CH 5 - CH 6

5.
Chapter 5
Electronic Systems
5.1 The Black-Box Approach to Signal Processing
For anyone without specialised knowledge, a circuit diagram just does not contain
the right sort of information. There is too much detail, and the old adage about not seeing
the wood for the trees applies. We need a diagram that concentrates on ends rather than
on means, on signals rather than on arrangements of components. Such a visual aid
is called a block diagram.
What we see in a block diagram are predominantly blocks. Each block may show
signals in and signals out, along with a name for each block, and often some sketches of
signal waveforms. Power supplies are usually ignored, as well as individual components.
Sometimes one block can represent a single chip; sometimes one block summarises actions
of more complicated circuitry. Of course one cannot build a circuit from a block diagram
alone. But the operation of systems is much more easily understood using block diagrams,
as unnecessary details have been left out.
Preamplifier Loudspeaker
Source
Controls Power amplifier
Figure 5.1 A simple block diagram for an audio circuit.
A simple block diagram is shown in Figure 5.1. In this system an input signal
from a source (tape, CD, radio) is taken and the signal amplitude (voltage) amplified.
Other controls may modify the signal and then a power amplifier is used to drive
a loudspeaker. All this is basically described in words that accompany each block.
Amplification means making a copy of a waveform, and the copy is usually larger.
An amplifier block is very likely to be labelled with its gain expressed in decibels.
In another example, in a certain audio system low-level signals from three microphones
are mixed together by a mixer which gives a low-level signal out. This mixed signal
is applied to a power amplifier which provides a high-level signal to drive a loudspeaker.
The power-supply unit converts the AC mains supply voltage to a DC voltage suitable for
the system.
Exercise 5.1 On the basis of the above description draw the block diagram for the above
system.
ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

5.2
The block diagram provides only very limited knowledge of the system's operation.
However, with even this limited knowledge we can apply some commonsense logic
if there is a need to trace a fault. If there is no output from the loudspeaker, but we can
measure an output from the mixer, then the loudspeaker or the power amplifier is faulty.
There would be no point in changing the mixer.
In summary, electronic systems are usually composed of several basic functional

components connected in such a way that an output signal from one becomes the input
signal to another.
5.2 Putting Black Boxes Together
The output signal from the entire system is usually derived from the overall input,
but it may not be a faithful copy – it may have some of its attributes changed. We will now
analyse, one by one, which attributes can change and in what way.
In any linear system, at any given frequency, there are essentially two signal parameters
that may change: the signal phase and the signal amplitude. The exact amount of these
changes may vary depending on the signal's frequency. The signal amplitude is just
one expression of the system behaviour, being a consequence of properties of each of
the individual black boxes which are its subcomponents.
We will now discuss the signal amplitude and what exactly will happen to it if we
pass the signal through a system built of several black boxes, each with its own frequency
response. Note that, in the case when the gain is less than one, it is called attenuation.
This is relevant, because many electronic components, for example some filters, attenuate
rather than amplify.
For a start we will concentrate on a signal consisting of a single frequency f = 700 Hz

with an amplitude of 1 V. The signal is processed by two black boxes, with
frequency responses as in Figure 5.2. After having passed through Box 1 the signal
amplitude is 1 V × 6·1 = 6·1 V, where the gain of 6·1 was read from Figure 5.2.
This signal now becomes the input to Box 2, and we calculate that the output amplitude is
6·1 V × 1·2 = 7·32 V. In summary the output amplitude is 1 V × 6·1 × 1·2 = 7·32 V.
Note that 6·1 × 1·2 is the product of the gains of the two boxes at 700 Hz.
Now we consider a more complicated signal, which is made up of 10 different frequencies,

of 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 3000 Hz, 4000 Hz, ..., 10000 Hz. The procedure for each of these
individual frequencies is the same as that for a single frequency. We have to read off
the gain of the first box at that frequency, then read off the gain of the second box,
then multiply the two. The product of the two gains and the input amplitude is equal to
the output amplitude.

5.3
Gain curve for Box 1

11
10
9
8
7
6
Gain
5
4
3
2
1
0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Gain curve for Box 2

1.5
1.0
Gain
0.5
0.0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5.2 Frequency responses of the two black boxes.

5.4
Gain Curve for Box 1

11
10
9
8
7
6
Gain
5
4
3
2
1
0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Gain Curve for Box 2

1.5
1.0
Gain
0.5
0.0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Gain Curve for System

15
14
13
12
11
10
9
Gain
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5.3 The frequency response of the two black boxes is calculated
by multiplying the two individual frequency responses point by point.
If a signal is even more complicated and contains a continuous range of frequencies,

then the procedure is the same – it is just a bit harder to carry out. We still need to
multiply the gains of each of the two boxes, but at all frequencies. In practice we can
multiply the two gains at a large number of frequency points (Figure 5.3). We end up with
a lot of points showing the product of the two gain curves. Now we draw a smooth line
through these points, a procedure which is only approximate, but is often close enough.

