energies

Article
Effect of Blade Pitch Angle on the Aerodynamic
Characteristics of a Straight-bladed Vertical Axis
Wind Turbine Based on Experiments and Simulations
Yanzhao Yang 1,2 , Zhiping Guo 1 , Qing Song 3 , Yanfeng Zhang 1,2 and Qing’an Li 4,5, *
1 College of Mechanical Engineering, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot 010051, China;
yang_yan_zhao@163.com (Y.Y.); guo_zhiping@126.com (Z.G.); zyf110906@yeah.net (Y.Z.)
2 Graduate School of Bioresources, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
3 School of Electrical Engineering, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, China; qsong83@gmail.com
4 CAS Laboratory of Wind Energy Utilization, Institute of Engineering Thermophysics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
5 Division of Mechanical Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
* Correspondence: li@fel.mach.mie-u.ac.jp




Received: 22 April 2018; Accepted: 30 May 2018; Published: 11 June 2018


Abstract: The blade pitch angle has a significant influence on the aerodynamic characteristics of
horizontal axis wind turbines. However, few research results have revealed its impact on the
straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine (Sb-VAWT). In this paper, wind tunnel experiments and
CFD simulations were performed at the Sb-VAWT to investigate the effect of different blade pitch
angles on the pressure distribution on the blade surface, the torque coefficient, and the power
coefficient. In this study, the airfoil type was NACA0021 with two blades. The Sb-VAWT had
a rotor radius of 1.0 m with a spanwise length of 1.2 m. The simulations were based on the k-ω
Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model and the wind tunnel experiments were carried out
using a high-speed multiport pressure device. As a result, it was found that the maximum pressure
difference on the blade surface was obtained at the blade pitch angle of β = 6◦ in the upstream region.
However, the maximum pressure coefficient was shown at the blade pitch angle of β = 8◦ in the
downstream region. The torque coefficient acting on a single blade reached its maximum value at the
blade pitch angle of β = 6◦ . As the tip speed ratio increased, the power coefficient became higher and
reached the optimum level. Subsequently, further increase of the tip speed ratio only led to a quick
reversion of the power coefficient. In addition, the results from CFD simulations had also a good
agreement with the results from the wind tunnel experiments. As a result, the blade pitch angle did
not have a significant influence on the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-VAWT.

Keywords: wind energy; Sb-VAWT; blade pitch angle; pressure coefficient; power coefficient

1. Introduction
Wind power technology, which utilizes the renewable clean energy, has been regarded as
an important way to alleviate the energy crisis and environmental pollution [1–5]. After hundreds of
years, as shown in Figure 1, there are presently two main types of wind turbines: horizontal axis wind
turbines (HAWTs) and vertical axis wind turbine (VAWTs) [6,7]. Currently, the large-type HAWT is
very popular, but it is mainly installed in mountains, grasslands and oceans, where the infrastructure
costs are very high. Moreover, there is an inevitable transmission loss of power because the wind
turbines are far away from the power demand centers [8–10]. Straight-bladed vertical axis wind
turbines (Sb-VAWTs) have been favored by global researchers due to their low production cost and
insensitivity to high turbulence intensity in cities [11–13].

Energies 2018, 11, 1514; doi:10.3390/en11061514 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

turbines
Energies (Sb-VAWTs)
2018, 11, 1514 have been favored by global researchers due to their low production cost2 of
and15
insensitivity to high turbulence intensity in cities [11–13].

(a) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (b) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Types of wind
Types of wind turbine.
turbine.

For HAWT, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has developed a set of uniform
For HAWT, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has developed a set of uniform
design standards [14]. However, the research progress on VAWTs is relatively slow compared with
design standards [14]. However, the research progress on VAWTs is relatively slow compared with
HAWTs. Up to now, uniform worldwide design standard has not been established. For the Sb-
HAWTs. Up to now, uniform worldwide design standard has not been established. For the Sb-VAWT,
VAWT, the blade pitch angle is one of the basic parameters [15]. It is also a factor with a direct impact
the blade pitch angle is one of the basic parameters [15]. It is also a factor with a direct impact on
on the flow field around the blade, which then affects the pressure distribution on the blade surface,
the flow field around the blade, which then affects the pressure distribution on the blade surface,
which may lead to a change in the lift-to-drag ratio of the blade and power coefficient of the wind
which may lead to a change in the lift-to-drag ratio of the blade and power coefficient of the wind
turbine [16].
turbine [16].
In the study of Sb-VAWT standardization, researchers have achieved remarkable results. In 2013
In the study of Sb-VAWT standardization, researchers have achieved remarkable results. In 2013
Conaill et al. characterized the relationship between the Sb-VAWT design parameters and the best
Conaill et al. characterized the relationship between the Sb-VAWT design parameters and the best
performance based on the averaged moment values [17]. It was found that the lift-to-drag ratio had
performance based on the averaged moment values [17]. It was found that the lift-to-drag ratio
an effect on the rotating rotor speed of the Sb-VAWT and the peak value of the power output
had an effect on the rotating rotor speed of the Sb-VAWT and the peak value of the power output
coefficient. As the rotating rotor speed of the Sb-VAWT gets faster, the lift-to-drag ratio increased.
coefficient. As the rotating rotor speed of the Sb-VAWT gets faster, the lift-to-drag ratio increased.
Maeda et al. [18] in 2013 studied the effect of the rotor angular frequency of the Sb-VAWT on the
Maeda et al. [18] in 2013 studied the effect of the rotor angular frequency of the Sb-VAWT on the
pressure distribution acting on the blade surface by using a high-speed multiport pressure device
pressure distribution acting on the blade surface by using a high-speed multiport pressure device
and a torque meter. This experiment revealed that the tip speed ratio increased with the increase of
and a torque meter. This experiment revealed that the tip speed ratio increased with the increase of
the pressure difference on the blade surface. Based on this experiment, Li et al. [19] in 2015 further
the pressure difference on the blade surface. Based on this experiment, Li et al. [19] in 2015 further
investigated the influence of the number of blades on the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-
investigated the influence of the number of blades on the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-VAWT
VAWT via a torque meter. The results of this experiment showed that the peak value of the power
via a torque meter. The results of this experiment showed that the peak value of the power coefficient
coefficient of the Sb-VAWT decreased with the increase of the number of blades. Sun et al. [20] in
of the Sb-VAWT decreased with the increase of the number of blades. Sun et al. [20] in 2016 and
2016 and Battisti et al. [21] in 2016 also obtained a similar conclusion by conducting wind tunnel
Battisti et al. [21] in 2016 also obtained a similar conclusion by conducting wind tunnel experiments
experiments and CFD simulations. Abu-El-Yazied et al. [22] performed in 2015 CFD simulations to
and CFD simulations. Abu-El-Yazied et al. [22] performed in 2015 CFD simulations to verify the
verify the conclusions, and analyzed the influence of various lengths of blade chords on the power
conclusions, and analyzed the influence of various lengths of blade chords on the power coefficient of
coefficient of the SB-VAWT. They found that the power coefficient decreased with the increase of the
the SB-VAWT. They found that the power coefficient decreased with the increase of the chord length.
chord length.
In order to analyze the effect of blade solidity on the power coefficient of the Sb-VAWT, Roh and
In order to analyze the effect of blade solidity on the power coefficient of the Sb-VAWT, Roh and
Kang et al. [23] in 2013 investigated the aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0015 airfoil at the
Kang et al. [23] in 2013 investigated the aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0015 airfoil at the
Reynolds number of Re = 3.6 × 1055 in reference to the multiple streamtube model. When the blade
Reynolds number of Re = 3.6 × 10 in reference to the multiple streamtube model. When the blade
solidities were 0.251, 0.333, 0.417, and 0.500, the maximum values of the power coefficient of the wind
solidities were 0.251, 0.333, 0.417, and 0.500, the maximum values of the power coefficient of the wind
turbine were around 0.48, 0.47, 0.40, and 0.27, respectively. Li et al. also verified this conclusion via
turbine were around 0.48, 0.47, 0.40, and 0.27, respectively. Li et al. also verified this conclusion via
wind tunnel experiments [24] and the panel method [25], from which the maximum value of power
wind tunnel experiments [24] and the panel method [25], from which the maximum value of power
coefficient decreased with the increase of the blade solidity.
coefficient decreased with the increase of the blade solidity.
Islam et al. [26] in 2007 evaluated the effects of the NACA0012, NACA0022, NACA5522 and
Islam et al. [26] in 2007 evaluated the effects of the NACA0012, NACA0022, NACA5522 and
LS0421 airfoils on the power coefficient of the Sb-VAWT via CFD simulations. The results showed
LS0421 airfoils on the power coefficient of the Sb-VAWT via CFD simulations. The results showed
that the power coefficient of the high-thickness NACA00XX was higher than that of the low-thickness
that the power coefficient of the high-thickness NACA00XX was higher than that of the low-thickness
NACA00XX, and the total output power of the symmetrical airfoil was higher than that of the
NACA00XX, and the total output power of the symmetrical airfoil was higher than that of the
asymmetric airfoil. Danao et al. [27] in 2012, concluded that the NACA0012 was the optimal airfoil
asymmetric airfoil. Danao et al. [27] in 2012, concluded that the NACA0012 was the optimal airfoil of
of the Sb-VAWT [27]. Iida et al. [28] in 2003, Claessens et al. [29] in 2006, and Armstrong et al. [30] in
2011 used wind tunnel experiments and CFD simulations to analyze the influence of the Reynolds
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 3 of 15

