SEEPAGE

Definition

Seepage is the movement of water through small openings and spaces in the surface of
unsaturated soil into or out of a body of surface or subsurface water. Seepage is dependent on the
following factors;

 combination of forces acting on water through gravity,

 permeability of the soil
 Degree of compaction of the soil.
 Rooted tree roots and wood
 Poor foundation or abutment preparation
 Rodent holes
 Soil type of
foundation
 Trapped
groundwater
 Insufficient
structural
drainage
 Excessive
uplift pressure
EFFECTS OF SEEPAGE IN DAM OR DAM EMBANKMENTS
EXPLAINING PIPING, EROSION AND SCOUR FAILURE MODES.

Seepage can emerge anywhere on the downstream or elevations below the normal pool. It may
vary depending on the availability of vegetation and also varies in appearance from soft wet area
to a flowing spring. Mosses, reeds and other marsh vegetation often become established in a
seepage area. Seepage makes inspection difficult. It can also saturate and weaken portions of
embankment and foundation making the embankment susceptible to earth slides.

If the seepage force are large enough, soil will be eroded from the foundation and deposited in
the shape of a cone around the outlet. Seepage flow which is muddy and carrying sediment (soil
particles) is evidence of piping and is a serious condition that if left untreated can cause failure of
the dam. Piping can most often occur along a spillway or other conduit through the embankment
and these areas should closely inspected. Sinkholes may develop on the surface of the
embankment as internal erosion takes place. A whirlpool in the lake surface may follow and then
likely a rapid and completely failure of the dam.

Seepage can also develop behind or beneath concrete structures such as chute spillways or
headwalls. If concrete structures doesn’t have a means such as weep holes or relief drains to
relieve water pressure, the concrete structures may heave rotate or crack.

Effect of seepage on dams and embankments

Embankments are large artificial dam created by placing and compacting a large volume of
earthen material.
  Seepage could lead to dam failure. Saturated soils due to seepage results in reduction of
soil strength leading to sloughing, sliding and instabilities.
 Change in vegetation can also be noticed when seepage occurs. The vegetation can be
seen to be more lush and greener than adjacent vegetation.
 The most recognizable effect of seepage is the rapid decline of water level in the dam.
This greatly increase when soil piping occurs.
 Water logging and salinity develop in nearby areas. This can be noticed as wetness,
springs or boils on lower back slop and toe of the dam.
 Seepage can lead to internal erosion which in turn causes piping in the soil.
 Seepage flow causes a seasonal temperature inside the dam as well as electrical
conductivity.

Seepage control

Seepage-control measure type is selected depending on the

 combination of hydrogeological conditions,

 canal extension,
 soil filtration characteristics,
 size of required enhancement of losses
 Presence of locally available material.

Methods used to control seepage

 use of seepage-control lining of canals made from cast-in-situ concrete, reinforced-

concrete slabs, asphalt, rock, clay;
 Dams should be instrumented with piezometers, observation wells, and seepage
measuring devices.
 decrease of permeability coefficient in the result of natural and artificial mud fill of canal,
  deep and shallow soil compaction
 Use of Internal drain systems
 Horizontal Filter -It collects the seepage from the inclined/vertical filter or from the body
of the dam, in the absence of inclined/vertical filter, and carries it to toe drain. It also
collects seepage from the foundation and minimizes possibility of piping along the dam
seat.
 Inclined-Inclined or vertical filter abutting downstream face of either impervious core or
downstream transition zone is provided to collect seepage emerging out of core/transition
zone and thereby keeping the downstream shell relatively dry.
 Rock Toe -The principal function of the rock toe is to provide drainage. It also protects
the lower part of the downstream slope of an earth dam from tail water erosion
 Filter materials shall be more pervious than the base materials;

Excessive scour effect at downstream side of spillway causes failure of dam. When high velocity
water flows over the unprotected riverbed downstream from spillway it may erode bed material
and carry it either in suspension or as bed load further downstream. Excessive scour immediately
bellow the spillway may endanger its foundation.

Scour is very common around dam structures and can often go unnoticed. It may develop slowly
over time or be brought on quickly by an intense rain event or seasonal flooding. The result can
compromise the structural integrity of the dam with little advance notice

Ways of controlling scour failure

 Sheet piling
 Rip rap which also helps to control erosion
 Precast concrete, articulating block mats
 Cast –in – place articulating block mats
How seepage occurs under different types of soils

Natural soil type Seepage water losses (in mm/day)

Sand 25.0-250
Sandy Loam 13.0-76.0
Loam 8.0-20.0
Clay Loam 2.50-15.0
Loamy Clay 0.25-5.0
Clay 0.25-5.0

From the table above, seepage in soils depends on the soil structure that is the size of the size
particles. The availability of pores also affect the water movement.