5.5
Now we discuss what might happen to the signal phase if the signal is sent through
the two boxes. Again we start with a simple signal, at a single frequency of 700 Hz,
and we assume that at t = 0 its phase is zero as well. The first box can, in principle,
shift the phase by φ1 . The value of this phase shift depends what is inside the box.
If there are resistors only, then φ1 will be zero. With capacitors and inductors inside,
the phase shift becomes generally non-zero. If this phase-shifted signal is sent to the input
of the second box, an additional phase shift φ2 will be applied. Once again, the value
depends on what is inside the second box. So the net effect is that the signal on the output
is shifted in phase by φ1 + φ2 with respect to the input signal.
As earlier, we will now examine a more complicated signal made up of two frequencies,
say 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz. Both frequency components will be phase shifted after having
passed through the two boxes, but the phase shift may be different for each of these two
frequency components. As a result of this phase shift, the appearance of the output signal
when viewed on an oscilloscope may be very different from the input signal.
The same approach underlies the phase shift of a signal made up of very many frequency
components, or a whole range of them. Each individual frequency component will be
shifted by a different amount. However nearby frequencies will nearly always have
similar phase shifts; in electronics major changes rarely occur very suddenly.
We have examined what happens to signal amplitude and phase if the system is made up
of two black boxes. It is easy to see what will happen if we have, not two boxes, but more.
Once again all gains are multiplied for each frequency separately and all phase shifts are
added up.
5.2.1 Voltage and Current Limits
In our earlier introduction, linear circuits were described as having an output proportional
to the input. However in many electronic circuits this linear relationship holds only within
certain limits. For example the circuit may have a gain of, say, 1000, but only up to
an output voltage of 10 V. If we apply AC signals with an amplitude of less than 10 mV,
the circuit behaves linearly. If, however, the input signal starts to exceed 10 mV
then the output may hold the value of 10 V, until the time that the input signal becomes
less than 10 mV again.
This type of circuit behaviour is called clipping and is illustrated in Figure 5.4. Sometimes
clipping may be designed into circuits as a safety feature. Clipping may refer to the signal
voltage or to the signal current or to both.

5.6
voltage
Time
Input
voltage
Output
Time
Figure 5.4 Clipping.
Only some circuits are designed to clip; others may, for example, simply distort a signal.
This is illustrated in Figure 5.5. In this figure, the output signal, instead of being
just a sinusoidal waveform, has its maxima rounded off and its minima sharpened.
This kind of distortion in the case of audio signals can be clearly heard.
voltage
Time
Input
voltage
Output
Time
Figure 5.5 Distortion of output due to non-linearity.
The sine wave is heard as a sound of a single frequency – so a clear, pure note.
The distorted sinusoid – if we work out its frequency spectrum – contains some higher
frequencies, so it would be heard at the same pitch with some higher notes in the
background. (Because they are at multiples of the input frequency, they change the sound
of the note rather than its apparent frequency – compare a flute and a saxophone
both playing middle C.)
Clipping and distortion are often signs that we are trying to use the system in a way that
it has not been designed for. In these circumstances we should reduce the input signal
to bring the system back to the region of linear operation. If we are applying too large
an input signal, we are subjecting our system to an overload. In some cases this may cause
damage.

5.7
5.3 Loading Effects

Loading effects are best seen with the example of a simple battery. We have all seen
manifestations of loading effects when starting a car at night while the headlights are on.
When we turn the starter key the lights go dim, which shows that for a brief while
– when the starter motor is powered by the car battery and draws huge currents from it –
the voltage across the battery terminals decreases. This lowered voltage is due to loading.
Loading in this case means drawing a large current from the battery by connecting
a small resistance across it.
We will now show how to calculate how much the battery voltage will decrease.
Example 5.1 A battery, nominally 12V and with an internal resistance of 1 Ω, is connected
to an external load of 2 Ω. Calculate the voltage on the battery terminals
with the load connected.
Solution
Internal Terminals
resistance
A A
1 ohm
12 V 2 ohms 2 ohms
Battery B B
Figure 5.6 Batteries have internal resistance that cannot be removed

from the circuit.
The layout of this circuit is shown in Figure 5.6 (right), and the real-life behaviour
may be estimated using the equivalent circuit for the battery as shown in Figure 5.6
(left) . We have to calculate the voltage on the battery terminals, that is between point
A and point B.
First we calculate the total resistance Rtot which is 1 Ω + 2 Ω = 3 Ω .

Therefore the current is 12 V / 3 Ω = 4 A .
The voltage between A and B is 12 V – 1 Ω × 4 A = 8 V. So, with the load, the voltage
of the battery is lower.
Note that, if the external load has a relatively high resistance, say 100 Ω, then the voltage
drop would be barely noticeable. (It is suggested that students repeat the same calculation
for this load.) Note also that, unlike with heavy objects, where we say that a heavier load
has more weight, a heavier electrical load actually has less resistance.
Although a battery has been used in this example, any voltage source (for example
the output of an amplifier) is susceptible to loading effects of this sort.

5.8
5.4 Examples
Problem 5.1 A typical problem on clipping may read as follows: The voltage gain
of a certain 'black box' for weak signals is shown in Figure 5.7. The voltage gain is
20 dB between 0 Hz and 10 kHz. A -3dB point is at 20 kHz. The box is designed
to clip signals at vO = 5 V. What is the maximum peak amplitude of the input signal
at f = 10 kHz and at f = 20 kHz, such that the output signal is not distorted?
20
18
16 -3dB point
14
Voltage gain (dB)
12
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 5.7 The gain curve in the problem on clipping.
Solution
Case a) f = 10 kHz.
The voltage gain at 10 kHz is 20 dB; we now have to calculate Vo / Vi .