number on the energy conversion of the Sb-VAWT. Their studies found that with the increase of
Reynolds number, the wind energy utilization of the Sb-VAWT increased and the optimal tip speed
ratio decreased.
In summary, the current research on design parameters such as rotor diameter, airfoil, the number
of blade, blade solidity, etc. has achieved significant results. However, studies on the blade pitch
angle of the Sb-VAWT by using CFD simulations and wind tunnel experiments are few. Therefore,
the objectives of this research are to clarify the influence of the blade pitch angle on the aerodynamic
characteristics of the Sb-VAWT and look for the optimal blade pitch angle by using CFD simulations
and wind tunnel experiments. In order to investigate in detail the aerodynamic characteristics of the
Sb-VAWT at different blade pitch angles, pressure distribution on blade surface, torque coefficient,
and power coefficient will be analyzed.
The outline of the following work is shown as follows: Firstly, the pressure distributions at
the blade pitch angles of β = 4◦ , 6◦ , and 8◦ are compared and analyzed in order to investigate the
effect of blade pitch angle on aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-VAWT. Secondly, the torque
coefficients acting on the single blade are discussed at the blade pitch angles of β = 4◦ , 6◦ , and 8◦ .
Besides, the torque coefficients acting on the single blade calculated by CFD simulations are compared
with high-speed multiport pressure device at the blade pitch angle of β = 6◦ . Finally, the optimal
blade pitch angle is studied from the aspect of the power coefficient of wind turbine. The power
coefficients of wind turbine are compared with torque meter in wind tunnel experiments and CFD
simulations, respectively.

2. Theories and Methods

2.1. Theories
In order to study the effect of the blade pitch angle of the Sb-VAWT on the power coefficient,
the mathematical model of aerodynamics should be analyzed. As shown in Figure 2, the dotted circle
is the rotating shaft of the rotor and θ is the azimuth angle. The direction of the mainstream wind
velocity U0 flows from left to right and the rotating direction of the rotor is clockwise viewed from
topside of wind turbine. V and W are the tangential velocity of the blade and the resultant flow velocity
to blade, respectively. The resultant flow velocity to blade W is expressed with the tangential velocity
V and the mainstream wind velocity U0 as:

W = U0 + V (1)

The blade angle of attack α is the angle between the resultant flow velocity to blade and the blade
chord. The blade pitch angle β is the angle between the tangential velocity V of the blade and the
blade chord. ϕ is the angle between the resultant flow velocity to blade W and the tangential velocity
V, which can be expressed as:
ϕ = α+β (2)

P is the pressure acting on the blade surface and it is perpendicular to the blade surface.
The pressure coefficient acting on the blade surface Cp is expressed as:

P
Cp = (3)
0.5ρU02

where, ρ represents the air density. Tangential force can be obtained from the following expression:

FT = Fl sin ϕ − Fd cos ϕ (4)

where, Fl is the lifting force of the blade and its direction is perpendicular to the blade chord. Fd is the
drag force of the blade and its direction is parallel to the blade chord.
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 4 of 15

The torque of the single blade Q is generated by the tangential force of the blade. Therefore, Q can
be expressed with
Energies 2018, 11, the tangential
x FOR force FT as:
PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

The torque of the single blade Q is generated

R 2πby the tangential force of the blade. Therefore, Q
Z
Q =
can be expressed with the tangential force F2π
T as:
FT (θ )dθ (5)
0
R 2π
2 π 0
Q =
Hence, the torque coefficient CQ is defined as: FT (θ ) d θ (5)

Hence, the torque coefficient NQ as:

CQ is defined NQ
CQ = 2
= 2R
(6)
0.5ρAU NQ0 0
R 0.5ρDHU
NQ 0 0
Q C = = (6)
0.5 ρ AU 2 R0 0.5 ρ DHU 02 R0
where, N and R0 represent the number of blades0 and the rotor radius. D and H represent the rotor
diameter andNthe
where, andSpanwise length,
R0 represent respectively.
the number According
of blades to the
and the rotor rotorDtorque,
radius. the power
and H represent coefficient
the rotor
CPower diameter and the Spanwise
can be determined by thelength, respectively.
following equation:According to the rotor torque, the power coefficient
CPower can be determined by the following equation:
NQω
CPower == NQω (7)
C Power 0.5ρDHU 3 (7)
0.5 ρ DHU003

where,where, ωangular
ω is the frequency
is the angular of theofrotor.
frequency the rotor.

Blade 2
Rotating trajectory

U0

FN φ

Figure 2. Definitions of velocity and force.

Figure 2. Definitions of velocity and force.
2.2. Methods
2.2. Methods
In this paper, the influence of the blade pitch angle on the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-
InVAWT
this paper, the influence
is investigated by using ofCFD
the blade pitch The
simulations. angle on the aerodynamic
aerodynamic characteristics
characteristics of the Sb-VAWT of the
Sb-VAWTinclude the pressurebydistribution,
is investigated using CFD the torque coefficient
simulations. and the power
The aerodynamic coefficient.
characteristics TheSb-VAWT
of the CFD
includesimulations
the pressure aredistribution,
performed in thethe three-dimensional
torque coefficient andnumerical
the powermodel; it adopts
coefficient. The CFDsliding mesh
simulations
technology, k-ω Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model and the SAMPLE
are performed in the three-dimensional numerical model; it adopts sliding mesh technology, k-ω Shear iterative algorithm
for numerical calculation. The sliding mesh technique is commonly used in CFD simulations for
Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model and the SAMPLE iterative algorithm for numerical calculation.
simulating the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-VAWT. According to reference [31], the CFD
The sliding mesh technique is commonly used in CFD simulations for simulating the aerodynamic
simulations of the Sb-VAWT can obtain a high computational accuracy under the constant speed of
characteristics of can
the rotor. As the be
Sb-VAWT.
seen fromAccording to the
reference [32], reference
k-ω SST [31], the CFD
turbulence modelsimulations
combines the of advantages
the Sb-VAWT
can obtain
of theastandard
high computational accuracy
k-ω and the standard k-εunder the constant
turbulence models, andspeed of the rotor.
it includes As can be
the modified seen from
turbulent
reference
viscosity the k-ω SST
[32], formula, whichturbulence model the
takes into account combines
effect ofthe advantages
turbulence shearof being ablek-ω
the standard
stress, and the
to more
standard k-ε turbulence
accurately simulatemodels,
the size and it includes
of the separation thepoint
modified turbulentzone
and separation viscosity
causedformula, which takes
by the negative
pressurethe
into account gradient.
effect ofIt also has the advantages
turbulence shear stress, of being
adaptive filtering
able to more foraccurately
the boundary layer and
simulate theless
size of
sensitivity to the quality of the mesh.
the separation point and separation zone caused by the negative pressure gradient. It also has the
advantages of adaptive filtering for the boundary layer and less sensitivity to the quality of the mesh.
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 5 of 15
Energies
Energies 2018,
2018, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 55 of
of 15
15

