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Part 1

Process Design and its business relevance...

o Starting a new business or a new business process?


o Chances are that you may fall in either of these two school of thoughts:

“Lets start with something. We will improve on


“Lets get it right the first time”
the way”

In the first philosophy, it is assumed that In the second philosophy, the effort is to

o the “People involved” know everything o Design a process that’s capable and robust to meet the
customer and business requirements from Day 1
o What they do and advise, how they do, becomes the
o Analyse cause and effects among all inputs, all practical
process constraints and the output. This ensures integration of
o Such a setup is highly dependent on such people/ right ideas, innovation and solutions into the new
process
leaders
It does call for a good initial investment (time, effort and
o The processes take shape over a period of time money) but helps to build
through experience, trial & error and incremental
changes o A high brand value

o Perception is that it helps to start light but at times the o A good customer experience
infancy period is rocked by customer/ market/ process/ o An efficient process with faster turnarounds, better
people/ legal issues quality and quicker ROI

3 Harish Haridasan
Fabrics of Process Design ...

Noise factors
N1 Nn

(Minimise effect of variance of noise factors)

Probabilistic Design
Customer Business Functional
requirements / CTQs* requirements / CTQs* requirements / CTQs*

[Output targeted at MEAN]

(Reduce variance in controllable factors)

X1 Xn Control parameters (Xs)

o Understand voice of customer o Quantify the Business goals and o Translate Customer & Business o Using Experimental designs, simulation or other statistical techniques, evolve the Transfer function that
create an agreement requirements to controllable relates the process output (Y) with all inputs (Xs)
o Decipher the customer functional parameters
requirements & understand what o Ensure Customer requirements o Taking Tolerance for the input variance, arrive at the optimum control values for the Xs
it means for the process and Business goals are aligned o Process design will aim to find
ways to ensure these parameters o Study the constraints/ noise factors and arrive at the values optimum for process performance. These
o At this stage itself, innovate & are maintained at target mean, factors are uncontrollable but executing the process in these optimum conditions will yield peak results.
find what will delight customers within customer specifications
o Evolve solutions/ processes to ensure the input and process variance is in control

o De-risk the process and simulate/ statistically model the new process performance

o This capability flows-up to what is expected by the customer & business


* Critical to quality 4 Harish Haridasan
Popular design and optimisation techniques

Design (Process) is about, Optimisation (Process) is about,


o Evolving an accurate Transfer function to relate Y (CTQs) with Xs o Finding the optimum factor levels for peak performance
(Controllable dependent factors)
o Finding the best operating levels within these optimum factor levels to
ensure sustained process capability

Useful techniques...

o Regression – o 2-level and 3-level (Response surface methods) Optimisation designs

§ Statistical method to determine the quantified relation between responses § 2-level techniques (Ascent/ Descent or Simplex) help to determine if there are
(outputs) and factors using the available data better factor levels of performance for the Y (Response)

§ Applied in case experimentation is ruled out due to time/ cost concerns or the § 3-level techniques (Central Composite, Box Behnken) help to determine the best
operating levels for the factors within the optimum levels suggested by 2-level
nature of process where experimentation is impractical technique
§ Doesn’t confirm the causation; only provides the relation (degree and direction) § The optimum values ensure that the Process Y (Output) will stay within the
customer defined specifications
o Design of Experiments (DOE) –
o Taguchi’s method
§ Traditional experimental design, where random, repetitive experiments are
conducted at various factor levels, to model responses (outputs) as a function of § This method gives a robust design in which the Process Y will not only stay
all factor levels within the specifications but also be centered always at the Target (= Mean)

§ Helps to shortlist the factors, based on causation, and determine the operating § Taguchi says that every time a process moves away from the target, there is loss
range for controllable factors to customer (even if the process is within SPECs)

§ This is achieved by modelling not just the Controllable factors as in conventional


§ Provides accurate results but is time/ effort/ cost intensive DOE but also the “Noise” factors