20 log10 (Vo / Vi ) = 20
so
Vo / Vi = 10 .
Now we work out the maximum input amplitude Vi, max .

Maximum Vo = 5 V = 10 Vi, max
and so
Vi, max = 0⋅5 V .
We now estimate the maximum input voltage at 20 kHz. Note that the solution
assumes that the limited frequency response and the clipping levels are two isolated
phenomena. In a simple transistor amplifier this may be not the case.

5.9
Case b) f = 20 kHz.
At the -3dB point the voltage gain is 20 dB – 3 dB = 17 dB. Now we can calculate
Vo / Vi .
log10 (Vo / Vi ) = 17/20 = 0⋅85
and so
Vo / Vi = 7⋅1 .
Now we work out the maximum Vi, max .

Maximum Vo = 5 V = 7⋅1 Vi, max
Vi, max = 0⋅7 V .
Problem 5.2 The following is a typical problem on the system bandwidth of an optical
scanner, designed to read a pattern of regular stripes on labels (rather like a barcode
scanner).
Input Output
Box 1 Box 2
Counter
Laser Preamp. Filter
scanner
Figure 5.8 A block diagram of the electronics of the scanner system.
Response of Box 1 Response of Box 2

60 -20
55 -25
50 -30
Voltage Gain (dB)
Voltage gain (dB)
45 -35
40 -40
35 -45
30 -50
25 -55
20 -60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency (kHz) Frequency (kHz)
Figure 5.9 The voltage gain curves for the boxes in the barcode scanner system.
A block diagram of a certain system is shown in Figure 5.8. The voltage gain curves
of the two boxes are shown in Figure 5.9.
The input signal to the electronics is a regular series of rectangular pulses with a
period T of 1 msec. This counter recognises the pattern if the output signal contains
the fundamental frequency and at least the fifth harmonic of the fundamental
frequency, substantially unchanged. Will this system be able to recognise the
patterns?

5.10
Solution
First we calculate the voltage gain curve for the combined system of two boxes. This
is done by multiplying the voltage gain curves point by point at each frequency. If
the gains are given in dB we have to add the gains at each frequency, point to point.
We get the graph as in Figure 5.10.
Combined Response
40
60 dB – 20 dB = 40 dB
35
30
Voltage gain (dB)
25
20
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 5.10 The voltage gain curve for the barcode scanner system.
Since the stream of input pulses is repetitive (periodic), its spectrum consists of a
fundamental frequency component and harmonics. We calculate the fundamental
frequency of the signal as
f = 1/T = 1/1msec. = 1 kHz .
From figure 5.10 we can see that the combined gain of the system is relatively
constant up to a frequency of about 5 kHz, the fifth harmonic of the fundamental
frequency. Thus the signal will be recognised satisfactorily.

5.11
Problem 5.3 A typical loading problem may, for example, look at the issue of delivery of
power to the load.
A black box has a voltage gain of 60 dB (at f = 50 Hz) and its output resistance
(often called impedance) is 10 Ω. The peak amplitude of the input signal
(at f = 50 Hz) is 1 mV. A load resistor of 2 Ω is connected across the output terminals.
a) Calculate the peak amplitude of the output voltage, Vload , between the output
terminals.
b) Calculate the peak power and the average power delivered to the load.
Assume that there is effectively no capacitance and no inductance between
the output terminals. In these circumstances there is no phase shift between
the output voltage and the output current, so we can use our previous formulas
for the peak and average power.
c) How would you change the load resistance so that the power (peak or average)
delivered to the load is maximised?
Solution
a) First we calculate Vo /Vi . We have

20 log10 (Vo /Vi ) = 60 ,
so
log10 (Vo /Vi ) = 3
and
Vo = 1000 Vi .
This means that we would have a voltage Vo = 1 mV × 1000 = 1 V between

the open-circuit output terminals (with no load resistance connected).
But, with a load, the situation is different. We can draw the circuit diagram as in
Figure 5.11. Note that Figure 5.11 is the diagram of an AC voltage divider.
We can calculate the peak amplitude of the output voltage:
Vload = 1 V × 2 Ω/(2 Ω + 10 Ω) = 0⋅17 V .
10 Ω
1 mV × 1000 R load
Figure 5.11 The circuit diagram for calculating

the power delivered to the load.

5.12
b) The peak current amplitude Iload can be calculated by looking at the same
diagram:
Iload = 1 V /(10 Ω + 2 Ω) = 1 V/12 Ω = 0⋅08333 A .
The average power is

Pave = Vload × Iload /2 = 0⋅007 W .
The peak power is

Ppeak = Vload × Iload = 0⋅014 W .
c) In order to see if we can increase the power delivered to the load, we will try
a couple of alternative load resistors. We will try Rload = 10 Ω and Rload = 40 Ω .
For Rload = 10 Ω
Vload = 1 V × 10 Ω/(10 Ω + 10 Ω) = 0⋅5 V
Iload = 1 V /(10 Ω + 10 Ω) = 1 V/20 Ω = 0⋅05 A .