As
As shown
As showninin
shown inFigure
Figure
Figure 3, 3,
the model
3, the
the model
model of the
ofwind
of the turbine
the wind
wind is double-blade
turbine
turbine is Sb-VAWT.
is double-blade
double-blade The rotorThe
Sb-VAWT.
Sb-VAWT. diameter
The rotor
rotor
is D =
diameter 2.0
diameter is m
is Dwith
D == 2.0 the
2.0 m spanwise
m with
with the length
the spanwise of
spanwise lengthH = 1.2
length of m.
of H The
H == 1.2 airfoil
1.2 m.
m. The is the
The airfoilstandard
airfoil is
is the NACA0021
the standard with the
standard NACA0021
NACA0021
blade
with
with thechord
the blade
bladelength
chord
chord c = 0.265
oflength
length of cm.
of c == 0.265
0.265 m. m.
Due
Due
Due toto the
to the effect
the effect of
effect of the tip
of the vortex
the tip vortexthe
tip vortex on onpressure
on the distribution
the pressure
pressure on the blade
distribution
distribution on
on thethesurface
bladeinsurface
blade the spanwise
surface in
in the
the
direction
spanwise [33],
spanwise direction the
direction [33],CFD
[33], thesimulations
the CFD
CFD simulations used
simulations usedthe three-dimensional
used thethe three-dimensional numerical
three-dimensional numerical model
numerical model to
model increase
to the
to increase
increase
accuracy
the
the accuracyof theof
accuracy ofcalculation,
the
the calculation,as shown
calculation, as in Figure
as shown
shown in4.Figure
in The length,
Figure 4. Thewidth
4. The length,
length, andwidth
heightand
width of the
and three-dimensional
height
height of
of the
the three-
three-
numerical
dimensional model
dimensional numerical are
numerical modelL =
model
0 20.0D,
are W = 10.0D
are LL00 ==020.0D,
20.0D, W and
W00 == 10.0DH
10.0D0and = 1.0D,
and H respectively.
H00 == 1.0D,
1.0D, respectively. The
respectively. The rotor
The center
rotor
rotor of
center
center
the
of Sb-VAWT
of the
the Sb-VAWT
Sb-VAWT is located
is
is located
located 5D5D5Daway
away
away fromfrom
fromthethe
theinlet
inlet
inletsurface.
surface.ItIt
surface. Itisis
islocated
locatedat
located atthe
at thecenter
the center position
center position of
position of the
of the
the
three-dimensional
three-dimensional
three-dimensional numerical numerical
numerical model model
model in in width
in width
width and and height.
and height.
height. Since Since
Since the the
the CFD CFD simulations
CFD simulations
simulations are are
are basedbased
based on on
on the
the
the sliding
sliding
sliding mesh mesh
mesh technique, technique,
technique, the the computational
the computational
computational domain domain is domain
is dividedis divided
divided into into
into aa stationary a stationary
stationary domain
domain and domain and
and aa rotating
rotating
adomain.
rotating domain.
domain.
The
The mesh
The mesh
mesh of of
of thethe stationary
the stationary domain
stationary domain
domain and and
and the the
the rotating
rotating domain
rotating domain
domain for for
for the
the CFD
the CFD simulations
CFD simulations
simulations are are
are
constructed
constructed
constructed usingusing
using the the topological
the topological
topological meshing meshing technique.
meshing technique.
technique. As As
As shownshown
shown in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 5, 5,
5, the the
the outerouter radius
outer radius
radius of of
of the
the
the rotating
rotating
rotating domain
domaindomainis
is 0.6Dis 0.6D
0.6D and and
and the the inner
the inner
inner radiusradius
radius is
is 0.4D.is 0.4D.
0.4D. The The interfaces
The interfaces
interfaces between
betweenbetween
the the inner
the inner
inner and and walls
and outer
outer outer
walls
walls
are are Interface1
are Interface1
Interface1 and and
and Interface2, Interface2,
Interface2, respectively. respectively.
respectively. To To
To obtain obtain
obtain aa higher a higher
higher calculationcalculation
calculation precision, precision,
precision, the the
the mesh mesh
mesh of of
of the
the
the rotating
rotating
rotating domain
domain
domain is is encrypted.
is encrypted.
encrypted. The
The Themeshmesh
mesh near
nearnear the
thetheblades
bladeswas
blades wasgiven
was givenfurther
given further encryption,
further encryption, which
encryption, which is
which is
is
depicted
depicted
depicted in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 6. 6.
6.

Figure
Figure 3.
Figure 3. A
3. A Three-dimensional
A Three-dimensional model
Three-dimensional model of
model of Sb-VAWT.
of Sb-VAWT.
Sb-VAWT.

20D
20D
D
D

10D
10D

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Computation
Computation of
of the
the domain
domain meshes.
meshes.
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 6 of 15
Energies 2018,
Energies 11,11,
2018, x FOR PEER
x FOR PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 6 of615
of 15

Static
Static

0.6D
0.6D
0.4D
0.4D

Move Static
Move Static

Interface1
Interface1

Blade
Blade

Interface2
Interface2
Figure 5. Rotating region mesh.
Figure 5. Rotating region mesh.
Figure 5. Rotating region mesh.

0.265m
0.265m

Figure 6. Mesh near blade.

Figure 6. Mesh near blade.
Mesh near
Figureof
From Table 1, the boundary condition 6. the inlet ofblade.
numerical domain adopts the VELOCITY-
INLET and the mainstream wind velocity is defined as 8.0 m/s. The boundary condition of the outlet
From Table 1, the boundary condition of the inlet of numerical domain adopts the VELOCITY-
of From Tabledomain
numerical 1, the boundary
employscondition of the inlet of numerical
the PRESSURE-OUTLET and the domain
pressureadopts
value the
is 0 VELOCITY-INLET
Pa. Other walls
INLET and the mainstream wind velocity is defined as 8.0 m/s. The boundary condition of the outlet
andarethe
setmainstream
as non-sliding boundary
wind condition
velocity as a as
is defined default setting.
8.0 m/s. The boundary condition of the outlet of
of numerical domain employs the PRESSURE-OUTLET and the pressure value is 0 Pa. Other walls
numerical domain employs the PRESSURE-OUTLET and the pressure value is 0 Pa. Other walls are
are set as non-sliding boundary condition as a defaultconditions.
setting.
set as non-sliding boundary conditionTableas a 1. Boundary
default setting.
Type 1. Boundary conditions.
Table Boundary Conditions
BoundaryTable Boundary conditions.
1. surface
of inlet Velocity-inlet
BoundaryType
of outlet surface Boundary Conditions
Pressure-outlet
Boundary
Boundaries ofType
of inlet
other surface
outside surfaces Boundary Conditions
Velocity-inlet
Symmetry
Boundaries
Boundaryofof
Boundary ofinlet
junction
outlet surface
surface
surface Interface
Pressure-outlet
Velocity-inlet
Boundaries
Boundaries
Boundary ofof of blade
other
outlet surfaces
outside
surfacesurfaces Wall
Symmetry
Pressure-outlet
Boundaries
Boundaries
Boundaries of other
of junction
of other defaults
outside surface
surfaces Wall
Interface
Symmetry
Boundaries
Boundaries of blade surfaces
of junction surface Wall
Interface
Since the flow field of the Sb-VAWT
Boundaries
Boundaries ofof
blade has a Reynolds number
othersurfaces
defaults that is greater than the critical
Wall
Wall
Boundaries of other defaults Wall
Reynolds number, the turbulence model is used. The number of time steps of the CFD simulations is
setSince
as 540.
theAccording
flow fieldtoofFormula (6) and the
the Sb-VAWT hasangular velocity
a Reynolds of thethat
number blade, the timethan
is greater step the
t can be
critical
expressed
Reynolds as:
Sincenumber,
the flowthe turbulence
field model is used.
of the Sb-VAWT has a The number
Reynolds of timethat
number stepsisofgreater
the CFD simulations
than is
the critical
set as 540.number,
Reynolds According
the to Formula model
turbulence (6) andisthe
used. π number
angular
The velocityofoftime
the steps
blade,ofthe
thetime
CFDstep t can be
simulations
expressed as: t= (8)
is set as 540. According to Formula (6) and the angular 90ω velocity of the blade, the time step t can be
expressed as: ππ
In the wind tunnel experiments, the center t==surface (z = 0) along the blade span direction was
t (8)
considered to measure the pressure distribution by 90
90ωω
using the multiport pressure device during the(8)
one-cycle rotation
In the wind of theexperiments,
tunnel rotor. The torque
the coefficient and power
center surface (z = 0)coefficient
along theacting
bladeon the single
span blade
direction was
are calculated by integrating the pressure distribution on the blade surface. The torque of the Sb-
considered to measure the pressure distribution by using the multiport pressure device during the
one-cycle rotation of the rotor. The torque coefficient and power coefficient acting on the single blade
are calculated by integrating the pressure distribution on the blade surface. The torque of the Sb-
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 7 of 15