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Taguchi’s Loss Function

o According to Taguchi (Japanese Engineer), every time the process deviates from the target, even if it stays within the SPECs, there is loss
to the society (Producer and Customer)

o Larger the deviation from the target, larger is the loss

o Loss is proportional to the square of the deviation from the target

o Taguchi’s (quality) Loss function is given as,

!
L(Y) = (Y − t))
"
where,
M- Monetary loss to the Producer when process doesn’t meet the SPECs
D- Customer defined tolerance (where about 50% of the customers view the product as defective)
t- Target for the process/ CTQ
Y- Process mean/ value

o This function drives the objective of the Taguchi’s design, the objective being to design a process that not just complies to the Customer
specifications but also is aligned to the Target

7 Harish Haridasan
Taguchi’s Loss Function (Contd.)

o Since, the loss is not just due to the deviation from target but also due to the variance in signal/ control factors, the formula for average
quality loss per unit of the product in a sample is re-written as:

!
Qa = [(µ − t)) +(σ)) ]
"

Quadratic Loss Function


where,
(µ)
Qa - average quality loss per unit of the product in a sample that follows a
Defects (s) Defects
distribution with mean µ and standard deviation s, t - target
LSL (t) USL

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Quality Loss: Traditional vs Taguchi’s view

o Traditionally, “Quality” is when the process output is within o As per Taguchi, “Quality” is when the process output is at the
Customer Specifications Target

o Hence, no quality loss is there, if process is within the specifications o Every time, Process mean deviates from Target and there is
process variance, there are bound to be quality losses

o Larger the deviation of mean from the target, larger is the loss

Step Function Quadratic Loss Function

LSL USL
Loss Loss
Defects Defects
Target LSL USL
Target

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Taguchi’s design: Introduction

o Taguchi’s design aims at modeling not just the Controllable factors as in conventional DOE but also the “Noise”

(uncontrollable) factors

o This leads to:

§ A robust process that’s centered at the Target

§ reduces variation in the controllable factors, reducing the variance in Response

§ minimizes variation in uncontrollable factors and hence helps to sustain the process performance

10 Harish Haridasan
When to use Taguchi’s designs...

Taguchi’s designs can be adopted when:

o Time and cost of experimentation has to be lowered, especially when we have large number of factors

o There are noise factors which have significant influence on the control factors and hence the performance [Traditional DOE
adopts blocking of noise]

§ In such cases, number of control factors > number of noise factors [Better chance of finding a factor that helps reduce the noise]

o The product/ process under design is extremely critical. In no condition shall the process deviate from the target or shall be
rendered incapable due to variation and noise

o The experimenter must have in-depth knowledge of the process as the method relies on this knowledge to:

§ Compensate for lack of randomisation in orthogonal arrays [Expected that Lurking variables must be known]

§ Identify significant interactions [as this method, beyond the main effects, can at best account for the 2-Factor interactions]

o When the design objective is not just to attain the nominal best for the Response but is to attain best relationship between the
output response and an input Signal factor

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Taguchi’s design: Types

Two common design types:

o Static response design [Typical to batch process optimisation]

§ Design aims at achieving a fixed level of the output response or the quality characteristic

• Example: Aiming to design a process that consistently deposits a specific thickness of silicon layers on the silicon wafers

o Dynamic response design [Typical to technology development]

§ Design aims at the best performance levels for the system by optimising the relationship between the output response and a signal
factor. Hence, rather than a fixed level, the output response will have an optimum operating range within which it ought to be
efficient.

