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A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522191 T ô 3
Advances in
Concrete Technology
Proceedings
Second CANMET/ACI International Symposium
Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 1995
Editor
V. M. Malhotra SP-154
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DISCUSSION of individual papers in this symposium m.ay be submitted in

accordance with general requirements of the AC1 Publication Policy to AC1
headquarters a t the address given below. Closing date for submission of
discussion is January 1, 1996. All discussion approved by the Technical
Activities Committee along with closing remarks by the authors will be
published in the May/June 1996 issue of either AC1 Structural Journal or
AC1 Materials Journal depending on the subject emphasis of the indi-vidual
paper.
The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in

its publications. Institute publications are not, able to, nor intended to,
supplant individual training, responsibility, or judgment of the user, or the
supplier, of the information presented.
The papers in this volume have been reviewed under Institute publication
procedures by individuals expert in the subject areas of the papers.
Copyright O 1995
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
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PREFACE
The Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET)

of Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, has played a significant role in
Canada over thirty years in the broad area of concrete technology. In recent
years, CANMET has become involved increasingly in research and develop-
ment dealing with the supplementary cementing materials, high-perfor-
mance normal-weight and lightweight concretes and alkali-aggregate reac-
tions. As a part of CANMET's technology transfer program, an interna-
tional symposium on Advances in Concrete Technology was sponsored
jointly with the American Concrete Institute and other organizations, and
held in Athens in May 1992.
In June 1995, CANMET, in association with the American Concrete
Institute and other organizations sponsored the Second CANMET/ACI In-
ternational Symposium on Advances in Concrete Technology in Las Vegas,
U.S.A. The main purpose of the symposium was to bring together represen-
tatives from industry, universities, and government agencies to present the
latest information in the subject area of the symposium, and to explore new
areas of needed research and development.
More than 48 papers from 20 countries were received and reviewed
in accordance with the policies of the American Concrete Institute. Thirty-
two of the refereed papers were accepted for presentation and publication.
In addition to the refereed papers, 45 nonrefereed papers were presented
at the symposium, and were published in a supplementary volume for dis-
tribution at the symposium.
Thanks are extended to the technical review panel which met in Las
Vegas in January 1995, to review the papers. Without their prompt review
and constructive comments, it would not have been possible to bring out the
AC1 special publication for distribution at the symposium in Las Vegas. The
cooperation of the authors in accepting reviewers suggestions, and in re-
vising their manuscripts accordingly is greatly appreciated. Particular thanks
are extended to H. S . Wilson, Consultant, Ottawa, and G. D. Brearley and
Maria Venturino, both of CANMET, for their help in the processing of the
draft manuscripts.
The help of Messrs. A. Bilodeau (Chairman), B. Fournier, and R.
Chevrier (Members) of the Slide Review Panel is greatly appreciated.
iii
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Helayne Beavers of AC1 and her staff deserve very special mention
for their assistance in getting this publication ready on time for distribution
in Las Vegas, in view of the fact that the final revised manuscripts were
delivered to AC1 Headquarters only on March 9, 1995.
V. M. Malhotra, Editor
Chairman, Second CANMET/ACI International
Symposium on Advances in Concrete Technology
June 1995
SECOND CANMET/ACI INTERNATIONAL

SYMPOSIUM ON
ADVANCES IN CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Las Vegas, U.S.A.
June 11-14,1995
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairman Secretary-Treasurer
Mohan Malhotra Harry Wilson
CANMET Consultant
Ottawa, ON Ottawa, ON
Members
Theodore (Ted) Bremner Henri Isabelle

University of New Brunswick Lafarge Canada Inc.
Fredericton, NB Montreal, PQ
Wilbert (Wib) Langley Vangi Ramachandran

W.S. Langley and Associates Ltd. Institute for Research
Dartmouth, NS in Construction/NRC
Ottawa, ON
iv
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CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................... ...

111
HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE -

A REVIEW
by T. W. Bremner and T. A. Holm ......................... 1
FLEXURAL CRACKING EVALUATION USING FIBER OPTIC

SENSORS IN HIGH-STRENGTH COMPOSITE BEAMS
REINFORCED WITH PRESTRESSED PRISMS
by E. G. Nawy and B. Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
T H E INFLUENCE O F CONTROLLED PERMEABILITY

FORMWORK ON T H E DURABILITY AND TRANSPORT
PROPERTIES O F NEAR SURFACE CONCRETE
by A. E. Long, A. A. Sha’at, and P. A. M. Basheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
A STUDY ON REDUCING SHRINKAGE O F HIGHLY-

FLOWABLE CONCRETE
by A. Ogawa, K. Sakata, and S. Tanaka ..................... 55
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE O F HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE

AT EARLY AND NORMAL AGES
by N. Han and J. C. Walraven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
RESISTANCE O F NON AIR-ENTRAINED RICE HULL ASH

CONCRETE TO FREEZING AND THAWING IN SALINE
ENVIRONMENT
by P. Sandberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

AND PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
by R. L. Munn and I. Dumitru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
V
A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522396 565 m
CHANGES IN T H E COMPOSITION O F PORE SOLUTION AND

SOLIDS DURING ELECTROCHEMICAL CHLORIDE
REMOVAL IN CONTAMINATED CONCRETE
by J. Tritthart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
DURABILITY O F CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT

CONCRETE: ASSESSMENT O F CONCRETE FROM A
60-YEAR OLD MARINE STRUCTURE AT HALIFAX,
NS, CANADA
by P. C. Aïtcin, F. Blais, and C. M. George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN T H E MODELING OF MASS

TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN CEMENT-BASED COMPOSITES:
A REVIEW
by J. Marchand and B. Gérard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
INFLUENCE O F RICE HUSK ASH ON PROPERTIES OF SISAL

PULP-MORTAR COMPOSITES
by B. Chatveera and P. Nimityongskul ...................... 211
PROMISING APPROACH T O PREVENT ALKALI-

AGGREGATE REACTION IN CONCRETE - EFFECTS
O F BLAST FURNACE SLAG
by S. Nishibayashi, T. Kuroda, and Y. Okawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
TESTS FOR CLASSIFICATION O F AGGREGATES FOR

FROST-RESISTANT CONCRETES
by Z. Rusin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
TOWARD GAP-GRADED HPC IN VIETNAM USING CRUSHED

R O C K VERY FINE SAND, AND RHA BLENDED CEMENT
by P. Stroeven, D. H. Dalhuisen, N. T. Quy,
D. D. Bui, and A. V. Dong .............................. 263
IMPROVEMENT IN CONCRETE PERFORMANCE AND

DURABILITY USING PERMEABLE SHEET
by Y. Tsukinaga, M. Shoya, R. Sugawara, and H. Nonome . . . . . . . 279
SELF-COMPACTING PROPERTY O F HIGHLY FLOWABLE

CONCRETE
by S. Nagataki and H. Fujiwara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
PITCH-BASED CARBON FIBER REINFORCED CEMENT

COMPOSITES - A REVIEW
by N. Banthia and I. Genois ............................ .315
vi
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DEVELOPMENT O F SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE FOR

MULTI-FUNCTIONAL PORT STRUCTURES
by T. Fukute, A. Moriwake, K. Sano, and K. Hamasaki . . . . . . . . . 335
THE THAUMASITE FORM O F SULFATE A ï T A C K IN

CONCRETES CONTAINING A SOURCE OF CARBONATE
IONS - A MICROSTRUCTURAL OVERVIEW
by N. J. Crammond and M. A. Halliwell .................... 357
APPLICATION O F SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE IN THE

CONSTRUCTION O F 70-STORY BUILDING IN JAPAN
by M. Hayakawa, Y. Matsuoka, and K. Yokota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE A N D ITS

APPLICATION IN DEICING
by P. Xie and J. J. Beaudoin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
STRAIN, CRACKING, AND FAILURE DESCRIBED BY AN

ULTIMATE MODULUS
by E. K. Schrader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DETERIORATION AND

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE: T H R E E CASE STUDIES
by R. A. Miller, B. M. Shahrooz, and A. E. Aktan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
MECHANISMS OF STRÄTLINGITE FORMATION IN HIGH

ALUMINA CEMENT-SILICEOUS MATERIAL SYSTEMS
by Y. Fu, J. Ding, and J. J. Beaudoin ....................... 461
MODELING O F THE DEVELOPMENT O F HEAT O F

HYDRATION IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
by C. Wang and W. H. Dilger ............................ 473
INFLUENCE O F EXPOSURE O F CONCRETE T O SALT UPON

EXPANSION D U E T O ASR
by D. W. Hobbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
EFFECT O F CURING CONDITIONS ON HIGH-VOLUME FLY

ASH CONCRETE MADE WITH ASTM TYPE I AND III
CEMENTS AND SILICA FUME
by V. Sivasundaram, A. Bilodeau, and V. M. Malhotra . . . . . . . . . . 509
RICE HUSK ASH - A UNIQUE SUPPLEMENTARY

CEMENTING MATERIAL: DURABILITY ASPECTS
by P. K. Mehta and K. J. Folliard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

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THE NORTHUMBERLAND STRAIT BRIDGE PROJECT

by W. S. Langley, R. Gilmour, and E. Tromposch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
CORROSION-INHIBITING ADMIXTURES: PASSIVE, PASSIVE-

ACTIVE VERSUS ACTIVE SYSTEMS
by C. K. Nmai ....................................... 565
LONG-TERM DURABILITY OF SILICA FUME STRUCTURAL

CONCRETE, SHOTCRETE, GROUT, AND SLAB OVERLAYS
by J. Wolsiefer and K.Clear ............................. 587
SPECIFICATION FOR SILICA FUME FOR USE

IN CONCRETE
by T.C. Holland.. .................................... 607
SI (Metric) TABLES ................................... 639
INDEX ............................................ 641
viii
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SP 154-1
High Performance Lightweight

Concrete - A Review
by T. W. Bremner and T. A. Holm
Synopsis: The intrinsic nature of lightweight concrete is to produce a

material which, in addition to having high strength, can also have high
performance in severe service conditions. The reason for high performance
is examined in light of physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the
vesicular aggregate used to produce lightweight concrete. The manufacturing
process usually involves heating the aggregate to 1200°C which, in addition
to rendering it more stable than conventional aggregates when concretes made
from it are exposed to fire, also results in a less stiff aggregate inclusion that
more closely matches the stiffness of the cement paste matrix. The use of
less stiff aggregates results in a reduction in internal stress concentrations in
the concrete which in turn leads to reduced mircocracking. The role that this
plays in enhancing the performance of this type of concrete is discussed.
The special nature of lightweight concrete provides opportunities for design
professionals, and recommendations on how best to achieve high performance
concrete using lightweight aggregate are provided.
Keywords: Aggregates; density (mass/volume); fire resistance;&&I

performance concretes; history; lightweight
- concretes; manufacturing;
strength; thermal resistance
1
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2 Bremner and Holm
T.W. Bremner is a Professor of Civil Engineering, University of New

Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.
T. A. Holm is Vice-president, Solite Corporation, Richmond, VA, USA.
INTRODUCTION
The current use of the phrase "High Performance Concrete" (HPC)

produces a surprisingly uniform image in the minds of practitioners in the
English speaking world. It is usually but not exclusively restricted to high
strength applications that necessitate water to binder ratios near that required
for the chemical reaction between cement and water to go to completion
when concrete is moist cured for a relatively long time (1,2).
Concomitant with this high strength and low W/B, is enhanced

impermeability to aggressive gases and fluids. The net effect is to render
HPC structures significantly less vulnerable to the distress exhibited by
existing concrete structures in the public domain. In this connotation it
appears to current practitioners to be new and of vital importance even
though the words "high" and "performance" as defined by most dictionaries
do not individually or collectively give that impression.
Dictionaries and Thesauruses fail to define "high performance",

however the definition of the two words collectively in the context of
concrete technology conveys the following:
High Performance Concrete: concrete that has enhanced

performance and functional characteristics for a designated
application.
This definition will be used to further define "High Performance Lightweight

