17me43 PDF

VTU e-Shikshana Programme 17ME43: Applied Thermodynamics e-Notes
17ME43: Applied Thermodynamics

Module 1: Gas Power Cycles
Syllabus:
 Air standard power cycles.
 Description, efficiency and mean effective pressure of
o Carnot cycle.
o Otto cycle.
o Diesel cycle.
o Dual cycle.
o Stirling cycle.
 Comparison of Otto and Diesel cycles.
 Description and analysis of gas turbine (Brayton) cycle.
 Description and analysis of
o Regenerative gas turbine cycle.
o Inter-cooling and reheating in gas turbine cycles.
 Jet propulsion
o Introduction to the principles of jet propulsion.
o Classification of gas turbine engines for jet propulsion.
 Ideal turbojet cycle.
 Turbo-prop (prop-jet) engine.
 Turbo-fan (fan-jet or by-pass turbojet)) engine.
 Ram-jet engine (Lorin tube).
 Pulse-jet engine.
Textbooks for reference:

1. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, Yunus A Cengel, Michael A Boles,
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, Eighth edition in SI Units, 2016.
2. Basic and Applied Thermodynamics, P.K. Nag, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited, Second edition, 2010.
S.K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bangalore-560056
Page 1 of 107
Learning Outcomes:
On completion of this module, students will be able to
1. Name the various power cycles and jet propulsion systems; and describe their working
principles.
2. Explain and interrelate the various thermodynamic processes involved in power cycles.
3. Draw/sketch the p-v and T-s diagrams of the power cycles.
4. Compare Otto and Diesel power cycles.
5. Develop and derive the expression for efficiency and mean effective pressure of power
cycles.
6. Evaluate the performance of power cycles.
----------------------
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1.1 Introduction
Power cycles are those thermodynamic cycles in which the heat energy is partly absorbed to
produce net mechanical work.
The power cycles are classified into
(i) Gas power cycles – use gas as the working fluid and the gas does not undergo change
of phase.
Ex: IC Engines, Gas Turbines.
(ii) Vapour power cycles – use vapour as the working substance and the vapour
undergoes phase change.
Ex: Steam Engines, Steam Turbines.
1.2 Air standard power cycles

The power cycles which assume air as the working substance are known as air standard power
cycles.
The following assumptions are made for the analysis of air standard cycles:
1) The air of fixed mass undergoes a cyclic process.
2) The air behaves like a perfect gas.
3) Specific heats of air remain constant during the cycle.
4) Thermodynamic processes of the cycle are reversible.
5) The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
6) The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process which brings the state of air
to its initial state, thus completing the cycle.
7) The compression and expansion processes undergo reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
processes.
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1.3 Terminology related to reciprocating engines
Intake Valve Exhaust Valve

Top Dead Centre
Bore (TDC)
Piston Stroke
Bottom Dead Centre

(BDC)
Fig. 1.1 Terminology related to reciprocating engine

Some important terminologies related to reciprocating engine are shown in Fig. 1.1 and are
explained as follows:
Bore: It is the diameter of the piston.

Top dead centre (TDC): It is the position of the piston when it forms the smallest volume in the
cylinder.
Bottom dead centre (BDC): It is the position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in
the cylinder.
Stroke: It is the distance between the top dead centre (TDC) and bottom dead centre (BDC) that
the piston can travel in one direction.
air fuel mixture to be drawn into the cylinder.
Intake valve: It allows the air or air-fuel
Exhaust valve: It allows the combustion products to be expelled from the cylinder.
Clearance volume: The Clearance Volume is the minimum vvolumee formed in the cylinder when
the piston is at the Top Dead Centre (TDC).
Displacement volume: The Displacement Volume (or Stroke Volume) is the volume equal to
the difference in total volume and clearance volume of the cycle.
Swept volume: When the piston moves from TDC to BDC, the volume displaced by the piston
is called Swept Volume
Compression ratio: The Compression Ratio rc of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume
to the minimum volume formed in the cylinder.
Bangalore
Page 4 of 107
Mean effective pressure:

p
The mean effective pressure (mep or pm or pmax
MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it
operated on the piston during the entire Wnet
power stroke, would produce the same pmin

amount of net work as that produced during
pm
the actual cycle. The concept of mean
Wnet
effective pressure is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. TDC BDC
Vc Vs V
wnet wnet Total Volume
pm or MEP  
vmax  vmin vtotal  vc
Fig. 1.2 Concept of mean effective pressure
1.4 Carnot Cycle

Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle consisting of two isothermal and two isentropic
(reversible adiabatic) processes. Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system or a steady-
flow device. In this cycle, either a gas or a vpour can be used as the working fluid. The Carnot
cycle is the most efficient cycle that can work between a heat source at temperature T1 and a sink
at temperature T3. The Carnot cycle cannot be built in reality because it is not a practical cycle.
However, the Carnot cycle is used as a standard against which the actual or ideal cycles can be
compared. It was invented by Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot in the year 1824.
1.4.1 Working of Carnot cycle

The thermodynamic processes that a Carnot cycle undergoes in a closed system (piston-cylinder
device) are illustrated in Fig. 1.3. The corresponding p-V and T-s diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.4.
Process 1-2: Isothermal (constant temperature) heat supply

In this process, heat Q1-2 is supplied to the working fluid (air or any gas) isothermally at
temperature T1 from an external heat source. The piston moves from position 1 to position 2,
increasing the volume from V1 to V2. The pressure decreases from p1 to p2.
Page 5 of 107
Insulated
Source, T1 cover Sink, T3
Q1-2 Q3-4
Air Air
[1] [1]
Piston
[4] Piston
[2] [4]
[2] Piston
[3] Piston [3]
Isothermal Isentropic Isothermal Isentropic

heat supply expansion heat rejection compression
Fig. 1.3 Thermodynamic processes of Carnot cycle
T
1
Q1-2
Q1-2
1 2
2
3
Q3-4 4 3
Q3-4
V s
Fig. 1.4 p-V and T-s diagrams of Carnot cycle
Process 2-3: Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion

During this process, the cylinder is completely insulated and the working fluid is allowed to
expand isentropically utilizing its own internal energy. The pressure and temperature of the
Page 6 of 107
working fluid decreases to p3 and T3 respectively. The piston reaches the bottom dead centre
(BDC) at the end of this process.
Process 3-4: Isothermal (constant temperature) heat rejected

The working fluid rejects the heat, Q3-4, isothermally at a constant temperature T3 to an external
sink as the piston starts moving towards the top dead centre (TDC). The pressure increases to p4
and volume decreases to v4.
Process 4-1: Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) compression

During this process, the working fluid is compressed isentropically to the initial state p1, V1 and
T1. The work is done on the working fluid and internal energy increases. The cycle is completed
at the end of this process.
1.4.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Carnot cycle

Referring to the p-V and T-s diagrams shown in Fig. 1.4,
V2
Heat supplied: Qsup  Q1 2  RT1 ln
V1
V3
Heat rejected: Qrej  Q3 4  RT3 ln
V4
For the process 2-3 (Isentropic expansion),

1  1 1  1
V2  T3  V T  V2 V1 V V
  ; 1  3    or 2  3
V3  T1  V4  T1  V3 V4 V1 V4
V2
RT3 ln
Qrej V1
  1  1
Qsup V
RT1 ln 3
V4
T3
  1 
T1
Page 7 of 107
1.4.3 Limitations of Carnot Cycle

1) In practice, it is not possible to devise isothermal heat transfer processes. It requires very
large heat exchangers and the piston movement be restricted to infinitesimally small steps (quasi-
static).
2) The processes are not reversible in reality.
3) The compression and expansion processes undergo reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
processes, which require the piston to move rapidly so that there is no time for the heat transfer
to occur.
1.5 Stirling Cycle

Stirling cycle consists of two reversible isothermal and two constant volume (isochoric)
processes. It is a totally reversible cycle, like Carnot cycle, as the heat-addition and heat-
rejection processes take place isothermally during the cycle.
1.5.1 Working of Stirling cycle
State 1 Q1-2
Air
T1
Piston 2 Piston 1
Regenerator
(Stationary)
Fig. 1.5 Schematic of Stirling cycle showing state1 of the working fluid
The working of Stirling cycle in a closed system is explained with the help of a schematic
diagram shown in Fig. 1.5. The system consists of a cylinder with two pistons on each side and a
Page 8 of 107
storage of thermal storage. All the

regenerator in the middle. The regenerator acts as a temporary storage
p and T-ss planes in Fig. 1.6.
thermodynamic processes of Stirling cycle are shown on p-V
Q1-2
1 T=C 2
Temperature (T)
V=C V=C
4 T=C 3
Q3-4
Entropy (s)
Fig. 1.6
1. p-V and T-s diagrams of Stirling cycle
State 1: Initially, the right chamber houses the entire working fluid (air or any gas), which is at a
high temperature and pressure.
Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition from the external source

The heat is transferred to the gas at T1 from a source at T1. As the gas expands isothermally, the
right piston (piston 1) moves outward, doing work and the gas pressure drops.
Process 2-3: Isochoric regeneration

Both pistons (piston 1 and piston 2) are moved to the left at the same rate (so as to keep the
volume constant) until the entire gas is forced into the left chamber, passing through the
regenerator. The heat is transferred to the regenerator during the passage of gas and the
temperature of the gas in the left chamber drops to T3.Thus, at the state 3, the temperature of the
regenerator will be T1 to the right end and will be T3 at the left end of the regenerator.
Bangalore
Page 9 of 107
Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection to the external sink

The left piston (piston 2) is moved inward, compressing the gas. Heat is transferred from the gas
to a sink at temperature T3 so that the gas temperature remains constant at T3 while the pressure
increases.
Process 4-1: Isochoric regeneration

Both pistons (piston 1 and piston 2) are moved to the right (so as to keep the volume constant),
forcing the entire gas to the right chamber. The gas temperature increases from T3 to T1 as it
passes through the regenerator and picks up the thermal energy stored in the regenerator during
process 2-3. This completes the cycle.
1.5.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Stirling Cycle

Heat supplied: Qsup  Q1 2  RT1 ln

v2
v1
v3
Heat rejected: Qrej  Q3 4  RT3 ln
v4
v2 v3
From p-v diagram, 
v1 v4
Qrej T3
  1  1
Qsup T1
It is observed from the above expression that efficiency of the Stirling cycle is the same as that of
Carnot cycle.
Page 10 of 107
1.5.3 Features of Stirling Cycle

1) It is an altered version of Carnot cycle that comprises of two constant volume regeneration
processes.
2) The processes are not reversible in reality.
3) The weight to power ratio is high.
4) However, because of their higher efficiency potential and better emission control, Stirling
engines with modifications have been tried to compete with the petrol or diesel engines.
1.6 Numerical examples on Carnot and Stirling cycle
Numerical example 1.6.1

The minimum pressure and temperature of the air standard Carnot cycle are 1 bar and 150C,
respectively. The pressure after isothermal compression is 3.5 bar and the pressure after
isentropic compression is 10.5 bar. Determine (i) efficiency (ii) mean effective pressure and (iii)
power developed if the Carnot engine makes 2 cycles per second. Take for air R = 0.287 kJ/kgK
and  = 1.4. p
Data given:
1
 p3 = 1 x 105 N/m2 Q1-2
 T3 = 15 + 273 = 288 K
 p4 = 3.5 x 105 N/m2 2
 p1 = 10.5 x 105 N/m2

4
 n = 2 cycles/s
 R = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK 3
Q3-4
  = 1.4
To determine: V
(i) Efficiency p-V diagram
(ii) Mean effective pressure
(iii) Power developed
Page 11 of 107
Solution:
At State 3:
mRT3
p3V3  mRT3  V3 
p3
1 0.287 103  288
V3   0.826 m3
1 10 5
T
At State 4: T4 = T3 = 288 K
mRT4 Q1-2
p4V4  mRT4  V4 
p4 1 2
1 0.287  10  288
3
V4   0.236 m3
3.5 105
For the process 4-1 (Isentropic or reversible

adiabatic): 4 3
Q3-4
 1 1.4 1
T1  p1  
 10.5  1.4
   T1  288     394.19 K s
T4  p4   3.5  T-s diagram
At State 1:
mRT1
p1V1  mRT1  V1 
p1
1 0.287 103  394.19
V1   0.108 m3
10.5  10 5
For the process 2-3 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic):

 1.4
p2  T2   1  394.19 1.41
    p2  1105   
p3  T3   288 
 p2  3  105 N / m 2
At State 2:
mRT2
p2V2  mRT2  V2 
p2
1 0.287 103  394.19
V2   0.377 m3
3 105
Page 12 of 107
Heat supplied:
V 0.377
Q12  p1V1 ln 2  10.5 105  ln  141.763 103 J
V1 0.108
Heat rejected:
V3 0.826
Q34  p3V3 ln  1  105  0.826  ln  103.478  103 J
V4 0.236
Carnot efficiency:
T 288
  1 3  1  0.2694(26.94%)
T1 394.19
Net work done:
W  Q12  Q3 4  141.763  103.478   103
W  38.285 103 J
Power developed:
P  W  n  38.285 103  2  76.57  103 J / s(W )
Stroke volume:
Vs  V3  V1  0.826  0.1077  0.7183m3