areEnergies 2018,
2018,11,
calculated
Energies byxxFOR
11, FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
integrating the pressure distribution on the blade surface. The torque of the Sb-VAWT
REVIEW 7 7ofof1515

was measured by a torque meter, and then the utilization rate of wind energy (power coefficient) was
VAWT
VAWTwas measured
wasThe measured by aatorque meter, and then the
theutilization rate
rateofofwind
windenergy (power
investigated. effect ofby torquepitch
the blade meter,
angleandon then utilizationcharacteristics
the aerodynamic energy (power
of the Sb-VAWT
coefficient) was investigated. The effect of the blade pitch angle on the aerodynamic
coefficient) was investigated. The effect of the blade pitch angle on the aerodynamic characteristics characteristics
could be verified scientifically via CFD simulations and wind tunnel experiments.
ofofthe
theSb-VAWT
Sb-VAWTcould couldbe beverified
verifiedscientifically
scientificallyvia
viaCFD
CFDsimulations
simulationsand andwind
windtunnel
tunnelexperiments.
experiments.
Figure
Figure
7 shows the the schematic diagram of the Sb-VAWT in wind tunnel experiments. The experiments
Figure 77 shows
shows the schematic
schematic diagram
diagram ofof thethe Sb-VAWT
Sb-VAWT inin wind wind tunnel
tunnel experiments.
experiments. The The
were carried out in an
experiments open test in section of circular type wind tunnel with an tunnel
outlet diameter of 3.0 m
experimentswere werecarried
carriedout out inan anopen
opentesttestsection
sectionofofcircular
circulartype
typewind
wind tunnelwith withan anoutlet
outlet
and the maximum
diameter windthe velocity was 40.0 m/s. Thewas torque meter of TS-2700 was chosen to measure
diameterofof3.0 3.0mmandand themaximum
maximumwind windvelocity
velocity was40.0 40.0m/s.
m/s.TheThetorque
torquemeter
meterofofTS-2700
TS-2700was was
the torque coefficients
chosen of the rotor. The mainstream wind velocity was 8.0velocity
m/s and the bladeand pitch
chosentotomeasure
measurethe thetorque
torquecoefficients
coefficientsofofthetherotor.
rotor.TheThemainstream
mainstreamwind wind velocitywaswas8.08.0m/s
m/s and
angles were set at β = 4 ◦ , 6◦ and 8◦ , respectively. The size ratio between the actual wind turbine and the
the
theblade
bladepitch
pitchangles
angleswere wereset setatatββ==4°,
4°,6°6°and
and8°,8°,respectively.
respectively.The Thesize
sizeratio
ratiobetween
betweenthe theactual
actual
model
wind
wind ofturbine
the wind
turbine and
andturbine
the
themodel in CFD
model simulations
ofofthe
the wind
windturbine wasinin
turbine 1:1.
CFD
CFDFigure 8 illustrates
simulations
simulations was the
was1:1. correction
1:1.Figure system for
Figure88illustrates
illustrates thethe
the
high-speed
correctionmultiport
correction system
system for pressure
for the device. More
the high-speed
high-speed detailedpressure
multiport
multiport experimental
pressure device.
device.parameters
More have been
More detailed
detailed introduced
experimental
experimental
inparameters
the previous studies
have been of Li et
introduced al. [10,19,24,34,35].
in the previous studies of Li et
parameters have been introduced in the previous studies of Li et al. [10,19,24,34,35]. al. [10,19,24,34,35].

Wind
WindTunnel
TunnelOutlet
Outlet Wind
WindTunnel
TunnelInlet
Inlet

Pitot TubeWireless
PitotTube WirelessLAN
LAN
Mutiport
Mutiport
Pressure
Pressure
Device
Device

Computer
Computer

Torque
TorqueMeter
Meter
Thermometer
Thermometer

Figure
Figure7. A schematic diagram
diagram of Sb-VAWTinin thewind
wind tunnelmeasurement.
measurement.
Figure7.7.AAschematic
schematic diagramofofSb-VAWT
Sb-VAWT inthe
the windtunnel
tunnel measurement.

Pressure
Pressuredetector
detector
Pressurizer
Pressurizer

Tubes
Tubes

Reference
ReferencePort
Port
Chamber
Chamber Airfoil
Airfoil

Figure
Figure 8.8.Calibration
Figure8. Calibration
Calibrationof
ofdynamic
of dynamicresponse
dynamic responseinin
response inair
airofof
air oftubing.
tubing.
tubing.

Figure
Figure 99represents
represents the
thedistribution
distributionof ofofpressure
pressuretaps tapson onthe the blade surface. As shown ininthis figure,
Figure 9 represents the distribution pressure taps on the blade bladesurface.
surface.AsAsshown
shown this
in figure,
this figure,
the circle represents the pressure taps on the blade surface. The pressure taps atatthe leading edge of
the circle represents the pressure taps on the blade surface. The pressure taps at the leading edge ofofthe
the circle represents the pressure taps on the blade surface. The pressure taps the leading edge
the
theblade
bladewerewerearranged
arrangedwithwithhigh
highdensity.
density.The Thereason
reasonisisthat thatthe thepressure
pressuregradient
gradientofofthetheleading
leading
blade were arranged with high density. The reason is that the pressure gradient of the leading edge of
edge
edgeofofthetheblade
bladewas wasgreater
greaterthan
thanthat
thatofofthethetrailing
trailingedge edgeofofthe theblade.
blade.The
Thedistance
distancebetween
betweenthe the
the blade was greater than that of the trailing edge of the blade. The distance between the pressure
pressure taps is s
pressure taps is si and the measured pressure value of each tap is Pi. The value of the staticpressure
i and the measured pressure value of each tap is P i . The value of the static pressure
taps is si and
point theeach
measured pressure value of each tap isdirection Pi . The value of the static pressurethe point is P0 .
pointis isPP0.0.At
At eachpressure
pressuretap,
tap,the
theangle
anglebetween
betweenthe the direction ofofthethepressure
pressurevalue
valueand
and theblade
blade
Atchord
each pressure tap, the angle between the direction of the pressure valueFand the blade chord is γi .
chordisisγγi.i.TheThetangential
tangentialforce
forceandandthe thenormal
normalforce forcefor forthe theblade bladeare are FT Tand
andFFNN, ,respectively.
respectively.
The tangential force
According and the normal force for Fthe bladeexpressed are FT and F , respectively. According to the
Accordingtotothe thepressure
pressureofofeach
eachtap,
tap,FFT Tand
and FNNcancanbe be expressed as:
as:N
pressure of each tap, FT and FN can be expressed as:
FFT == ( (ppi i−− pp0 0) )s is is sininγ γi i (9)
(9)
T

FFTN == ∑ ((ppii i−−−ppp000))s)sisiicsin

N =  ( p coos sγγγi ii (10)
(10)
(9)

According FN = ∑ force
pi −FpT0can
(force )si cos γi (10)
AccordingtotoEquation
Equation(9),
(9),the
thetangential
tangential FT can be
becalculated.
calculated.And
Andthen,
then,the
thetorque
torqueofofthe
the
single
singleblade
bladecan
canbe
becalculated
calculatedfrom
fromEquation
Equation(4).
(4).Furthermore,
Furthermore,the thepower
powercoefficient
coefficientofofthe
therotor
rotorcan
can
be obtained.
be obtained.
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 8 of 15

According to Equation (9), the tangential force FT can be calculated. And then, the torque of the
single blade
Energies 2018, can be calculated
11, x FOR from Equation (4). Furthermore, the power coefficient of the rotor
PEER REVIEW 8 of 15can
be Energies
obtained.2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

y/c y/c
si

chordchord
si
to blade
to blade γi
γi
Thickness
Thickness

Chord length x/c

Chord length x/c
Figure 9. Distribution
Figure 9. ofpressure
Distribution of pressuretaps
tapsononblade
bladesurface.
surface.