Concrete" (HPLC) where high strength and durability, although of
importance, might not always be as great a concern as with normal weight
concrete (NC). In this context, high performance might refer to enhanced
insulating properties and fire resistance as well as to reduced density. All
aspects that are derived from the intrinsic nature of lightweight concrete (LC)
and that are not new and are not the result of recent development do not
preclude it from being High Performance.
What is new and purported to be better does not always stand the test
of time. However, with lightweight concrete most of the desirable properties

A C 1 SP-354 95 I0662747 0522203 752
Advances in Technology 3
associated with High Performance have an excellent track record. To instill

confidence in its use, the history of lightweight concrete will be reviewed as
it relates to these attributes.
This discussion will be restricted to lightweight aggregate concrete,

i.e. those concretes in which some or all of the aggregate inclusions are of
a vesicular nature with vesicular being defined as containing, composed of,
or characterized by having small cavities in a mineral or rock (3). Low
density concretes which achieve their low density from the use of entrained
air or preformed foam are not included. Although lightweight concrete was
formerly defined as concrete having a density of less than 1850 kg/m3 (115
pct) and compressive strength of 17.2 MPa (2500 psi) this restriction is not
usually imposed (4). The essential part is that it contain at least some
aggregates that are of a vesicular nature, and that a concrete of reduced
density as compared to normal weight concrete is produced.
Based on the foregoing, the following definition of High Performance

Lightweight Concrete (HPLC) is offered:
High Performance Lightweight Concrete: High Performance

concrete that contains aggregates in which some or all are of
a vesicular nature.
As with HPC, it is essential that a satisfactory workability be achieved at the

time of placing and this usually requires the use of a superplasticizer.
Depending on the application, silica fume, fly ash, ground granulated blast
furnace slag cement and retarders may be desirable, however they are not
essential (1).
GENESIS AND PAST PERFORMANCE OF HPLC
Port of Cosa: Lone Term Durability
In the year 273BC, Roman engineers constructed five concrete piers

reaching out into the Mediterranean on the West coast of Italy a few
kilometres north of where the Tiber empties (5). These piers which are
approximately 7 m wide x 10 m long x 5 m high served as a breakwater for
the thriving fishing and manufacturing town of Cosa. That they exist to this
day is a testament to the skill and knowledge of those ancient builders whose
prior experience had taught them to travel large distances to get the essential
ingredients to make HPLC. In addition to using a pozzolana from Possuoli,
which is a distance of several hundred kilometres from Cosa, they used

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4 Bremner and Holm
volcanic tuff - a natural volcanic lightweight aggregate from the Volsinian

complex some 60 to 80 km northeast of Cosa. The piers, continuously
submerged in salt water and with significant abrasion being caused by lateral
drift of beach sands and gravel, have had their dimensions reduced by a
surprisingly small amount which indicates that this construction will be
around for many more millennia. Of particular importance to modern
concrete engineers is that this concrete contained manufactured aggregates.
One of the local industries in Cosa was an amphora plant where they fired
two-handled clay containers that were used to ship wine around the known
world. Broken pieces of amphora were incorporated into the concrete mix
in a reasonably systematic way indicating that it was part of the mixture
proportions.
Those fired clay pieces differ from those produced in a modern rotary
kiln producing expanded clay aggregates in the degree of expansion
developed by differing firing temperature regimes. Both expansion processes
would normally use essentially the same maximum temperature. With brick
manufacture, if the clay is heated too fast a vesicular expanded dimension
brick not suitable for masonry construction is produced. It took almost two
millennia before a materials pioneer in Kansas, USA recognized the potential
of this supposedly inappropriate material. The suitability and long term
stability of vitrified clay in concrete construction is verified by the success
of this work which should be reassuring to modern engineers. Also,
knowing of this good performance would have been of particular interest to
the founder of the rotary kiln expanded shale industry some eight decades
ago, for no doubt this question was raised when his product was first put on
the market.
Pantheon: High Structural Efficiency
Roman engineers established a level of construction of public building

that was not surpassed for 1500 years. This era of high profile construction
started about 300 BC and was essentially completed by 270 AD, establishing
standards of quality that following generations were unable to duplicate let
alone advance. The best example of their work is probably the still
functional Pantheon with its lightweight concrete dome of 43.3 m diameter
which stands as a testament to their understanding of structural design and
materials utilization ( 6 ) . At Hadrian’s direction, the builder formed the dome
with its panelled recesses from wood and then cast concrete over it. The
grain of the wood remains imprinted in the concrete to this day. The bare
exposed concrete was covered with lead sheeting until the fifteenth century
when it was stripped off to cover a building in the Vatican. The lightweight
concrete dome roof with no waterproof layer appears admirably suited to this

A C 1 SP-154 75 W Obb2747 0522203 525 W
application with no sign of deterioration or leaking taking place. Of

particular importance is that the density of the concrete decreased as they
moved up the dome with the tension ring in the bottom being of higher
density than the top where essentially only compressive stresses were
involved. To achieve this gradation in concrete density the inherent
variability of natural lightweight aggregate deposits was used to good
advantage. The deposit was apparently selectively mined to extract
aggregates of the prescribed densities, a process not compatible with modern
mining methods. Modern engineers usually cannot cope with a wide
variation in material properties and, as a result, the manufacture of
lightweight aggregate by the rotary kiln method came about so that density
could be closely controlled.
Armenia: Reduced Seismic Inertial Forces
No country seems to be as well supplied with natural vesicular

aggregates as Armenia and they have a long history of using it as the
aggregate of choice for concrete construction mainly because they must look
to quarried aggregates rather than to alluvial deposits and vesicular
aggregates are the easiest to quarry. In the 1870’s, Armenian engineers had
recognized the need for further research on this material. Their building
research institute at Erevan has provided a continuous record of conducting
research on natural lightweight aggregates to this day. Being in an
earthquake region, they learned early the advantages of reducing the density
of the concrete so as to reduce the mass of the structure and thereby reduce
lateral forces. The wide variation of aggregates available also enabled them
to come up with multicolored decorative panels for the exteriors of their
buildings. Because these panels required steel reinforcing, research starting
in the 1950’s was conducted on this type of construction to evaluate the
corrosion potential of steel in lightweight concrete made from volcanically
expanded aggregates. These findings were incorporated into the Soviet
Union’s building code for panelised construction using exposed natural
lightweight aggregates.
Manufacturer of Vesicular Structural Grade Aggregates
Large areas of the western United States share a similar geology to

Sicily, the Sakhalin Island Region of Russia, Armenia and other volcanic
regions in that they are well supplied with natural vesicular aggregates.
These aggregates enable moderate strength concrete to be produced that has
high performance thermal and fire resisting properties as well as good

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6 Bremner and Holm
strength to weight ratios. Achieving higher performance with these materials

unfortunately may not be possible because of the inherent wide variability of
the natural deposits in terms of degree of expansion and non uniform
vesicular diameter which limits its use.
To overcome these disadvantages and to produce a more functionally

useful product Mr. Stephen J. Hayde patented in 1917 a method of
manufacturing expanded shale aggregate using a rotary kiln. This patent
formed the basis for the subsequent wide spread production of lightweight
aggregate, that enabled concrete of significantly higher quality to be
produced, and dramatically changed building practice. The intrinsic
advantage of a uniformly expanded vesicular aggregate that was available in
the size factions necessary for the production of high structural efficient
concrete was quickly recognized by engineers (7).
Shim Built During World War I: High Durability, Low Cracking
Prior to World War I, concrete ships had been built and proved
functional and durable. The first concrete boat reinforced with steel was a
small rowboat built by LaInbot in 1848; one of his two row boats is on
display in the museum at Brignoles in the south of France, the other is in
storage at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. These concrete row boats, though
functional, served no commercial role. In World War I, the U.S. Marine
Commission, charged with finding an alternative to the steel ships, found that
only structural grade lightweight concrete could be a viable material. Initial
construction experience showed that only a rotary kiln produced aggregate
with high cement content concrete incorporating chemical admixtures could
meet their needs. Just such a ship, the U.S.S. Selma, was launched in June
1919. This ship although subject to various marine disasters such as being
run aground on a stone sea wall while fully loaded with oil, had a
satisfactory service record and, when inspected in 1953 and again in 1988,
the concrete was found to be in exceptionally good condition. This is in
marked contrast to the Selma's predecessor, the USS Atlantis that was
launched some nine months previous. The Atlantis was made of relatively
low strength concrete (20-30 MPa) and with a lower quality aggregate made
in a bee hive kiln rather than in a rotary kiln. The Selma's rotary kiln
produced aggregate, plus enhanced concrete strength (50 MPa) as well as
special attention paid to the consistency of the concrete (the "slump cone"
was developed and first used during the construction of the Selma) resulted
in an advancement in technology equal to what is now being claimed for
HPC in concrete bridge deck construction (8).

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522205 3 T B
Bridges and Buildings in the US: High Durabilitv, High Structural

Efficiency
The lightweight concrete industry benefited immensely from the

research done by the U.S. Marine Commission, and at the end of the war,
the design procedures and construction practices developed by the
Commission were adopted by industry. In 1922, the Westport High School
in Kansas City become the first lightweight structure built with concrete
using rotary kiln aggregates and demonstrated the favourable cost and
construction reliability of the product.
Factors found effective for producing durable ships were also

incorporated in concrete bridge design. By 1935 over 34 lightweight
concrete bridges were built in North America including nine in Canada (9).
The fact that chemical admixtures that also sometimes entrained air were
found desirable in placing lightweight concrete may, in part, account for the
good long term performance of many lightweight concrete bridges built in
regions where deicing agents are frequently applied. Deicing agents induce
deterioration from both increased cycles of freezing and thawing, which the
entrained air had a beneficial effect upon and from corrosion of the steel
reinforcement, The corrosion is enhanced by the chloride based deicing
agents acting as depassivating agents when the chloride ions have diffused
into the concrete to the depth of the steel reinforcement. Various factors
associated with lightweight concrete tend to reduce the seriousness of this
effect and contribute to High Performance. This will be discussed later.
Ships Built Durine, World War II, High Serviceability
The 14 World War I lightweight concrete ships were largely

experimental, nevertheless, they were successful with one ship still currently
in use in Powell River in British Columbia, Canada. When the same acute
shortage of steel plate and surplus reinforcing bars developed at the start of
World War II, the U.S. Government built 104 concrete ships, of which 24
were large sea-going vessels and 80 were sea-going barges. All reports
indicated good handling and good performance, and they proved sufficiently
water tight in service that they could be used to carry and store sugar and
wheat. Additionally they were superior to steel in that they experienced
minimum sweating and as a result, dry goods did not mould or cake (7).
As in the first world war, all ships built during war time were found
unsuitable for peace time use. The steel ships were broken up for scrap and
the concrete ships were usually used for piers and breakwaters. The authors

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 0522206 234 =
8 Bremner and Holm
have visited many of these ships in the last decade and have found them all
in essentially good condition considering the use to which they have been
put.
Approximately 10 World War II cargo vessels can be seen near Cape

Charles in Virginia where they serve as a breakwater for a now abandoned
ferry terminal. All ships were sunk and then filled full of sand. The nature
of the loading and the undermining of the bows and sterns by the current has
caused most of them to break amidships however this is not unexpected. The
only significant area of distress in these ships and in the USS Selma is in the
thin, highly reinforced decks where improper concrete placing procedures
appear to be the main cause of the problems. The hulls, where not damaged
by very hard berthing or from overloading, are generally in excellent
condition. The condition of all of the ships surveyed conveys confidence in
the ,state of the art some 55 years ago. With the lessons learned from close
examination of these ships, good long term performance for lightweight
concrete ships today is certainly achievable.
Rotarv Kiln Expanded Aggregate Experience In The Former Soviet Union:

High Thermal Resistance
The early 1950’s saw the Soviet Unions’ commitment to make

housing available to the Soviet people in the form of industrially produced
precast concrete panels to form multi-storey apartment buildings. It was
essential that the panels for the exterior walls be both load bearing and have
high thermal insulating properties and be composed of fire resistant materials.
The use of rotary kiln produced expanded clay (keramzite) concrete was
found ideally suited for making the panels in all climatic regions in the
former USSR. While most panels were made with monolithic lightweight
concrete of high thermal resistance, in some cases a sandwich panel type of
construction was used with high strength lightweight concrete skins about 75
mm thick being separated by a highly insulating concrete core. The skins
had a density of about 1800 kg/m’ and the core had a density of about 1200
kg/m3 (10). To implement this type of construction in a country where only
local areas such as Armenia had experience with lightweight concrete
required the establishment of a research institute to investigate and come up
with designs not only for the buildings and the building components but for
the infrastructure to build them as well. This work needed to include
everything from the economical production of aggregates from suitable clay
sources near population centres to the finished building. To accomplish this,
starting in 1950, a group of about 100 scientists and engineers worked at a
special research institute in Samara (formerly Kuybyshev). These people
provided the designs and guidance that enabled great strides to be made in