Permeability, as the name implies (ability to permeate), is a measure of how easily a fluid can
flow through a porous medium. In geotechnical engineering, the porous medium is soils and the
fluid is water at ambient temperature. Generally, coarser the soil grains, larger the voids and
larger the permeability. Therefore, gravels are more permeable than silts.
 JOMOKENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND
TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL: SABEE

DEPT: ABE

UNIT CODE: EBE 2401

UNIT NAME: SOIL MECHANICS

TASK: 1. STABILITY OF SLOPES

2. SEEPAGE

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME REG NO.

1. NKATHA CHRISTINE ENB211-0065/2016

2. STEVEN MWANZA ENB211-0090/2016
3. HILDA KIMANI ENB211-0039/2016
4. CHARLES OTIENO ENB211-0210/2017
SLOPE STABILITY

A slope is an inclined boundary surface between the body of an earthwork and air such as
highways, earth dams, rivers training work and fill railway. Slope stability is the ability of slopes
covered with soil to withstand and undergo movement. The stability of a slope is determined by
the balance of shear strength and shear stress. Landslides are as a result of slope failure triggered
by slope movement. The ratio between the acting shear stress and shear strength is expressed in
safety factor. A slope can be stable if the safety factor, computed along a sliding surface is larger
than one. Understanding slope stability is important in engineering practices to ensure the stability
of structures and prevent loss of money and human life. The different types of slope failure include
circular slips, non-circular slips, translational failure and compound among others.

a) TYPES OF SLOPES
The different types of slopes include:
1. Positive slope- this is a slope where the lines go uphill from left to right
2. The negative slope- a slope where lines go downhill from left to right
3. The zero slope- where the lines are horizontal
4. Undefined slope- when the lines are vertical

b) FACTORS AFFECTING SLOPE STABILITY

A previously stable slope may be affected by processes or preparatory factors which make the
slope unconditionally unstable by decreasing the safety factor. Stability can be affected by either
decreasing the shear strength or by increasing the shear stress. Factors that can affect the stability
of a slope include: the angle of the slope and the strength of the materials on it. These causes
hydrologic events such progressive soil saturation, prolonged or intense rainfall, increases of water
pressure within the slope and rapid snowmelt. And internal erosion and surface or toe erosion,
earthquakes, slope cutting and slope flooding. Gravity driven erosion is the major process that
causes uplift which leads to mass wasting. When shear force is greater than the shear strength the
lope will move. The strength of slopes vary according to the type of soil. Soils like crystalline rock
are strong while metamorphic soils are moderately strong. Sedimentary rocks have variable
strength and sandstones and mudstones are quite weak. The internal composition and structure of
rocks significantly affect their strength.

c) FACTORS OF SAFETY CONSIDERED IN SLOPE STABILITY

Factor of safety is the ratio of the maximum stress or load that a soil can sustain to the actual stress
or load that is applied to that soil. The major types of factors of safety considered in slope stability
include:
1. Factor of safety with respect to strength (F)
𝝉𝒇𝒇
𝑭= ,
𝝉

Where 𝜏𝑓𝑓 is the maximum shear stress that the soil can sustain at the value of normal stress. The
denominator is the actual stress applied to the soil.
2. Factor of safety with respect to cohesion (FC)
Factor of safety due to cohesion is the ratio between the actual cohesion and the cohesion required
for the stability of soils when the frictional component of strength is fully modified. This is
expressed as:
𝒄
𝝉= + 𝝈𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅
𝒇𝒄
3. Factor of safety with respect to friction (𝑓∅)
The factor of safety due to friction is the ratio of the tangent of the angle of shearing
resistance of the soil to the tangent of the mobilized angle of shearing resistance of the soil
when the cohesive components of strength is fully mobilized. This is expressed as:
𝝈𝒏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅
𝝉=𝒄+
𝑭∅
4. Factor of safety with respect to height (FH)
This is the ratio between the maximum height of a slope to the actual height of a slope and
is expressed as;
𝑯𝑴𝒂𝒙
𝑭𝑯 = .
𝑯

Stability of slopes can be improved through:

a. Soil stabilization
b. Providing lateral supports by piles or retaining walls
 c. Flattening of slope results in reduction in weight which makes the slope
more stable
d. Consolidation by electro osmosis to increase the stability of slopes
d) SLOPE FAILURES MODES (Sketches).
 e) SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS METHOD
- Limit equilibrium

The methods investigates the equilibrium of a soil mass tending to slide down under the
influence of gravity. Transitional or rotational movement is considered on an assumed or known
potential slip surface below the soil or rock mass. In rock slope engineering, methods may be
highly significant to simple block failure along distinct discontinuities. All these methods are
based on the comparison of forces, moments, or stresses resisting movement of the mass with
those that can cause disturbing forces. The output of the analysis is a factor of safety, defined as
the ratio of the shear strength to the shear stress (or other equivalent measure) required for
equilibrium. If the value of factor of safety is less than 1.0, the slope is unstable

- Numerical analysis methods

Numerical analysis methods give reasonable approximations to the “exact” mathematical

solution of the governing equations of the mechanics of slope stability. They are, however, much
more sophisticated and complicated than limit equilibrium methods: they take strains and
stresses into account equilibrium methods do.