W 38.285 103
pm    53.299 103 N / m 2
Vs 0.7183
Numerical Example 1.6.2
Carnot cycle containing 0.5 kg of air has a thermal efficiency of 50%. The heat transferred to the
air during isothermal expansion is 40 kJ. The pressure and volume at the beginning of
isothermal expansion are 7 bar and 0.12 m3 respectively. Calculate (i) the maximum and
minimum temperature for the cycle in Kelvin (ii) the volume at the end of isothermal expansion
in m3 (iii) the heat transfer for each of the four processes.
Page 13 of 107
Data given:
p
• Carnot Cycle
1
• m = 0.5 kg Q1-2
• η = 0.50 2
• Q1-2 = 40 x 103 J
4
• p1 = 7 bar = 7 x 105 N/m2
3
Q3-4
• V1 = 0.12 m3
V
p-V diagram
To calculate:
(i) Tmax (T1), Tmin (T3)

T
(ii) V2
Q1-2
(iii) Q1-2 , Q2-3 , Q3-4 , and Q4-1 . 1 2
Solution:
Carnot efficiency: 4 3
Q3-4
T3 T3
  1  0.5  1 
T1 585.37 s
T-s diagram
T3  292.69 K (19.690 C )
At State 1:
p1V1 7 105  0.12
p1V1  mRT1  T1  
mR 0.5  0.287 103

T1  585.37 K 312.370 C 
Page 14 of 107
For the process 1-2

2 (isothermal):
V2 V
Q12  p1V1 ln  40  103  7 105  0.12  ln 2
V1 0.12
V2  0.192m3
Also, Carnot efficiency:

Q Qrej
  1  rej  0.5  1 
Qsup 40  103
 Qrej  Q3 4  20 103 J
For the processes 2-3 and 4-1

1 (Isentropic
( or reversible adiabatic):
Q23  Q41  0
The following data refers to an ideal Stirling cycle with ideal regenerator. Pressure, temperature
and volume of the working medium at the beginning of the isothermal compression are 100 kPa,
300C and 0.05 m3 respectively. The clearance volume of the cycle is 1/10th the initial volume. The
maximum temperature attained in the cycle is 7000C. Draw p-V and T--s diagrams. Calculate
(i) net work done and (ii) thermal efficiency with 100% regenerator efficiency.
Data given:
p3 = 100 x 103 N/m2
T3 = 30+273 = 303 K
V3 = 0.05 m3 =V2
V1 = 0.1 V3 = 0.005 m3 = V4
T1 = 700+273 = 973 K
To determine:
(i) Net work done

V diagram
p-V
(ii) Thermal efficiency
Bangalore
Page 15 of 107
Solution:
Q1-2
1 T=C 2
Thermal efficiency:
T 303
  1 3  1  0.6886(68.86%)
Temperature (T)
T1 973 V=C V=C
Net work done:
(This can be calculated by any of the following
4 T=C
approaches): 3
Q3-4
Approach 1: Entropy (s)
At State 3: T-s diagram

p3V3 100 103  0.05
p3V3  mRT3  m  
RT3 0.287  103  303
 m  0.057 kg
For the process 1-2 (isothermal):
Heat supplied:
V2 0.05
Q12  mRT1 ln  0.057  0.287  103  973  ln
V1 0.005
 Q1 2  36.65 103 J
For the process 3-4 (isothermal):
Heat rejected:
V3 0.05
Q34  mRT3 ln  0.057  0.287  103  303  ln
V4 0.005
 Q3 4  11.41 103 J
Net work done:
W  Q12  Q3 4   36.65  11.41  103  25.24  103 J
Page 16 of 107
Approach 2:
Determine p2 from Isochoric process 2-3:

p2 p p T
 3  p2  3 21
T21 T3 T3
Calculate the heat supplied:

V
Q1 2  p2V2 ln 2
V1
Calculate the heat rejected:

V3
Q3 4  p3V3 ln
V4
Calculate the net work done:

W  Q12  Q3 4
1.7 Otto Cycle

Otto cycle consists of two isentropic (reversible adiabatic) and two isochoric (reversible constant
volume) processes. The cycle was proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1876 in Germany.
Otto cycle is named after Nikolaus A Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in
Germany. It is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines.
Page 17 of 107
1.7.1 Working of Otto cycle
p T 3
3 Rev. Adia. Q2-3
4
Q2-3
2 2 Q4-1
4
Q4-1
1 1
V2 V1 V s1 s2 s
Fig. 1.7 p-V and T-s diagrams of Otto cycle
The various thermodynamic processes that the Otto cycle undergoes are explained with reference
to the p-V and T-s diagrams shown in Fig. 1.7.

Air is compressed isentropically from its initial pressure p1 and volume v1 to p2 and v2
respectively. The temperature increases from T1 to T2.
Process 2-3: Isochoric (reversible constant volume) heat addition

At the end of the isentropic compression, heat is supplied to the air from an external source at
constant volume. The temperature of the air rises to T3 and the pressure increases to p3.

The high pressure and temperature is now allowed to expand isentropically thus doing the work.
The pressure and temperature decreases to p4 and T4 respectively.
Process 4-1: Isochoric (reversible constant volume) heat rejection

At the end of the isentropic expansion, the heat is rejected by the air thus attaining the initial
pressure and temperature p1 and T1 respectively. This completes the Otto cycle.
Page 18 of 107
1.7.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Otto cycle

Heat supplied: Qsup  Q23  mCv T3  T2 
Heat rejected: Qrej  Q41  mCv T4  T1 

Qrej   v T4  T1 
mC T  T 
  1  1  1 4 1
Qsup   v  T3  T2 
mC T3  T2 
T1 T4 T1  1
   1
T2 T3 T2  1
As the processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic;

 1  1
T2  V1  T3  V4 
  and  
T1  V2  T4  V3 
V1 V4
As V3 = V2 and V4 = V1; 
V2 V3
T2 T3 T4 T3
  or 
T1 T4 T1 T2
T1
 Otto  1 
T2
As the process1-2 is isentropic;
 1  1
T1  V2  1 1 where the compression ratio is rc = V1/V2
      1
T2  V1   rc  rc
1
Otto  1 
rc 1
Page 19 of 107
1.7.3 Mean Effective Pressure (pm or mep)
p
Wnet Qnet Qsup  Qrej 3
pm (or mep )    Rev. Adia.
Vs V1  V2 V1 1  V2 V1   - - - - - - (1)
Q2-3
Where
Qsup  Q23  mCv T3  T2  2
4
Q4-1
Qrej  Q41  mCv T4  T1  1
mRT1 V2 1
V1  and V  r V2 V1 V
p1 1 c
On substitution into Eqn. (1);

p-V diagram
 v T3  T2   mC
mC  v T4  T1 
pm 
 mRT 
 1 p1  1  1 rc   R  C p  Cv 
R Cp
 1   1
Cv Cv
C v T3  T2   C v T4  T1 
pm   R  Cv    1
 
C v    1 T1
  

p1  rc  1 rc


 R 
pm 

p1rc T2  T3 T2   1   T1 T4 T1   1  - - - - - - (2)

T1    1 rc  1 
As the processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic,
and V3 = V2, V4 = V1
T4 T3
 and T2  T1 rc 1
T1 T2
 1
T T T T V 
 2  3 ; or 2  3   4   rc 1  T2  T1rc 1
T1 T4 T1 T4  V3 
Page 20 of 107
As the process 2-3 is isochoric;

p2 p3 T p
  3  3   ( Explosion Ratio)
T2 T3 T2 p2
On substitution into Eqn. (2),
pm 

p1rc  T1 rc 1   1  T1   1

T1    1 rc  1 
pm 

p1rc   1 rc 1  1 
  1  rc 
1
1.8 Numerical examples on Otto cycle

An engine working on the Otto cycle is supplied with air at 0.1 MPa, 350C. The compression
ratio is 8. Heat supplied is 2100 kJ/kg. Calculate the maximum pressure and temperature of the
cycle, the cycle efficiency, and the mean effective pressure. (For air, cp = 1.005kJ/kgK, cv =
0.718 kJ/kgK, and R = 0.287 kJ/kgK)
Data given:
• Otto Cycle
• p1 = 0.1 MPa = 0.1 x 106 N/m2
• T1 = 350C = 35 + 273 = 308 K
• rc = 8
• qin = q2-3 = 2100 kJ/kg = 2100 x 103 J/kgK
• cp = 2100 kJ/kg = 2100 x 103 J/kgK
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK
• R = 0.287 kJ/kgK = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK
Page 21 of 107
To calculate:
p
3 Rev. Adia.
(i) Maximum pressure (p3)
(ii) Maximum temperature (T3)
(iii) Cycle efficiency (η) Q2-3

2
(iv) MEP (pm) 4
Q4-1
1
Solution:
v1 V2 V1 V
Given that: rc  8
p-V diagram
v2
Cycle efficiency:
1 1
  1   1  1  1.4 1  0.5647(56.47%) T 3
rc 8 Q2-3
Also, Cycle efficiency: 4

wnet
  wnet    q23 Q4-1
q23 2
 wnet  0.5647  2100  103  1185.87 103 J / kg
1
At State 1:
s1 s2 s
RT 0.287 103  308
p1v1  RT1  v1  1  T-s diagram
p1 0.1 106
 v1  0.88m3 / kg
Given that:
v v 0.88
rc  1  8  v2  1 
v2 8 8
 v2  0.11m3 / kg

wnet 1185.87 103
pm    1540.09 103 N / m2
v1  v2 0.88  0.11
Page 22 of 107
Given that: cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK

cp 1.005
   1.4
cv 0.718
For isentropic process 1-2:

 1
T2  v1 
     rc   T2  T1rc 1
 1
T1  v2 
T2  308  81.41  707.6 K (434.60 C )
and

p2  v1 
     rc   p2  p1rc

p1  v2 
 p2  0.1106  81.4  1.84 106 N / m 2
Given that: q2-3 = 2100 x 103 J/kg

q23  cv T3  T2   2100 103  0.718 103 T3  707.6 
T3  3632.39 K (3359.390 C )
For constant volume process 2-3:

p3 T3 T   3632.39 
  p3  p2  3   1.84  106  
p2 T2  T2   707.6 
 p3  9.46  106 N / m 2
An engine of 250 mm bore and 375 mm stroke works on constant volume cycle. The clearance
volume is 0.00263 m3. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 500C. If the maximum
pressure is 25 bar, determine (i) the air standard efficiency of the cycle and (ii) the mean
effective pressure.
Data given:
Constant Volume Cycle (Otto Cycle)
• d = 250 mm = 250 x 10-3 m
Page 23 of 107
• L = 375 mm = 375 x 10-3 m

p
• v2 = v3 = 0.00263 m3 3 Rev. Adia.
• p1 = 1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2
• T1 = 500C = 50 + 273 = 323 K Q2-3

• p3 = 25 bar = 25 x 105 N/m2 2
4
For air, assume that: Q4-1
1
• cp = 1.005kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK V2 V1 V

p-V diagram
• R = 0.287 kJ/kgK = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
To determine: T 3
Q2-3
(i) Air standard efficiency (ηOtto)
(ii) Mean effective pressure (pm) 4
2 Q4-1
Solution:
Stroke volume, Vs: 1

   250 10 
2
3 3
d L
2  375 10
Vs    0.0184m3
4 4 s1 s2 s
T-s diagram
Total volume, V:
V  Vc  Vs  0.00263  0.0184  0.02103m3
Compression ratio, rc:

V1 0.02103
rc    7.996
V2 0.00263
Page 24 of 107
Air standard efficiency, :

1 1
  1  1
 1  0.5646(56.46%)
rc 7.9961.4 1


p2  v1 
     rc   p2  p1rc

p1  v2 
 p2  1105  7.9961.4  18.37  105 N / m 2
Given that: p3 = 25 x 105 N/m2
Explosion ratio, α:
p 25
 3  1.36
p2 18.37
Mean effective pressure, pm:
pm 
p1rc   1 rc  1  1

  1 rc  1
1105  7.996 1.36  1  7.996 
1.41
1
pm 
1.4  1 7.996  1
 pm  1.334  105 N / m 2
In an Otto cycle, the upper and lower limits for the absolute temperature are T3 and T1,
respectively. Prove that the intermediate temperatures are equal and their value is given by
T1T3
Proof:

 1
T2  V1 
   rc 1  T2  T1rc 1
T1  V2 
Page 25 of 107

 1  1
T4  V3  V   1  T p
   2     1   T4   31
T3  V4   V1   rc  rc 3 Rev. Adia.
Net work done:

Q2-3
W  Q23  Q41  cv T3  T2   cv T4  T1 
2
  
 W  cv  T3  T1rc 1  T3 rc1  T1   4
Q4-1
In the above equation, T1 , T3 ,  and cv are fixed. 1
dW
For maximum work: 0
drc V2 V1 V
   
d cv  T3  T1rc 1  T3 rc1  T1 
0
 p-V diagram
drc
Differentiating with respect to rc and equating to zero:
 T1    1 rc 11  T3 1    rc1 1  0 T 3

Q2-3
T1    1 rc  2  T3    1 rc  0
T1rc 2  T3 rc
4
1
T3 rc 2 T  2 1
   rc2  2  rc2( 1)  rc   3  2 Q4-1
T1 rc  T1 
1
 1
 1
 s1 s2 s
 1   T  2 1

T2  T1rc  T1   3
 T2  T1T3 T-s diagram
 T1  
 
T3 T3
T4   1
  1
 T4  T1T3
rc  1

 T3    
2  1
 T1  
 
Thus: T2  T4  T1T3
Page 26 of 107
1.9 Diesel Cycle

Diesel cycle consists of two isentropic (reversible adiabatic), one isobaric (reversible constant
pressure) and one isochoric (reversible constant volume) processes. The cycle was first proposed
by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s. The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines.
1.9.1 Working of Diesel Cycle
T
p
Q2-3 Q2-3 3
2 3
Rev. Adia.
2
4
4 Q4-1
Q4-1
1
1
V2 V1 V s1 s4 s
Fig. 1.8 p-V and T-s diagrams of Diesel cycle
The Diesel cycle is plotted on p-v and T-s planes as shown in Fig. 1.8. The working of Diesel
cycle is explained as follows:

During this process, the air from initial state is compressed isentropically to pressure p2 and
temperature T2. The volume is decreased from v1 to v2.
Process 2-3: Isobaric (reversible constant pressure) heat supply

At the end of the isentropic compression, heat is supplied to the air at constant pressure from an
external source. The temperature increases from T2 to T3. The supply of heat is continued till the
point 3 is reached. This point is called ‘cut-off’ point. The volume increases from v2 to v3.
Page 27 of 107

At point 3, the supply of heat is ‘cut off’ and the air is allowed to expand doing the work. The
pressure and temperature decreases to p4 and T4 respectively. The volume increases to v4.
Process 4-1: Isochoric (reversible constant volume) heat rejection

At the end of isentropic expansion, the heat is rejected from the air to an external sink, thus
bringing the pressure and temperature of the air to its initial state. This completes the Diesel
cycle.
1.9.2 Thermodynamic analysis of Diesel Cycle

Heat supplied: Qsup  Q2 3  mC p T3  T2 
Heat rejected: Qrej  Q41  mCv T4  T1 
Qrej  v T4  T1 
mC T  T 
  1  1  1 4 1
Qsup  p T3  T2 
mC  T3  T2 
T1 T4 T1   1 - - - - - - (3)
   1
 T2 T3 T2   1
Let’s define the volume ratios:
Compression ratio: rc  V1
V2
V4
Expansion ratio: re 
V3
V3
Cut-off ratio:  
V2
 rc  re 
Page 28 of 107
Recalling that;
For process 1-2: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression

 1
T2  V1  T2
   rc 1   rc 1
T1  V2  T1
For process 2-3: Isobaric or constant pressure heat supply

V2 V3 T V T
  3  3  3 
T2 T3 T2 V2 T2
For process 3-4: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion

 1
   1  1
T4  V3  V V  
   3 2   
T3  V4   V1 V2   rc 
 V 
 1
 1
T  T4
  41    ;  
T1rc   rc  T1
    1
  Diesel  1
 rc 1    1
1    1 
 Diesel  1   1  
rc      1 
Note:
   1 
For the same rc, ηDiesel < ηOtto because, ρ > 1 and    1.
     1 
Page 29 of 107
1.9.3 Mean effective pressure (pm or mep)

Wnet Q Qsup  Qrej
pm (or mep)   net  - - - - - - (4)
Vs V1  V2 V1 1  V2 V1  
where p
Qsup  Q23  mC p T3  T2  Q2-3
2 3
Rev. Adia.
Qrej  Q41  mCv T4  T1 
mRT1 V2 1
V1  and 
p1 V1 rc 4

Q4-1
1
V2 V1 V
 p T3  T2   mC
mC  v T4  T1 
pm 
 mRT
 1 p1  1  1 rc    p-V diagram
C v  C p Cv  T3  T2    C v T4  T1 

pm 
 
C v    1 T1
  

p1  rc  1 rc


 R 
pm 

p1rc  T2  T3 T2   1   T1 T4 T1   1  - - - - - - (5)

T1    1 rc  1 
T3 T2 T4
Recalling that:   rc 1  
T2 T1 T1
pm 

p1rc 1  rc
    1       1 
 1
   1  rc 1  1
p1rc  rc 1    1     1   
 pm 
   1 rc  1 
Page 30 of 107
1.10 Numerical examples on Diesel cycle

The compression ratio of an air standard diesel cycle is 16. The temperature and pressure at the
beginning of isentropic compression are 150C and 0.1 MPa respectively. During the constant
pressure process, the heat is added until the temperature reaches 14800C. Determine (i) the cut-
off ratio (ii) the heat supplied per kg of air, (iii) the cycle efficiency, and (iv) the m.e.p
Data given:
• Diesel Cycle p
• rc = (v1 / v2) = 16 Q2-3
2 3
Rev. Adia.
0
• T1 = 15 C = 15 + 273 = 288 K
• p1 = 0.1 MPa = 0.1 x 106 N/m2

4
• T3 = 14800C = 1480 + 273 = 1753 K
For air, assume that Q4-1

1
• cp = 1.005kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK V2 V1 V
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK p-V diagram
• R = 0.287 kJ/kgK = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK

T
• γ = 1.4 Q2-3 3
To calculate:
2
(i) Cut-off ratio (v3/v2) 4
(ii) Heat supplied per kg of air (q2-3) Q4-1
(iii) Cycle efficiency (η)
1
(iv) MEP (pm)
s1 s4 s
T-s diagram
Page 31 of 107
Solution:

 1
T2  v1 
     rc   T2  T1rc 1
 1
T1  v2 
T2  288  161.41  873.05 K (600.050 C )
For constant pressure process 2-3:

V T 1753
Cut  off ratio :   3  3   2.01
V2 T2 873.05
Heat Supplied, q2-3:
q23  c p T3  T2   1.005  103  1753  873.05 
 q23  884.35 103 J / kg
For Isentropic expansion process 3-4:

 1  1 1.4 1
T4      2.01 
    T4  T3    1753   
T3  rc   rc   16 
T4  764.56 K (491.560 C )
Heat rejected, q4-1:

q41  cv T4  T1   0.718 103   764.56  288 
 q41  342.17  103 J / kg
Cycle efficiency, :
q 342.17
  1  41  1   0.6131(61.31%)
q23 884.35
At State 1:
RT1 0.287 103  288
p1v1  RT1  v1    0.827m3 / kg
p1 0.1106
Page 32 of 107

wnet q23  q41 q23  q41 884.35  342.17
pm    
vs v1  v2  1  1
v1 1   0.827 1  
 rc   16 
 pm  6.993 105 N / m 2
The pressures on the compression curve of a Diesel engine are given as 14 bar at 1/8th of stroke
and 1.4 bar at 7/8th of the stroke. Determine (i) the compression ratio (ii) the air standard
efficiency and (iii) the mean effective pressure if the cut-off occurs at 1/16th of the stroke. Assume
pressure and temperature at the beginning of adiabatic compression as 1 bar and 270C
respectively.
Data given:
• Diesel Cycle
• pA = 1.4 bar = 1.4 x 105 N/m2
• vA = v2 + (7/8) vs pB
pA
• pB = 14 bar = 14 x 105 N/m2
• vB = v2 + (1/8) vs
• p1 = 1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2 p-V diagram

• T1 = 270C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
• v3 = v2 + (1/16) vs
For air, assume that:
• cp = 1.005kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK
• R = 0.287 kJ/kgK = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
Page 33 of 107
To calculate:
(i) Cut-off ratio (v3/v2)
(ii) Air standard efficiency (η)
(iii) MEP (pm)
Solution:
For isentropic compression process A-B:

  
p A  vB   v2  1 8 vs   8v2  vs 
     
pB  v A   v2   7 8  vs   8v2  7vs 
1.4
1.4  8v2  vs 
  
14  8v2  7vs 
 8v  v 
0.1931   2 s 
 8v2  7vs 
vs
  18.35
v2
vs
rc  1   1  18.35  19.35
v2
Given that:
 1  v 
v3  v2     s 
 16   v2 
v 1
   3  1   18.35  1.14
v2  16 
Air standard efficiency, :
 1     1    1  1.141.4  1  
% Diesel  1   1    1  1.4 1  
 rc      1    19.35 1.4 1.14  1  
 0.686(68.6%)
Page 34 of 107
 
p1rc  rc 1    1     1 
pm 

   1 rc  1

1 10 19.35 1.4 19.351.41 1.14  1  1.141.4  1 
5



1.4  1 19.35  1
pm  1.159  105 N / m 2
A diesel cycle has compression ratio of 14 and the cut off ratio of 2.2. Calculate the air standard
efficiency and pressure and temperature at all salient points, assuming that the pressure and
temperature at the beginning of the cycle as 0.98 bar
and 1000C respectively. p
Q2-3
Data given: 2 3
Rev. Adia.
• Diesel Cycle
• rc = 14
4
• ρ = 2.2
• p1 = 0.98 bar = 0.98 x 105 N/m2 Q4-1
1
• T1 = 1000C = 100 + 273 = 373 K
V2 V1 V
p-V diagram
• cp = 1.005kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK T
Q2-3 3
• R = 0.287 kJ/kgK = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4 2
4
To calculate: Q4-1
(i) Air standard efficiency (η)
(ii) Pressure and temperature at all salient points 1
s1 s4 s
T-s diagram
Page 35 of 107
Solution:
Air standard efficiency:
 1     1  
  1   1   
 r      1  
 1  2.21.4  1  
  1  1.41     0.5825(58.25%)
 14 1.4  2.2  1  
For process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression)


p2  v1 
     rc   p2  p1rc

p1  v2 
 p2  0.98  105  141.4  39.43  105 N / m 2
and
 1
T2  v1 
     rc   T2  T1rc 1
 1
T1  v2 
T2  373 141.41  1071.91K
For process 2-3 (Isobaric or constant pressure heat supply)
p3  p2  39.43  105 N / m 2
V3 V2 T V
  3  3    T3  T2 
T3 T2 T2 V2
T3  1071.91 2.2  2358.20 K
For process 3-4 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion)

V4 rc 14
re     6.36
V3  2.2
  
p4  V3     
       p4  p3  
p3  V4   rc   rc 
1.4
 1 
 p4  39.43 10   5
  2.96  105 N / m 2
 6.36 
Page 36 of 107
 1  1  1
T4  V3   
     T4  T3  
T3  V4   rc   rc 
1.4 1
 1 
T4  2358.20     1125.12 K
 6.36 
1.11 Dual combustion cycle (Limited pressure cycle/Semi-Diesel cycle/Mixed

cycle)
In early compression ignition engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached top dead
centre and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke. The air standard Diesel cycle
thus does not simulate exactly the pressure and volume variation in an actual modern
compression ignition engine. In modern engines the fuel is injected before the top dead centre
(about 15o). The dual combustion cycle is the closer approximation to the modern compression
ignition engine in which some part of the heat is added to the air at constant volume and
remainder at constant pressure.
1.11.1 Working of dual combustion cycle
The p-v and T-s diagrams of a dual combustion cycle are shown in Fig. 1.9. The working of the
cycle is explained as follows:

In this process, the air is compressed in the cylinder isentropically from its initial state p1, v1 and
T1 to p2, v2, and T2 respectively.
Process 2-3: Isochoric (constant volume) heat supply

At the end of isentropic compression, the heat is added to air at constant volume. This increases
the pressure and temperature of air to p3 and T3 respectively.
Process 3-4: Isobaric (constant pressure) heat supply

After the point 3 is reached, the heat is added to air at constant pressure till the point 4 is reached.
The point 4 is called ‘cut-off’ point at which the supply of heat to the air is stopped. The pressure
and temperature increases to p4 and T4 respectively.
Page 37 of 107
p Q3-4
3 4
p3 T
Rev. Adia.
Q2-3 4
T4
p2 2
3
T3 s= C
5 2 5
T2
Q5-1
s=C
1
T1 1
V2 V1 V s1 s5 s
Fig. 1.9 p-V and T-s diagrams of Dual combustion cycle

At point 4, the supply of heat is cut off and the air is allowed to expand doing the work. The
pressure and temperature decreases to p5 and T5 respectively.
Process 5-1: Isochoric (constant volume) heat rejection

At the end of isentropic expansion, the heat is rejected from the air to an external sink and the air
is brought back to its initial state. This completes the dual combustion cycle.
1.11.2 Thermodynamic analysis of dual combustion cycle
Heat supplied: Qsup  mCv T3  T2   mC p T4  T3 
Heat rejected: Qrej  mCv T5  T1 
Efficiency:
Qout  v T5  T1 
mC
  1  1
Qin  v T3  T2   mC
mC  p T4  T3 
 1
T5  T1 
T3  T2    T4  T3 
Page 38 of 107
T1 T5 T1   1
  1 - - - - - - (6)
T2 T3 T2   1   T3 T4 T3   1
Let’s define the volume ratios:
Compression ratio: r  V1
c
V2
V4
Cut-off ratio: 
V3
V5
Expansion ratio: re 
V4
From the above relationship, we obtain: rc  re 
p3
Explosion ratio:  
p2
Recalling that:

 1
T2  V1 
   rc 1  T2  T1 rc 1
T1  V2 
For process 2-3: (Isochoric or reversible constant volume heat supply)

T3 p3
    T3  T2  T1 rc 1
T2 p2
For process 3-4 (Isobaric or reversible constant pressure heat supply)

T4 V4
    T4  T3   T1 rc 1
T3 V3
Page 39 of 107

 1  1
     1  1
T5  V4  V V   
   4 3     T5  T4  
T4  V5   V1 V  rc   rc 
 V  3 
 1  V2 
 1
 T
 T5  T1rc     T1   5   
 1
 rc  T1
T1    1
  1
T1rc 1   1   T1rc 1    1
1     1 
  1   1  
rc    1      1 
Observe that:
1. For ρ = 1, we will get expression for efficiency of Otto cycle.
2. For α = 1, we will get expression for efficiency of Diesel cycle.
p Q3-4
3 4
p3
1.11.3 Mean effective pressure (pm) Q2-3
Rev. Adia.
Wnet Q Qin  Qout

pm   net 
Vmax  Vmin V1  V2 V1 1  V2 V1  p2 2
where Qsup  Q23  Q3 4  mCv T3  T2   mC p T4  T3  5
Qrej  Q51  mCv T5  T1 