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0 5 2 2 2 0 7 2 7 0 I
housing the nation. An important consideration was that combustible

materials and materials generating noxious gases should not be incorporated
in the building.
For four decades this talented team of highly qualified specialists

worked to achieve optimum performance in the material used for the exterior
panels. The extremely functional material developed - High Performance
Lightweight Concrete - has yet to be fully appreciated by their current
government or by the West.
Offshore Structures: High Durability, High Specific Strength
Oil production in the offshore requires either fixed or floating

platforms and, given the success of the lightweight concrete ships in World
War I and II, it is not surprising that the oil industry turned to structural
grade lightweight concrete. Prior to embarking on this work a group of
eleven companies funded a joint industrial study to investigate the use of high
strength lightweight aggregate concrete for Arctic applications. The results
have wide applicability as the effect of typical construction scenarios were
incorporated into the testing program. Such design parameters as modulus
of elasticity, splitting tensile strength and thermal properties were evaluated
and fully reported for high strength concrete, areas which previously were
not well defined ( I I ) . The net effect of this multi-miIlion dollar research
program is that now, high performance high strength lightweight concrete is
as well defined in the technical literature as normal weight concrete. Given
the large number of aggregate types and the even larger number of aggregate
suppliers world wide, it is unlikely that all the natural aggregates being used
in concrete will ever be defined as closely as this multi-national research
group did for lightweight.
As part of their on-going research program on concrete for offshore

construction, CANMET carried out an extensive testing program to develop
high strength concrete using a Canadian lightweight aggregate. This work
established that 70 MPa concrete with a density of 2000 kg/m3 could be
produced commercially and that it would have freezing and thawing
resistance suitable for cold northern waters (12).
With over 70 years experience with lightweight concrete ships and

over 40 years experience with lightweight concrete barges and platforms
along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, it was natural for the oil industry to
select lightweight concrete for the Tarsuit and Super CIDS that were installed
in the Beaufort Sea. To gain experience with placing of lightweight concrete
mixtures for high strength application, Norwegian Contractors slipformed

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522208 O07 m
10 Bremner and Holm
part of a leaning tower at their Stravanger Yard using German lightweight

aggregated in lightweight concrete and slipformed lightweight concrete shafts
containing US lightweight aggregates in Corpus Christi, Texas in both winter
and summer to demonstrate the practicality of both the material and the
construction method. Based on this experience they and others have used
lightweight concrete successfully in many applic$ions in the North Sea
involving floating and fixed facilities for the oil industry as well as for
pontoons for two floating bridges (13).
NATURE OF HPLC
Lightweight Aggregates as Vesicular Inclusions
During the high temperature production of either natural or

manufactured lightweight aggregates there is a partial decomposition of some
of the compounds within the aggregate mass takes place. This decomposition
results in the release of gases which coalesce to form vesicules or cells within
the aggregate mass. This expanded or distended form is retained upon
cooling and accounts for the aggregate being light weight. The nature of the
rock must be such that it has a reasonably wide bloating range and will
remain sufficiently viscous at high temperature to retain the gas bubbles. As
with foam plastics. the object is to develop a closed cell foam structure and
to avoid producing an excessively expanded open type cell system.
The closed cell foam is characterized by being rigid with low water
permeability. With an open cell foam, a flexible and highly permeable
material results. Unlike cellular plastics, the vesicules in aggregates are
formed at very high temperature and upon cooling the gases contract inside
the pores with the result that with a normal degree of expansion there appears
to be some connectivity between individual pores. These conduits are not
easily seen in a scanning electron microscope even at magnifications in
excess of 3000 indicating that if there are pores, they either self-seal at high
temperature or are of dimensions less than 30 nm (14).
Most lightweight aggregates have a silica rich vitreous ceramic like

matrix surrounding the vesicules that will be resistant to fluid flow.
Evidence to support the limited connectivity of all internal pores is the fact
that the aggregates will not normally become fully saturated if stored under
water for several years. Most aggregates have a rapid absorption rate in the
first 30 minutes that precludes the use of air dry or oven dry aggregates in
concrete mixtures. If submerged in water for 24 hours (24 hour absorption
test), the subsequent rate of water absorption is so low as to have a negligible

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 0522209 Ti.13 m
effect on slump loss during mixing and placing and renders most concrete
mixtures pumpable. Achieving this level of aggregate moisture content is
best accomplished at the production plant and is not a field problem.
Surface characteristics of lightweight aggregates depend on their

origin and the manufacturing process. Lightweight aggregates that are
crushed to meet various size requirements generally have a rough texture but,
if they have a reasonable particle shape, there is little effect on water
demand.
The surfaces of aggregates that have been subjected to pyroplastic

temperatures (1200°C) during production have experienced a temperature
above what is normally required to activate shales and clays so as to form a
commercial pozzolan. This activation results in a more effective bond
between the paste and the aggregate which is the primary reason why failure
planes pass either through the cement paste matrix or the aggregate inclusion
but almost never through the aggregate cement paste interface (15).
Fracture can be in the form of microcracking brought about by

volume changes resulting from temperature and humidity gradients in the
concrete or from the effects of superimposed forces. These result in a
multitude of microcracks which may subsequently network to form a few
large cracks that lead to ultimate compression or tension failure. Observation
of failure surfaces of both normal weight and lightweight concrete clearly
shows the importance of the matrix quality and aggregate strength for
lightweight and the importance of matrix to aggregate adhesion in normal
weight concrete.
The use of a relatively low permeability vesicular aggregate provides

inherent advantages as a receptor for water that can be stored and dispensed
at a later date into the cement paste matrix to extend and enhance moist
curing. This is of profound importance in the reduction of the permeability
of the concrete composite system. Water in a porous media is attracted to
the regions with the finest microstructure by capillary forces. When a
partially saturated aggregate is incorporated into a concrete mixture, and the
concrete is kept fully saturated there is not likely to be a significant flow of
water from one component of the composite to the other. When the cement
paste matrix hydrates to a finer microstructure and starts to dry out, the
water in the coarse pores of the aggregate will give up the absorbed water to
the cement paste matrix. This effectively extends the moist curing period
significantly for lightweight concrete members.
Water contained within the aggregate increases the early age concretes
vulnerability to damage due to freezing and thawing and to spalling in a fire.
Special precautions need to be taken with HPLC as the cement paste is

A C 1 SP-154 95 9 0662747 0522230 765 W
12 Bremner and Holm
especially impermeable as the result of very low W/B and the possible use
of silica fume, fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag cement.
Concretes containing high moisture content lightweight aggregates need to be
allowed to dry for at least 7 days before being exposed to freezing and
thawing. Longer times are needed for the case of fire resistance where air
drying of both normal weight and lightweight full sized structural elements
can take several years if explosive spalling is to be avoided. The
incorporation of a small amount (1-2%) of polypropylene fibers has been
found to essentially eliminate the spalling tendency of highly saturated high
strength lightweight concrete when subjected to rapid temperature increases
such as is likely to be experienced by oil production facilities (13).
Particulate Composite with Vesicular Inclusions
Concrete can be considered as a composite material in that it is

composed of two or more materials separated by a distinct interface. Also
it is a particulate composite in that it is composed of well graded particles
surrounded by a cement paste matrix. With most particulate composites, the
two phases (inclusion and the matrix) are not of the same material and as a
result have different physical and mechanical properties such that various
types of incompatibilities exist. Of prime concern with the strength of
particulate composites is that the stiffness of the inclusion usually is different
from that of the matrix. In the initial stages of cement hydration the cement
paste matrix is of low strength and of low stiffness. The aggregates - both
lightweight and normal weight, are strong and stiff in comparison. Because
of their rigidity they attract and carry a disproportional amount of the load.
Unfortunately, the transfer of stress between matrix and inclusion places high
stresses at the aggregatekement paste interface with the result that premature
failure (in the form of microcracking) takes place prior to the ultimate
strength of the weakest of the two components being reached. As the
concrete matures the cement paste matrix gains both strength and stiffness
such that for moderate strength lightweight concrete the stiffness of both the
inclusion and the matrix are essentially equal and little microcracking takes
place prior to reaching ultimate compression or tension strength leading to
effective utilization of the weaker component. With normal weight concrete,
the cement paste matrix, even when fully mature and with low W/B and high
addition rates of silica fume, will reach less than one half the stiffness of
most aggregates. Significant stress concentrations develop that lead to
ineffective utilization of the weaker component or more frequently to
interfacial failure at the aggregate-matrix interface. This failure, usually in
the form of microcracking, commences at about 65% of the ultimate
compressive strength and becomes more severe as ultimate load is
approached. High levels of microcracking will substantially increases the air,

A C 1 SP-154 95 E 0662949 0 5 2 2 2 1 1 b T 1
gas and chloride ion permeability of the concrete. Normal weight concrete
can approach the desirable condition where there are no stress concentrations
at the aggregate cement paste interface, however this is possible only at ultra
high strength levels. HPLC that is exposed to effective moist curing can be
programmed to be elastically compatible by either controlling the degree of
expansion of the aggregate or by proportioning concrete mixtures so that the
matrix will have a stiffness at maturity that matches the aggregate inclusion.
Because of the foregoing, the stress level in the lightweight aggregate

is less than that in the natural aggregates at the same concrete strength. This
is fortuitous as the strength of most materials decreases rapidly as the degree
of vesicularization increases. Fortunately high strength lightweight concrete
is possible as the reduction of the stress concentration plus enhanced bond
strength between the aggregate inclusion and the cement paste matrix makes
up for the limited particle strength of the expanded aggregate (15).
There is a strength threshold above which for a particular expanded

aggregate, it will be difficult to increase strength by simply increasing the
cement paste matrix strength. For expanded aggregates of a particular type,
this strength threshold may be increased by increasing particle density or
reducing particle top size. Normally it is not economically feasible to
increase strength above this level by increasing the cement factor (16).
Aggregate Microstructure Conducive to Good Performance
A relatively uniform degree of expansion of all aggregate particles

with vesicules of approximately equal size contributes to high strength
concrete. If some aggregates contain a limited number of very large pores
the aggregates will inevitably produce low strength concrete.
Aggregates produced in a rotary kiln and not crushed tend to have a

more dense outer skin which can in some cases lower the rate of water
absorption, however this is not as significant as initially believed (14).
Apparently the smooth outer skin, although appearing more dense may be
prone to crack and these cracks tend to enhance water absorption. In the
work for the offshore HPLC applications (1 i), the rate of absorption and the
24 hour absorption were both lower for the crushed and graded aggregates
as compared to the pelletized, uncrushed lightweight aggregate.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522232 538 W
14 Bremner and Holm
PROPERTIES OF HPLC
C
Strength and Stiffness of a Vesicular Aggregate
Optimum strength at a given degree of vesicularization is achieved

when a uniform pore structure has formed in the aggregate and the heating
and cooling regime is such that the aggregates are relatively free from
surface and interior cracks. A reliable method of determining the extent of
surface cracking is to soak aggregate particles in red drafting ink which, after
drying, are broken and the extent of cracking observed. A stereo or
scanning electron microscope can be used to evaluate the extent of internal
cracking.
Aggregates with a wide range of vesicle sizes tend to be weak. The

majority of commercially used aggregates that are most suitable for HPLC
normally have a relatively uniform degree of expansion of each of the
individual particles and the vesicles all tend to be of one size. To produce
HPLC, it is essential that all raw material mined have a reasonably uniform
expansion and that the shape and size of the vesicles in the aggregate have
a limited range.
The stiffness of a wide range of natural and manufactured lightweight

aggregates of diameter between 12 and 16 mm was measured dynamically by
J. Muller-Rochholz to be as follows:
E = 0.008 pz
where p is the density of the aggregate particle (16). Unexpanded ceramic

like aggregates have a density (p,) of about 2500 kg/m3. The above equation
gives a modulus of elasticity E, of 50 GPa which is in line with most dense
aggregates. With 50% voids, the density reduces to 1250 kg/m’ and the
stiffness reduces to 12.5 GPa. With closed cell plastics the following
expression is used to calculate the stiffness of a foam:
When Muller-Rochholz results are used to solve for 4 a value of 0.99 is

obtained which is in agreement with data reported by Gibson and Ashby (17).
Holm (16) reports that, for typical North American structural grade
lightweight aggregates, the dry particle densities range from 1.2 to 1.5 (1200
to 1500 kg/m3). At these densities, the modulus of elasticity of the individual
particles of lightweight aggregates “approaches that measured on the mortar