Pave = Vload × Iload /2 = 0⋅5 V × 0⋅05 A /2 = 0⋅0125 W .
This is more than the average power delivered to the 2Ω resistor discussed
previously.
For Rload = 40 Ω
Vload = 1 V × 40 Ω/(40 Ω + 10 Ω) = 1 V × 40 Ω/50 Ω = 0⋅8 V
Iload = 1 V /(40 Ω + 10 Ω) = 1V/50 Ω = 0⋅02 A .

Pave = Vload × Iload /2 = 0⋅8 V × 0⋅02 A /2 = 0⋅008 W .
This is less than for 10 Ω .
Conclusion: Rload = 10 Ω gives the highest power. The value of 10 Ω was chosen
deliberately. In fact it can be mathematically proven that the maximum power
is delivered to the load if the load resistance is made equal to the output resistance.
This condition is also called impedance matching.

6.1
Chapter 6
Amplifiers
There are many instances when one needs to make an electrical signal bigger
(to amplify it) or to control the flow of current in one circuit with a signal in another circuit
– to have an electrically controlled switch. Amplifiers are often used for analogue signals
such as speech and music. Electronically controlled switches are used primarily for digital
signals; such switches are found in computers. The difference between an amplifier
and an electronically controlled switch is that an amplifier output must mirror precisely
every small change in the input level, while a switch might produce only two different
output voltages, high or low, depending whether the input is in a high or a low range.
Amplifiers are needed in a variety of situations. A typical example might be a telephone

conversation with a distant country. Our voice can be converted to voltage signals through
a microphone, but the amplitude remains low, and because of circuit resistance this
voltage would be too weak to be detected at the overseas destination. Therefore
we need amplifiers to restore the amplitude, and generally speaking more than one –
a whole series of them, that maintain the voltage level1.
Playing a CD also requires amplifiers. The tiny marks on a CD are converted into electrical
signals by moving the disk through an infrared beam produced by a small laser;
the reflected beam is allowed to fall on a light detector where it produces currents
coded with music information. These currents are extremely weak and must be boosted
before the music signal can be extracted. After this we need amplifiers to increase the
signal amplitude and to produce sufficient power to drive loudspeakers.
Amplifiers in circuit diagrams are represented by several different symbols as in

Figure 6.1. Gain = 10 means that the output signal is ten times the input signal.
Amplifiers are identified as being current amplifiers or voltage amplifiers2. As the name
suggests, voltage amplifiers amplify voltages and may keep the current the same or even
reduce it. Current amplifiers amplify currents and may keep the voltage the same.
Most amplifiers amplify AC input signals, but there are also DC amplifiers which amplify
both the DC and the AC part of a signal. The + and - terminals indicate inverting and
non-inverting inputs (gain + or -), but generally if we swap the polarity there may be
no problem (for example in audio amplifiers).
1 Note that this sort of communication is now carried out by converting the speech
to digital ('on-off') signals, which are much more resistant to degradation; however,
so-called repeater amplifiers are still required along the way.
2 It is possible to build amplifiers which have a voltage input and a current output,
and vice versa. These are referred to as transconductance and transresistance
amplifiers.
ELEC166 chap6.doc 02/01/06

6.2
v in vout
Gain = 10 i in i out
+ +
v in vout i in i out
- -
Figure 6.1 Symbols used to denote various amplifiers.
6.1 Features of Amplifiers

6.1.1 Single-Ended and Differential Amplifiers
Note that in Figure 6.1 the amplifiers appear to have two different styles of inputs
(and outputs). Some symbols indicate that the signal is fed into the amplifier through
one terminal only; likewise the output seems to be generated at one terminal only.
If the amplifier on the circuit diagram has only one input and one output, it means that the
input signal is applied between the input point on the amplifier and the earth or ground;
likewise the output is taken between the output point and ground3. The grounded
terminal/wire is simply not shown, and we only see the other terminal which
enters the amplifier. The same applies to the output: the output signal is generated
between the single terminal shown on the diagram and the earth. This kind of operation
is called single-ended.
Other amplifiers have two distinct inputs (in addition to any grounded terminals,
which are not shown). They are capable of dealing with voltage signals from ungrounded
sources, i.e. sources with two outputs at non-zero potentials. The input voltage for such an
amplifier is then equal to the voltage difference between the amplifier input terminals.
Because of that, this amplifier is referred to as a differential amplifier. Similarly,
the amplifier output may also have the two terminals at a non-zero potential.
3 Ground in this case means a common connection, which usually is connected to

the actual earth.
Also not shown are the power-supply connections; this supply is responsible for
providing the increased voltage or power.

6.3
Differential amplifiers are extremely useful, for example if two voltage signals v1 and v2
coming from two inputs may both have a large voltage offset but a small difference δ v
v2 = v1 + δ v
and we are interested in this small difference δ v only. By connecting these inputs
to a differential amplifier, we would get an output proportional to δ v only.
Note that a differential amplifier can always be used in a single-ended way