Numerical methods have been extensively used in the past several decades due to advances in
computing power. In a broad sense, numerical methods can be classified into continuum and
discontinuum methods. The most common methods ha are used are:

(a) For continuum, Finite Difference Method (FDM), Finite Element Method (FEM) and
Boundary Element Method (BEM).

(b) For discontinuum, Distinct Element Method (DEM); Discontinuous Deformation Analysis
(DDA), and Bonded Particle Model (BPM).

The need to use, for a particular problem, continuum or discontinuum methods depends on the
size, or scale, of the discontinuities with respect to the size, or scale of the problem that needs to
be solved.
 - Finite Difference Method

The Finite Difference Method (FDM) is based on the premise that governing differential
equations of elasticity theory can be adequately represented by finite differences. The method is
the oldest among the numerical methods in geomechanics and it was used even before the arrival
of computers with the FDM, the set of differential equations is reduced to a system of linear
equations, which can be solved by any of the classical methods. The method relies on the
approximation of the field equations, i.e. equilibrium, strain compatibility etc. by finite
difference formulas.

- Finite Element Method

The finite element method is a powerful calculating method in engineering sciences. This
method is by far method used for analysis geotechnical problems, The FEM gives it power by
ability simulating physical behaviour materials by use of a calculating tools without simplify
problem. Today, new analysis method in engineering can be studied with FEM as reference of
exact solution. In the last two decades, several methods were presented for slope stability
analysis by FEM. Through this methods, gravity increase method and strength reduction method
have widely use. In the gravity increase method, the gravity forces, such weight, increase
gradually until the slope becomes unstable. Then factor of safety define ratio between
gravitational acceleration in failure time and actual gravitational acceleration (g). In the strength
reduction method, decrease strength parameters of the slope until slope become unstable. So, the
safety of factor determine ratio between actual strength parameters and critical strength
parameters. The gravity increase method is well suited for analysing the stability of embankment
is constructing because the rate of construction can be simulated with the rate at which gravity
loading on the embankment is increased.

- Boundary Element Method

With the Boundary Element Method (BEM), only the boundaries of the continuum need to be
discretized.,which is in contrast to the other two continuum methods, The finite difference and
the Finite Element methods, where the entire medium has to be discretized. In the BEM, the
solution is approximated at the boundaries while equilibrium and compatibility are exactly
satisfied in the interior of the medium. The advantage of limiting the discretization to the
boundaries is that the problem is reduced by one order: From 3D to a 2D surface problem at the
boundary, and from 2D to a line problem Requirements for slope stability analysis with
numerical methods are: High-end computer; have relevant software; understanding of advanced
soil mechanics, including material models and numerical methods.

f) PREVENTION OF SLOPE FAILURES

Following the factors of slope failures such as slope steepness, drainage and stream action,
vegetation, human modification, the following preventions are made:

 Terracing & Benching: The nearer a slope is to its natural angle of repose, the more
stable it is. Thus, terracing or benching is a popular way of dealing with steep slopes. It
is the process of making the slope more manageable by dividing it into several smaller
and less steep slopes reinforced by retaining walls and friction piles.
 Retaining Walls: Retaining walls are used to stabilize the slopes surrounding a property.
Concrete retaining walls are walls that are designed to hold in place a substantial amount
of soil. They are built on the lower part of a slope to directly suppress a collapse of that
part and also to check coming-down collapsed soil and stop it before houses.
 Soldier piles and Lagging works: This slope stabilization technique often used in
projects involving soft soils. Sheet piles can be made of wood planks, vinyl or steel. Piles
driven 2/3 of their length into the slope towards load bearing strata (layer that can bear
stress) to restrain the collapse of the surface soil layer and installed in such a way that the
sheets overlap. Sometimes, lagging or panels are installed between piles to form a
retaining wall that will prevent the downward movement of soils.
 Rock Bolts: Much like piles, rock bolts are used to stabilize slopes that are composed
mainly of fractured rocks. The bolts connect the fractured and weak surface to the
stronger rock layers underneath, giving the slope stability.
 Grating Crib: Concrete frames are laid on a slope, within which plants grow to protect
the slope from weathering and erosion. It is also possible to directly suppress slope
collapse by using the frames in combination with ground anchors, or to allow trees
remaining on the slope to be retained by adjusting the arrangement of the frames.
  Biotechnical Slope Stabilization: Letting plants and vegetation stabilize a slope.
Vegetation is good for slope stability and planting different layers of vegetation on the
slope is an effective way of stabilizing this slope through mechanical reinforcement.


REFERENCES

 Permeability and Seepage - N. Sivakugan (2005)

 R.F. Craig, Soil Mechanics, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1978.
Construeren met grond, CUR-publicatie no. 162, 1992.

 M.E. Harr, Foundations of Theoretical Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966

 C.R. Scott, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Applied Science Publishers, London, 1978.