowdown control, and recovery of heat from blowdown.
Solids Concentration
The process of raising steam inevitably results in the concentration of dissolved and
suspended solids in the boiler water. Above a certain level of concentration, these solids,
because they can be deposited as a scale inside the boiler, can cause local overheating
which could lead to tube failure. The scale also impedes heat transfer, reducing the boiler
efficiency. Finally, a high concentration of solids can encourage foaming and cause
carry-over of water into the steam lines. ("Carry-over" is a general term covering all types
of entrainment of boiler water into the steam. The main causes are: too high a water level
in the boiler, excessive dissolved solids, excessive alkalinity, the presence of detergents,
process fluids and, most commonly, excessive suspended solids.)
118
It is therefore necessary to control the level of concentration of the solids, and this is done
by the process of "blowing down." A certain volume of water is drawn off, and is

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automatically replaced by feed water, thus maintaining the optimum level of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in the water. The blow down, however, represents a loss of hot
water, and thus leads to energy inefficiency, a decrease in boiler efficiency (see Exhibit
4-9).
Exhibit 4-9: Effect of Boiler Blowdown Rate on Fuel Wastage (% Fuel Wasted = %
Loss in Efficiency)
2The problem calls for the careful monitoring and supervision of the water conditions in
all boilers, but the modern shell-type packaged units are even more vulnerable than
earlier types because of their small water capacity and limited steam space in relation to
their output.
The old-style Lancashire/Cornish boiler has a large water capacity. It can normally
tolerate a high total dissolved solids content of up to 15,000 parts per million (ppm)
without carry-over problems. Slow water movement, characteristic of this type of boiler,
leads to the accumulation of precipitated solids in the bottom of the boiler and their
removal requires the use of quick-acting full bore blow down valves, usually for 2-10
minutes per shift. This method is very inaccurate, so operators usually err on the safe side
with the result that large amounts of sensible heat is lost in the blow down water.
119
The modern packaged shell-type boiler however, has a very limited water space, and
therefore steam generation creates considerable turbulence. This keeps more solids in
suspension and is less inclined to precipitate. Therefore TDS levels must be kept at much

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lower levels than in Lancashire-type boilers, i.e. 2,000-3,500 ppm, otherwise steam
quality will deteriorate due to carry-over. American Boiler Manufacturers Association
(ABMA) recommendations on TDS levels in modern boilers are summarized in Exhibit
4-10.
Exhibit 4-10: Recommended Limits of Boiler Water Concentration
Intermittent and Continuous Blowdown

Blowdown may be intermittent and taken from the bottom of the boiler to remove any
sludge that has settled. This is generally a manual operation carried out once per shift in a
series of short, sharp blasts; the amount of blowdown is estimated from the reduction of
level in the gauge glass, or simply from the duration of the blow. This has been the
traditional method used with shell boilers.
Blowdown may also be continuous as a bleed from a source near the nominal water level.
Since the concentration of solids will be the highest at the surface of the water (where
boiling is occurring), surface blow down is an efficient way to reduce the solids
concentration. A bleed valve opening is adjusted according to periodic total dissolved
solids (TDS) measurements, and the flow is continuous. In more recent years this has
become
"step-continuous", the valve being opened or closed cyclically from a time signal, or
from a signal derived from some property of the boiler water such as electrical
conductivity.
120
Automatic TDS control systems, based on this signal, are commercially available.

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In modern practice both intermittent and continuous blowdown methods are used, the
former mainly to remove suspended solids which have settled out, the latter to control
TDS.
It is important to carry out the intermittent blowdown sequence at periods of light load. It
is also important that it should not be neglected; otherwise, sludge may build up to such
an extent that heat transfer is impeded and the boiler fails, perhaps disastrously.
Accepting that blowdown is essential for the health of the boiler and the quality of the
steam it supplies, there are two things which require attention.
The first and most important is that the quantity of blowdown should not exceed the
minimum amount necessary. Anything in excess is a waste of energy. Proper control is
most important.
When control of blowdown has been achieved, recovery of heat from the blowdown
should be examined to see whether it is economical. On average, about 50% may be
recoverable.
Control of Blowdown
In a simple, manually-controlled system, the blowdown valve must be manually set to
give the required amount of blowdown. The aim is to maintain the total dissolved solids
in the boiler water (usually expressed in ppm, parts per million) just below the prescribed
maximum limit. This must be done by sampling and analyzing the water, and adjusting
the
blowdown until the desired conditions are achieved.
A simple checklist for estimating the quantity of blowdown from a boiler, if not already
known, is presented below:
 If the TDS level of the feed water (mixture of condensate return and
make-up) entering the boiler can be obtained, the required percentage of
blow down can be calculated as follows:
Where
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Sf = TDS level of feedwater in ppm
Sb = desired TDS level in boiler in ppm.