(i.e. with one terminal grounded) – but not the other way round.
It is quite common for an amplifier to invert the signal in addition to increasing

its amplitude. In this case a positive input would give rise to a negative output and
vice versa. Such amplifiers are called inverting amplifiers; if they do not invert, they are
called noninverting.
6.1.2 Effects of Input and Output Resistance, Ri , Ro
We have already looked at the effects of loading on voltage sources. Let us now
look at this a little more closely in the case of amplifiers. This is most easily understood
when we discuss the case of voltage amplifiers. When we are connecting an amplifier
to a signal source the signal source can be visualised as a Thévenin equivalent circuit,
made up of an ideal voltage source and a series resistor. This circuit is connected to
the amplifier input terminals. The signal flowing through to the input terminals is affected
by the resistance 'looking into' these terminals; this resistance is called the input resistance
Ri . Ideally, this resistance should be infinite for a voltage amplifier and thus leave
the input signal unchanged; however, this is a real world, not an ideal one (Figure 6.2).
Likewise, we need to visualise the two output terminals of an amplifier as presenting
an output resistance Ro . Ideally, the output resistance should be zero, but it never is.
RS
i io
i
v v v =A v v R
i i o i o L
a.
Source Amplifier Load
RS Ro
b. i i'o
i
v' v R v =A v v' R
i i i o i o L
Figure 6.2 A signal source is connected to an amplifier and the amplifier

to a load. (a. ideal amplifier; b. real amplifier)

6.4
On the input side the presence of Ri means that there is an input current ii given by
ii = vi / Ri .
The larger Ri is, the more nearly ideal is the input stage of the amplifier, i.e. ii is smaller.
On the output side the presence of Ro means that, for output current io , the output voltage
v'o is not just
vo = gain × vi ,
but is given by
v'o = vo - io × Ro .
The smaller Ro is, the more ideal is the output of the amplifier; i.e., it behaves more nearly
like an ideal voltage source.
6.1.3 How to measure Ri and Ro
We can measure the output resistance Ro by keeping vi constant and observing v'o first
for a very “light” load (RL >> Ro ), when the output is just v'o1 = vo . Then a smaller load
RL
is connected and we observe the new value of the amplifier output voltage v'o2 .
These two values (v'o1 and v'o2 ) allow us to deduce the output resistance Ro because
v'o2 = vo × RL / (RL + Ro ) = v'o1 × RL / (RL + Ro )
from which Ro can be calculated. The latter formula is that of a potential divider.
Likewise we can measure the input resistance Ri in the following way. The observed
quantity is the output voltage v'o in the presence of a load RL :
v'o = gain × vi × RL / (RL + Ro ) = K × vi .
First we drive the amplifier from a source v'i of low source resistance (RS << Ri ) so that
vi = v'i
(remember the potential divider) and the output voltage is
v'o1 = K × v'i .
Then we add a series resistance to the input circuit, so that the input voltage is
vi = v'i × Ri / (RS + Ri )
and observe the output voltage
v'o2 = K × v'i × Ri / (RS + Ri ) = v'o1 × Ri / (RS + Ri )
from which Ri can be calculated.

6.5
6.1.4 Worked Examples Involving Input and Output Resistance
Problems related to the input and output resistances of amplifiers are often based on
various potential divider circuits.
Problem 6.1
With a certain input signal the open-circuit voltage in an amplifier is 10 volts.
When we connect a load of 1 ohm across the output, the voltage drops to 8 volts.
Calculate the output resistance, Ro , of this amplifier.
Solution
We draw a circuit diagram (Figure 6.3) describing the situation with the load.
Ro
10 V 1Ω 8V
Figure 6.3 The circuit diagram to calculate the output resistance

if the voltage is 10 V into an open circuit but 8 V into a load.
In this circuit we have

1Ω
10 V × = 8V .
Ro + 1 Ω
We simplify and get

10 Ω = 8 Ω + 8 Ro
and so finally
Ro = 0⋅25 Ω .

6.6
Problem 6.2
An ideal signal source (with zero source resistance) was connected to
the amplifier input. The amplifier output measured across the load was 1 V.
When we connected the same signal source in series with a 100kΩ resistor,
the voltage at the amplifier output dropped to 0⋅9 V. What is the value of the input
resistance, Ri , of this amplifier?
Solution
The circuit diagram at the input with the 100kΩ resistor is shown in Figure 6.4.
100 k Ω
vs Ri
Amplifier
Figure 6.4 The circuit diagram to calculate the input resistance

if the output is 1 V with low source resistance but becomes
0⋅9 V with the 100kΩ source resistance.
When an ideal source is connected across the input, we get

vs × K = 1 V .
When an ideal source with a 100kΩ resistor in series is connected across the input,
we get
v s × Ri
× K = 0⋅9 V .
Ri + 100 kΩ
We can now substitute for vs × K in the second equation:

Ri
× 1 V= 0⋅9 V
Ri + 100 kΩ
or
Ri
= 0⋅9
Ri + 100 kΩ
and so
Ri = 0⋅9 Ri + 90 kΩ
0⋅1 Ri = 90 kΩ
Ri = 900 kΩ .