• Example: If brake performance [Deceleration] is the output response to be improved, then the degree of depression on the
brake pedal can be the signal factor. It is impractical to look for an optimum degree of depression and hence it can’t be taken
as a factor. But its effect is significant on braking, and can be studied to design a brake system that has an efficient and least
variable deceleration through the range of brake pedal depression

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Taguchi’s Design: Stages

Taguchi’s Design follows three stages:

o Systems design

§ The objective is to determine the vital design factors and their appropriate working levels, applying the scientific and engineering
knowledge

o Parameter design

§ The objective is to conduct experiments and identify the optimal settings of design factors that improves the performance
characteristics and reduce the sensitivity of engineering design to sources of variation or noise

o Tolerance design

§ The objective is to determine tighter tolerances around the optimal settings identified during the parameter design process. This is
required when the target response quality has not been achieved during the parameter design

§ It fine-tunes the results of parameters design by tightening the tolerance of factors but increases the cost as better product/
process components are required to achieve the tighter tolerances

§ It leads to a robust design in which the designed process delivers at the target and is least impacted by the variance or noise factors

13 Harish Haridasan
Taguchi’s Designs: Key concepts and terms
Taguchi’s design and Orthogonal Arrays

Taguchi’s design uses Orthogonal arrays to reach the optimum with minimum trials at minimum cost
(The concept of Orthogonal Arrays was first introduced by C. R. Rao in 1947)

Orthogonality and Orthogonal Arrays

o Orthogonality is represented as: ∑ 𝑥4 . 𝑥6 = 0, for all the pair of levels, where i, j represent high & low (+1, -1) levels
[Orthogonal factors are perpendicular to each other]
High
o In an Orthogonal Array, each factor has equal weights and hence, it is a Balanced Design. [1, 1]
[-1, 1]
(H, H)
(L, H)

o An example of orthogonal array is shown:

Factor X2
Exp. S.No. Factor X1 − 𝑥4 Factor X2 - 𝑥6 𝑥4 . 𝑥6
1 1 1 1
2 1 -1 -1
3 -1 1 -1
[-1, -1]
4 -1 -1 1 (L, L)
Low High
∑ 𝑥4 . 𝑥6 0 Factor X1 [1, -1]
Low
(H, L)

o Advantage of this orthogonality is that each factor can be evaluated independently, without influence from others i.e. Factors do not
effect each other during estimation

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Orthogonal Arrays: Design representation

o Orthogonal Arrays are used to represent the controllable factors and noise factors in a Robust While studying the heating of a wire when electric current is passed through it:

design Factor-1: Wire diameter (1: 5 mm, -1-: 0 mm)


Factor-2: Wire length (1: 200 mm, -1: 500 mm)
Factor-3: Wire Material (1: Cupper/Cu, -1: Aluminum/Al)
o Controllable factors, with their levels, form the Inner array Noise: Ambient Temperature(1: 150C, -1: 350C)

§ These factors are the design parameters in the selected process design concept

Experimental layout can be depicted, as shown below:


§ Optimum levels for these factors are to be achieved which will maximise the Response and minimise the effect
of Noise factors. Control factors Responses

Wire
o The Noise factors form the Outer array Diameter Length At Temp-1 At Temp-2
Material

Cu [1] 5 [1] 200 [1] 101.5 107.9


§ These factors influence the Response (Output) but are not controlled during the use of the product [Customer
usage pattern, environmental factors] Cu [1] 5 [1] 500 [-1] 100.8 102.1

§ Levels for the Noise factors should represent the range of conditions under which the response (output) can Cu [1] 10 [-1] 200 [1] 99.7 104.6
be robust
Cu [1] 10 [-1] 500 [-1] 98.4 101.7

§ One doesn’t control noise factors during the product use but one should be able to control them during Al [-1] 5 [1] 200 [1] 104.5 108.9
experimentation. Noise factors are forced to vary & based on the optimum response values, the optimal
Al [-1] 5 [1] 500 [-1] 105.4 110.6
control factor settings are identified. Such optimal settings make the product/ process resistant to noise factor
variance Al [-1] 10 [-1] 200 [1] 103.2 108.3

Al [-1] 10 [-1] 500 [-1] 107.4 111.1


§ Example: While testing a Printer for optimum print performance, one of the noise factors is paper-type.
Hence, the print performance will be evaluated with different paper types to assess the optimum control
factor levels that reduce the effect of paper type on printer performance