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 For existing plants, the present blowdown method may consist of blowing
down say one inch (25 mm) from the gauge glass at regular intervals. This
may be converted to a volume by estimating the water surface area of the
boiler (width times length), and multiplying this by the frequency, so that
an equivalent continuous blowdown flow rate may be calculated.
Remember that this will be related to the present average steam generation
rate.
 Alternatively, the existing blowdown method may consist of opening the

bottom blowdown valve for a given time at certain intervals. For the
standard full-bore valve, the flow rate is controlled by the length and
diameter of the blowdown line, and the boiler pressure. A pressure drop
calculation may be used for estimating the flow rate when the valve is
open, and from the figure obtained, an equivalent continuous blowdown
flow rate may be calculated. Again this will be related to the average
generation rate.
To check boiler water quality, it is necessary to take samples at regular intervals.
It is most important that the sample is properly cooled and not drawn
directly off the boiler or the blowdown line, or flash loss will completely
upset the true analysis. A sample cooler is essential.
Provided the average blowdown requirement exceeds 40 kg/h (88 lb/h), blowing
down a boiler continuously to control the TDS becomes the ideal
procedure. With constant make-up water flow and steam-generating
conditions, the continuous blowdown rate can be determined and
controlled precisely. Within varying conditions, a compromise has to be
made, either:
 The average continuous blowdown rate is accepted - resulting in the actual
TDS level fluctuating up and down about a norm; or
 The blowdown rate maintains the base level of TDS, and the peaks are
controlled intermittently.
Reliable and maintenance-free continuous blowdown can only be achieved using
good quality valves. Given the need for fine control, large pressure
reduction, and the presence of suspended solids, the valve must:
 Control accurately, and be easily and precisely set for the given flow rate.
 Withstand the arduous duty.
 Be easily moved to a purge position for cleaning the valve of deposits, and
be easily reset to the control position.
122
Blowdown Heat Recovery
It is clear that for every liter of water which is discharged through the blowdown system,
an equal quantity of make-up water is required at the boiler and feed tank. Because the
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blowdown is hot and the feed make-up is cold, waste heat recovery should be considered.
Waste heat recovery from a continuous blowdown system is generally more manageable
than from an intermittent system for the obvious reason that the supply and demand are
constantly matched. Where more than one boiler is operated on an intermittent system, it
is an advantage to stagger the blowdown timing cycle to spread more evenly the
availability of waste heat.
Steam Pressure
Reducing the boiler steam pressure is not generally viewed as an efficiency improvement
technique. However, at those boiler installations where reductions in steam pressure are
practical, this can be an effective means for saving up to 1 or 2 percent on the fuel bill. A
portion of these savings results from lower stack temperatures and the accompanying
increase in boiler efficiency. Lower steam pressures give lower saturated steam
temperatures and in cases without stack heat recovery, a similar reduction in final flue
gas temperature will result. The actual reduction in temperature for a given drop in steam
pressure will depend on the particular pressure levels involved, since the relationship
between saturated steam pressure and steam temperature is not linear. This fact is
apparent from the steam tables. Exhibit 4-11 illustrates the magnitude of efficiency
improvement that might be expected from reduction in boiler operating pressure.
There can be other immediate benefits from operating at reduced pressures which lead to
lower fuel consumption. These can include lower radiated heat loss from steam mains,
less leakage at flanges and packing glands, reduced boiler feed-pump energy
consumption and less energy dissipation at pressure reducing stations.
Where possible, reduction in boiler operating pressure is seen to be an effective means of
achieving higher efficiencies. However, it is important to note that the amount of
reduction may be limited by process steam requirements, steam distribution piping, water
carry-over in the boiler, or boiler design limitations.
Exhibit 4-11: Efficiency Improvement from Reducing Boiler Operating Pressure
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Boiler Exterior Heat Losses