6.7
Problem 6.3
This problem describes real electronic components in a realistic situation.
We have a microphone with a source resistance of 1 MΩ, which gives a voltage signal
of 1 mV. We also have an amplifier with the following specifications.
Voltage gain = 1000, input resistance = 2 MΩ , output resistance = 1Ω . Additionally,
we plan to connect a loudspeaker with a resistance of 3 Ω. By what factor will our
voltage signal be amplified?
Hint: In the amplifier specifications it is assumed that you use an ideal source
and measure your output voltage without any load (open circuit).
In these circumstances the gain is 1000, but in the real circuit the gain will be lower.
Solution
Source Amplifier Load
1 MΩ 1Ω
2 MΩ V 3Ω
Figure 6.5 The circuit diagram to calculate the overall gain

of the amplifier.
We draw the circuit diagram of the system (Figure 6.5). The open-circuit voltage V
of the amplifier is
V = (1 mV × 2 MΩ / (2 MΩ + 1 MΩ)) × 1000 .
The voltage VL that appears across the load is

VL = V × 3 Ω / (1 Ω + 3 Ω) .
Putting the two equations together we get

2 MΩ 3Ω 2 3
VL = 1 mV × × 1000 × =1V× × = 0⋅5 V .
2 MΩ + 1 MΩ 1Ω + 3 Ω 3 4
Thus the final gain is

0⋅5 V / 1 mV = 500 .

6.8
6.2 DC Amplifiers
A DC amplifier must obviously amplify DC voltages and voltages which have a DC part,
for example Figure 4.12 (b). There must be no low-frequency cut-off. Such an amplifier
will also amplify AC signals, but only up to the high-frequency cut-off point, fh , so that
its bandwidth is also fh - 0 = fh . To summarise this part, both DC and AC amplifiers
are capable of amplifying AC signals, but only a DC amplifier will amplify DC signals.
Example 6.1
An amplifier has a gain curve as in Figure 6.6. Derive from the graph:
i) the high-frequency cut-off point fh ;
ii) the low-frequency cut-off point fl ;
iii) the bandwidth δ f .
20
Gain (dB)
17
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
log f
Figure 6.6 A gain curve of an amplifier.
Solution
We should use the definition given in the text for the high-frequency and the
low-frequency cut-off points, where the gain drops by 3 dB.
The maximum gain is 20 dB, thus the cut-off point is at the point where gain drops to
20 - 3 = 17 dB. This gives log fh = 4⋅25 , fh = 17783 Hz , and log fl = 2⋅0, fl = 100 Hz .
The bandwidth is then given by
δ f = fh - fl = 17683 Hz ≈ 17⋅7 kHz .
There is one important feature of DC amplifiers – namely they have a tendency to drift
in time. Their gain may remain constant, but the output voltage slowly acquires an offset.
This may happen over any period of time – minutes, hours or days. To compensate
for this, DC amplifiers may have a facility for removing the additional constant offset,
by adding a small voltage to the input. This offset may need to be readjusted as time
goes by.

6.9
6.3 Power Amplifiers
The primary purpose of power amplifiers is to deliver a substantial amount of power

(volts × amps) to a load (for example, a loudspeaker, lamp, heater or motor), and they are
often required to deliver large currents, perhaps many amperes. They may or may not
have considerable voltage gain. Power amplifiers are often massive devices, and efficiency
might be an important consideration.
Problem 6.4
A transistor radio has an output amplifier system with a frequency response from
150 Hz to 6⋅0 kHz.
i) Is this a DC or an AC amplifier?
ii) Calculate the bandwidth of the amplifier. Is it adequate compared to
the frequency range of sounds that we can hear?
iii) Explain why the small bandwidth give poor-quality sound.
Problem 6.5
A pH-meter is an instrument that enables us to quantitatively distinguish acids
from bases. Its block diagram is shown in Figure 6.7. We need to use two amplifiers
A and B as shown in the diagram. The input to A from the pH electrode is a voltage
signal which changes by 59⋅0 mV for a unit change on the pH scale. The output
from A also changes by 59⋅0 mV per one pH unit.
A B
Meter
Electrode
Figure 6.7 Block diagram of a pH-meter.
The output from B operates the display meter and is a voltage signal which changes
by 1 volt for a unit change on a pH scale.
(i) State which type of amplifier should be used for A and B. You should choose
from the following options: AC amplifier, DC amplifier, buffer amplifier,
power amplifier.
(ii) Based on the information in the text, estimate the voltage gain for each of
the amplifiers A and B.

6.10
6.4 Feedback
6.4.1 Feedback in General Terms
Consider the two following examples of a heater system.
1) The heater receives an input from a timer that keeps it switched on for five minutes
and then switches it off for five minutes. The whole system repeats this cycle
until turned off.
2) The heater receives an input from a thermistor (temperature-sensitive resistor);

it switches on when the temperature falls below 20 degrees Celsius and turns off
when the temperature rises above 23 degrees Celsius.
Once the heater in example 1 is turned on, is it affected by the surroundings?

The answer is no – regardless of the surrounding temperature, the heater will go on
heating the room in five-minute intervals. This is an example of an open-loop system
where the system has no control over its output. The system will continue to produce
an output until it is turned off at the power supply. In the second example the heater is
directly affected by the surroundings it is heating up. When the room gets too hot,
the heater turns off; when the room is too cool the heater turns on. This is an example of
a closed-loop system, where the system takes information about its output and feeds back
this information into the input. It has a closed loop between the output and input
since the temperature-sensing input is affected by the heat the system is producing.
The feedback loop means that the system can check its own performance.
Exercise 6.1
In the above two examples, which will heat the room most effectively and why?
Think about wasting heat and the time needed to heat up the room. Will the time
of year affect which is the most efficient?
An open-loop system cannot control its own output since it has no feedback loop between
the output and input. It cannot pass information back to the input.
In summary, a closed-loop system can control its own output because it has a feedback
loop between the output and input. It uses this to pass information back to the input
that will affect the output. A closed-loop system checks its output.
Exercise 6.2
Draw a block diagram of the two heater systems described above.