Q5-1
and
mRT1 and V2 1 1
V1  
p1 V1 rc
V2 V1 V
 v T3  T2   mC
mC  p T4  T3   mC
 v T5  T1 
pm  p-V diagram
 mRT
 1 p1  1  1 rc  
Page 40 of 107
R Cp
C v T3  T2    C p Cv  T4  T3   T5  T1   R  C p  Cv   1   1
pm  Cv Cv
 
C v    1 T1  R  Cv    1
p1   rc  1 rc
   
 R 
 pm 

p1rc  T2 T3 T2   1   T3 T4 T3   1  T1 T5 T1   1
T1    1 rc  1
Recalling that:
T T4 T
T2  T1 rc 1 ; 3   ; T3  T1 rc  ;   ; 5   
 1
T2 T3 T1
pm 
  
p1rc  T1rc 1   1    T1rc 1    1  T1     1 
T1    1 rc  1
 pm 
 
p1rc  rc  1   1    rc  1    1     1 
   1 rc  1
It is observed that:
1. For ρ = 1, we will get expression for pm of Otto cycle.
2. For α = 1, we will get expression for pm of Diesel cycle.
Page 41 of 107
1.12 Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles

The Otto, Diesel and dual combustion cycles may be compared based on the (i) same
compression ratio and (ii) same maximum cycle temperature, keeping the heat rejection constant.
(i) Same compression ratio, with the same inlet conditions and the same heat rejection
p T
6 6
4
3 4
Rev. Adia. 7
3
7
2
2
5
5
1
1
V2 V1 V
s1 s5 s
Fig. 1.10 p-V and T-s diagrams
Fig. 1.10 shows the Otto, Diesel and dual combustion cycles being plotted on p-V and T-s planes
with the same compression ratio. It is observed that the area 1-2-6-5-1 which represents the net
work done by the Otto cycle on p-V plane is the maximum while the area 1-2-7-5-1 which
represents the work done by the Diesel cycle is the minimum. A similar observation is made with
respect to the corresponding areas on T-s plane which represents the net heat transfer. Thus, it is
concluded that for the same compression ratio and fixed inlet conditions and heat rejection, the
Otto cycle has the maximum efficiency.
Otto   Dual   Diesel
(ii) Same maximum cycle pressure and temperature, with the same inlet conditions and
same heat rejection
Fig. 1.11 shows the p-V and T-s planes on which the Otto, Diesel and dual combustion cycles are
plotted for the same maximum cycle pressure and temperature. It is observed that the area 1-7-4-
Page 42 of 107
p T 4
7 3 4
3
Rev. Adia.
7
2
2
5
6 6
5
1 1
s1 s5
V7 V1 V s
Fig. 1.11 p-V and T-s diagrams
5-1 on p-V and T-s planes is the maximum while the area 1-6-4-5-1 is the minimum. This means
that the net work done and net heat transferred in Diesel cycle is maximum while those of Otto
cycle is minimum. Thus, it is concluded that for the same maximum cycle pressure and
temperature keeping the inlet conditions and heat rejection constant, the Diesel cycle has the
maximum efficiency.
 Diesel   Dual  Otto
Page 43 of 107
1.13 Numerical examples on dual combustion cycle

The compression ratio, initial pressure and temperature of an air standard dual cycle are 16, 1
bar and 500C, respectively. The maximum pressure is 70 bar. An equal amount of heat is
transferred to air in both constant volume and constant pressure processes. Determine (i) the
pressures and temperatures at the cardinal points of the cycle (ii) the cycle efficiency and (iii)
the m.e.p of the cycle. Assume for air cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK and cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK.
p Q3-4
3 4
p3
Rev. Adia.
Data given: Q2-3
• Dual Cycle p2 2
• rc = (v1 / v2) = 16
5
• p1 = 1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2 Q5-1
• T1 = 500C = 50 + 273 = 323 K 1
• p3 = 70 bar = 70 x 105 N/m2 V2 V1 V

• q3-4 = q2-3 → qsup = 2 x q2-3 p-V diagram
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK T

4
→ γ = cp / cv = 0.718 / 1.005 = 1.4 T4
3
T3 s= C
To determine:
2 5
(i) Pressures and temperatures at salient points T2
s= C
(ii) Cycle efficiency (η) T1 1
(iii) MEP (pm) s1 s5 s
Solution: T-s diagram
Process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression)


p2  v1 
     rc   p2  p1rc

p1  v2 
 p2  1105 161.4  48.5 105 N / m2
Page 44 of 107
and
 1
T2  v1 
     rc   T2  T1rc 1
 1
T1  v2 
T2  323 161.41  979.15K
At State 1:
RT1 0.287 103  323
p1v1  RT1  v1    0.927m3 / kg
p1 1 10 5
For Constant volume process 2-3:

p2 p3 p   70 
  T3  T2  3   979  
T2 T3  p2   48.5 
T3  1412.99 K
Heat Supplied, q2-3:

q23  cv T3  T2   0.718 103  1412.99  979 
 q23  311.6  103 J / kg
Given that: q3-4 = q2-3

q34  c p T4  T3   311.6 103  1.005 103  T4  1412.99 
T4  1723.04 K
For Constant pressure process 3-4:

v3 v4 v T 1723.04
  4  4   1.22
T3 T4 v3 T3 1412.99
For Process 4-5 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion)

 1  1  1
T5  v4   
     T5  T4  
T4  v5   rc   rc 
1.4 1
 1.22 
T5  1723.04     615.54 K
 16 
Page 45 of 107
For Constant volume process 5-1:

p5 p1 T   615.54 
  p5  p1  5   1105   
T5 T1  T1   323 
 p5  1.91105 N / m 2
Total Heat Supplied, qsup:

qsup  2  q23  2  311.6 103  623.2 103 J / kg
Heat rejected, qrej:

qrej  cv T5  T1   0.718  103  615.54  323
 qrej  210.04 103 J / kg
Cycle efficiency, :
qrej 210.04
  1  1  0.663(66.3%)
qsup 623.2
Net work done, wnet:

wnet  qsup  qrej   623.2  210.04  103  413.16 103 J / kg
Stroke volume, vs:

  1    1 
vs  v1  v2  v1 1      0.927  1    
  rc     16  
 vs  0.8691m3 / kg

wnet 413.16 103
pm    4.754  105 N / m 2
vs 0.8691
Page 46 of 107
The compression ratio of a single cylinder engine operating on limited pressure cycle is 8. The
maximum pressure in the cycle is limited to 55 bar. The initial pressure and temperature of air is
1 bar and 270C. Heat is added during the constant pressure process up to 3% of the stroke.
Assuming the diameter and stroke of the cylinder as 25 cm and 30 cm respectively, determine
(i) work done per cycle (ii) air standard efficiency and (iii) power developed, if number of
working cycles are 200 per minute.
Data given:
• Limited pressure Cycle

p Q3-4
• rc = (v1 / v2) = 8 3 4
p3
Rev. Adia.
Q2-3
• p3 = p4 = 55 bar = 55 x 105 N/m2
p2 2
• p1 = 1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2
• T1 = 270C = 27 + 273 = 300 K 5
Q5-1
• V4 – V3 =0.03Vs
1
• d = 25 cm = 25 x 10-2 m
V2 V1 V
• L = 30 cm = 30 x 10-2 m p-V diagram
• n = 200 cycles/min
T
To determine: 4
T4
(i) Work done per cycle 3
T3 s= C
(ii) Air standard efficiency

2 5
T2
(iii) Power developed s= C
Solution: T1 1
Stroke volume, Vs: s1 s5 s
   25 102 
2
T-s diagram
d2
Vs  L   30 102  0.01473m3
4 4
Page 47 of 107
Clearance volume, V2:
V1 V2  Vs V V 0.01473
rc    1  s  V2  s 
V2 V2 V2 rc  1 8 1
V2  2.104 103 m3
Cut-off ratio, ρ:
V4 V V V
or  1  0.03 s    1  0.03 s    0.03 s  1
V3 V3 V2 V2
0.01473
   0.03   1  1.21
2.104 103
Total volume, V1:

V
or 1  8  V1  8V2  8  2.104 103  0.01683m3
V2


p2  V1 
    rc  p2  p1rc  1105  81.4
p1  V2 
 p2  18.38 105 N / m 2
and
 1
T2  V1 
    rc 1  T2  T1rc 1  300  81.41
T1  V2 
T2  689.22 K
p 55
 3  2.99
p2 18.38
Air standard efficiency, η:

1     1 
  1  1  
rc    1      1 
Page 48 of 107
1  2.99 1.211.4  1 
  1 1.4 1  
8   2.99  1  1.4  2.99  1.21  1 
  0.5593(55.93%)
For process 2-3 (Isochoric or constant volume heat supply)
p2 p3 p 
  T3  T2  3   T2  T3  689.22  2.99
T2 T3  p2 
T3  2060.76 K
For process 3-4 (Isobaric or constant pressure heat supply)

V3 V4 V 
  T4  T3  4   T3   T4  2060.76  1.21
T3 T4  V3 
T4  2493.52 K
Heat supplied, Qsup:

Qsup  Q23  Q3 4  cV T3  T2   cP T4  T3 
 0.718  103   2060.76  689.22   1.005 103   2493.52  2060.76 
 Qsup  984.77  434.92  1419.69  103 J
Net work done, W:
Wnet
  Wnet    Qsup  0.5593 1419.69  103
Qsup
Wnet  794.03 103 J / cycle
Power developed, P:
Wnet  n 794.03  103  200
P 
60 60
 P  2646.77 10 J / s(W )
3
Page 49 of 107
A diesel engine working on semi-diesel cycle has a swept volume of 0.0055 m3 and clearance
volume of 0.00035 m3. The maximum cycle pressure is 60 bar and fuel injection ends at 6% of
the stroke. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of the compression are 750C and 0.95
bar. Determine the air standard efficiency and mean effective pressure of the cycle.
Data given:
• Semi-diesel Cycle
p Q3-4
• Vs = 0.0055 m3 p3
3 4
Rev. Adia.
Q2-3
3
• Vc=3=2 = 0.00035 m
p2 2
5 2
• p3 = p4 = 60 bar = 60 x 10 N/m
5
• V4 – V3=2 = 0.06Vs
Q5-1
5 2
• p1 = 0.95 bar = 0.95 x 10 N/m
1
• T1 = 750C = 75 + 273 = 348 K

V2 V1 V
p-V diagram
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK

T
• cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK = 0.718 x 103 J/kgK 4
T4
• R = 0.287 kJ/kgK = 0.287 x 103 J/kgK 3
T3 s=C
• γ = 1.4
2 5
T2
To determine: s=C
(i) Air standard efficiency T1 1
s1 s5 s
(ii) Mean effective pressure
T-s diagram
Solution:

Vs 0.0055
rc  1   1  16.71
V2 0.00035
Page 50 of 107
Cut-off ratio, ρ:
V4 0.06Vs  V3 2  0.06  0.0055   0.00035

  
V3 2 V3 2 0.00035
   1.94


p2  V1 
    rc  p2  p1rc  0.95 105  16.711.4
p1  V2 
 p2  48.97 105 N / m 2
p3 60
   1.23
p2 48.97
Air standard efficiency, η:

1     1 
  1  1  
rc    1      1 
1  1.23  1.941.4  1 
  1  
16.711.41  1.23  1  1.4  1.23  1.94  1 
  0.6298(62.98%)
pm 
 
p1rc  rc 1   1    rc 1    1     1 
   1 rc  1
pm 
 
0.95 105  16.71  16.711.41 1.23  1   1.4  16.711.41 1.23  1.94  1  1.23 1.941.4  1 
1.4  116.71  1
 pm  9.072 105 N / m 2
Page 51 of 107
1.14 Gas turbine cycles

• Turbine is a machine which extracts power from flowing fluids.
• In a gas turbine, gases at high-pressure and high-temperature are expanded through

several stages to produce power.
• Gas turbine power plants are used for aviation applications and power generation.
1.14.1 Advantages of gas turbines

• Higher power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines
• Smaller size for the same power produced.
• Lower emission levels.
• High rotational speed.
1.14.2 Disadvantages of gas turbines

• More expensive.
• Consumes more fuel during idling.
• Works best at constant load than fluctuating loads.
1.15 Open cycle gas turbine power plant (Joule cycle)
Fuel Supplied
2 Combustion 3
Chamber
2
3
Work Input Work Output

Compressor Turbine
1 4
Air from Exhaust

atmosphere gases
Fig. 1.12 Schematic diagram of open cycle gas turbine power plant
Page 52 of 107
T
3
2
4
1
s
Fig. 1.13 p-V and T-s diagrams of open cycle gas turbine power plant
The open cycle gas turbine power plant, also referred to as Joule cycle, is shown
schematically in Fig. 1.12. The p-V and T-s diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.13. The working of
open cycle gas turbine power plant is explained as follows:
• Process 1-2: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression

Air is taken from the atmosphere by the compressor and compresses isentropically to
pressure p2 and temperature T2.
• Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat supply

The high pressure and temperature air enters the combustion chamber wherein the fuel is
supplied. The fuel is burnt in the presence of hot air and the combustion gases are
produced. The pressure and temperature of the combustion gases increases to p3 and T3
respectively.
• Process 3-4: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion

The high-pressure and high-temperature combustion gases enter a turbine where it
expands to a low-pressure (equal to or a little above the atmospheric pressure) gas.
• Process 4-1:
The exhaust gases are released to the surroundings. The dashed line 4-1 represents that
the cycle is open.
Page 53 of 107
1.16 Closed cycle gas turbine power plant (Brayton cycle)