A C 1 SP-154 95 = O662949 0522213 474 =
fraction of air-entrained commercial strength" lightweight concrete thereby

reducing the stress concentration to almost 1.O (16).
Mechanical Properties of HPLC
As discussed in the section on the Nature of HPC, because most

structural grade lightweight aggregates have a modulus of elasticity the same
as the cement paste matrix the stress concentration approaches unity (elastic
compatibility) in mature HPLC. As a result of this uniform distribution, the
aggregate need only carry the average stress applied. Unexpanded aggregates
being as much as five times as rigid as the matrix attract additional stress
which it usually can readily sustain. Unfortunately the transfer of these large
stresses from aggregate to matrix results in premature failure at the
aggregate-cement paste interface at a stress significantly less than the strength
of the paste matrix or the inclusion.
The lack of stress concentrations at the aggregate-cement paste

interface and the good bond achieved between the matrix and the lightweight
aggregate has many advantages including enhanced fatigue resistance. Hoff
(18) points out that this "greatly reduces the formation of microcracks at
lower stress levels and thus delays the damaging effects caused by cyclic
loading" leading to the conclusion that under similar test conditions the
fatigue behavior of high strength lightweight concrete is comparable or
somewhat better than high strength normal density concrete.
For strengths of lightweight concrete above usual structural levels (i.e.

W/B < 0.4) failure of the aggregate will limit the strength of the composite.
Attempts to have the strength of the concrete exceed the strength ceiling of
the aggregate is difficult, requiring the cement content to be increased greatly
to achieve even modest strength increases (16).
Thermal Properties of HPLC
Valore (19) reported on the extensive work done by Rowley and

Algren who tested a wide range of densities of concretes made from
essentially all types of vesicular aggregates in common use and showed how
this information could be used to calculate the thermal properties of concrete
masonry units. This work revealed that when the density of concrete is
reduced by one third though the use of vesicular aggregates, the thermal
resistance increased by a factor of 3 or 4. When the effect of using masonry
units in lieu of solid concrete walls is considered, then an essentially poor

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 U 0662949 0522234 300
16 Bremner and Holm
insulating wall made with NC can be replaced with LC masonry units thus
significantly reducing heat flow and resulting in a high performance type of
constmction.
Fire Resistance of HPLC
Expanded shale has a linear stress-temperature relationship whereas

most silicious type natural aggregates are nonlinear and may expand about
3 or 4 times as much as expanded shale when heated to 900°C. When
incorporated in a concrete mixture these two types of aggregates resist the
propensity of the cement paste matrix to contract when heated above about
300°C. Because the vesicular shale lightweight aggregate expands less, the
concrete incorporating this type of aggregate tends to expand less. As a
result internal disruption is reduced such that the loss of strength of the
concrete at high temperature is decreased. Also with less expansion of the
concrete, the bowing of walls exposed to fire on one side is lessened and, as
a consequence, structural stability in terms of resistance to buckling of the
wall is greater leading to high performance compared to when NC is used
(20).
PRODUCTION OF HPLC
The production of HPLC is not more difficult than the production of

HPC. However, as with LC and NC, there are differences that necessitate
a different approach to achieving quality construction. The important points
to keep in mind are:
A) Use only air-entrained concrete regardless of whether it is subject to
freezing and thawing or not as the air entrained matrix tends to prevent
floating of the lighter aggregate inclusions during transporting and
placing of the fresh concrete.
B) All lightweight aggregates should be prewetted to a moisture content
equal to or exceeding their 24 hour absorption to enhance internal curing
and to avoid excessive slump loss and concrete mixtures that are difficult
to pump.
C) HPLC’s with slumps in excess of 180 mm are difficult to use and are
not normally required. If a slump in excess of 180 mm is used, the
aggregate will segregate (float to the surface) when normal handling and
placing procedures are used. This problem is often eliminated in
mixtures containing more than 6% silica fume. The added stickiness
provided by the silica fume tends to reduce segregation.
D) Similar placing characteristics can be achieved when the slump of HPLC

A C 1 SP-154 95 S 0bb2949 0522215 247 H
is about 2/3 the slump of HPC.

E) Use less vibration time with HPLC than is used for HPC. As with any
concrete, the length of time needed to vibrate the concrete to achieve full
compaction can be easily determined by direct observation.
FUTUREROLEOFHPLC
Current international experience with the offshore platforms, both

fixed and floating, have demonstrated the advantages of HPLC. This has
lead to its extensive use by companies in Japan, USA, UK, Australia, Canada
and Norway. From the research funded by these firms, design information
is now readily available on high strength lightweight concrete and new and
novel designs for such facilities as long span bridges and stadiums that
exceed that possible with normal weight concrete can be expected.
Effective containment of aggressive liquids stems directly from the

use of high quality concrete. If the structure is reinforced however, flexural
cracks may provide easy flow through the concrete. A logical remedy is to
use prestressing which will eliminate flexural cracks perpendicular to the
prestressing. HPLC, with a more uniform stress distribution within the mass
of the concrete, can be designed to have a minimum level of microcracking
at service loads, leading to enhanced impermeability and consequently less
damage from aggressive media. Current interest in secondary confinement
of surface oil storage using precast prestressed lightweight concrete will no
doubt lead to HPLC use for this as well as other, perhaps more demanding,
uses such as in the hazardous chemical and nuclear waste field.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The development, nature and future role of high performance

lightweight concrete were covered in the hope that owners, designers and
builders will use it with confidence to produce more functional, economical
and more serviceable structures.
It is suggested that it is the structure that needs to be high

performance. High performance structures need to be built with high quality
concretes that satisfy the functional requirements which may be, but are not
limited to :
structural efficiency (strength/weight)
resistance to weathering and chemical attack
thermal resistance (energy conserving)

A C 1 SP-LS4 95 IObb2949 05222Lb L B 3 I
18 Bremner and Holm
thermal stability (fire resistance)

cracking resistance (strain capacity).
From the above it may be observed that the current, commonly held
assumption that the expression High Strength and High Performance are
synonymous is an unduly restrictive and sometimes erroneous linkage.
Indeed High Performance need not be high strength and high strengths
achieved without adequate concern for other qualities may not be high
performance (e.g. cracking).
REFERENCES
1 Aitcin, P-C and Neville, A., "High-Performance Concrete

Demystified", AC1 Concrete International, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 21-26,
January 1993.
2. Shah, S.P. and Ahmad, S.H., "High Performance Concretes and

Applications", published by Edward Arnold, p. 403, 1994.
3. Webster Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1990.
4. "Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete", Report of AC1

Committee 213, Concrete International, pp. 33-62, February, 1979.
5. McCann, A. M., "The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa", Princeton

University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, p. 347, 1987.
6. MacDonald, W .L., "The Pantheon, Design, Meaning and Progeny",

published by A. Lane, London, 160 p., 1976.
7. "Lightweight Concrete - History, Applications and Economics",

published by the Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute, 2025 East
Murray-Hollad Road, Suite 102, Salt Lake City, Utah, 44 p., October
1971.
8. Bremner, T.W., Holm, T.A. and Stepanova, V.F., "Lightweight

Concrete - A Proven Material for Two Millennia", Engineering
Foundation Meeting on Advances In Cement and Concrete, Durham,
New Hampshire, 1994.
9. "Bridge Deck Survey", Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute, Salt
Lake City, Utah, p. 24, 1960.

A C 1 SP-I154 75 Obb2947 0 5 2 2 2 3 7 O L T
10. Strongin, N.S. and Baulin, D.K., "Lightweight Concrete Structures for
Large-Panelled Residential Buildings", published by Stroyizdat, 184 p . ,
1984. (In Russian)
11. Hoff, G.C., "High Strength Lightweight Aggregate Concrete for Arctic
Applications - Parts 1, 2 and 3", Structural Lightweight Aggregate
Concrete Performance, (Editors: T. A. Holn and A.M. Vaysburd),
AC1 SP-136, pp. 1-245, 1992.
12. Malhotra, V.M., "'CANMET Investigation in the Development of High-

Strength, Lightweight Concrete", Proceedings. Utilization of High
Strength Concrete, Trondheim, Norway, Vol. 2, pp. 17-27, 1987.
13. Jakobsen, B., "The Status of LWA Concrete and its use in Offshore
Concrete Floating Platforms", presented at the FIP Symposium in
Kyoto, Japan, and published in FIP Notes No. 3, pp. 10-14, 1994.
14. Bremner, T.W. and Newman, J.B., "Microstructure of Low Density

Aggregates", Proceedines of the Ninth Congress of the FIP, Vol. 3, pp.
24-31, Stockholm, June 1982.
15. Bremner, T.W. and Holm, T.A., "Elastic Compatibility and the
Behaviour of Concrete", Journal of the American Concrete Institute,
Vol. 83, No. 2, pp. 244-250, MarchiApril 1986.
16. Holm, T.A. and Bremner, T.W., "High Strength Lightweight

Aggregate Concrete", Chapter 10, High Performance Concretes and
Amlications, (ed. S.P. Shaw and S.H. Ahmad), Edward Arnold, N.Y.,
pp. 341-374, 1994.
17. Gibson, L.J. and Ashby, M.F., Cellular Solids - Structure and
Properties, Pergamon Press, p. 357, 1988.
18. Hoff, G.C., "Observations on the Fatigue Behavior of High-Strength

Lightweight Concrete", Proceedings of AC1 International Conference
on High-Performance Concrete, Singapore (Editor V.M. Malhotra) AC1
SP-149, November 1994, pp. 785-822.
19. Valore, R.C., "Calculating U-value of Hollow Concrete Masonry",

Concrete International, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 40-60, February 1980.
20. Bremner, T.W., Holm, T.A. and Valsangkar, A.J., "structural

Integrity of Fire Walls at High Temperature", Proceedings, Fifth North
American Masonrv Conference, University of Illinois, Vol. III, pp.
237-264, June 1990.