6.11
6.4.2 Feedback in Amplifiers
Summer Amplifier
vi
vs
Σ A vo
v
f β
Feedback
Figure 6.8 A block diagram of a feedback amplifier.
Feedback is commonly used in amplifiers, and its characteristic feature is that we have
a closed loop. Figure 6.8 shows an amplifier, a feedback block and an additional element
called a summer designed to add (or subtract, as in the example above) all or a part of
the output signal to the input. We can easily see that, in Figure 6.8, vi affects vo , vo affects
vf , vf affects vi , which is where we started from. The feedback loop lends itself to
mathematical analysis and it can be shown that the gain of the feedback amplifier is
strongly related to the 'strength' of the feedback. Let's see how it is done.
The amplifier has a function of amplifying the input by a factor A , so

vo = A × vi .
The feedback block takes the output signal and passes only a fraction of it, indicated by β
vf = β × vo .
We normally require β to be very stable, and it often consists of a simple potential divider.
Finally the third element – the summer – has the function of subtraction:
vi = vs - vf .
Sometimes the summer is a separate block, but often it is incorporated with an amplifier
in the form of a differential amplifier.

6.12
Often, the value of A is very large and the circuit operates as follows. Since
vi = vo / A
then vi must be very small, and very close to 0 volts. So we can treat it as a virtual earth.
Since
vs - vf = vi
and
vi ≈ 0
we have
vs ≈ vf = β × vo
so that finally
vo / vs ≈ 1/β
and we find that the gain vo / vs does not depend on A – only on β ! This is quite
advantageous, because A depends on properties of elements inside the amplifier,
mostly transistors, and they may not be very stable, whereas a potential divider gives
a very stable value of β .
Note that the circuit includes a closed loop, and that it includes three different gains.
The summer has a gain of +1, the amplifier has a gain of A , and the feedback block has
a gain of β . The total gain around the closed loop is called the loop gain and is equal to
A×β.
Now we will show that the feedback leads to increased gain stability. To do that
we need to first derive an expression for the closed-loop gain vo / vs in terms of
the amplifier gain A and the feedback β . We have
vo = A × vi = A × (vs - β vo )
so
vo = A vs - A β vo .
Therefore
vo A 1
= = .
vs 1 + Aβ 1
+β
A
If 1/A is much less than β then this becomes

vo / vs ≈ 1 / β ,
as we have shown above. Thus, provided that the gain A is high enough, the ratio of
the input to the output is (although much smaller than A ) almost independent of A .

6.13
Example 6.2
Suppose that A = 104 , β = 0⋅01 . Then
vo / vs = 104 /(1 + 104 × 10-2) = 99⋅01 .
We note that, for this circuit, 1/A = 10-4 is indeed much less than β = 0⋅01 .
Now let us imagine that something happened to our amplifier and the gain A was
now halved – that is, A = 5000 . The ratio of output to input is now
vo / vs = 5000 /(1 + 5000 × 10-2) = 98⋅04 .
This ratio has changed by 1% only. So we have good stability of gain, but we have
less gain. The gain of our amplifier A used to be 10000; now it is near 99, so it has
been reduced by a factor of 101. At the same time the gain stability has improved by
the same factor of 101.
6.4.3 Other Advantages of Feedback
We have just seen that negative feedback can compensate for a drop in A caused by,
for example, aging of components. We can then expect that it can also compensate for
a drop in A caused by a limited frequency response. Figure 6.9 shows such an improved
frequency response. The 3dB frequencies, f ' HF and f ' LF , of an amplifier with a feedback
loop are related to the 3dB frequencies of an amplifier without feedback fHF and fLF
(for the simplest of amplifiers) through
f ' HF = fHF × (1 + Aβ )
f ' LF = fLF / (1 + Aβ ) .
open loop
Gain A
Gain (dB)
closed loop
Gain A/(1+ A β )
f LF
' f LF fHF f HF
'
Frequency (log scale)
Figure 6.9 Improved frequency response of an amplifier with

negative feedback.

6.14
We can see that the bandwidth is improved by a factor (1 + Aβ ) , the same factor by which
the gain is reduced. Feedback amplifiers have also other benefits, such as reduced
distortion of signals. Distortion is due to nonlinearities (which we may think of as a gain
that varies with the signal amplitude), and in feedback amplifiers the effect of these
nonlinearities is reduced by the same factor (1 + Aβ ) .
We learned that an important feature of amplifiers is their input and output resistance
Rin and Rout . In ideal voltage amplifiers the input resistance is infinite and the output
resistance is zero. In real amplifiers, however, both are finite, although the input resistance
may be high and the output resistance low. These resistances are further improved
if the amplifier is placed in a feedback loop. (We may think of them as causing
gain variations dependent on the source and load resistances.) It can be shown that
the input resistance may be increased by a factor of (1 + Aβ ) and the output resistance
may be reduced by the same factor. So both of these resistances are improved, i.e. become
closer to the ideal.
Feedback seems to be a wonderful remedy for all sorts of amplifier problems and it looks
like a miraculous fix. While it is a very useful method it does have some potential
problems. These have to do with phase shifts. The amplifier itself may contribute
a considerable phase shift. The feedback block – which may be made up of resistors,
as with a potential divider – does not introduce phase shifts by itself but, combined with
the amplifier and connecting cables, which always have a non-zero capacitance, it will lead
to non-zero phase shifts. These become more and more pronounced at higher frequencies.
If the extra phase shift approaches 180 degrees then, instead of subtracting a fraction of
a signal in a feedback loop, we will now be effectively adding a fraction of the signal.
The feedback becomes positive. Immediately all the advantages of feedback will turn into
disadvantages and the whole amplifier may even start to oscillate, giving output without
any input. One remedy is to limit the frequency response of the basic amplifier.
This can be done with the aid of filters, discussed in Section 3.6.
Example 6.3
A voltage amplifier A has the performance as listed in Table 6.1. It is proposed
to reduce the gain to 50 using negative feedback with β consisting of a potential
divider of total resistance about 10 kΩ to 20 kΩ. We will (i) calculate suitable
component values and (ii) predict the performance of the resulting feedback
amplifier.
Mid-band gain +1000