• Closed Cycle is the air-standard cycle of an actual gas turbine plant where the
combustion and exhaust of gases are replaced by constant pressure heat addition and heat
rejection processes.
• The ideal cycle in which the working fluid (air) undergoes thermodynamic processes in a
closed loop to produce the net power is the Brayton Cycle.
1.16.1 Advantages of closed cycle gas turbine power plant

1. The use of higher pressure throughout the cycle reduces the plant size for a given output.
2. It avoids corrosion and erosion of turbine blades due to contaminated gases as indirect
heating is used in the cycle.
3. No requirement of filtration of incoming air.
4. Cheap solid fuels like coal, wood can be economically used.
5. Low maintenance cost and high reliability.
1.16.2 Disadvantages of closed cycle gas turbine power plant

1. This cycle is not suitable for air craft applications as huge quantity of cooling water is
required in the cooler.
2. The weight of the plant per unit of power developed is high.
3. It uses a large air-heater compared to combustion chamber of open cycle, because heat
transfer coefficient in the heat exchanger is low.
4. The installation cost is high.
Page 54 of 107
1.17 Ideal Brayton cycle

ycle (Closed cycle)
An ideal Brayton cycle consists of two
t diabatic (isentropic) processes and two
reversible adiabatic
constant pressure (isobaric) processes.
p . These thermodynamic processes are executed in steady
flow devices in cyclic order.
Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram of closed cycle gas turbine power plant
Q2-3
p 2 3 Rev. Adia.
W3-4
W1-2
4
1
Q4-1
T diagrams of closed cycle gas turbine power plant

Fig. 1.15 p-V and T-s
Bangalore
Page 55 of 107
The closed cycle gas turbine power plant, also referred to as Brayton cycle, is schematically
shown in Fig. 1.14. The thermodynamic processes comprising the Brayton cycle are plotted on
p-V and T-s planes as shown in Fig. 1.15. The working of the cycle is explained as follows:
Process 1-2: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression in a compressor

The working fluid (air) enters the compressor at state 1 and is compressed isentropically (Rev.
Adiabatic) to state 2.
Process 2-3: Isobaric or constant pressure heat supply

The high-pressure air then enters the heat exchanger where the heat is added to the air from an
external source.
Process 3-4: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion in a Turbine

The high-pressure and high-temperature air at state 3 is expanded isentropically (Rev. Adiabatic)
to state 4 by a turbine producing the work.
Process 4-1: Isobaric or constant pressure heat rejection

The low-pressure and low-temperature air enters the heat exchanger at state 4 and the heat is
rejected to an external sink. The air leaves the heat exchanger at state 1 and re-enters the
compressor, thus completing the cycle.
1.17.1 Thermodynamic analysis of an ideal Brayton cycle
Heat Supplied: Qsup  Q2 3  mc p T3  T2 
Heat Rejected: Qrej  Q4 1  mc p T4  T1 
Net Work Done: Wnet  Qsup  Qrej  mc p T3  T2   T4  T1  
Cycle Efficiency:
Wnet Qrej mc p T4  T1  T  T 

  1  1  1 4 1
Qsup Qsup mc p T3  T2  T3  T2 
Page 56 of 107
T1 T4 T1  1
  1 - - - - - - (7)
T2 T3 T2  1
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic:

 1  1
T2  p2   T3  p3  
  and  
T1  p1  T4  p4 
Processes 2-3 and 4-1 are isobaric:
p2  p3 and p4  p1
Therefore:
 1
T2 T3  p2 
 rp  
  1
  
T1 T4  p1 
T4 T3
 
T1 T2
Substituting in Eqn. (7):
T1 1
  1  1
T2 T2 T1
1
  1   1
r 
p

Observe that the thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton gas turbine cycle increases with the
pressure ratio.
Page 57 of 107
1.17.2 Effect of pressure ratio on work output of Brayton cycle
Fig. 1.16 T-s diagram showing the effect of pressure ratio
• T-s plot of Brayton cycle working between fixed temperature limits and increasing
pressure ratio is shown in Fig. 1.16.
• It is observed that the net work output per cycle increases with the pressure ratio, reaches
a maximum, and then starts to decrease.
• Area 1-2-3-4 gives the maximum work output.
1.17.3 Optimum pressure ratio for maximum work output

The net work done by the cycle is given by
Wnet  Wt  Wc  mc p T3  T4   T2  T1  
- - - - - - (8)
  T  T 
Wnet  mc p T3 1  4   T1  2  1 
  T3   T1  
From processes 1-2 and 3-4 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic):

 1
 1
T2  p2  
    rp   - - - - - - (9)
T1  p1 
and
 1  1  1
T4  p4   p   1  
   1    - - - - - - (10)
T3  p3   rp
 p2   
Page 58 of 107
Substituting Eqns . (9) and (10) into (8):
   
  1    1  
Wnet  mc p T3 1   1   T1  rp  1 
 
  r   
  p  
 1
Let: x  so that

Wnet  mc p T3 1  rp x   T1  rpx  1  - - - - - - (11)
Optimum pressure ratio is determined by differentiating the Eqn. (11) with rp and then equating it
to zero.

  x x
 
dWnet d mc p T3 1  rp  T1 rp  1 
0
  
drp drp
   
T3    x  rp x 1   T1  x  rpx 1   0
x 1
T3 x  rp
  rpx 1  x 1  rp2 x
T1 x  rp x 1
1 1
 T  2 x  T  2  1 
rpopt   3    3    
 T1   T1 

T-s diagram
T  2  1
 rpopt   3 
 T1 
Page 59 of 107
1.17.4 Deviation of actual cycle from an ideal Brayton cycle

Pressure
Loss
T p2
p3
3 Irreversibility
p4
4’ p1
2’ 4 Pressure
2 Loss
Fig. 1.17 T-s diagram showing the deviation of actual cycle
1. The compression and expansion processes are not isentropic. There is an increase in
entropy at the end of each process.
2. Due to this, the actual work input to the compressor is more, and the actual work output
from the turbine is less. The actual compression and expansion processes are shown by
1-2’ and 3-4’ in Fig. 1.17.
3. This deviation is accounted by defining the ‘isentropic efficiency’ of compressor and
turbine.
4. There is a small pressure drop in the heat addition (from p2 to p3) and heat rejection
(from p4 to p1) processes due to frictional effects.
The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are given by:
w c p T2  T1  h2  h1 w ' c p T3  T4'  h3  h4 '

c    t   
w ' c p T2'  T1  h2'  h1 w c p  T3  T4  h3  h4
Page 60 of 107
1.18 Numerical examples on Brayton cycle

Air enters the compressor of an ideal air standard Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K with a
volumetric flow rate of 6 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet
temperature is 1500 K. Determine (i) thermal efficiency (ii) work ratio (iii) power developed.
Data given: Q2-3

p 2 3 Rev. Adia.
• Brayton Cycle
• p1 = 100 x 103 N/m2

W3-4
W1-2
• T1 = 300 K
4
• V1 = 6 m3 /s 1
Q4-1
p p3
• rp = 2 = =10 V
p1 p4 p-V diagram
• T3 = 1500 K
To determine: T
3
(i) Thermal efficiency
(ii) Work ratio

2
(iii) Power developed 4
Solution:
1
Process 1-2 (Isentropic Compression): s1 s4 s

 1 T-s diagram
 1
T2  p2   1.4 1
   T2  T1rp 
 T2  300  10  1.4  579.19 K
T1  p1 
Compressor Work, wc:

wc  c p T2  T1   1.005 103   579.19  300 
 wc  280.59  103 J / kg
Process 3-4 (Rev. Adia. Expn.):

 1
T4  p4  
1 T3 1500
    1
 T4   1
 1.4 1
 776.95 K
T3  p3   
rp rp 10 1.4
Page 61 of 107
Turbine Work, wt:

wt  c p T3  T4   1.005  103  1500  776.95 
wt  726.67  103 J / kg
Net Work done wnet:

wnet  wt  wc   726.67  280.59   103
 wnet  446.08  103 J / kg
Heat Supplied, qsup:

Q23  c p T3  T2   1.005  103  1500  579.19 
 Q23  920.81103 J / kg
Thermal Efficiency, η:
wnet 446.08
   0.4844(48.44%)
qsup 920.81
Work Ratio, WR:

wnet 446.08
WR  
wt 726.67
WR  0.6139
Mass Flow Rate of Air, m:

 p1V1 100  103  6
m 
RT1 0.287  103  300

m  6.97 kg / s
Power Developed, P:

P  m wnet  6.97  446.08 103
 P  3109.18 103 J / s
Page 62 of 107
Air enters the compressor of an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine at a pressure of 1 bar
and temperature of 200C. The pressure of air after compression is 4 bar. The isentropic
efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85% respectively. The air to fuel ratio is
90:1. Calorific value of the fuel is 42,000 kJ/kg. If the flow rate of air is 3 kg/s, find (i) power
developed (ii) thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Data given:
• Brayton Cycle
p2=3
5 2
• p1 = 1 x 10 N/m qsup
• T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K p1=4
• p2 = 4 x 105 N/m2 2’ 4’
2 4
• c = 0.80
• t = 0.85
• ma /mf = 90
T-s diagram
3
• CV = 42,000 x 10 J/kg

• ma = 3 kg/s
• cp = 1. 005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
To determine:
(i) Power developed
Solution:

 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
 
   rp  T2  T1rp
T1  p1 
1.41
T2  293   4  1.4  435.39 K
Page 63 of 107
Actual temperature at compressor outlet, T2’:
We know that compressor efficiency, ηc is given by:
T2  T1 435.39  293
c   0.8 
T2'  T1 T2'  293
T2'  470.99 K
Compressor Work, wc:

wc  c p T2'  T1   1.005  103   470.99  293
 wc  178.88  103 J / kg
Turbine inlet temperature, T3:
We know that
Heat Supplied (by fuel) = Heat of Combustion Gases


  

m f  CV   m f  ma  c p T3  T2' 
 
  
 ma 
CV  1   c p T3  T2' 
 
 mf 
 42, 000 103  1  90  1.005 103  T3  470.99 
T3  930.23K

 1
T4  p4  
1 T3 930.23
    1
 T4   1
 1.4 1
 626.01K
T3  p3   
rp rp 4 1.4
Actual temperature at turbine outlet, T4’:
We know that Turbine Efficiency, ηt is given by:

T T 930.23  T4'
t  3 4'  0.85 
T3  T4 930.23  626.01
T4'  671.64 K
Page 64 of 107
Turbine Work, wt:

wt  c p T3  T4'   1.005  103   930.23  671.64 
 wt  259.88  103 J / kg
Net Work Done, wnet:

wnet  wt  wc   259.88  178.88  103
 wnet  81103 J / kg
Heat Supplied,qsup:
qsup  q2' 3  c p T3  T2'   1.005 103   930.23  470.99 
 qsup  461.54 103 J / kg
Thermal Efficiency, η:
wnet 81
   0.1755(17.55%)
qsup 461.54
Power Developed, P:

P  m a wnet  3  81 103  243  103 J / s
In a simple gas turbine unit, the isentropic discharge temperature of air flowing out of the
compressor is 1950C, while the discharge temperature is 2400C. Air conditions at the
compressor inlet are 1 bar and 170C. If the air fuel ratio is 75 and net power output from the unit
is 650 kW, compute (i) isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine (ii) overall cycle
efficiency. Calorific value of the fuel used is 46110 kJ/kg and the unit consumes 312 kg/h of fuel.
Assume for gases, cp = 1.09 kJ/kgK and  = 1.32, and for air cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and  = 1.4.
Data given:
• Brayton Cycle
• T2 = 195 +273 = 468 K
• T2’ = 240 +273 = 513 K
Page 65 of 107
• p1 = 1 x 105 N/m2
• T1 = 17 +273 = 290 K
 
• ma m f = 75
• P = 350 x 103 W Wt
• CV = 46,110 x 103 J/kg
2’ 4’
• mf

= 312/3600 = 0.087 kg/s
2 4
 Wc
• ma = 75 x 0.087 = 6.525 kg/s
Given assumptions:
For gases:
T-s diagram
• cp = 1.09 kJ/kgK = 1.09 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.32
For air:
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
To determine:
(i) Isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine
(ii) Overall cycle efficiency
Solution:
Pressure ratio, rp:

    1.4 
 
p2  T2   1 air  468  1.41 air
rp     
p1  T1   290 
rp  5.34
Compressor efficiency, ηc:

T2  T1 468  290
c  
T2'  T1 513  290
c  0.7982(79.82%)
Page 66 of 107
Compressor work, Wc:


Wc  ma c pair T2'  T1 
 6.525  1.005  103   513  290 
Wc  1462.35  103W
Turbine inlet temperature, T3:
We know that:
Heat Supplied (by fuel) = Heat of Combustion Gases


  

m f  CV   m f  ma  c pgases T3  T2' 
 
0.087  46110  10   0.087  6.525  1.09 103  T3  513
3
T3  1069.62 K
Turbine work, Wt:

Wt  Wnet  Wc   650  1462.35  103
Wt  2112.35 103W
Actual turbine outlet temperature, T4’:

 
  

Wt  mg c pgases T3  T4' 
where mg   ma  m f 
 
2112.35 10   6.525  0.087  1.09  10  1069.62  T4' 
3 3
T4'  776.53K

  1 
 
T4  p4    gases 1 T3 1069.62
     1 
 T4    1 
 1.321
 712.65 K
T3  p3     
   gases
r    gases
r 5.34 1.32
p p
Turbine efficiency, ηt:

T3  T4' 1069.62  776.53
t  
T3  T4 1069.62  712.65
t  0.8210(82.1%)
Page 67 of 107
Heat supplied, Qsup:


Qsup  m f  CV  0.087  46110  103
 Qsup  4011.57 103 J / s
Cycle efficiency, η:
Wnet 650  103

 
Qsup 4011.57 103
  0.1620(16.20%)
Air is drawn in a gas turbine at 180C and 1 bar and leaves the compressor at 5 bar. Data
observed are: Temperature of gases entering the turbine = 6780C, Pressure loss in combustion
chamber = 0.1 bar, Efficiency of compressor = 85%, Efficiency of combustion = 85%, Efficiency
of turbine = 80%,  = 1.4 for air, cp = 1.024 kJ/kgK,  = 1.3 for gases. Determine (i) quantity
of air if plant develops 1065 kW (ii) Heat supplied per kg of air circulate (iii) Thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
Data given:
• Brayton Cycle
• T1 = 18 +273 = 291 K
• p1 = 1 x 105 N/m2
• p2 = 5 x 105 N/m2
• T3’ = 678 +273 = 951 K
• Pressure Loss = 0.1 x 105 N/m2
• c = 0.85
• comb = 0.85
• t = 0.8
• P = 1065 x 103 W
Page 68 of 107
Given:
For gases:
• cp = 1.024 kJ/kgK = 1.024 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.3
For air:
• γ = 1.4
To determine:
(i) Quantity of air
(ii) Heat supplied per kg of air circulated

T-s diagram
(iii) Thermal efficiency of the cycle
Solution:
For process 1-2 (Isentropic

Isentropic or reversible
r adiabatic compression)
 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
 
   rp  T2  T1rp
T1  p1 
1.4 1
T2  291  5  1.4  460.88K
Actual compressor outlet temperature,

emperature, T2’:
We know that Compressor Efficiency, ηc is given by

T2  T1 460.88  291
c   0.85 
T2'  T1 T2'  291
T2'  490.86 K
Compressor work, wc:

wc  c pair T2'  T1   1.005 103   490.86  291
 wc  200.86  103 J / kg
Bangalore
Page 69 of 107
For process 3’-4 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion)

  1 
 
T3'  p3'    gases T3'
   T4    1 
T4  p4   
 p3'    gases
 
 p4 
951
T4   1.31 
 658.99 K
 4.9   
 1.3  gases
Actual turbine outlet temperature, T4’:
We know that turbine efficiency, ηt is given by

T3'  T4' 951  T4'
t   0.8 
T3'  T4 951  658.99
T4'  717.39 K
Turbine work, wt:

wt  c pgases T3'  T4'   1.024 103   951  717.39 
 wt  239.22 103 J / kg

wnet  wt  wc   239.22  200.86   103
 wnet  38.36  103 J / kg
Heat supplied, qsup:

c p T3'  T2'  1.024  103   951  490.86 
qsup  gases 
comb 0.85
 qsup  554.33  103 J / kg
Thermal efficiency of the cycle, η:

wnet 38.36 103
 
qsup 554.33  103
  0.1505(15.05%)
Page 70 of 107
Mass flow rate of air, ma:

 
P  ma  wnet  1065  103  ma  83.45  103

 ma  12.76kg / s
1.19 Methods for improving work output (thermal efficiency) of Brayton cycle
The following are the three methods to improve the work output (or thermal efficiency) of a
Brayton cycle:
(i) Regeneration
Utilisation of heat present in exhaust gases to pre-heat the air supplied to the combustion
chamber.
(ii) Intercooling
Cooling the air compressed in first stage to the initial temperature before it is sent to the
second stage compressor. This results in reducing the work input to the multi-stage
compressor.
(iii) Reheating
Heating the air expanded in first stage to the maximum cycle temperature before it is sent
to the second stage turbine. This results in increasing the work output of the multi-stage
turbine.
Page 71 of 107
1.20 Regeneration
6 4
Regenerator
2 Combustion
5 Chamber
4
Fuel Supplied Exhaust
2 3 gases
Work Output
Compressor Turbine
Air from
atmosphere
Fig. 1.18 Schematic diagram regeneration cycle
• A schematic diagram of regeneration cycle is shown in Fig. 1.18.

• Exhaust gases leaving the turbine have a
T
higher temperature compared to that of p2=3=5
3
the air leaving the compressor. Qsup
• The air leaving the compressor can be p1=4=6
heated by hotter exhaust gases using a

5
counter flow heat exchanger known as 4
5’
‘regenerator’. 2
6
• Thus, pre-heated air can be used in the
1
combustion chamber, decreasing the
s
heat input requirements (improves fuel T-s diagram
economy) for the same net work output.
• Ideally, the compressed air may be heated to the temperature (T5) equal to that of the
exhaust gases leaving the turbine (T4). In other words, in a 100% efficient regenerator,
the heat given by the exhaust gases equals the heat received by the compressed air.
Page 72 of 107
• However, in practice, regenerator has less than 100% efficiency, resulting in the
temperature of the compressed air increased to a value less than that of the exhaust gas
temperature.
• Efficiency of regenerator is expressed in terms of effectiveness.
• Effectiveness is the ratio of actual heat transfer rate to the maximum possible heat
transfer rate from the exhaust gases to the air.
• Effectiveness of regenerator:
T5'  T2
 where T5'  T5 4
T5 4  T2
• Lower pressure ratio and high cycle temperature are desirable for regeneration cycle as
large heat recovery is possible. At higher pressure ratios, efficiency of cycle is higher
without regeneration.
• Use of a regenerator improves the thermal efficiency as the heat addition in combustion
chamber is reduced. However, the work output of the cycle remains unchanged.
1.21 Intercooling
2 3 4 5
1 6
Fig. 1.19 Schematic diagram of intercooling cycle
• Fig. 1.19 shows a schematic diagram of intercooling cycle.

• Multi-stage compression of air to the required pressure ratio with intercooling reduces the
work input to the compressor to a maximum extent.
• Thus, the net work output of the gas turbine plant is increased.
Page 73 of 107
• The air, after first stage compression, is cooled in an ideal heat exchanger (intercooler) to
the initial temperature of air (T3 = T1 )
• For the same turbine work output, the work supplied to the compressor is reduced. Thus,
the net work output of the cycle is increased.
• However, the heat supplied to the combustion chamber is increased. Hence, the thermal
efficiency of the cycle is reduced.
1.21.1 Optimum Intercooling Pressure for Minimum Work Input
Referring to the T-s diagram, work input to two compressors with intercooling is given by
wc  wc1  wc2
wc  c pa T2'  T1   c pa T4'  T3  - - - - - - (12)
Defining the isentropic efficiencies for the two compressors

T2  T1 T T
c  and c2  4 3 - - - - - - (13)
1
T2'  T1 T4'  T3
Substituting Eqn. (13) in (12), the work input to two compressors with intercooling is written as
wc  c pa
T2  T1   c T4  T3  - - - - - - (14)
c 1
pa
c2
c pa T1  T2  c pa T3  T4 
wc    1    1
c1  T1  c2  T3 
For the reversible adiabatic processes 1-2 and 3-4, we can write
 1  1
T2  p2   p  
   i  and
T1  p1   p1 
 1  1 - - - - - - (15)
T4  p4   p  
   2 
T3  p3   pi 
where pi is the intermediate pressure.
Page 74 of 107
Substituting Eqn. (15) in (14),

 1
  1
  
c pa T1  pi   c p T3  p  
wc     1  a  2  1 - - - - - - (16)
c1  p1   c  pi  
 
2
 
Let
 1
x

Then, Eqn. (16) becomes
c pa T1  pi   c p T3  p  x 
x
- - - - - - (17)
wc     1  a  2   1
c1  p1   c2  pi  

Differentiating the Eqn. (17) with respect to pi and then

equating it to zero, gives the optimum intercooler
pressure for minimum work input.
d  c pa T1  pi   c p T3  p  x  
x
dwc
     1  a  2   1   0
dpi dpi  c1  p1   c2  pi   
 
dwc T1  xpix 1  T3
   x  0   p2x   x  pi x 1  0   0
dpi c1  p1   c2
T c p x 1 1
 3  2 i x x  x 1
T1 c1 p1 p2 pi
T3 c2 pi2 x T-s diagram
 
T1 c1  p1 p2  x
T3 c1
 p1 p2 
x
 pi2 x  - - - - - - (18)
T1 c2
For c1 = c2 and T3 = T1 (Perfect intercooling), Eqn. (18) becomes

pi2 x   p1 p2 
x
pi p2
 pi  p1 p2  
p1 pi
That is, stage pressure ratios are equal for minimum work input.
Page 75 of 107
1.22 Reheating
Combustion
Chamber
Reheater
Fuel Supplied
2 3 4
5
Work Output
Compressor Turbine1 Turbine2
6
Air from Exhaust
atmosphere gases
Fig. 1.20 Schematic diagram of reheating cycle
• The schematic diagram of a reheating cycle is shown in Fig. 1.20.

• The work output of a turbine operating between two pressure limits can be increased by
expanding the gas in stages and reheating it in between.
• This is accomplished without raising the maximum temperature in the cycle.
• The reheating can be accomplished by spraying additional fuel into the oxygen-rich
exhaust gases between two expansion states.
• Ideally, the reheating is done in such a way that the temperature of the gases after the first
expansion is raised to that of the maximum cycle temperature.
• As the number of stages is increased, the expansion process becomes nearly isothermal.
• Although reheating results in increased specific work output, this gain is achieved with
the expense of efficiency because of the additional heat supply.
Page 76 of 107
1.22.1 Optimum reheat pressure for maximum work output

Referring to the T-s diagram, work done by two turbines with reheating is given by
wt  wt1  wt2 - - - - - - (19)
wt  c pg T3  T4'   c pg T5  T6' 
Defining the isentropic efficiencies for the two turbines

T3  T4'
t 1
T3  T4
and
T5  T6'
t  - - - - - - (20)
2
T5  T6
Substituting Eqn. (20) in (19),
wt  t1 c pg T3  T4   t2 c pg T5  T6 
 T   T 
wt  t1 c pg T3 1  4   t2 c pg T5 1  6  - - - - - - (21)
 T3   T5 
For the reversible adiabatic processes 3-4 and 5-6, we can write
 1  1
T4  p4    p  
   i  and
T3  p3   p2 
 1  1
T6  p6   p  
- - - - - - (22)
   1
T5  p5   pi 
Let
 1 - - - - - - (23)
x

Substituting Eqn. (22) and (23) in Eqn. (21)
  p x    p x 
wt  t1 c pg T3 1      t2 c pg T5 1   1  
i
- - - - - - (24)
  p2     pi  
Differentiating Eqn. (24) with respect to pi and then equating it to zero, gives the optimum
intermediate reheat pressure for maximum work output.
   p x    p  x  
d 
t1 c pg T3 1      t2 c pg T5 1       0
i 1
dpi p  p
 
  2     i   
 1 
t c p T3 0  x
xpix 1   t2 c pg T5 0  p1x   x  pi x 1   0
1 g
 p2 
Page 77 of 107
p2=3
Simplifying, p4=5
T
1 x 1
t T3 pi  t2 T5 p1x pi x 1
1
p2x Qsup 5
p6
pix 1 t2 T5 x x
 p1 p2 2’ 4’
pi x 1 t1T3
pix 1 pix 1 t T5 6’
    x 1
 2 p1x p2x 6
pi x 1
pi t1T3
t T5 s
 p1 p2 
x
 pix 1  x 1  pi2 x  2
t T3
1
T-s diagram
t T5
 pi2  2
pp - - - - - - (25)
t T3 1 2
1
For t1 = t2 and T3 = T5 (Perfect reheating), Eqn. (25) becomes
pi  p1 p2
That is,
pi p2
 ;
p1 pi
Stage pressure ratios are equal.
1.23 Numerical examples on methods of improving Brayton cycle efficiency

In a regenerative gas turbine cycle air enters the compressor at 1 bar 150C. Pressure ratio = 6.
The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are respectively 0.8 and 0.85. The
maximum temperature in the cycle is 8000C. The regenerator efficiency = 0.78. Assume c = 1.1
kJ/kgK and  = 1.32 for the combustion products. Find the efficiency of the cycle.
Data given:
• Regenerative Gas Turbine Cycle
• p1 = 1 x 105 N/m2
• T1 = 15 +273 = 288 K
Page 78 of 107
p2 p3
• rp = = =6
p1 p4
• c = 0.8
• t = 0.85
• T3 = 800 +273 = 1073 K
•  = 0.78
Given:
For gases:
• cp = 1.1 kJ/kgK = 1.1 x 103 J/kgK

T-s diagram
• γ = 1.32
Assume:
For air:
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
To determine:
Efficiency of the cycle
Solution:
Ideal (isentropic) temperature at compressor outlet, T2:
We know that for process 1-2

2 (Isentropic
( ression)
or reversible adiabatic compressio
 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
   rp   T2  T1rp 
T1  p1 
1.41
T2  288   6  1.4  480.52 K
Actual temperature at compressor outlet

outlet, T2’:
We know that compressor efficiency,

fficiency, ηc is given by
Bangalore
Page 79 of 107
T2  T1 480.52  288
c   0.8 
T2'  T1 T2'  288
T2'  528.65 K
Compressor work:
wc  c pair T2'  T1   1.005 103   528.65  288 
 wc  241.85  103 J / kg
Ideal (isentropic) temperature at outlet of turbine, T4:
We know that for process 3-4 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion)