A C 1 SP-154 95 S Obb2949 0 5 2 2 2 3 8 T5b
SP 154-2
Flexural Cracking Evaluation Using

Fiber Optic Sensors in High Strength
Composite Beams Reinforced with
Prestressed Prisms
by E. G. Nowy and B. Chen
SYNOPSIS
This paper covers analytical and experimental investigation of high strength

concrete beams reinforced with high strength prestressed concrete prisms as main
reinforcement. Fiber optics technology has been developed and used in this
investigation to measure the flexural crack widths developed throughout the full
loading history of the specimens.
Thirteen beams, 8 in. x 12 in. (200 x 300 mm) in cross-section and having a
9.0 ft ( 2.74 m) span were tested to failure. The embedded prestressed prisms
had a length of 9 ft. 6 in. (2.90 m) and cross-sectional dimensions ranging
between 1.5 in. x 3.0 in. ( 38 mm x 76 mm) and 4.5 in. x 3.0 in. (1 14 mm x
76 mm). The prisms were prestressed with 7-wire 3/8 in. (10 mm) diameter, 270
ksi (1860 MPa)tendons. Concrete strength in both the prisms and the beams was
in excess of 14,000 psi (100 MPa) using silica fume as a partial cementitious
replacement as well as a high range water reducer (superplasticizer) in order to
attain the desired workability and compressive strength.
A study of the extensive data accumulated in this research program, supported by

the National Science Foundation, resulted in expressions for the evaluation of
flexural crack widths in ultra-high strength concrete composite beams. Test
results also showed that the embedded prisms delayed the development of cracks,
while the additional use of non-prestressing steel significantly reduced the crack
spacing in the beams and limited the crack width at the onset of prism cracking.
Keywords: Beams (supports); cracking (fracturind; crack width and

spacing; fiber optic sensor; high-strength concretes; loads (forces);
prestressing; prisms; reinforced concrete; stabilization; strains; stresses
21
A C 1 SP-354 95 I I 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 2 2 2 3 9 992 I
I
22 Nawy and Chen
Edward G. Nawy, FACI, is Professor of Civil Engineering, Rutgers University,

and holds the distinguishedprofessor rank. Active in AC1 since 1949, Professor
Nany is the first chairman and a current member of AC1 Committee 224 on
Cracking; chairman of ACI Committee 435 on Deflection of Concrete Building
Structures; member of ACI Committee 340, Design Aids for ACI 318 Building
Code; member of Joint ASCE-AC1 Committee 421 on Design of Reinforced
Concrete Slabs. Professor Nawy has published in excess of 130 papers and is the
author three major text books on reinforced and prestressed concrete. He holds
several honors including the ACI Chapter Activities Award and the Henry L.
Kennedy Award, was twice president of the ACI New Jersey Chapter. and served
two terms on the Rutgers University Board of Governors. He is a registered
professional engineer in several states and a chartered civil engineer overseas.
Benxian Chen is post-doctoral fellow at New Jersey Institute of Technology,

holding the Ph.D. degree from Rutgers University. He was a former faculty
member at the University of Science and Technology, Beijing. He has authored
or eo-authored several papers in the areas of prestressed concrete and fiber optic
sensors instrumentation.
INTRODUCTION
Crack control has long been considered a critical issue in concrete construction
(1-15). Use of precast pretensioned prisms as tension reinforcement can
effectively improve the cracking behavior of concrete members. Previous works
in this area was limited. Burns (5) described a testing program using prisms to
control cracking in continuous members at negative moment regions. Hanson
(10 ) studied crack control in T-beam flange. Bishara and Almeida(4) used
embedded prisms as tension reinforcement in normal strength simple and
continuous rectangular beams. All these tests showed a consistent improvement
of flexural performance at working load levels and also an adequate plastic
rotation capacity up to failure. Since 1976, this type of concrete construction was
also experimentally studied by a number of foreign (Paramewaran (16). Two
major advantages have emerged from using prestressed prisms as main
reinforcement in concrete members using normal strength concrete. These are
higher cracking capacity and the ability of cracks to close with unloading. Hence,
it is beneficial to investigate the use of such composite construction in high
strength and ultra high strength beams and develop expressions for evaluating the
crack width and spacing in such members as an aid to the designers in controlling
serviceabilty behavior.
Fiber optic sensors technology was developed and used in this investigation in
order to provide an accurate measurement of steel reinforcement strain and mean
crack width in the tested specimens. As a result, a mathematical model and
expressions were developed for crack control evaluation as well as a new
approach for long-term and remote monitoring of civil engineering structural
systems.

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0 5 2 2 2 2 0 604
TESTING PROGRAM
The testing program included thirteen high strength concrete rectangular beams
with prestressed prisms as main reinforcement. The beams were 8 in. x 12 in.
(200 mm x 300 mm) in cross section, were simply-supported over a 9 ft (2.74
m) span and subjected to the third point loading. All the precast prestressed
prisms had the same length of 9.5 ft (2.90 m). Typical section details are given
in Fig: 1 and Table 1.
High strength concrete having a compressive strength, f ’= , up to 14,200 psi

(100 MPa) was used, with silica fume replacing part of the ASTM Type III
portland cement, with the mixture proportions as follows and concrete strengths
of the test beams as in Table 2 .
Weight
Component
ib/yd3 Kg/m3
Portland Type III cement 720 425

Powder siiisca fume 180 106
318 in. coarse aggregate 1850 1092
Fine aggregate (coarse sand) 1100 649
Liquid superplasticizer 54 32
Uncoated stress-relieved 270 ksi (1860 MPa) 7-wire 318 in. (10 mm) diameter
tendons conforming to the ASTM A416 were used to prestress the precast
prisms. No. 5 ( 15.9 mm dia.) deformed bars conforming to ASTM A616 were
used as additional tension reinforcement in beams A-1 through A-5. No.3 (9.5
mm dia.)deformed bars were used as web stirrups for all the test specimens.
At load levels corresponding to the service loads, all crack widths in the
constant-momentregion were measured with an illuminated microscope of 0.001
in. (0.025 mm) accuracy. Crack spacings of all the developed cracks in this
region were also recorded.
Fiber Optic Bragg Grating (FOBG) sensors were used to measure the average
strain developed in the reinforcement and in the concrete. The FOBG sensor was
either internally mounted along the reinforcing bars or externally mounted on the
beam surface with a gage length of 16 in. (406 mm) as shown in Fig. 1. Five to
seven electric strain gages were mounted inside each beam on the main
reinforcement within the constant moment region. A group of LVDTs were also
installed at the the maximum moment region.

A C 1 SP-354 95 H 0662949 0522223 5 4 0 H
24 Nawy and Chen
TEST RESULTS
General Cracking Characteristics
In beams reinforced with prisms only (beams A-6 through A-13), the first visible
crack initially propagated to a depth essentially equal to the thickness of the
prism concrete cover. Thereafter the cracks extended beyond the prism level
with further increase in load even though the prisms remained uncracked. This
was an important characteristic which indicated that the beam would retain a
much higher flexural rigidity after initial cracking of the concrete cover. At load
levels causing the prism concrete to crack, the maximum crack widths ranged
between 0.006 to 0.010 in. (O. 15 to 0.25 mm) at the beam bottom surface and
0.003 to 0.006 in. (0.076 to O. 15 mm) at the tension reinforcement level. These
crack widths fell within the tolerable crack width ranges given by AC1
Committee 224 (i). Once prism cracking occurred, a sudden increase in width
and height of the beam crack was observed corresponding to a sharp increase in
beam deflection. At ultimate loading, only one or two major wide cracks
propagated into the compression zone.
Cracking Capacity of Beam Cover
All thirteen test beams showed that the loads causing the first visible crack were
practically at the same level and corresponded to a relatively low stress level in
the reinforcement in the range of 3500 psi (24 MPa) . This meant that the
prisms did not result in a substantial increase in the cracking capacity of beam
cover. Because the prisms continued to maintain some of the initial
precompression, they remained uncracked. However, the restraining effect of
the prisms on the cracking' behavior of the cover concrete seemed to be
insignificant.
Cracking Capacity of Prestressed Prisms
In comparison with normal prestressed concrete flexural elements, prisms used

as main reinforcement in these beams had relatively small cross-sections and a
precompressive stress level as high as possible. The prism concrete cracks only
at a stress level that equal to the sum of the precompressive stress due to
prestressing and the concrete tensile strength. Thus, the cracking capacity of the
prism was considerably higher than that of the beam cover. Predicting the
cracking moment capacity M,,of the prism depends on the strain distribution and
tensile strength of the concrete developed as in Chen (7).
PROPOSED APPROACH FOR CRACK CONTROL
Stabilized Mean Crack Spacing
Figure 2 shows the variation of average crack spacing with the applied load

A C 1 SP-154 95 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522222 487
(bending moment ratio) for beams A-4 and A-5. This type of composite member
is similar in behavior to a regularly reinforced concrete member in that crack
spacing stabilizes at particular overload levels. Crack spacing in a member with
combined prism and bar reinforcement stabilized after cracking of the embedded
prisms at 30 to 60 % of ultimate load. For members reinforced with embedded
prisms only, the stabilized crack spacing was usually reached before cracking of
the embedded prisms at 25 to 45 % of ultimate load. The magnitudes of
stabilized mean crack spacing, ac; , for all test specimens are presented in Table
3. Other observations and findings from the test results are summarized below.
The stabilized mean crack spacing in the test specimens with deformed bars as
additional reinforcement ( beams A-2 through A-5 ) was normally less than that
reinforced only with prestressed prisms. Also, cracks in beams A-3 through A-5
stabilized at a steel stress level of 28,000 to 36,000 psi (193 to 248 MPa) and
were more evenly distributed than those of the rest of test beams, indicating the
importance of mild deformed bar reinforcement in crack control.
For beams reinforced only with prisms, the crack spacing stabilized at a
reinforcement stress level of 4000 to 7000 psi (27.6 to 48.3 MPa). In addition,
crack distribution in beam cover showed more randomness in irregular spacing.
This can be due to the difficulty of controlling the bond between the precast
prisms and the surrounding situ-cast beam concrete . The stabilized mean crack
spacing as developed by Nawy and Huang (13) using normal strength concrete
beams seems to be equally accurate for the high strength composite beams in this
investigation:
f:
a c s = c --
A,
/r/ Eo
where c = a constant to be determined from tests

A, = area of concrete in tension
Co = sum of the perimeters of reinforcement
f 'c = cylinder compressive strength of concrete
f 't = tensile splitting strength of concrete
In this study, factor c was found to have a mean value of 0.097 with standard
deviation of 0.016. The ratio (f ' t / df 'J has a mean value of 5.783 with
standard deviation of 0.657 ,as indicated in Table 3. Hence, the expression for
predicting the stabilized average crack spacing for this type of member becomes
as follows:

A C 1 S P - 1 5 Y 95 E Obb2949 0522223 313 E
26 Nawy and Chen
The area A, of concrete in tension is defined as,
A, = [ h p + c,,] x b (3)
where hp = height of the prisms

cp = clear concrete cover to the prestressed prism
b = width of the rectangular beam section
The experimental results of stabilized crack spacing for beams A-3 through A-13
are presented and compared with that obtained from Eq. 2. Results are
summarized in Table 3.
Mean Crack Width
Because of the randomness of cracking behavior in concrete, correlation of the

maximum crack width, w, , as a function of reinforcement stress with the
maximum crack spacing, u,,, , might induce some unpredictable scatter unless
the reinforcement strain is accurately measured. Use of advanced fiber optic
sensor technology in this study accomplished this aim, hence the mean crack
width, w,,, , can therefore be weil defined. The mean width of stabilized crack
at the reinforcement levei is a function of the difference in elongation between
the reinforcing bars and the surrounding stretched concrete over a length ucs
( distance between two adjacent cracks) as follows:
or
where a = (1 - E , / E,) is a parameter defining the influence of concrete

elongation on cracking development and E , and E are the average strain in the
concrete and reinforcement, respectively.
Eq. 5 shows that mean crack width w,,, is proportional to the product of E, and
ucs, experimentally evaluated as shown in Figure 3. It should be noted that
this linear relationship applies even before cracking of the prisms, indicating that
directly correlating the average strain in the reinforcement encased in the prisms
to the cracks on beam surface is reasonable.
The magnitude of factor a in Eq. 5 can be experimentally evaluated. It has been

found that the strain in steel measured from the externally mounted FOBG
sensor essentially equals to the average strain measured by the internally
mounted electric strain gages[ Chen (7) and Chen and Nawy (8)] . Hence,

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 0522224 25T =
Eq. 6 indicates that the total elongation in the reinforcement is approximately

equal to the total stretch in concrete, demonstrating that the influence of the
tensioned concrete between the cracks is negligible. Hence, the factor a is
approximately equal to 1.
By mounting the FOBG sensor at the beam extreme tension fibers for direct
measurement of the crack width, the mean crack width is expressed as:
with the factor [Y being more accurately defined by
where tg is the effective gage length and II,. is the number of cracks covered by
the FOBG sensor, w',,,, represents the mean crack width obtained from the
readings of a hand-held microscope. The mean crack width, w',,,, is plotted
against w',,,~"~ for beams A-9, A-IO, A-12 and A-I3 as shown in Figure 4. it
is observed from this plot that the slope of the regression line is 1. This again
indicates that factor a can be approximated by a value of to I .
it has been demonstrated in this work that the FOBG sensor gives a considerably
more accurate estimate of the mean crack width at the tensile face of the concrete
than other means as long as good bonding is developed between the optical fiber
and the concrete face. This is because the optical fiber is flexible and can
closely adjust itself to the deformed beam surface.
Using a value of CY = 1 in Eq. 5 as reasonably accurate for prediction of mean

crack width,
where the stabilized mean crack spacing a,.,<is given by Eq. 2, and hence,

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522225 196
28 Nawy and Chen
4 E,
wman = O. 561 -
E O
Eq. 10 is verified from the experimental test results of beams A-3 through A-13
as given in Table 4. In general, there is good agreement. The average
reinforcement strain can be defined as.
E, = p -f s
E,
where p parameter reflecting the stress distribution along the reinforcing

=
bars
E, = Young's modulus of the reinforcement
f , = stress in the normal steel reinforcement at the cracked section or
the change in stress in the prestressing steel of the prisms after
decompression, namely, after the prism cracks.
By substituting Eq. 11 into Eq. 9, the mean crack width, w,, , is correlated
with the steel stress, f , , giving
the average value of parameter p = 0.843 in these tests.
Maximum Crack Width
Once the mean crack width w,, is determined, the maximum crack width w,,,
under short-term loading can be determined by applying a multiplier 7 to the
Wmean, 1.e.,
Wmaw 7 Wmm (13)
The 7-value was statistically evaluated for the ratio of the test values of the
maximum to the mean crack widths in beams A-3 through A-13. These ratios are
shown in the normal probability plot of Fig. 5, based on 69 observations. The
mean value of 7 = 1.501 with a standard deviation of 0.328. Introducing the
multiplier 7 into Eq. 12, the maximum crack width becomes
w,, = 7 p f
2 a,
E*
Taking Young's modulus as 29 x 10 ' psi and using the results of the statistical

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 052222b O22
analysis, Eq. 14 becomes the following
A
wmax (inch ) = 2.45 X f, (15)
with f in ksi units, A,, sq. in. and C o , in.