Gain tolerance ± 20%
Frequency response Flat 50 Hz to 5 kHz (-3 dB)
Input resistance Rin 50 kΩ
Output resistance Rout 100 Ω
Distortion 5% with output 20 V p-p
Table 6.1 Parameters of the amplifier A .

6.15
Answer
i) The gain with feedback applied is
Af = A /(1 + Aβ )
so we have
50 = 1000 / (1 + 1000 β )
which gives
1 + 1000 β = 20
therefore
β = 0⋅019 .
If the potential divider has R1 connected to the amplifier output and R2 to ground,
we must have
R2 / (R2 + R1 ) = 0⋅019
0⋅019 R1 = 0⋅981 R2
R1 = 51⋅6 R2 .
Getting this exact ratio requires non-standard resistance values. Two standard values
that would be close enough to be satisfactory are
R1 = 20 kΩ
R2 = 390 Ω
for which
R1 = 51⋅28 R2
R1 + R2 = 20⋅39 kΩ .
ii) The gain has been reduced by a factor

1 + Aβ = 20 .
Quantity Previous value New value

Gain tolerance ± 20% ± 1%
fLF 50 Hz 2⋅5 Hz
fHF 5 kHz 100 kHz
Rin 50 kΩ 1 MΩ
Rout 100 Ω 5Ω
Distortion 5% 0⋅25%
Table 6.2 Parameters of the amplifier A without and with the feedback.
Therefore we predict a variety of other amplifier properties which will also

be improved by a factor 1 + Aβ as in Table 6.2. In view of the predicted
gain tolerance, we would be well advised to choose R1 and R2 carefully, using
0⋅25%-tolerance resistors. Note that an amplifier which was barely adequate
as an audio amplifier (telephone quality) in terms of frequency response has been
converted by feedback into a quite acceptable one.

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5.

Controls Power amplifier

Figure 5.1 A simple block diagram for an audio circuit.

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

In summary, electronic systems are usually composed of several basic functional

5.2 Putting Black Boxes Together

For a start we will concentrate on a signal consisting of a single frequency f = 700 Hz

Now we consider a more complicated signal, which is made up of 10 different frequencies,

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

Gain curve for Box 1

Gain curve for Box 2

Figure 5.2 Frequency responses of the two black boxes.

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

Gain Curve for Box 1

Gain Curve for Box 2

Gain Curve for System

If a signal is even more complicated and contains a continuous range of frequencies,

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

5.2.1 Voltage and Current Limits

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

Figure 5.4 Clipping.

Figure 5.5 Distortion of output due to non-linearity.

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

5.3 Loading Effects

Figure 5.6 Batteries have internal resistance that cannot be removed

First we calculate the total resistance Rtot which is 1 Ω + 2 Ω = 3 Ω .

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

Figure 5.7 The gain curve in the problem on clipping.

The voltage gain at 10 kHz is 20 dB; we now have to calculate Vo / Vi .

Now we work out the maximum input amplitude Vi, max .

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

Now we work out the maximum Vi, max .

Figure 5.8 A block diagram of the electronics of the scanner system.

Response of Box 1 Response of Box 2

Voltage gain (dB)

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

f = 1/T = 1/1msec. = 1 kHz .

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

a) First we calculate Vo /Vi . We have

This means that we would have a voltage Vo = 1 mV × 1000 = 1 V between

Figure 5.11 The circuit diagram for calculating

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

The average power is

The peak power is

The average power is

The average power is

This is less than for 10 Ω .

ELEC166 Chap5.doc 02/01/06

Amplifiers are needed in a variety of situations. A typical example might be a telephone

Amplifiers in circuit diagrams are represented by several different symbols as in

ELEC166 chap6.doc 02/01/06

Figure 6.1 Symbols used to denote various amplifiers.

6.1 Features of Amplifiers

3 Ground in this case means a common connection, which usually is connected to

ELEC166 chap6.doc 02/01/06

Note that a differential amplifier can always be used in a single-ended way

It is quite common for an amplifier to invert the signal in addition to increasing

6.1.2 Effects of Input and Output Resistance, Ri , Ro

Source Amplifier Load

Figure 6.2 A signal source is connected to an amplifier and the amplifier

ELEC166 chap6.doc 02/01/06

6.1.3 How to measure Ri and Ro