"Radiation and convection loss" refers to heat losses from the exterior surface of the
boiler. On modern boilers, this loss is usually less than 1 percent of the heat input at
maximum rating. It may, however, be considerably higher on older boilers and it can be
as high as 10 percent where insulation is in poor condition and the boiler design is old.
Radiation and convection loss is not readily measurable and it is customarily included in
the unaccountable losses to make up a heat balance. This is why it may appear to be
higher than would be expected for actual surface losses alone. The loss is constant while
the boiler is firing; and when the boiler is running under low load conditions, this loss
represents a higher proportion of the total fuel used than under high fire conditions.
Thus, if a steam load is supplied by two boilers running part loaded at half of their
maximum rating, radiation and convection losses (say 4 percent per boiler at full load)
will be doubled to 8 percent. For this reason, the actual operating conditions on multiple
boiler installations should always be very carefully checked to see if significant
improvements might be made by rescheduling operations.
Exhibit 4-12 presents the approximate total rate of heat energy loss by radiation and
convection from a bare flat surface based on the temperature difference between the
surface and still air.
Bare surface temperatures for boilers range from saturated steam temperature on exposed
tube surfaces to air and gas temperatures on duct surfaces. Estimates of energy losses can
be made for existing insulation by measuring the temperature of external surfaces and the
temperature of the surroundings. 124
A good rule of thumb when evaluating the performance of existing insulation is that it
should reduce surface temperatures to approximately 30°C above ambient. In any event, a
complete engineering analysis of existing conditions and potential energy savings should
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be conducted to evaluate the justification for installation of insulating material, either

inside the boiler or outside.
Note that great care should be taken with respect to external boiler insulation because this
will raise the temperature within the walls of the boiler itself (i.e. brickwork temperatures
will be increased). There is, therefore, the risk that the mechanical integrity of the boiler
structure may be compromised. A better solution might be the addition of hot face
insulation (e.g. ceramic fiber blanket) which will actually reduce the temperature in the
walls and probably add to their life.
Exhibit 4-12: Heat Energy Loss from Bare Surface
Effects of Fuel
The compositions of different fuels will also have an effect on the boiler efficiency.
While most boilers in Pakistan operate on gas, there are enough users of furnace oil to
justify the following discussion.
The differences in the combustion of different fuels arise primarily from different
hydrogen contents in the fuels, and result in differences in the moisture content in the
exhaust gases, variation in the heat release rates causing different steaming rates, and
125
dissimilar slagging, sooting, and fouling characteristics.
Exhibit 4-13 shows combustion efficiency versus carbon to hydrogen ratio for sto-
ichiometric combustion and a flue gas temperature of 260oC (500°F). For comparison

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purposes, the points for natural gas and furnace oil are marked on the curve; these lie at
the two extremes, while other gaseous fuels, such as LPG, and distillate oils such as high
speed diesel and light diesel oil lie between these two points. As can be deduced from
Exhibit 4-13, solid fuels would lie even higher than the furnace oil point. A similar trend,
in terms of percent H2 by weight and the volume percent of CO2 found in dry flue gas
with stoichiometric combustion, is shown in Exhibit 5-1.
The efficiency difference between furnace oil and gas, for example, arise from the fact
that the hydrogen atoms form water vapor while the carbon atoms form carbon dioxide in
the complete combustion process. The latent heat of vaporization cannot be recovered
from the flue moisture since this would result in corrosion problems. Thus, the greater
flue moisture production of natural gas, owing to its higher hydrogen content, results in
greater flue gas energy losses and reduced boiler efficiencies as compared to furnace oil.
Exhibit 4-13: Variation in Combustion Efficiency with Hydrogen to Carbon Atom

Ratio
While the theory clearly supports a higher efficiency for furnace oil compared to gas, the
practical aspects of combustion act to reduce the seriousness of this difference. Oil
usually requires more excess air than gas to burn completely, and it is much harder to mix
well with air. In addition, oil is much more prone to soot formation, which upon
126
accumulation can reduce heat transfer effectiveness and lower boiler efficiency. Finally,
oil requires a much more complicated storage and handling system, and the standby