Equation 15 in SI units becomes
w , , , ~( m m ) = 3. 6 x A* f ,
CO
with f , MPa; A t , cm2 and o , cm.
The relative frequency histogram in Figure 6 for the ratio of the test to theoretical
maximum crack from Eq. 15 shows a confidence interval R, = wtm,/w,,, of
about 80%. This scatter in crack width evaluation is expected due to the random
behavior associated with cracking [Nawy (1 i)]. Tests by Billah and Nawy (3) on
high strength normally prestressed non-composite partially prestressed beams
gave a multiplier in Eq. 15 with a range of 2.63 and 3.82 X and a mean
value of 2.75 x for non-composite prestressed beams having a compressive
strength, f ’ c , in the range of 10,000 psi.
Adjustment expressions of crack width as a function of the concrete strength are

given in Ref. 14 and 15. This range confirms that the maximum crack width in
this type of composite members is generally similar to other types of concrete
members. The present investigation also confirms that the crack width in high
strength concrete beams is considerably smaller than the width developed in
normal strength beams, 2.45 - 2.75 x 10” versus 5.85 x multiplier in normal
strength beams [Nawy (13, 15)].
The maximum crack width at tensile beam surface can be predicted by,
I A
w”,ax 2. 45 x 10-5 Ri f f ,
E O
where Ri is the ratio of distance from neutral axis to tension face to the distance
from neutral axis to centroid of reinforcement. For test beams A-3 through A-5,
R,=1.39 and for test beams A-6 through A-13, R,=2.28. Analytical results
obtained from Eq. 17 are compared with measured maximum crack width at the
beam tensile face as indicated in Fig.7. The ratio R, = (w’,J/ w’,,, is shown
to have a confidence interval of approximately 90%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Fiber Optic Brag Grating Sensors (FOBG) are effective in continuous

monitoring of flexural surface mean crack width development in
concrete structures. The maximum crack width is estimated by using
A C 1 SP-I154 95 H Ob62949 0522227 Th9
30 Nawy and Chen
an experimentally determined multiplier 7 = 1.5 in this investigation.
2. From these tests, the maximum crack width (in.) at the level of the
reinforcement for composite reinforced concrete beams can be
predicted from
A
w,na = 2 . 4 5 x 10-5 f,y
The maximum crack width (in.) at tensile reinforcement level is
w;, = 2. 45 x 10" R, E o f,
For normal prestressed concrete beams, the multiplier is 2.75 x to be

adjusted for concrete strengths above 10, O00 psi (68.9 MPa).
3. Use of prestressed prisms as main reinforcement in composite concrete

beams substantially reduces the flexural crack widths and contributes
to better serviceability performance with more stiffness.
4. Cracking of the embedded prisms started at much higher load levels

than the concrete cover even if the cover is small. The crack width
in the prisms, similar to cases of non-composite beams, can be accurately
predicted by the proposed equations.
5. Visible crack spacing stabilized at 30 to 60 % of the ultimate load in

beams with combined prism and bar reinforcement, and at 25 to 45
percent of the ultimate load in beams with only prism reinforcement.
6. The presence of non-prestressed reinforcement significantly reduces

the crack spacing and limits the crack width at the on set of the
prism cracking.
7. Flexural crack width in high strength concrete beams can be almost 40

percent of the width in normal strength beams (2.45 x versus 5.85
x IO-' multiplier in the crack width equation).
REFERENCES
1. AC1 Committee 224, "Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of

Cracks", Proceedings. AC1 Journal, 81(3),American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1984, pp 21 1-230.

A C 1 SP-L5Y 95 I0662949 0522228 9T5 I
2. AC1 Committee 318, "Building Code Requirements for

Reinforced Concrete (AC1 3 18-89) and Commentary (AC1 318R-89)",
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1992.
3. Billah, K . , "Effect of Variation of Concrete Cover on the Cracking Behavior

of Partially Prestressed High Strength Concrete Pretensioned T-Beams",
Master's thesis under the direction of E. G. Nawy, Department of Civil
Engineering and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, New Jersey, September 1988, 197 pp.
4. Bishara, A. and Almeida F., "Concrete Beams with Prestressed

Reinforcement", Proceedings. ASCE Journal of the Structural Division,
96(ST7) , American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, July 1970,
pp. 1445-1460.
5. Burns, N. (1966), "Development of Continuity Between Precast

Prestressed Concrete Beams". Proceedings. PCI Journal, 1 1(3),
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, June 1966, pp.23-36.
6. Chen, B., M. Maher and Nawy E. G . (1994), "Fiber Optic Bragg

Grating Sensor for Nondestructive Evaluation of Composite Beams",
Proceedings, ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, V. 20 No. 12,
American Society of Civil Engineers,-New York, December 1994, pp.
3456-3470.
7. Chen, B., "High Strength Concrete Beams Reinforced with Prestressed

Prisms and Instrumented with Fiber Optic Sensors", Ph.D. dissertation
under the direction of E. G. Nawy, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, May 1994,
280 pp.
8. Chen B. and Nawy, E. G., "Structural Behavior Evaluation of High Strength

Concrete Beams Reinforced with Prestressed Prisms Using Fiber Optic
Sensors", Proceedinm AC1 Structural Journal, V. 91, No. S-69, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Nov.-Dec., 1994, pp. 708-718.
9. Evans, R. and Parker, A., ."Behaviorof Prestressed Concrete

Composite Beams", Proceedings. AC1 Journal, V.26 No. 9, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, February, 1954, pp. 861 -- 878.
10. Hanson, N., "Prestressed Concrete Prisms as Reinforcement for Crack

Control", Proceedings. PCI Journal, V. 14 No. 5, Precast / Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, October 1969, pp. 14--31.
11. Nawy, E. G . , " Control of Cracking in Reinforced Concrete Structures",

Proceedings. AC1 Journal, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, October
1968, pp. 825--835.
12. Nawy, E. G . , "Prestressed Concrete - A Fundamental ADDroach",

Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989, 7 3 4 p .

32 Nawy and Chen
13. Nawy E. G. and Huang P., "Crack and Deflection Control of Pretensioned
Prestressed Beams", Proceedings. PCI Journal, Precast/ Prestressed
Concrete Institite, May-June 1977, pp. 131-147.
14. Nawy, E. G . , "Macro-Cracking and Crack Control in Concrete Structures -

A State of the Art " AC1 Special Publication. SP-133-1, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1992, pp. 1-32.
15. Nawy, E. G . , "Cracking of Concrete - AC1 and CEB Approaches",

Proceedings, Second CANMET/ACI International Conference on Advances
-
in Concrete Technologv, Athens, 2nd Ed., Editor V. M. Malhotra,
CANMET, Ottawa, June 1992, pp. 203-242.
16. Paramewaran, V. S. (1990), "Experimental and Theoretical

Investigation on the Flexural Bhavior of Concrete Elements
Reinforced with Prestressed Prisms". Ph.D. Dissertation, Department
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras,
September 1990, pp. 184.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by NSF Grant No. MSM-9018572 and the
authors are indebted to Dr. Ken P. Chong, NSF Program Director, for his
advice. This project was conducted at the Rutgers Concrete Research Laboratory
under the direction of the first author.
area of concrete section in tension, in.*

stabilized mean crack spacing, in.
beam width, in.
cover to prestressed prism, in.
effective depth to center of mild steel reinforcement, in,
effective depth to center of prism prestressing reinforcement, in.
Young's modulus of reinforcement, ksi
Fiber Optic Bragg Grating Sensor
cylinder compressive strength of concrete, psi
Stress in the mild steel reinforcement or change in stress of the
prestressing prism reinforcementafter cracking (decompression), ksi
tensile splitting strength of concrete, psi
prism height, in.
effective optic fiber gage length, in.
cracking moment of the beam and prism
ultimate moment capacity
number of cracks within the FOBG.sensor gage zone
ratio of h, / h, where h, = distance from neutral axis to extreme
tension fibers, and h, = distance from neutral axis to centroid of
the reinforcement
maximum flexural crack width, in.
mean flexural crack width, in.
sum of all perimeters of steel reinforcing steel
A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522230 5 5 3
TABLE 1 - SECTIONAL PROPERTIES OF TEST BEAMS
\lo. of No. -Size

iebars of Prisms (in.)
(3) (4)
O
1- 1.5" X 3" 1 1 10.125 1 8.625 ~
1-1.5" X 4 " 1 I 10.125 1 8.625 ~
2- 1.5 " X 3" 1 1 10.125 1 8.625
2- 1.5 " x 4" 1 I 10.125 I 8.625
O 3- 1.5 " X 3" 1 8.625
O 3-1.5" X 4 " 1 8.625
O 1-3" X 3" 1 8.625
O 1-3" x 3" 1 8.625
O 1-4.5 " X 3 " 1 8.625
O 1-4.5 " X 3 " 1 8.625
O 1-4.5" X 3 " 1 8.625
O 2- 1.5 " X 3 " 1 8.625
1 in. = 25.4 mm

A C 1 SP-I154 95 œ Ob62949 0522233 4 9 T œ
34 Nawy and Chen
TABLE 2 - CONCRETE CHARACTERISTICS OF TEST BEAMS

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522232 326 I

A C 1 SP-L54 95 m 0662949 0522233 262 m
36 Nawy and Chen
TABLE 4 - OBSERVED AND CALCULATED MEAN CRACK WIDTHS
Normalized Bending Moment M/M,
&
All Crack widths are measured in the unit of inch x 10” (1 in. = 25.4 mrn),
Ur and w are the observed and calculated values respectively.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 W 0662749 0522234 I T 9
36.0. I 36.0' J. 36.0'

i
6.0-l 108.0.
A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4
4 *
A-5 A-6 A-7
A-8
A-11
Fig. 1-Cross-sectional properties of tested beams

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb29Lt7 0522235 035 =
38 Nawy and Chen
n7w:
B
-600:
ep - Beam A-4
Beam A-5
Moment Ratio (WM,)

Fig. 2-Typical relationship of applied bending moment versus mean crack spacing
(Beams A-4 and A-5)
Product of Measumd Spacing and Strain a,, x E, (mm)

Fig. 3-Typical mean crack width variation with the product of reinforcement strain and crack
spacing (E, x a,) for Beam A-7

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662947 052223b T7L
Fmm FOBG Sensor wkan(mm)

Fig. &Mean crack width measurement using FOBG sensors and microscope
Nomai Scorie
Fig. &Normal frequency plot for the ratio (w',,,~~ / w',, ) for Beams A-3 through A-13 at
the reinforcement level