Figure 9. Distribution of pressure taps on blade surface.

3. 3.
Results
Results
3. Results
Figure1010shows
Figure showsthe
theresult
result of
of monitor
monitor of
of the
the CFD
CFDsimulation
simulationatatthe
theblade pitch
blade angle
pitch = 6◦ .
of βof=β6°.
angle
The
The monitored
monitored
Figure 10data data
showsisisthe
the torque
thetorque
result of of monitor
of the rotor.ofThe thehorizontal
The horizontal
CFD simulation axis
axisand at vertical
and vertical
the bladeaxis represent
axis
pitch represent
angle of theβthe
flow flow
= 6°.
time
time
Theandand the rotor
the rotordata
monitored torque,
torque, respectively.
is therespectively.
torque of the When When the
rotor. The time
the horizontal is 0
time is 0 <axis < t 0 < 0.3,
t0 <and the curve
0.3,vertical
the curve fluctuates
axisfluctuates irregularly.
represent irregularly.
the flow
This
This
time phenomenon
phenomenon
and the rotorshows shows
torque, the
the computation
computation
respectively. Whenof
of the theCFD
the timesimulation
CFD simulation
is 0 < t0 < 0.3, isisnotnotconvergent.
the convergent.
curve When
fluctuates When thethe
flow
irregularly. flow
timeis is
This
time >t 0.3,
> 0.3,
tphenomenon thethe computation
shows the of
computation of
thethe
computation
CFD CFD simulation
of the CFD
simulation is convergent.
is simulation
convergent. isWhen
notWhen thethe
convergent.
timetime tis> t0.8,
isWhen > the
0.8, the
theflow
curve
curve
time is
fluctuationfluctuation
t >becomes
0.3, thebecomes
computation
stabilized.stabilized.of the CFD simulation is convergent. When the time is t > 0.8, the
curve As shown
fluctuation in Figure
becomes 11, the torque coefficients acting on the single blade computed by CFD
As shown in Figure 11,stabilized.
the torque coefficients acting on the single blade computed by CFD
simulations
As shownare compared
in Figure with
11, the those
torquemeasured
coefficients by high-speed
acting on the multiport pressure
single blade device in
computed bywind
simulations are compared with those measured by high-speed multiport pressure device inCFDwind
tunnel experiments. As shown in the figure, the fluctuation of torque coefficient acting on the single
tunnel experiments. As shown in the figure, the fluctuation of torque coefficient acting on thewind
simulations are compared with those measured by high-speed multiport pressure device in single
blade
tunnel computed
experiments. by CFD simulations
As shown is in athe
in the figure, good agreement
fluctuation with the
of torque curve of the experimental
blade computed by CFD simulations is in a good agreement with coefficient
the curveactingof theon the single
experimental
measurements
blade computed when
by the the azimuth
CFDazimuth
simulations angles
is in are
a 60 60
good ° < θ
◦ <agreement< 300 ° . However, the curve measured by
measurements when angles are θ < 300◦with the curve
. However, theofcurve
the experimental
measured by
experiment measurements is slightly smaller than that
measurements when the azimuth angles are 60° < θ < 300° . However, the curve measured by calculated by the CFD simulation at the
experiment measurements
of 0° < θ is slightly
andsmaller than that calculated byforthe CFD simulation at is the azimuth
azimuth
experiment angles < 60is° slightly 300° < θ < 360 ° . that
The reason this phenomenon thatat the
angles of 0 ◦ <measurements
θ < 60 ◦ and 300 ◦ < θ <smaller360
than
◦ . The reason
calculated
for this
by the
phenomenon
CFD simulation
is that the
the
rotation
rotation
azimuthdirection
angles of of the
0° <rotor
θ < 60is ° clockwise,
and 300° <which θ < 360results
° . Theinreason the tip for vortex
thisgenerated
phenomenon by the is blade
that the in
direction
the of
upstream the rotor
region is clockwise, which results in the tip vortex generated by the blade in the upstream
rotation direction of and has an
the rotor is important
clockwise, effect
whichon the aerodynamic
results in the tip vortex characteristics
generated of bythethe blade
blade at in
region
the and has
azimuth an important
angles of 0 ° < θ < effect
60 ° on the
and 300 °aerodynamic
< θ < 360 ° . characteristics
Nevertheless, the twoof curves
the blade still at
havetheaazimuth
good
the upstream region◦ and has ◦an important effect on the aerodynamic characteristics of the blade at
angles of 0◦ < angles
agreement.
the azimuthThis
θ <is60 and 300 <observation
similar
of 0° <toθ the
θ < 360◦ . Nevertheless, the two curves still have a good agreement.
< 60° and 300° <by θ Yang
< 360°et al. [36].
. Nevertheless, the two curves still have a good
This is similar to the observation by Yang et al.
agreement. This is similar to the observation by Yang et al. [36]. [36].

t0
t0

Figure 10. Monitor of torque of rotor for CFD simulations.

Figure 10. Monitor of torque of rotor for CFD simulations.
Figure 10. Monitor of torque of rotor for CFD simulations.
 Energies 2018, 11, 1514 9 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Torque coefficient CQ

Azimuth angle θ (°)

Figure11.
Figure 11.Torque coefficientsacting
Torquecoefficients actingon onthe
thesingle
single blade
blade obtained from CFD
CFD simulations
simulationsand
andwind
wind
tunnelexperiments
tunnel experimentsatatpitch
pitchangle 6◦ .
angleofofββ==6°.

4.4.Discussion
Discussion

4.1.Pressure
4.1. PressureDistribution
Distributionon
onSingle
SingleBlade
BladeSurface
Surface
Thissection
This sectiondiscusses
discussesthetheeffect
effectofofthe
theblade
bladepitch
pitchangle
angleon
onthe
thepressure
pressuredistribution
distributionon onthe
thesingle
single
bladesurface
blade surfaceatatthetheazimuth
azimuthangles
angles of 0◦ ≤≤θθ≤≤360°.
of 0° 360◦The. Theresults
resultsare
areobtained
obtainedby byCFD
CFDsimulations
simulationsatat
theblade
the bladepitch
pitchangles
anglesof 4◦ ,6°,
ofββ==4°, 6◦ ,and
and8°.8◦ .InInthis
thisstudy,
study,thetheinterval
interval of 0◦ ≤≤θθ<<180°
of 0° 180◦isisdefined
definedasasthe
the
upstreamregion regionand andthe
theinterval
intervalof of180° ◦
180 ≤≤θ θ< <360° ◦
360is is definedasasthe
thedownstream
downstreamregion.
region.
upstream defined
Figure12
Figure 12illustrates
illustratesthethefluctuations
fluctuationsofofpressure
pressuredistribution
distributionatatdifferent
differentblade
bladepitch
pitchangles
anglesfrom
from
the CFD simulations. From this figure, it is seen that the maximum
the CFD simulations. From this figure, it is seen that the maximum value of pressure difference on value of pressure difference
on blade
the the blade
surfacesurface is reached
is reached at the azimuth
at the azimuth angle ofangle
θ = 90°. θ = 90it◦ .can
of Thus, Thus, it can be
be inferred inferred
that that the
the maximum
maximum aerodynamic characteristics of the blade should be generated
aerodynamic characteristics of the blade should be generated in the upstream region. The minimum in the upstream region.
The minimum
value of the pressurevaluedifference
of the pressure
on thedifference
blade surface on the bladeat
appears surface appears
the azimuth at the
angle of azimuth angle of
θ = 180°. Similar
◦ . Similar results were also mentioned by Li et al. [24] in 2016. The main reason is that the
θ = 180were
results also mentioned by Li et al. [24] in 2016. The main reason is that the direction of the
direction of
tangential the tangential
velocity velocity
V of the blade V of
is the the as
same blade
thatisofthethesame as that of
mainstream the velocity
wind mainstream wind velocity
U0, which results
inUthe
0 , which results
resultant flow in velocity
the resultant flowWvelocity
to blade reaching to the
blade W reaching
minimum value. the minimum value.