  1 
 
T3  p3    gases T
   T4  3
  1 
T4  p4 
r 
p
 
   gases
1073
T4   1.32 1 
 694.99 K
6  
 1.32  gases
T3  T4' 1073  T4'

t   0.85 
T3  T4 1073  694.99
T4'  751.69 K
Turbine work, wt:

wt  c pgases T3  T4'   1.1103  1073  751.69 
 wt  353.44  103 J / kg

wnet  wt  wc   353.44  241.85   103
 wnet  111.59  103 J / kg
Page 80 of 107
Actual temperature at regenerator outlet, T5’:
We know that regenerator effectiveness (efficiency), ε is given by

T5'  T2' T5'  528.65
  0.78 
T5 4'  T2' 751.69  528.65
T5'  702.62 K
qsup  c pgases T3  T5'  1.1 103  1073  702.62 
 qsup  407.42  103 J / kg
w 111.59
  net 
qsup 407.42
  0.2739(27.39%)
A gas turbine power plant consists of two compressors with perfect intercooling. The expansion
occurs in a single turbine. The mass flow rate of air through the plant is 1 kg/min. Calorific
value of the fuel used is 42000 kJ/kg, maximum and minimum temperatures in the cycle are
9000C and 270C respectively. The working pressure limits are 1 bar and 6 bar respectively. The
compressors have isentropic efficiencies of 80% and turbine 85%.The pressure ratios for both
compressor stages are equal. Determine (i) overall efficiency of the plant (ii) output from the
plant in kW (iii) air fuel ratio (iv) work ratio
Data given:
• Intercooling gas turbine cycle
• Perfect intercooling

• ma = 1 kg/min
• CV = 42000 x 103 J/kg
• T5 = 900 +273 = 1173 K
• T1 = 27 +273 = 300 K
Page 81 of 107
• p1 = 1 x 105 N/m2 p4=5

• p4 = 6 x 105 N/m2
T 5
• c1 = c2 = 0.8 Qsup

p2=3
• t = 0.85
2’ p1=6
• rpc1 = rpc2 4’
6’
Assume: 6
For air:
s
3
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 10 J/kgK T-s diagram
• γ = 1.4
To determine:
(i) Overall efficiency of the cycle
(ii) Output of plant in kW
(iii) Air-fuel ratio
(iv) Work ratio
Solution:
Intermediate pressure: p2(= p3)
We know that for perfect intercooling:
p2  p1 p4  1 6
 p2  2.45 bar  2.45 105 N / m 2
Ideal (isentropic) temperature at outlet of compressor-1, T2:
We know that for process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression in comporessor-1)
 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
 
   rpc1  T2  T1rpc1
T1  p1 
1.4 1
T2  300   2.45  1.4  387.53K
Page 82 of 107
Actual temperature at outlet of compressor-1, T2’:
We know that efficiency of compressor-1, ηc1 is given by

T2  T1 387.53  300
c   0.8 
1
T2'  T1 T2'  300
T2'  409.41K
Work of compressor-1, wc1:
wc1  c pair T2'  T1   1.005  103   409.41  300 
 wc1  109.96 103 J / kg
For minimum work input, perfect intercooling (T2’ = T4’) and c2 = c1, we have
T3  T1  300 K
T4  T2  387.53K
T4'  T2'  409.41K
 wc2  wc1  109.96  103 J / kg
Total compressor work, wc:

wc  wc1  wc2  2wc1  w c1  wc 2 
 2 109.96  103  wc  219.92  103 J / kg
Ideal (isentropic) temperature at turbine outlet, T6:

  1 
T5 T5 1173
T6
 
 rpt

  

 T6    1 
 1.4 1
r 
pt

  

 6  1.4
T6  703.04 K

T5  T6' 1173  T6'
t   0.85 
T5  T6 1173  703.04
T6'  773.53K
Page 83 of 107
Turbine work, wt:

wt  c pair T5  T6'   1.005 103  1173  773.53
 wt  401.47  103 J / kg
wnet  wt  wc   401.47  219.92   103

 wnet  181.55  103 J / kg

qsup  q4' 5  c pair T5  T4'   1.005 103  1173  409.41
 q4'5  767.41103 J / kg
Overall efficiency of plant, η:

w 181.55
  net   0.2366(23.66%)
qsup 767.41
Output of plant in kW, P:

 1
P  ma wnet   181.55  3.03kW
60
Air-fuel Ratio, A/F:
We know that heat supplied by the fuel, qsup, is given by

qsup  m f  CV  767.41 103  m f  42000  103
 m f  0.0183
1
A/ F   54.73 :1
0.0183
Work ratio, WR:

w 181.55
WR  net   0.4522
wt 401.47
Page 84 of 107
In a reheat gas turbine cycle, comprising one compressor and two turbines, air is compressed
from 1 bar at 270C to 6 bar. The highest temperature in the cycle is 9000C. The expansion in the
first stage turbine is such that the work from it just equals the work required by the compressor.
Air is reheated between the two stages of expansion to 8500C. Assume that the isentropic
efficiencies of the compressor, the first stage and the second stage turbines are 85% each and
that the working substance is air. Calculate
the cycle efficiency. p2=3
T p4=5
Data given:
• Reheat Gas Turbine Cycle Qsup 5

p6
• p1 = 1 x 105 N/m2
2’ 4’
• T1 = 27 +273 = 300 K
p p 6’
• rp = 2 = 3 = 6
p1 p6 6
• T3 = 900+273 = 1173 K
• wt1 = wc s
T-s diagram
• T5 = 850+273 = 1123K
• c = t1 = t2 =0.85
To determine:
• Cycle efficiency
Assume for air:
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
Page 85 of 107
Solution:
We know that for process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression)

 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
 
   rp  T2  T1rp
T1  p1 
1.4 1
T2  300   6  1.4  500.54 K
We know that compressor efficiency, ηc is given by

T2  T1 500.54  300
c   0.85 
T2'  T1 T2'  300
T2'  535.93K
Compressor work, wc:
wc  c pair T2'  T1   1.005 103   535.93  300 
 wc  237.11103 J / kg
We know that the work of turbine-1, wt1, is given by

wt1  c pair T3  T4'  where wt1  wc  237.11103 J / kg
 237.11 103  1.005  103  1173  T4' 
 T4'  937.07 K
Ideal (isentropic) temperature at outlet of turbine-1, T4:
We know that efficiency of turbine-1, ηt, is given by

T T 1173  937.07
t1  3 4'  0.85 
T3  T4 1173  T4
T4  895.44 K
Pressure ratio of turbine-2: rpt2
p5 rp 6
rpt 2     2.33
p6 rpt1 2.57
Page 86 of 107
We know that for process 5-6 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic expansion in turbine-2)
  1 
T5 T5 1123
T6
 
 rpt 2

  

 T6    1 
 1.4 1
r 
pt 2

  

 2.33 1.4
T6  881.91K
Actual temperature at outlet of turbine-2, T6’:
We know that efficiency of turbine-2, ηt2, is given by

T T 1123  T6'
t2  5 6'  0.85 
T5  T6 1123  881.91
T6'  918.07 K
Work of turbine-2, wt2:

wt2  c pair T5  T6'   1.005 103  1123  918.07 
 wt2  205.95  103 J / kg
Total turbine work, wt:

wt  wt1  wt2   237.11  205.95   103
 wt  443.06  103 J / kg

wnet  wt  wc   443.06  237.11 103
 wnet  205.95 103 J / kg
Heat supplied: qsup = q2’-3 + q4’-5:

q2'3  c pair T3  T2'   1.005 103  1173  535.93
 q2'3  640.26 K
q4'5  c pair T5  T4'   1.005 103  1123  937.07 

 q4'5  186.86  103 J / kg
qsup  q2' 3  q4' 5   640.26  186.86  103
 qsup  827.12 103 J / kg
Page 87 of 107
wnet 205.95
 
qsup 827.12
  0.249(24.9%)
The total pressure ratio of 2-stage compressor with an intercooler is 8:1. Air enters at 1 bar and
200C. The maximum cycle temperature is limited to 6000C. A regenerator is used to recover 85%
of the available heat. The plant uses only one turbine for expansion. Assuming perfect
intercooling and isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine as 0.85 and 0.8 respectively
determine the plant efficiency and work ratio.
p4=5=7
Data given:
T Qsup p2=3
• Intercooler and regenerator gas turbine
cycle p1=6
7
6’
• p1 = 1 x 105 N/m2 7’
4’ 2’
• T1 = 20 +273 = 293 K
• rp = =8
• T5 = 600 +273 = 873 K

s
•  = 0.85 T-s diagram
• Perfect intercooling
• c1 = c2 = 0.85
• t =0.8
Assume for air:
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
Page 88 of 107
To determine:
(i) Plant efficiency
(ii) Work ratio
Solution:
Intermediate pressure: p2
We know that for perfect intercooling:

p2  p1 p4  1 8
 p2  2.83 bar  2.83 105 N / m 2
We know that for process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression in compressor-1)
 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
   rp1  T2  T1rp1
T1  p1 
1.4 1
T2  293   2.83 1.4  394.41K
We know that efficiency of compressor-1, ηc1, is given by

T2  T1 394.41  293
c   0.85 
1
T2'  T1 T2'  293
T2'  412.31K
wc1  c pair T2'  T1   1.005  103   412.31  293

 wc1  119.91103 J / kg
For perfect intercooling (T4’ = T2’) and c2 = c1:

T3  T1  293K
T4  T2  394.01K
T4'  T2'  412.31K
wc1  wc2  119.91103 J / kg
Page 89 of 107
wc  wc1  wc2  2  wc1  w c1  wc2 

 2  119.9110 3
 wc  239.82 103 J / kg
Ideal (isentropic) temperature at turbine outlet, T6:

  1 
T5 T5 873
  rp     T6 
 
  1 
 1.4 1
T6
r 
p

  

 8 1.4
T6  481.95 K
We know that turbine efficiency, ηt, is given by

T T 873  T6'
t  5 6'  0.80 
T5  T6 873  481.95
T6'  560.16 K
Turbine work, wt :
wt  c pair T5  T6'   1.005  103   873  560.16 
 wt2  314.40  103 J / kg

wnet  wt  wc   314.40  239.82   103
 wnet  74.58  103 J / kg
We know that regenerator effectiveness, ε, is given by

T7'  T4' T7'  411.84
  0.85 
T7 6'  T4' 560.16  411.84
T7'  537.91K
Page 90 of 107

qsup  c pair T5  T7'   1.005 103   873  537.91
 qsup  336.77 103 J / kg
wnet 74.58
    0.2215(22.15%)
qsup 336.77
In a gas turbine plant, air enters the compressor at 200C with a pressure ratio of 6.5. Then the
air is heated to a maximum permissible temperature of 8000C, first in a heat exchanger which is
70% efficient and then in the combustion chamber. The air is expanded in 2 stages such that the
expansion work is maximum. The air is reheated to 8000C after first stage expansion. Determine
the thermal efficiency of the cycle, work ratio and net shaft work per kg of air. The isentropic
efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 82% and 85% respectively.
Data given:
• Regenerator and reheater gas

turbine cycle
• T1 = 20 +273 = 293 K
• rp = = 6.5
• T3 = 800 +273 = 1073 K
•  = 0.7
• T5 = T3 =800 +273 = 1073 K
• c = 0.82 T-s diagram
• t1 = t2 = 0.85
Assume for air:
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
Page 91 of 107
To determine:
(i) Cycle efficiency
(ii) Work ratio
(iii) Net shaft work per kg
Solution:
We know that for process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression)

 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
 
   rp  T2  T1rp
T1  p1 
1.4 1
T2  293   6.5  1.4  500.17 K
We know that compressor efficiency, ηc. is given by:

T T 500.17  293
c  2 1  0.82 
T2'  T1 T2'  293
T2'  545.65K
Compressor work. wc:

wc  c pair T2'  T1   1.005 103   545.65  293
 wc  253.91103 J / kg
Intermediate pressure: p5 (= p4)
We know that for maximum work output and perfect reheating
p5 4  p1 p2  1 6.5
 p5 4  2.55 bar  2.55 105 N / m 2
Page 92 of 107
  1 
 
T3  p3 2    T3 1073
   T4    1 
 1.4 1
T4  p4 
 p32 

  

 2.55 1.4
 
 p4 
T4  821.20 K
We know that efficiency of turbine-1, ηt1, is given by:

T3  T4' 1073  T4'
t   0.85 
1
T3  T4 1073  821.20
T4'  858.97 K
wt1  c pair T3  T4'   1.005  103  1073  858.97 
 wt1  215.10  103 J / kg
We know that for maximum work output, perfect reheating and t2 = t1:
T3  T5  1073K
T6  T4  821.20 K
T6'  T4'  858.97 K
 wt2  wt1  215.10 103 J / kg
Total work of turbine, wt:

wt  wt1  wt2  2  wt1  w t1  wt2 
 2  215.10  10 3
 wt  430.20 103 J / kg
Net work done (net shaft work per kg), wnet:

wnet  wt  wc   430.20  253.91  103
 wnet  176.29  103 J / kg
Page 93 of 107

T7 '  T2' T7'  545.65
  0.70 
T7 4'6'  T2' 858.97  545.65
T7 '  764.97 K

qsup  c pair T3  T7 '   c pair T5  T4' 
 1.005 103  1073  764.97   1.005 103  1073  858.97 
 qsup  524.67  103 J / kg
wnet 176.29
    0.3360(33.60%)
qsup 524.67
Work ratio, WR:

w 176.29
WR  net 
wt 430.20
WR  0.4098
Consider an ideal gas-turbine cycle with 2 stages of compression and 2 stages of expansion. The
pressure ratio across each stage of compressor and turbine is 3. The initial temperature of air
entering the compressor is 270C. The air enters each stage of the turbine at 1200K. Determine
the work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the cycle, when no regenerator is used. Assume an
efficiency of 80% for each compressor stage and an efficiency of 85% for each turbine stage.
Data given:
• Intercooler and reheater gas turbine cycle
• rp = 3
Page 94 of 107
• T1 = 27 +273 = 300 K
• T5 = T7 = 1200 K
• c1 = c2 = 0.80