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522237 908
40 Nawy and Chen
3
Qa
1.5 iI
8
z
0.5
0.0
0.6 1.o 1.4
Ratio It2
Fig. &Relative frequency histogram of observed to theoretical maximum

crack width ratio at the reinforcement level (w' /wm,, )
2.5 I
.91
2.0
I
h
1.5
a
8
r=: 1.0
0.5
0.0 1. o
0.G 1.4
Ratio R3
Fig. 7-Relative frequency histogram of observed to theoretical crack width

ratio at the concrete tensile face of beam (wrmax)' /wfmax)

SP 154-3
The Influence of Controlled

Permeability Formwork on the
Durability and Transport Properties
of Near Surface Concrete
by A. E. Long, A. A. Sha'at, and P. A. M. Basheer
SvnoDsis: The durability of reinforced concrete structures can be improved by

resorting to methods which ensure a better resistance of concrete to various
aggressive environments. Some commonly used methods include subjecting
concrete to a better curing practice, the use of modified concretes and the
application of surface treatments on concrete surfaces. In addition to these,
efforts have been made in the recent past to develop new techniques by which the
water-cement ratio in the near surface region can be lowered and a dense matrix
achieved. One way of achieving this is to use a controlled permeability
formwork system (CPF), in which the surplus mixing water and entrapped air
are removed from the fresh concrete via a fibre liner. This produces a surface
layer of concrete with a very low permeability which is likely to be highly
resistant to various forms of environmental attack.
Relatively little information is available at present on the efficiency of
CPF in improving the protection of the concrete against various mechanisms of
deterioration, and how it compares with other techniques such as the application
of better curing practices. Therefore, an experimentalinvestigation was carried
out with three water-cement ratios, five different curing regimes (i.e. air curing,
wet hessian curing and the use of three different curing compounds) and the
application of a CPF liner system. Measurements of gas permeability,
sorptivity, chloride diffusivity, surface tensile strength, freezing and thawing
resistance and carbonation resistance have indicated that the use of CPF can
enhance the durability of concrete and the extent of this improvement is
significantlymore than that obtained for the various curing regimes.
This paper details the experimental programme and presents results which
are used to evaluate critically the use of CPF for normal concrete.
Keywords: Carbonation; chlorides; curing; difhsion; durability;

formwork; freeze thaw durability; permeability; tensile strength
41
A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 75 0662747 0522237 780
42 Long and Basheer
AC1 member Professor Adrian Long is the Director of the School of the Built
Environment at the Queen’s University of Belfast, U.K. He has nearly 35 years
of research experience, mostly relating to structural concrete, both reinforced and
prestressed, and concrete technology. He has more than 150 publications to his
credit on concrete and concrete structures.
Dr. Aim Sha’at was a research assistant at the Deparunent of Civil Engineering,
The Queen’s University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, U.K. The work reported
in this paper was carried out by bim for his PhD thesis.
AC1 member Dr. Muhammed Basheer is a lecturer at the Department of Civil
Engineering, The Queen’s University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, U.K. He
has over 7 years of research experience in the general area of concrete durability,
particularly on inspection, assessment, and protection of concrete and concrete
structures. This has resulted in nearly 60 technical publications.
INTRODUCTION
The durability of exposed concrete structures to a large extent depends on
the quality of the cover concrete (“covercrete”as it is often described) because
this provides the first line of defence against various aggressive substances.
Thus, the quality of the covercrete is extremely important and for this reason a
range of different curing techniques can be applied to improve its durability.
Typically, in order to maintain a satisfactory moisture content in the concrete
after the removal of the formwork, the surface is sprayed with water at regular
intervals or a curing compound/plastic sheet is applied. This ensures that
adequate hydration of the cementitious materials takes place but these curing
processes are expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, in the 1980s, Japanese
engineers developed a permeable formwork system (1) which had the objective
of reducing the water-cement ratio in the near to surface region of the concrete.
A similartechnique was used in 1955 for the main draw off chamber of the Glen
Shira dam. In this case, water absorbing Celoten soft boards were attached to
the formwork and these were found to be very effective in reducing the near to
surface water-cement ratio (W/C>. In spite of the fact that the resulting concrete
surfaces have proven to be very durable, the process was discontinued as it was
difficult to remove the board from the hardened concrete.
Within the last few years, a fabric formwork liner has been developed
which gives comparable benefits to the Japanese permeable formwork system at
a significantly reduced cost. The idealised behaviour of this controlled
permeability formwork (CPF) liner is illustrated in Fig. 1. During the vibration
of the concrete, the entrapped air and the surplus mixing water escape, via the
CPF liner which acts as a vertical conduit. Provided the excess water is allowed
to drain freely at the bottom of the formwork then a surface with improved
properties and an absence of blow-holes is produced. As this product has only
been commercially available for four years, relatively little detailed technical
information has been available up until recently on the effectiveness of this liner

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522240 4 T 2
system in improving the durability of concrete. For this reason, a detailed

investigation has been carried out over the last three years to compare the surface
properties of concrete cast against a CPF liner and normal formwork (with a
range of different curing regimes). The results of this programme of tests are
presented, and discussed in this paper.
Test Variables and Preparation of Test Specimens
Mixture proportions of 1 : 1.65 : 3.00 for ordinary portland cement
(conforming to BS 12), sand (fineness modulus = 1.95) and 10 mm basalt
aggregate (fineness modulus = 5.88) were used in conjunction with three W/C,
i.e. 0.45, 0.55 and 0.65.
The following surfaces were assessed:
o Plywood formwork - air cured (control specimen)
o -do- - wet hessian cured
o -do- - Curing compound 1 (hydrocarbon based) } CC 1-HC
o -do- - Curing compound 2 (wax based) } CC2-WB
O -do- - Curing compound 3 (acrylic based) } cc3-Al3
o Plywood formwork with CPF liner. } CPF
The CPF liner used had the following characteristics:
o 100% polypropylene non woven, thermally bonded
o high chemical resistance
o high tear strength and puncture resistance
o maximum pore size, 0.07 mm.
Each of the above surfaces was subjected to permeation testing (which includes
the diffusion of chloride ions), accelerated carbonation, surface strength testing,
and freezing and thawing to allow their comparative performance to be assessed.
The test specimens were 900 x 300 x 150 mm and were all cast vertically
(Fig. 2) in four layers and consolidated using a poker vibrator. It should be
noted that the CPF liner was stretched and applied in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations and the film coated plywood formwork was
lightly oiled before the concrete was placed. Prior to casting, the base of the
mould was placed in a container so that the bleed water escaping from the CPF
liner could be collected and accurately measured.
In all cases, the formwork was removed after 24 hours and, where
appropriate, the curing compounds applied in accordance with the
manufacturer’s specifications. The wet hessian cured specimens were covered
with the hessian and sprayed with water once a day for three days. All the
specimens were then placed in a controlled environment of 20 OC and 55% RH
up until an age of 28 days. The residues remaining from the curing compounds
were then removed, and all were transferred to an environmental chamber at
40 OC and 22% RH for two weeks to produce covercrete of reasonably uniform
dryness.
’ Notations used for diagrams and discussion.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522241 339
44 Long and Basheer
TEST METHODS
The following tests, all of which are related to concrete durability, were
applied to the test specimens:
Permeation Tests using the ‘AUTOCLAM’
The air permeabilityand sorptivity tests were carried out at the three
locations shown in Fig. 2 using the ‘Autoclam’ (2) developed in the Department
of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University, Belfast. The results obtained using
this equipment have been shown to correlate well with longer established but less
convenient test methods such as the ISAT (3). Both types of test were carried
out at an age of 42 days with the average of the three test results being reported.
Air Permeabilitv Test: The principle of this test is that a pressure of 500
mbar is applied to the test area using the ‘Autoclam’ and its decay is monitored
over a period of 15 minutes. The natural logarithm of pressure bears a hear
relationship with time and the slope is reported as an air permeability index.
Sorqtivitv Test: These tests were carried out at the same test location as
the air permeability tests, at least one hour later. The test allows the volume of
water penetrating into the concrete at a constant pressure of 10 mbar to be
accurately monitored during a 15 minute period. A plot of the volume absorbed
against the square root of time has been found to be linear, and the slope is
reported as the sorptivity index (4).
g J
The four samples for the carbonation tests were removed from the
locations shown (Fig. 2) at an age of 60 days. Four faces of the samples were
coated with an epoxy resin emulsion thus leaving the two opposite test surfaces
free for carbon dioxide to diffuse. The samples were then subjected to a 15%
carbon dioxide concentration at 16 I 2 OC and 70% RH for 10 days.
Carbonation depths were measured after spraying the freshly broken surfaces
with phenolpthalein indicator solution.
Chloride Ineress: Normal Diffusion Test
Two slices 10 mm thick were obtained from the ends of the 100 mm
diameter cores taken at an age of 60 days from each of the two locations
indicated in Fig. 2. The curved surfaces of these slices were coated with epoxy
emulsion leaving a 74 mm diameter effective test area of the cast and the cut
surface. These samples were then placed in a diffusion cell (Fig. 3). The tank
environment was maintained at 17 i 3 OC and 55% RH throughout the period of
testing. The chloride concentrationin the diffusion cell was measured using a
chloride ion selectiveelectrodeat intervalsof two weeks for the first few months
and at one monthly intervalsthereafter. From a graph of concentration against
time, the diffusion coefficient was calculated using Fick’s f i t law of diffusion.

A C 1 SP-154 95 sC1 Obb2949 0522242 275
Surface Tensile StrenPth

This was determined at the locations shown in Fig. 2 using the pull-off
test ( 5 ) . Steel disks 50 mm diameter were adhered to the concrete surfaces by
means of an epoxy resin adhesive. Then by applying an increasing tensile force
until fracture occurred in the concrete an accurate estimate to the tensile strength
of the near surface concrete was obtained.
Freezine and Thawing Test
Two samples, 150 x 110 x 73 mm for eachconcretesurface, were sawed
from the locations shown in Fig. 2 at an age of 60 days. After drying at 40 OC
and 22% RH for one week and cooling for two days, the sides of each sample,
except for the test surface, were coated with epoxy resin emulsion. At an age of
115 days each sample was immersed in water for 5 days before the start of the
freezing and thawing regime. These saturated samples were then submerged in
tap water and the following modified version of procedure A of
ASTM C666 (6) applied to assess the performance of the covercrete:
1 hour freezing at -17.8 OC
15 minutes varying from -17.8 OC to 4.4 OC
3.5 hours for thawing at 4.4 OC
15 minutes varying from 4.4 OC to 17.8 OC.
The test was carried out in a programmable environmental chamber and
each sample was assessed every 50 cycles up to 200 cycles.
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

It is only through an examination of the results of the full range of tests
carried out that useful comparisons can be made between the six test surfaces.
However, it is useful to consider these in groupings where comparable data are
expected or has been found to exist. The cube compressive strength for the three
mixes are presented in Fig. 4.
Visual inspection of surfaces
The cast surfaces were inspected immediately aftcr the removal of the
formwork 24 hours after casting. A significant number of blow holes were
detected in the normal surface with the size tending to increase for the lower W/C
concretes which had relatively low workability. In contrast the CPF surface was
almost free of blow holes, except for some of a very small diameter in the top
100 mm of each specimen.
Bleed Water
During, and shortly after casting, a significant amount of water drained
from the CPF liner. For the high W/C bleeding was relatively rapid for up to 45
minutes whereas, for the low W/C the rate had reduced considerably after 25
minutes. In these tests bleeding ceased after one hour but, in practice, the period
of bleeding depends on the depth of placement with bleeding continuing for at
least two hours after casting for structures such as bridge piedretaining walls.