(a) (a) (b)

(b) (c) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(d) (e) (f)
Figure 12. Cont.
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 10 of 15
(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j) (k) (l)

Figure 12. Pressure distribution acting on blade surface at different azimuth angles of 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ and
at different blade pitch angles of β = 4◦ , 6◦ and 8◦ , respectively. (a) Azimuth angle θ = 0◦ ; (b) Azimuth
angle θ = 30◦ ; (c) Azimuth angle θ = 60◦ ; (d) Azimuth angle θ = 90◦ ; (e) Azimuth angle θ = 120◦ ;
(f) Azimuth angle θ = 150◦ ; (g) Azimuth angle θ = 180◦ ; (h) Azimuth angle θ = 210◦ ; (i) Azimuth angle
θ = 240◦ ; (j) Azimuth angle θ = 270◦ ; (k) Azimuth angle θ = 300◦ ; (l) Azimuth angle θ = 330◦ .

Compared with the azimuth angle of θ = 90◦ , the pressure difference on the blade surface is
smaller at the azimuth angle of θ = 270◦ , which is mainly affected by the angle of attack and the loss of
wind energy in the downstream region. The pressure difference on the blade surface at the azimuth
angle of θ = 0◦ is greater than at the azimuth angle of θ = 180◦ . The reason is that the direction of
tangential velocity V of the blade is opposite to that of the mainstream wind velocity when the azimuth
angle is θ = 0◦ , which results in the resultant flow velocity to blade at the azimuth angle of θ = 0◦ being
greater than that at the azimuth angle of θ = 180◦ . This result also has a good agreement with the
studies of Li et al. [33]. As can be seen from Figure 12, the maximum value of the pressure difference
on the blade surface appears near the leading edge 1 of the blade and the pressure difference near the
trailing edge on the blade surface is closed to zero. Therefore, it can be concluded that the power
coefficient of the Sb-VAWT is mainly dependent on the leading edge of the blade.
As shown in Table 2, the pressure differences on the blade surface for different blade pitch angles
of β = 4◦ , 6◦ , and 8◦ are compared at the azimuth angles of 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ . When the azimuth angles
are θ = 0◦ , 30◦ and 330◦ , the pressure differences on the blade surface at the blade pitch angle of β = 4◦
are larger than those at the blade pitch angles of β = 6◦ and 8◦ . When the azimuth angles are θ = 90◦ ,
120◦ , 150◦ and 180◦ , the pressure differences on the blade surface at the blade pitch angle of β = 6◦
are larger than those at the blade pitch angles of β = 4◦ and 8◦ . Among the blade pitch angles of
β = 4◦ , 6◦ , and 8◦ , the pressure differences on the blade surface at the blade pitch angles of β = 8◦ are
maximum when the azimuth angles are θ = 60◦ , 210◦ , 240◦ , 270◦ and 300◦ , respectively. Therefore,
in the upstream region, the maximum pressure difference on the blade surface is mainly obtained at
the blade pitch angle of β = 6◦ , and in the downstream region, the pressure difference on the blade
surface is mainly obtained at the blade pitch angle of β = 8◦ . According to reference [24], the power
coefficient of the Sb-VAWT is mainly obtained in the upstream region. To sum up, the analysis on the
pressure distribution on the blade surface shows that the optimal blade pitch angle is β = 6◦ for the
Sb-VAWT when the number of blade is two.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Energies 2.11,
2018,
Table 1514
Comparison of pressure difference on the blade surface at different blade pitch angles of β =11 of 15
4°, 6°, and 8°.
Table 2. Comparison of pressure difference on the blade surface at different
Comparison ofblade pitch angles of β = 4◦ ,
Pressure
◦ ◦ Regions Azimuth Angle
6 , and 8 . Difference on the Blade Surface
0° 4° > 6° > 8°
Regions Azimuth Angle 30° Comparison of Pressure
4°Difference
> 6° > 8° on the Blade Surface
0◦ 60° ◦>6
48° 6°◦ >> 84°
◦
Upstream region 30◦ ◦ > 6◦ > 8◦
46°
90° > 8° > 4°
60◦ 8◦ > 6◦ > 4◦
Upstream region 120° 6°◦ > 4°◦ > 8°
90◦ 6 > 8 > 4◦
120◦ 150° 66°
◦> > 44°◦ >> 88°
◦
150◦ 180° ◦>4
66° 4°◦ >> 88°
◦

180◦ 210° 68°

◦> > 46°◦ >> 84°
◦
210◦ 240° ◦>6
88° 6°◦ >> 44°
◦
Lower region 240◦ ◦ > 6◦ > 4◦
88°
Lower region 270° > 6° > 4°
270◦ 8◦ > 6◦ > 4◦
300° 8°◦ > 6°◦ > 4°
300◦ 8 > 6 > 4◦
330◦ 330° 44°
◦> > 66°◦ >> 88°
◦

4.2.
4.2.Torque
TorqueCoefficient
CoefficientforforSingle
SingleBlade
Blade
In this section, CFD simulations
In this section, CFD simulations are are
usedused
to analyze the torque
to analyze coefficients
the torque acting acting
coefficients on the on
single
the
blade
singlewhen bladethe blade
when thepitch angles
blade pitchare β = 4°,are
angles 6°,βand
= 4◦8°,
, 6respectively. Then, the torque
◦ , and 8◦ , respectively. Then,coefficients
the torque
obtained
coefficients by the CFD simulations
obtained by the CFDand the wind tunnel
simulations and the experiments
wind tunnel areexperiments
compared atare thecompared
blade pitchat
angle
the bladeof β =pitch
6°. The
angletorque
of β coefficients actingcoefficients
= 6◦ . The torque on the single bladeon
acting are
thecalculated by Equation
single blade (5). The
are calculated by
tangential force F T in Equation (5) is obtained by the pressure value acting on the blade surface. As
Equation (5). The tangential force FT in Equation (5) is obtained by the pressure value acting on the
shown in Figure
blade surface. As 13,
shownthe in
three curves
Figure have
13, the threea little
curves difference in difference
have a little the upstream region,
in the while
upstream the
region,
difference
while the in the downstream
difference region is even
in the downstream fewer.
region Whenfewer.
is even the azimuth
When theangles are around
azimuth anglesθare
= 30° and
around
180°, the
◦ curves ◦present two wave troughs and the values of which are
θ = 30 and 180 , the curves present two wave troughs and the values of which are both negative. both negative. When the
azimuth angle is around θ = 100°, the torque coefficient acting on the single
When the azimuth angle is around θ = 100◦ , the torque coefficient acting on the single blade achieves blade achieves the
maximum
the maximum value at the
value at blade pitchpitch
the blade angle of βof
angle = 6°
β =and the minimum
6◦ and the minimum value at the
value at blade pitch
the blade angle
pitch of
angle
βof= β8°.= When
8 . When the azimuth angle is around θ = 260 , the blade has the maximum torque coefficientatat
◦ the azimuth angle is around θ = 260°, the
◦ blade has the maximum torque coefficient
the
theblade
bladepitch
pitchangle
angleof ofββ==8°8◦and
andthe
theminimum
minimumtorque torquecoefficient
coefficientatatthe
theblade
bladepitch
pitchangle
angleof
ofββ==6°,6◦ ,
which are consistent with the results of the pressure distribution on the blade surface. The torque
which are consistent with the results of the pressure distribution on the blade surface. The torque
coefficients acting on the single blade at the blade pitch angles of β = 4°,◦ 6°,◦ and 8° ◦reach the maximum
coefficients acting on the single blade at the blade pitch angles of β = 4 , 6 , and 8 reach the maximum
values at the upstream region of around θ = 100°◦and reach the minimum values in the downstream
values at the upstream region of around θ = 100 and reach the minimum values in the downstream
region of around θ = 200°.◦
region of around θ = 200 .
Single blade torque coefficient CQ

Azimuth angle θ (°)

Figure
Figure13.
13.Torque coefficientsacting
Torquecoefficients actingononthe
thesingle
single blade obtained from CFD
blade obtained CFD simulations
simulationsat
atdifferent
different
pitch
pitchangles
anglesof 4◦6°and
ofββ==4°, , 6◦ and8°8,◦respectively.
, respectively.