Qsup
• t1 = t2 = 0.85
To determine:
(i) Work ratio
Assume for air: T-s diagram
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK = 1.005 x 103 J/kgK
• γ = 1.4
• Perfect Intercooling, Minimum Work Input
• Perfect Reheating, Maximum Work Output
Solution:
We know that for process 1-2 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression in compressor-1)
 1
 1  1
T2  p2  
 
   rpc  T2  T1rpc
T1  p1  1 1
1.4 1
T2  300   3 1.4  410.62 K
We know that efficiency of compressor-1, ηc1, is given by

T2  T1 410.62  300
c   0.80 
1
T2'  T1 T2'  300
T2'  438.28 K
Work of compressor-1, wc1 :
wc1  c pair T2'  T1   1.005  103   438.28  300 
 wc1  138.97  103 J / kg
Page 95 of 107
We know that for minimum work input, perfect intercooling and c2 = c1:
T3  T1  300 K
T2  T4  410.62 K
T2'  T4'  438.28 K
 wc2  wc1  138.97 103 J / kg
wc  2 wc1  2  138.97 103  277.94  103 J / kg
  1 
T5
  T5 1200
 
 rpt     T6  
  1  1.4 1
T6
   3 1.4
1
 
rpt   
1
T6  876.73K
We know that efficiency of turbine-1, ηt1, is given by

T5  T6' 1200  T6'
t   0.85 
1
T5  T6 1200  876.73
T6'  925.22 K
Work of turbine-1, wt1 :
wt1  c pair T5  T6'   1.005  103  1200  925.22 
 wt1  276.15  103 J / kg
We know that for maximum work output, perfect reheating and t2 = t1:
T5  T7  1200 K
T6  T8  876.73K
T6'  T8'  925.22 K
 wt2  wt1  276.15 103 J / kg
Page 96 of 107
Total work of turbine, wt:
wt  2 wt1  2  276.15  552.3 103 J / kg
Net work done, wnet :
wnet  wt  wc   552.3  277.94   103

 wnet  274.36  103 J / kg
Heat supplied, qsup :

qsup  c pair T5  T4'   1.005 103  1200  438.28 
 qsup  765.53 103 J / kg
Thermal efficiency, η:
wnet 274.36
   0.3584  35.84% 
qsup 765.53
Work ratio, WR:

w w 274.36
WR  net  net   0.4968
wt 2 wt1 2  276.15
(Reconsider the Numerical Example (1.23.6) with a regenerator with an effectiveness of 0.75.
Compare the result)
Data given:
• Intercooler and reheater gas turbine cycle with a regenerator
• rp = 3
• T1 = 27 +273 = 300 K
• T5 = T7 = 1200 K
• c1 = c2 = 0.80
• t1 = t2 = 0.85
•  = 0.75
Page 97 of 107
To determine:
(i) Work Ratio
(ii) Thermal Efficiency
Solution: 9
9’
From example (1.23.6):
We have the following results:
T2 4  410.62 K , T2' 4'  438.28 K

T68  876.73K , T6'8'  925.22 K
wnet  274.36  103 J / kg
Actual temperature at regenerator T-s diagram

outlet, T9’:

T9'  T4'

T96'8'  T4'
T9'  438.28
0.75 
925.22  438.28
T9'  803.49 K
Heat supplied: qsup

qsup  c pair T5  T9'   1.005 103  1200  803.49 
 qsup  396.51103 J / kg
Work ratio, WR:
No change in work ratio, because net work done and turbine work remains the same.
Thermal efficiency, η:
w 274.36
  net   0.6919  69.19% 
qsup 396.51
Page 98 of 107
Percentage increase in thermal efficiency:

% increase in thermal efficiency
 with regen  
 100

69.19  35.84
 100  93.05%
35.84
1.24 Introduction to the principles of jet propulsion

• Gas turbine cycles used to power aircraft engines are known as “jet-propulsion” cycles.
• In an ideal jet-propulsion cycle, the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the
turbine, as in the case of an ideal Brayton cycle.
• Instead, the gases are expanded to a pressure such that the power produced by the turbine
is just sufficient to drive the compressor and the auxiliary equipment (such as small
generator, pump, etc.,)
• Thus, the net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero.
• The gases coming out of the turbine at high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a
nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft.
1.25 Classification of gas turbine engines for jet propulsion

The thrust force required for propulsion can be obtained by either propelling a large mass of air
or by increasing the velocity of a small mass of air. Based on this principle, gas turbine engines
for jet propulsion are classified as:
• Turbo-jet Engine
• Turbo-prop Engine
• Turbo-fan Engine
• Ram-jet engine
• Pulse-jet engine
Page 99 of 107
1.26 Ideal turbojet cycle
Fig. 1.21 Schematic diagram of an ideal turbojet engine
• The schematic diagram of an ideal turbojet engine is shown in Fig. 1.21.

• In this engine, a small mass of air is
taken in whose velocity is increased to
a larger value.
• The pressure of incoming air rises
slightly as it is decelerated in diffuser.
This reduces the work required to run
4
the compressor.
• Air is compressed further by the
compressor to the required pressure.
• It is then mixed with fuel in the
T-s diagram
combustion chamber, where the
mixture is burned at constant pressure.
• The high-pressure and high-temperature combustion gases partially expand in the

turbine, producing enough power to drive the compressor and other equipment.
• Finally, the gases expand in a nozzle to the ambient pressure and leave the engine at a
high velocity.
Page 100 of 107
• The high velocity jet of hot gases provides thrust to the aircraft to give the forward
motion by jet reaction.
1.26.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of turbo-jet engine

Advantages:
• Simple in construction and easy to maintain.
• Occupies less space.
• Attain higher flight speeds (800 to 1000 kmph)
• Rate of climb is higher.
• A wide variety of fuels can be used.
• Performance is not affected very much by A/F ratio used.
Disadvantages:
• Materials used are costlier and have shorter life.
• Produces more noise.
• Requires a long run-way, if the take-off period is higher.
• Specific fuel consumption is higher at low altitudes.
Page 101 of 107
1.27 Turboprop (Propjet) engine
Air
Air
Fig. 1.22 Schematic diagram of a turboprop engine
• A turboprop engine is shown schematically in Fig. 1.22.

• A turbo-prop engine differs from turbo-jet engine in that it uses a propeller to increase the
mass flow of air entering the diffuser. This increases the higher thrust per mass flow of
fuel and also results in better fuel economy.
• The working of the engine is similar to a turbo-jet engine.
• Nearly 80% the expansion takes place in the turbine in order to run the compressor and
propeller.
• The gas turbine speed being very high, a reduction gear is used to run the propeller.
1.27.1 Advantages and disadvantages of turbo-prop engine

Advantages:
• Provides higher thrust at take-off and better fuel economy.
• Operates most economically over a wide range of speed (400 to 800 kmph).
• Maintenance is easy and it has lower vibration and noise.
• The drag is less because of less frontal area.
Page 102 of 107
Disadvantages:
• Lower propeller efficiency at higher speeds due to shock and flow separation.
• Reduction gear is essential which increases maintenance cost and loss of energy due to
gear friction.
1.28 Turbofan (Fanjet or Bypass Turbojet) engine
Combustion Duct (Cowl)

Fan Compressor Turbine
Chamber
Fuel
Air In
Exit Nozzle
Fuel
Fig. 1.23 Schematic diagram of a turbofan engine
• Fig. 1.23 shows a schematic diagram of a turbofan engine.
• It is a modification of turbojet engine which is most widely used in aircraft propulsion.
• In this engine, a large fan driven by the turbine forces a considerable amount of air
through a duct (cowl) to the exhaust unit, bypassing the engine.
• A portion of air is sent to the engine compressor adding an advantage of creating

supercharging effect.
• The fan exhaust leaves the duct at a higher velocity, enhancing the total thrust of the
engine significantly.
• In this engine, the high-speed exhaust gases are mixed with the lower-speed air, which
results in a considerable reduction in noise.
Page 103 of 107
1.29 Ramjet engine (Lorin tube)
Fuel
Fig. 1.24 Schematic diagram of a ramjet engine
• A ramjet engine is schematically shown in Fig. 1.24.
• A ramjet engine is a properly shaped duct with no compressor or turbine.
• It consists of a convergent-divergent
T pt3
diffuser, combustion chamber and an 3
exit nozzle (or tail pipe).
• The supersonic and subsonic

diffusers increases the pressure of 2’ pt1
inlet air to the ram pressure as it 2
4’
leaves the diffuser sections.
4
• The high pressure air is then heated
to about 1500 K to 2000 K in the 1
s
combustion chamber by injecting the
T-s diagram
fuel.
• The high pressure and high temperature gases are then expand in the nozzle section
creating very high velocity.
• These gases leave the engine with a very high speed and providing very high thrust.
Page 104 of 107
1.29.1 Advantages and disadvantages of ram-jet engine

Advantages:
• Very simple and has no moving parts. Light in weight and maintenance-free.
• Any type of liquid fuel can be used.
• High temperature of the gases causes no danger since there is no turbine.
• Specific fuel consumption is lower than any other jet engines, in particular, at high speed
and high altitude.
Disadvantages:
• Take-off thrust is zero, as air compression is achieved by ramming action. A small turbo-
jet is required for starting the Ram-jet.
• The design of diffuser is very critical.
• Special flam stabilization techniques are needed in the combustion chamber to handle
very high speed air.
• Due to very high temperatures, there is danger of dissociation of combustion products in

the combustion chamber.
• Preferred only for high speed military aircrafts and missiles.
Page 105 of 107
1.30 Pulse-jet engine
Atomised
Fuel Spray
Exhaust
Shutter Venturi
Valves Ignitor Throat
Fig. 1.25 Schematic diagram of a pulse-jet engine
• A pulse-jet engine is schematically shown in Fig. 1.25.
• Pulse-jet resembles a ram-jet except that it has shutter valves which make the process of
air induction intermittent.
• The pulse-jet was developed in Germany during the World War II and its operating cycle
may be compared with Otto cycle and is self-starting.
• The incoming air is compressed in the diffuser and the high pressure air enters the
combustion chamber through the shutter valves.
• The fuel injected in the combustion chamber is burnt by the ignitor (or spark plug) and
consequent rise in pressure closes the shutter valves, making the combustion process to
occur at constant volume.
• The high pressure and high temperature gases expand through the nozzle producing the
required thrust.
• After the gases leave the combustion chamber, the pressure decreases and the shutter
valves open to allow the compressed air again. The air mixes with fuel and cycle repeats.
Page 106 of 107
• Once the engine starts operating normally, the ignitor (or spark plug) is switched off and
the residual flame inside the combustion chamber from the previous explosion is used for
ignition in the succeeding cycles.
• Pulse-jet engines are much cheaper than Ram-jet engines and are self-starting. But, the
propulsive efficiency is lower.
- - - - - - - - - - - - End of Unit-I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Page 107 of 107

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VTU e-Shikshana Programme 17ME43: Applied Thermodynamics e-Notes

17ME43: Applied Thermodynamics

Textbooks for reference:

1.2 Air standard power cycles

1.3 Terminology related to reciprocating engines

Intake Valve Exhaust Valve

Bottom Dead Centre

Fig. 1.1 Terminology related to reciprocating engine

Bore: It is the diameter of the piston.

Mean effective pressure:

power stroke, would produce the same pmin

1.4 Carnot Cycle

1.4.1 Working of Carnot cycle

Process 1-2: Isothermal (constant temperature) heat supply

[3] Piston [3]

Isothermal Isentropic Isothermal Isentropic

Fig. 1.3 Thermodynamic processes of Carnot cycle

Fig. 1.4 p-V and T-s diagrams of Carnot cycle

Process 2-3: Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion

Process 3-4: Isothermal (constant temperature) heat rejected

Process 4-1: Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) compression

1.4.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Carnot cycle

For the process 2-3 (Isentropic expansion),

1.4.3 Limitations of Carnot Cycle

1.5 Stirling Cycle

1.5.1 Working of Stirling cycle

storage of thermal storage. All the

Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition from the external source

Process 2-3: Isochoric regeneration

Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection to the external sink

Process 4-1: Isochoric regeneration

1.5.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Stirling Cycle

Heat supplied: Qsup  Q1 2  RT1 ln

1.5.3 Features of Stirling Cycle

1.6 Numerical examples on Carnot and Stirling cycle

Numerical example 1.6.1

 p1 = 10.5 x 105 N/m2

For the process 4-1 (Isentropic or reversible

For the process 2-3 (Isentropic or reversible adiabatic):

Mean effective pressure:

Numerical Example 1.6.2

(i) Tmax (T1), Tmin (T3)

For the process 1-2

Also, Carnot efficiency:

For the processes 2-3 and 4-1

Numerical example 1.6.3

p3 = 100 x 103 N/m2

(i) Net work done

Approach 1: Entropy (s)

At State 3: T-s diagram

For the process 1-2 (isothermal):

For the process 3-4 (isothermal):

Net work done:

W  Q12  Q3 4   36.65  11.41  103  25.24  103 J

Determine p2 from Isochoric process 2-3:

Calculate the heat supplied:

Calculate the heat rejected:

Calculate the net work done:

1.7 Otto Cycle

1.7.1 Working of Otto cycle

Fig. 1.7 p-V and T-s diagrams of Otto cycle

Process 1-2: Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) compression

Process 2-3: Isochoric (reversible constant volume) heat addition