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Taguchi’s notation for an Orthogonal array

o Taguchi represents an Orthogonal Array as:

L: (S <)

where,
S = number of levels for each factor

k = maximum number of factors whose effects can be estimated without any interaction

N = total number of trials during experimentation

o Examples:

§ L= (2?) - 8 experimental runs, 7 factors with 2 levels


§ L@ (3B) - 9 experimental runs, 4 factors with 3 levels
§ LC= (2Cx 3?) - 18 experimental runs, 1 factor with 2 levels, 7 factors with 3 levels

18 Harish Haridasan
Standard Orthogonal Array Tables

Max. # of Factors that can be considered at various Factor


Experiment Max. # of Levels
Array
al runs Factors
Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
LB 4 3 3
L= 8 5 4 1
L= 8 7 7 Examples to help read the table:
L@ 9 4 4
LC) 12 11 11 L= (2? ) - 8 experimental runs, 7 factors with 2 levels
LCE 16 15 15
LCE 16 5 5
LC= 18 8 1 7
L)F 25 6 6 L@ (3B ) - 9 experimental runs, 4 factors with 3 levels
L)? 27 13 1 13
LG) 32 31 31
LG) 32 10 1 9
LGE 36 23 11 12 LC= (2C x 3? ) - 18 experimental runs, 1 factor with 2 levels, 7
LGE 36 16 3 13
factors with 3 levels

LFH 50 12 1 11
LFB 54 26 1 25
LEB 64 63 63
LEB 64 21 21
L=C 81 40 40

19 Harish Haridasan
Experimental designs

o In a design experiment, evolving the design layout [Runs, their order, the combinations of factor levels] is one of the challenging tasks
o A person needs to have a deep level of knowledge about design construction to be successful
o Taguchi’s designs uses a concept called “Linear Graphs” to simplify this task [Concept of Linear Graph and it’s association with Orthogonal Arrays
was first introduced by Taguchi in 1959]
o A Linear graph, visually represents, a set of factors and their mutual interactions [with both factors & interactions represented as Columns in an
Array]

1 2

Example: 3

Linear Graphs for L= (2? ) 3 5 5 4


1

6
6
2 4 7 7
Linear Graph - 1 Linear Graph - 2
Nodes: 1,2,4,7 || Edges: 3,5,6 Nodes: 1,2,4,7 || Edges: 3,5,6

o A Linear Graph contains a set of NODES and EDGES. Each Edge joins a pair of Nodes.

o A Node represents a Factor or a Column in the Array.

o An Edge represents the interaction between two Factors. Hence, it denotes that column in the array which is the interaction of the pair of other
two columns/ factors.
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Linear Graphs

Applying the Linear Graphs:

o If we want to study the main effects of FOUR 2-level factors A, B, C, D and the o If we have to study the main effects of A, B,
interactions between A x B, B x C, A x C in an experiment, then we shall use Linear C, D and the interaction of B, C, D with one
Graph – 1 factor A [A x B, A x C, A x D], then we shall
use Linear Graph – 2
o Factors need to be assigned to the Linear Graph. This is done as,
o This can be shown as,

Factors To be assigned to Column/ Node 2/ B


1/ A
A 1
3/ A x B
B 2
C 4
3/ A x B 5/ A x C 5/ A x C 4/ C
1/ A
D 7
AxB 3
BXC 6 6/ A x D
AxC 5 2/ B 7/ D
6/ B x C 4/ C 7/ D Linear Graph - 2
Linear Graph - 1 Nodes: 1,2,4,7 || Edges: 3,5,6
Nodes: 1,2,4,7 || Edges: 3,5,6

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o What happens in Process Design?

o Traditional vs Taguchi Design’s view on Quality

o Taguchi Design types & stages

o Orthogonal Arrays, notation and tables

o Linear Graph and its role in selecting experimental layout

23 Harish Haridasan
Thank you !!!

Harish Haridasan || connect@sigmaquotient.com || +91- 94492 40463 || Bangalore, India

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