4.3. Power Coefficient for the Wind Turbine

Sb-VAWT is an energy conversion device, for which the power coefficient is the core of all design
parameters. This section discusses the influence of the blade pitch angle on the power coefficient
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

4.3. Power Coefficient for the Wind Turbine

Energies 2018, 11, 1514 12 of 15
Sb-VAWT is an energy conversion device, for which the power coefficient is the core of all design
parameters. This section discusses the influence of the blade pitch angle on the power coefficient
based on
based on the
the torque
torque meter
meter measurements
measurements and and the
the CFDCFD simulations.
simulations. In this paper, paper, because
because both
both wind
wind
tunnel experiments
tunnel experiments and CFD simulations only involve the energy conversion of the rotor, rotor, the
the power
power
coefficient is
coefficient is estimated
estimated purelypurely on on the
the basis
basis ofof aerodynamics.
aerodynamics. However, since since the
the power
power coefficients
coefficients
measured by
measured by the
the torque
torque meter
meter in in wind
wind tunnel
tunnel experiments
experiments do do not
not exclude
exclude energy
energy loss resulting
resulting from
from
the mechanical
the mechanical structure,
structure,the the results
results areare smaller
smaller than
than thosethose calculated
calculated by by CFD
CFD simulations.
simulations. The The power
power
coefficientsobtained
coefficients obtainedbyby CFDCFD simulations
simulations are calculated
are calculated by Equation
by Equation (7), in the
(7), in which which theis torque
torque obtained is
obtained
from from the Section
the previous previous Section 4.2.
4.2.
As shown in
As inFigure
Figure14, 14,thethepower
power coefficients
coefficients calculated
calculated by byCFD CFDsimulations
simulations can agree well well
can agree with
thosethose
with measured
measuredby thebywind tunneltunnel
the wind experiments
experimentsat lowattip lowspeed ratio (λ
tip speed < 1.50),
ratio (λ <whereas the power
1.50), whereas the
coefficients
power calculated
coefficients by CFD
calculated by simulations
CFD simulations are significantly
are significantly different fromfrom
different thosethose
measured
measuredby theby
experimental data at high tip speed ratio. The reason is that the
the experimental data at high tip speed ratio. The reason is that the model of the CFD simulation model of the CFD simulation ignores
the support
ignores of the blade
the support of theandblade theanddifference increases
the difference with the
increases withincrease of theoftip
the increase thespeed ratio.ratio.
tip speed The
power
The coefficient
power increases
coefficient with with
increases the increase of tip speed
the increase ratio. When
of tip speed ratio. tip
When speedtipratio
speedreaches
ratio λ = 2.19,
reaches
the
λ power
= 2.19, thecoefficient reaches the
power coefficient maximum
reaches value. With
the maximum value.the With
tip speed
the tipratio continuing
speed to increase,
ratio continuing to
the power
increase, thecoefficient decreases
power coefficient rapidly.rapidly.
decreases This result Thisalsoresulthasalso
a good
has aagreement
good agreementwith the studies
with of Lei
the studies
et Lei
of al. [37]
et al.and
[37]Liand
et al. [38]
Li et al.in 2016.
[38] This indicates
in 2016. This indicatesthat whenthat when the blade pitchpitch
the blade angles are βare
angles = 4°, 4◦and
β =6° , 6◦
8°, the
and ◦
8 , optimal
the optimal tip speed
tip speed ratio is 2.19.
ratio is 2.19.When Whenthethe tiptip speed
speedratioratioisis1.38,
1.38,the
thepower
powercoefficient
coefficient has thethe
highest value
highest value at at the
the pitch
pitch angle
angle of ◦ . Meanwhile, the maximum power coefficient is obtained
of ββ == 44°. obtained at at
the pitch angle of β = 6°◦ when the tip speed ratios are
the pitch angle of β 6 when the tip speed ratios are 2.19 and 2.58. In summary, 2.19 and 2.58. In summary, the power coefficient
coefficient
can get
can get an
an optimal
optimal value
value at at the
the pitch
pitch angle
angleof of ββ == 66°◦ in the both CFD simulations and the wind tunnel tunnel
experiments. Therefore, the optimal blade pitch angle
experiments. Therefore, the optimal blade pitch angle is β 6 for the Sb-VAWT is β = 6° ◦ for the Sb-VAWT when the number
number of of
blade is
blade is two.
two.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Power
Power coefficients
coefficientsofofrotor
rotorobtained
obtainedfrom
fromCFD
CFDsimulations
simulations and
and wind
wind tunnel
tunnel experiments
experiments at
at the
the different
different pitch
pitch angles
angles of βof=β4=◦ ,4°,
6◦ 6°
andand
8◦ 8°, respectively.
, respectively.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this study, the effect of blade pitch angle on the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-VAWT
In this study, the effect of blade pitch angle on the aerodynamic characteristics of the Sb-VAWT
was investigated via wind tunnel experiments and CFD simulations, and then the optimal blade pitch
was investigated via wind tunnel experiments and CFD simulations, and then the optimal blade pitch
angle was identified. The conclusions can be summarized as follows:
angle was identified. The conclusions can be summarized as follows:
(1) Blade pitch angle effect on pressure distribution acting on single blade surface. When the azimuth angle
(1) Blade pitch angle effect on pressure distribution acting on single blade surface. When the azimuth angle
is in the upstream region, the pressure difference acting on the blade surface reaches maximum
is in the upstream region, the pressure difference acting on the blade surface reaches maximum at
at the blade pitch angle of β◦ = 6°. When the azimuth angle is in the downstream region, the
the blade pitch angle of β = 6 . When the azimuth angle is in the downstream region, the pressure
pressure difference acting on the blade surface reaches maximum at the blade pitch angle of β =
difference acting on the blade surface reaches maximum at the blade pitch angle of β = 8◦ .
8°.
(2) Blade pitch angle effect on torque coefficient acting on single blade. When the azimuth angle is around
θ = 100◦ , the torque coefficient acting on single blade reaches maximum at the pitch angle of
β = 6◦ . When the azimuth angle is around θ = 260◦ , the maximum torque coefficient is obtained
at the blade pitch angle of β = 8◦ .
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 13 of 15

(3) Blade pitch angle effect on power coefficient. At the optimal tip speed ratio of λ = 2.19, the power
coefficient is the largest when the blade pitch angle is β = 6◦ . Compared to HAWT, the blade
pitch angle has no significant effect on the power coefficient.

Author Contributions: Y.Y. and Y.Z. conducted the data collection and contributed to the analysis of the results
and the writing the manuscript; Q.S. revised the manuscript; Z.G. and Q.L. contributed analysis tools and
technical guidance.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for the financial support by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51765050) and Key Research Project of Shandong Province of China under
Grant (No. 2017GGX40124). We are also very grateful to your journal for providing the platform to share
scientific research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
c Blade chord (m)
CQ Torque coefficient
Cp Pressure coefficient
CPower Power coefficient
D Rotor diameter (m)
Fd Drag force (N)
Fl Life force (N)
FN Normal force (N)
FT Tangential force (N)
H Spanwise length (m)
H0 Numerical region height (m)
L0 Numerical region length (m)
R0 Rotor radius (m)
Re Reynolds number
U0 Mainstream wind velocity (m/s)
W Resultant flow velocity to blade (m/s)
W0 Numerical region width (m)
a Angle of attack (◦ )
β Blade pitch angle (◦ )
θ Azimuth angle (◦ )
λ Tip speed ratio
ρ Air density (kg/m3 )
ω Angular frequency (rad/s)