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losses of heating and pumping residual oil also contribute to reduce overall boiler
efficiency.
Nevertheless, the trend shown in Exhibit 4-13 is a fact, and proves that an optimized and
properly maintained oil fired system can achieve efficiencies as high as of a gas-fired
system.
An additional important effect of the fuel composition is its heat content or calorific value
(CV). Hydrogen has a per mass heat value several times that of carbon; thus the relative
compositions of the two elements will affect the heating value of a fuel.
Exhibit 4-14 and Exhibit 4-15 summarize heating values for commonly used fuels. The
higher heating value or gross heating value is determined when water vapor in the
products of fuel combustion is condensed, and the latent heat of vaporization is included
in the heating value of fuel. Conversely, lower heating value, or net heating value is
obtained when heat of vaporization is not included. The heating values or fuel CVs given
in Exhibit 4-14 and Exhibit 4-15 will be useful in the heat loss calculations included in
Chapter 5.
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SECTION B
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Chapter 9 MODEL
OF WATER TUBE
BOILER
IN THIS MODEL WE SHOW THE SCHAMATIC FLOW OF A MODREN
STEAM GENERATOR
INTRODUCTION
A watertube boiler (also spelled water-tube and water tube) is a type of boiler in
which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the
furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the steam-generating tubes. In smaller
boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace, while larger utility boilers
rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam.
The heated water then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam is drawn
off the top of the drum. In some services, the steam will reenter the furnace through a
superheater to become superheated. Superheated steam is defined as steam that is heated
above the boiling point at a given pressure. Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore
used to drive turbines, since water droplets can severely damage turbine blades.
Cool water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the feedwater drum via
large-bore 'downcomer tubes', where it pre-heats the feedwater supply. (In large utility
boilers, the feedwater is supplied to the steam drum and the downcomers supply water to
the bottom of the waterwalls). To increase economy of the boiler, exhaust gases are also
used to pre-heat the air blown into the furnace and warm the feedwater supply. Such
watertube boilers in thermal power stations are also called steam generating units.
130
This fig shows SCHMATIC FLOW DAIGRAM OF STEAM GENERATOR

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Parts of boiler
This BOILER model consist following parts
 Economizer
 Steam drum
 Downcomer
 Water Walls (Risers)
 Super heater
 Reheater
 Air preheater
 Forced draft fan
 Induced draft fan
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Economizer:
The first heat absorption unit is economizer. Highly pressurized water supplied by the
feed water pump. The economizer absorb the energy from flue gases which rises the
temperature of liquid then the water flow to the steam drum.
Economizer in this model is:

132
 A plain tube economizer
 Mechanical construction of economizer is horizontal type.

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Steam drum:
After economizer the water flows to the steam drum. A steam drum is a standard
feature of a water-tube boiler. It is a reservoir of water/steam at the top end of the water
tubes. The drum stores the steam generated in the water tubes and acts as a phase-
separator for the steam/water mixture.
Downcomer:
Pipes for the downward transport of water from the steam drum to header of boiler.
DOWNCOMERS of model shown in Fig
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Water Walls
Boiler water walls are membrane walls that are made of tubes welded together with or
without a strip of metal in between. These walls form the enclosure of the coal
combustion chamber.
Water walls of model shown in Fig
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Superheater:
Super heater is heat exchanger. It is added in system after the steam drum to superheat
the steam and it’s heated to maximum allowable limit. Superheater also reducing the
moisture content from steam. And steam is supplied to the turbine inlet.
Super heater in this model is:
 A convection type superheater.
The convection type superheater is located in the path of the combustion gas flow and
receives its heat from the convective flow of these hot combustion gases past the tubes.
With an increase in the load the rate of steam flow through the superheater increases.
 Mechanical construction of superheater is Pendant type
Super heater of model shown in Fig
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Reheater:
After the first turbine stage temperature drops. A cover idea to increase power plant
efficiency is to pipe has the steam completely. After the first stage add more heat the
process known as reheating. A heat exchanger use for this purpose known as reheater.
Reheating increase efficiency and capacity and also reduce the moisture content from
steam.
Reheater in this model is:
 A convection type reheater.
 Mechanical construction of reheater is horizontal type.
Reheater of model shown in Fig
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Air pre-heater
Air pre-heater is a heat transfer surface in which air temperature is raised by
transferring heat from other media such as flue gas .Hot air is necessary for rapid
combustion in the furnace and also for drying coal in milling plants. So an essential
boiler accessory which serves this purpose is air pre-heater. The air pre-heater are not
essential for operation of steam generator, but they are used where a study of cost
indicates that money can be saved or efficient combustion can be obtained by their use.
Recuperative Type Air Preheater

In recuperative type of air preheaters, the two fluids (air and flue gases) are separated
by heat transfer surface. Recuperative air pre-heaters: they have heat transferred
directly from the hot gases to the air across the heat exchanger. They are commonly
tubular units in shell and tube form, where the hot gases flow inside the tubes and the
forced air is around in the shell.
Recuperative type of air preheater is further classified as tubular type and plate type.
Air preheater of model shown in Fig
Forced Draft Fan:

When air or flue gases are maintained above atmospheric pressure. Normally it is done
with the help of a forced draft fan. These are normally used alone in large steam
generators and marine applications. FD fans pressurize the incoming atmospheric air up
to the exit of flue gases to the stack.
137

138 | P a g e
Induced Draft Fan:

When air or flue gases flow under the effect of a gradually decreasing pressure below
atmospheric pressure. ID fans blow the exhaust (flue) gases out, thus creating a
negative pressure in the whole system. ID fans handle hot gases, and higher mass flow
rates, therefore their power requirements are high.
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How to boiler work?

We can divide the working of water tube boiler tube in following processes
Combustion
Fuel burns in combustion chamber and convert chemical energy in thermal energy then
hot gases produce travel all over the boiler.
Feed water economizing

The first heat absorption unit is economizer. Highly pressurized water supplied by the
feed water pump. The economizer absorb the energy from flue gases which rises the
temperature of liquid then the water flow to the steam drum. The economizer increase
5% efficiency of overall boiler. After economizer the water flows to the steam drum to
downcomer then its passes through narrow tube section that called waterwall.
The phase change the water happens in the water wall. The steam there is produced in
addition to some water droplets and enters in steam drum again.
The real functions of steam drum separate the water droplets from steam. As result the
seam leaving steam drum the steam drum
Superheating
Here some thermodynamics facts, according to 2nd law of thermodynamics greater the
temperature of heat source more efficient the cycle. There for making the steam
temperature very high which very highly efficient power plant. But this temperature has
some certain limitation. The turbine bled material cannot stand with temperature of
greater than 600c.
So one more heat exchanger is add after the steam drum to super heat the steam and it
is heated to maximum allowable limit. Superheater also reduces moisture content from
steam that supply to the turbine inlet.
Reheating
After the first turbine stage temperature drops. A clever idea to increase power plant
efficiency to bypass the steam completely after the first turbine stage adds more heat.
This process is known as reheating and heat exchanger is known as reheater and use for
this purpose. Superheating and reheating both uses for increasing boiler capacity along
with efficiency.
Air Preheating
An air preheater (APH) is a general term used to describe any device designed to heat air before
another process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of increasing
139
the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat
system or to replace a steam coil.

140 | P a g e
In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in
thermal power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomass or waste.
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases
the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a
consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It also
allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack.
140

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IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Department Of Mechanical Engineering and

Southern School of Engineering and

IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree

Internal Examiner Signature External Examiner Signature

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents, teachers and group

Major contributions were taken from following;

1. STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY BY ENERCON

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Chapter 2 BOILER EFFICIENCY ____________________________________________ 20

Chapter 3 ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF BOILERS __________________ 23

Chapter 4 FACTORS AFFECTING BOILER EFFICIENCY ___________________________ 34

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Blowdown Losses: __________________________________________________________ 37

Chapter 5 BOILER EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT _______________________________ 39

Chapter 6 MAJOR LOSSES OF BOILER EFFICIENCY _____________________________ 82

Chapter 7 IMPROVING METHOD OF BOILER EFFICIENCY _______________________ 89

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Stop Steam-Trap Leaks ______________________________________________________ 95

Chapter 8 REDUCING THE LOSSES AFFECTING EFFICIENCY _____________________ 109

Chapter 9 MODEL OF WATER TUBE BOILER ________________________________ 130

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Types of Steam Boiler:

 Releasing energy in the fuel as efficiently as possible.

Exhibit 2-6: Fire-tube Boiler 12

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

 High steam output (up to 500 kg/s).

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Exhibit 2-7: Water-tube Boiler

How Boilers Work:

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Figure 1: Firetube Boiler

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Fuel to steam efficiency:

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Gross calorific value (GCV):

Net calorific value (NCV):

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Carbon monoxide (CO):

Heat transfer mediums:

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

 Does not consider heat transferred to the system.

In practice Thermal Efficiency is less than Combustion Efficiency

 Applies to boilers with 300,000 BTU inputs and less

Fuel to steam efficiency:

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Performance Terms and Definitions

• Part one: Direct method (also called as Input -output method)

IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing

The Direct Method Testing

A REPORT ON | IMPROVING STEAM BOILER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Measurements Required for Direct Method Testing

Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method: Calculation and Example