References
1. CUI Minxuan. China Energy Development Report; Social Science Literature Publishing House: Beijing, China,
2010; pp. 152–170.
2. Global Wind Report 2016. Available online: http://gwec.net/publications/global-wind-report-2/global-
wind-report-2016 (accessed on 8 June 2018).
3. Yu, W.; Zhang, M.M.; Xu, J.Z. Effect of smart rotor control using a deformable trailing edge flap on load
reduction under normal and extreme turbulence. Energies 2012, 5, 3608–3626. [CrossRef]
4. Siddiqui, M.S.; Durrani, N.; Akhtar, I. Quantification of the effects of geometric approximations on the
performance of a vertical axis wind turbine. Renew. Energy 2015, 74, 661–670. [CrossRef]
5. Dabiri, J.O. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating
vertical-axis wind turbine arrays. J. Renew. Sustain. Energy 2011, 3, 043104. [CrossRef]
6. Galinos, C.; Larsen, T.J.; Madsen, H.A.; Paulsen, U.S. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Design Load Cases
Investigation and Comparison with Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. Energy Procedia 2016, 94, 319–328.
[CrossRef]
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 14 of 15

7. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Hiromori, Y. Investigation of wake characteristic of a 30 KW rated power
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine with wake model and field measurement. Appl. Energy 2018, in press.
[CrossRef]
8. Beri, H.; Yao, Y. Numerical Simulation of Unsteady Flow to Show Self-starting of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Using Fluent. J. Appl. Sci. 2011, 11, 962–970. [CrossRef]
9. Ismail, M.F.; Vijayaraghavan, K. The effects of aerofoil profile modification on a vertical axis wind turbine
performance. Energy 2015, 80, 20–31. [CrossRef]
10. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Murata, J.; Furukawa, K.; Yamamoto, M. Measurement of the Flow Field
around Straight-bladed Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 2016, 151, 70–78. [CrossRef]
11. Castelli, M.R.; Betta, S.D.; Benini, E. Effect of blade number on a straight-bladed vertical-axis darrieus wind
turbine. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2012, 61, 69–75.
12. Wekesa, D.W.; Wang, C.; Wei, Y.; Kamau, J.N.; Danao, L.A.M. A numerical analysis of unsteady inflow wind
for site specific vertical axis wind turbine: A case study for Marsabit and Garissa in Kenya. Renew. Energy
2015, 76, 648–661. [CrossRef]
13. Lee, Y.T.; Lim, H.C. Numerical study of the aerodynamic performance of a 500W Darrieus-type vertical-axis
wind turbine. Renew. Energy 2015, 83, 407–415. [CrossRef]
14. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). 61400-12-1: Wind Turbines—Part 12-1: Power Performance
Measurements of Electricity Producing Wind Turbines; IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2005.
15. Zhining, H.E.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, Z. Status Quo and Development of Vertical-axis Wind Turbine. Mech. Eng.
2014, 88, 857–878.
16. Chen, C.C.; Kuo, C.H. Effects of pitch angle and blade camber on flow characteristics and performance of
small-size Darrieus VAWT. J. Vis. 2013, 16, 65–74. [CrossRef]
17. Soraghan, C.; Leithead, W.; Jamieson, P. Influence of lift to drag ratio on optimal aerodynamic performance
of straight blade vertical axis wind turbines. In Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Association
Annual Conference, Vienna, Austria, 4–7 February 2013.
18. Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Murata, J.; Li, Q.A.; Kawabata, T.; Kogaki, T. Measurements of flow field and pressure
distribution of straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine. In Proceedings of the European Wind Energy
Association Conference and Exhibition 2013, Vienna, Austria, 4–6 February 2013.
19. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Murata, J.; Furukawa, K.; Yamamoto, M. Effect of number of blades on
aerodynamic forces on a straight-bladed Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. Energy 2015, 90, 784–795. [CrossRef]
20. Sun, X.; Chen, Y.; Cao, Y.; Wu, G.; Zheng, Z.; Huang, D. Research on the aerodynamic characteristics of a lift
drag hybrid vertical axis wind turbine. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2016, 8, 1–11. [CrossRef]
21. Battisti, L.; Brighenti, A.; Benini, E.; Castelli, M.R. Analysis of Different Blade Architectures on small VAWT
Performance. J. Phys. 2016, 753, 062009. [CrossRef]
22. Abu-El-Yazied, T.G.; Ali, A.M.; Al-Ajmi, M.S.; Hassan, I.M. Effect of number of blades and blade chord
length on the performance of Darrieus wind turbine. Am. J. Mech. Eng. Autom. 2015, 2, 16–25.
23. Roh, S.C.; Kang, S.H. Effects of a blade profile, the Reynolds number, and the solidity on the performance of
a straight bladed vertical axis wind turbine. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 2013, 27, 3299–3307. [CrossRef]
24. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Murata, J.; Furukawa, K.; Yamamoto, M. Effect of Solidity on Aerodynamic
Forces around Straight-Bladed Vertical Axis Wind Turbine by Wind Tunnel Experiments (Depending on
Number of Blades). Renew. Energy 2016, 96, 928–939. [CrossRef]
25. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Shimizu, K.; Ogasawara, T.; Nakai, A.; Kasuya, T. Effect of rotor aspect ratio
and solidity on a straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine in three-dimensional analysis by the panel
method. Energy 2017, 121, 1–9. [CrossRef]
26. Islam, M.; Ting, D.S.K.; Fartaj, A. Desirable airfoil features for smaller-capacity straight-bladed VAWT.
Wind Eng. 2007, 31, 165–196. [CrossRef]
27. Danao, L.A.; Qin, N.; Howell, R. A numerical study of blade thickness and camber effects on vertical axis
wind turbines. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part A J. Power Energy 2012, 226, 867–881. [CrossRef]
28. Iida, A.; Mizuno, A.; Kamemoto, K. Prediction of Aerodynamic Noise Radiated from a Vertical-Axis Wind
Turbine. In Proceedings of the ASME/JSME 2003 4th Joint Fluids Summer Engineering Conference, Honolulu,
HI, USA, 6–10 July 2013; American Society of Mechanical Engineers: New York, NY, USA, 2003; pp. 63–69.
29. Claessens, M.C. The Design and Testing of Airfoils for Application in Small Vertical Axis Wind Turbines.
Master’s Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, 2006; pp. 1–113.
Energies 2018, 11, 1514 15 of 15

30. Armstrong, S.; Tullis, S. Power performance of canted blades for a vertical axis wind turbine. J. Renew.
Sustain. Energy 2011, 3, 13–106. [CrossRef]
31. Zheng, Y. Analysis of Aerodynamic Performance of the Small H-Type Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. Master’s
Thesis, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China, 2008; pp. 35–37.
32. Jin, X. Study on Aerodynamic Performance of Vertical Wind Turbine with Straight Blade. J. Xi’an Univ. Technol.
2010, 3, 18–19.
33. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Murata, J.; Kawabata, T.; Shimizu, K.; Ogasawara, T.; Nakai, A.; Kasuya, T.
Wind tunnel and numerical study of a straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine in three-dimensional
analysis (Part I: For predicting aerodynamic loads and performance). Energy 2016, 106, 443–452. [CrossRef]
34. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Hiromori, Y.; Nakai, A.; Kasuya, T. Study on stall behavior of a straight-bladed
vertical axis wind turbine with numerical and experimental investigations. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 2017,
164, 1–12. [CrossRef]
35. Li, Q.; Kamada, Y.; Maeda, T.; Murata, J.; Iida, K.; Okumura, Y. Fundamental study on aerodynamic force of
floating offshore wind turbine with cyclic pitch mechanism. Energy 2016, 99, 20–31. [CrossRef]
36. Yang, Y.; Guo, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Jinyama, H.; Li, Q. Numerical Investigation of the Tip Vortex of a Straight-Bladed
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine with Double-Blades. Energies 2017, 10, 1721. [CrossRef]
37. Lei, H.; Zhou, D.; Lu, J.; Chen, C.; Han, Z.; Bao, Y. The impact of pitch motion of a platform on the
aerodynamic performance of a floating vertical axis wind turbine. Energy 2017, 119, 369–383. [CrossRef]
38. Li, Q.; Maeda, T.; Kamada, Y.; Murata, J.; Kawabata, T.; Shimizu, K.; Ogasawara, T.; Nakai, A.; Kasuya, T.
Wind tunnel and numerical study of a straight-bladed Vertical Axis Wind Turbine in three-dimensional
analysis (Part II: For predicting flow field and performance). Energy 2016, 104, 295–307. [CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).