A C 1 SP-154 95 M Obb2949 0522243 L O 1 M
46 Long and Basheer
As expected (Fig. 5 ) , the volume of bleed water increased with increasing

W/C hence the relative benefit of using CPF should be greater for high W/C
concretes. These results would also tend to suggest that the depth of the CPF
affected zone varies with the W/C. In this context Sha’at (7) has estimated that it
varies from around 10 mm for 0.45 W/C to around 15 mm for 0.65 W/C
concrete.
Air Permeability and Depth of Carbonation
The results for the air permeability tests (Fig. 6) clearly show that the
indices for air cured concrete increase with increasing W/C as would be
expected. However, there is only a modest increasewith the increase in the W/C
for the CPF samples which would suggest that the permeation properties near the
surface are quite similar. The improvements arising from the various curing
regimes are somewhat variable but in no case are as significantas those resulting
from the use of CPF.
The variations in depth of carbonation (Fig. 7) show similar trends as
anticipated - however, two important differences should be noted:
1. For carbonation depth the ratio of control to CPF is only 2 whereas the ratio
of air Permeability indices is much greater. However, it must be borne in
mind that depth of carbonation varies with the square root of time of
exposure. Hence, the results show that CPF concretes have approximately
four times the life expectancy of the comparable air cured concretes
(assuming a given depth of cover) when considering carbonation induced
corrosion.
2. During the carbonation testing there is evidence that the carbon dioxide
penetrated beyond the CPF affected zone. This would then tend to have
comparable permeation properties to that of the air cured concrete. After this
more permeable zone is reached the carbonation process would tend to
accelerate.
For both of these reasons, the differencesbetween the six different surfaces will
be greatly reduced for the carbonation tests.
Sorptivitv and Diffusion of Chloride Ions
The sorptivity results (Fig. 8) have comparable trends to those for air
permeability (Fig. 6 ) . However, the improvements resulting from wet hessian
curing and the use of curing compounds is generally less significant. In
particular, the benefits of using the wax based curing compound CC2-WE3
would appear to be minimal. As before, the sorptivities of the CPF surfaces
were markedly lower with the value for 0.65 W/C being around half that for air
cured concrete (plywood formwork) with a 0.45 W/C.
The normal diffusion coefficients (Fig. 9) are significantlyhigher for the
0.65 W/C than the other two W/C. However, as before, the CPF surfaces show
considerably improved performance relative to the others. Here it should be
noted that, as the diffusion tests were carried out on saturated samples, the
results may be somewhat misleading for assessing the relative performance of
real structures exposed to wetting and drying cycles. In this latter instance, a
combination of the results in Figs. 8 and 9 may be more appropriate.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0 5 2 2 2 4 4 048
Surface Tensile Strength and Freezing and Thawing Performance

The pull-off test results presented in Fig. 10 show that the surface
strength is not significantly affected by the various curing regimes. However,
the greatly reduced W/C near the surface for the CPF samples leads to pull-off
results of nearly twice their values. Not unexpectedly, these greatly increased
surface strengths lead to much improved performance under freezing and
thawing cyclic testing (Fig. 11). Here it should be noted that the following scale
was used to categorize the degree of surface deterioration:
Scale Degree of Deterioration
0.0 No deterioration
1.o Pitting without exposing aggregate
2.0 Severe pitting and aggregate exposed
3 .O Spailing of aggregate to a modest extent
4.0 More extensive spailing of aggregate
5.0 Severe disintegration
Apart from the results for the CPF concrete with 0.65 W/C the results are
in line with expectations.
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of this extensive experimental study the following conclusions
can be drawn:
1. Relative to concrete cast against normal formwork the application of a CPF
liner results in:
o a significantly reduced W/C near to the surface and especially for
concrete with higher W/C
o a greatly reduced incidence of blow holes
o much greater resistance to carbonation and chloride ingress
o enhanced surface strength
o greatly improved performance under freezing and thawing conditions.
2. The benefits of applying a range of typical methods of curing to concrete
cast against normal formwork are modest relative to that achieved by using a
CPF liner.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The financial support of EPSRC (UK) and Du Pont de Nemours
(Luxembourg) S A for this research which was carried out in the
Civil Engineering Department, Queen's University, Belfast, is gratefully
acknowledged.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Ob62949 0522245 T84
48 Long and Basheer
REFERENCES
1. Harrison, T., “Introducing controlled permeability formwork”, Concrete
Quarterly, British Cement Association, i990, pp 6-7.
2. Basheer, P.A.M. “A Brief Review of Methods for Measuring the
Permeation Properties of Concrete In-Situ”, Proc. ICE, Buildings and
Structures, London, February 1993, pp. 74-83.
3. Montgomery, F.R., Basheer, P.A.M., and Long, A.E. “A Cornpaxison
between the Autoclam Permeability System and the Initial Surface
Absorption Test”, Proc. Structurai Faults and Repairs - 93, Extending the
Life of Bridges, Civil and Building Structures, University of Edinburgh,
29 June - 1 July 1993, pp 71-77, Editor: M. Forde.
4. Basheer, P.A.M., Long, A.E., and Montgomery, F.R. ‘nie ‘Autoclam’ for
Measuring the Surface Absorption and Permeability of Concrete on Site”,
Proc. CANMET/ACI Intl. Conf. on Advances in Concrete Technology,
Athens, Greece, 11-13 May 1992, pp. 107-132
5 . Long, A.E., and Murray, A.McC. “The Pull-off Partially Destructive Test
for Concrete”, Proc. Intl. Conf. on In-SitdNon-Destructive Testing of
Concrete, Ottawa, Canada, October 1994, AC1 SP-82, pp. 327-350, Editor:
V.M. Malhotra.
6. ASTM, “Standard test methods for resistance of concrete to rapid freezing
and thawing”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.02, Philadelphia,
C 666-84, 1989, pp 312-317.
7. Sha’at, A.A. “Assessment of Methods of Improving the Durability of
Surface Concrete”, PhD Thesis, The Queen’s University of Belfast. U K ,
April 1994,415 pages.
Fig. 1-Principle of controlled permeability formwork

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 0522246 910 H
- CPF face
-Plywood face
- 1ûOrnm
950 diameter core
0 Pull-off
SEM, 10XlOX10
Nuusedregion
dl dim. in mm
Note: Autoclam test locations at 275,575 and 875 m m from the top
Fig. 2-Test locations on specimens

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522247 857 m
50 Long and Basheer
Double hole to enable measuranents of

ions using Chloride Ion Selective Electrode
At thestart of the test

distilled water and 0.05
Volume of solution
0.55 mA NaCI + 0.05 mll Ca(0H)Z
Fig. 3-Normal diffusion test

A C 1 SP-L54 95 W 0662949 0522248 793 W
80'
L
60-
9M
a
7, 40-
g
.I
ul
o
U
20'
O+
0.45 0.55 0.65
WIC
Fig. &Compressive strength of 100 mm cubes
0.45 0.55 0.65
WIC
Fig. 5-Bleed water collected through the CPF liner

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522249 b 2 T
52 Long and Basheer
S AC
CC1-HC
cc2-WEI
la cc3-AB
7
0.45 0.55 0.65
WIC
Fig. XAutoclam air permeability test results
50
40
30
20
10
O
0.45 0.55 0.65
WIC
Fig. 7-Depth of carbonation

A C 1 SP-154 95 IPI 0662949 0522250 341 IPI
2o
0.45 0.55 0.65

WIC
Fig. &Autoclam sorptivity test results
60 -fl
7"
30
20
10
O
0.45 0.55 0.65
WIC
Fig. 9-Normal diffusion test results

A C 1 SP-354 95 M Obb2949 0522253 288 M
54 Long and Basheer
0.45 0.55 0.65

WIC
Fig. 10-Pull-off test results
0.45 0.55 0.65

WIC
Fig. 11-Freezing and thawing deterioration after 200 cycles

A C 1 SP-154 75 m Ob62947 0522252 114 m
SP 154-4
A Study on Reducing Shrinkage

of Highly-Flowable Concrete
by A. Ogawa, K. Sakata, and S. Tanaka
Synopsis: In recent years, highly-flowable concrete which can

be be placed without any consolidation,has been widely studied.
A basic study on this type of concrete incorporating limestone
powder and a method for reducing shrinkage properties of the
concrete are presented in this paper.
In the mixture proportioning for the c0ncrete.a high-range
water-reducing admixture is used to increase the flowability of
concrete. A small amount of viscosity-increasing agent is also
added to minimize the segregation. Limestone powder which is a
low reactivity material, is used to reduce the heat of cement
hydration and shrinkage of concrete.
Although drying shrinkage of the highly-flowable concrete
incorporating limestone powder was smaller than these o f
ordinary concrete or another highly-flowable concretes, it is
desired to further reduce shrinkage of the concrete so that it
wi!l be a crack-free concrete. To accomplish this, a method for
reducing drying shrinkage of concrete by applying a shrinkage-
reducing agent and an expansive additive was applied and good
results were obtained.
Keywords: Admixtures;cement additives;concretes; cracking (fracturing);

drying shrinkage; expansive cements;fiowabilitv;limestone; mix
proportioning; shrinkage; viscosity;water reducing agents
55
A C 1 SP-L5q 95 m Ob62949 0522253 050 m
56 Ogawa, Sakata, and Tanaka
Dr.Akira Ogawa is General manager of Technology development

department,Engineering division of Ohmoto-gumi Co.Ltd.,Okayama,
and Visiting professor,Cooperative research center of Okayama
university,Okayama,Japan
Dr. Kenji Sakata (AC1 Member) is Professor, Department of
environmental and civil engineering, Faculty of environmental
science and technology,Okayama university,Okayama,Japan
Mr.Satoshi TANAKA is Research engineer at Technical research
laboratory of Nihon Cement Co. Ltd.,Tokyo,Japan
INTRODUCTION
In Japan, the research and development of highly-flowable

concrete, which can be placed without any consolidation, has
been carried out by many research organizations since 1989 when
8.Okamura et al. proposed a new concept on ‘Eigh-performance
concrete” having enhanced flowability (1). Up to now, various
mixture proportioning schemes for this type of concrete have
been developed, and some of them have been applied in actual
construction. The authors have been studying highly-flowable
concrete incorporating limestone powder (2-4) and a method for
reducing drying shrinkage of this concrete in order to prevent
cracking. The results are presented in this paper.
Eigh performance concrete is generally considered as
having high strength, high durability and high workability, and
it is expected t o modernize whole systems of concrete work. The
purpose of this paper is to develop highly-flowable concrete
having lower shrinkage properties enough to be free from
cracking.
In most methods of proportioning highly-flowable concrete,
a large amount of powdered materials other than cement, such as
blast-furnace-slag, fly ash, limestone powder and silica fume,
is used. A special admixture for preventing segregation of
concrete i s also added in many cases. However, there is a
tendency for increased shrinkage strain in such highly-flowable
concrete because there is a greater content of fine ingredients
and/or smaller proportions of coarse aggregate, compared with
ordinary concrete. This is an important problem to be solved
for practical use of highly-flowable concrete.
In previous work,the authors studied crack-control methods
for preventing harmful cracks occuring in external walls of
reinforced concrete structures by applying a shrinkage-reducing

A C 1 SP-154 75 0662747 0522254 T77
agent (SRA) in combination with an expansive additive (EA) to

reduce drying shrinkage of concrete. By using these admixtures
together, concrete with greately reduced drying shrinkage, or
non-cracking concrete, could be obtained. This method has now
been applied to reduce shrinkage properties of highly-flowable
concrete incorporating limestone powder so that it will be a
crack-free concrete.
HIGHLY-FLOIABLE CONCRETE INCORPORATING LIMESTONE POIDEB
The use of limestone powder as an additional powdered

material other than cement is attractive because its quality is
good and stable, and it is available at low cost. I n the method
of mixture proportioning for highly-flowable concrete with
limestone powder used in this study,a high-range water-reducing
agent is added in order to decrease water content and to
increase the flowability of concrete. Furthermore, a viscosity-
increasing agent (or segregation-decreasing agent) is used to
minimize the segregation of concrete, although a large content
o f powdered materials increases the viscosity o f concrete.
Limestone powder, which is a low reactivity material, was used
in order to both reduce the heat o f cement hydration and
shrinkage of concrete.
Concrete Materials
The following concrete materials were used in this study:
Cement--Normal portland cement in accordance with JIS B5210.
Limestone powder--Limestone powder was obtained from a plant
in Okayama Prefecture, which was a product in accordance with
JIS A5008 (Limestone Fil ler for Bituminous Paving Mixtures).
The results of chemical analysis and physical tests of the
limestone powder are given in Table 1.
Aggregates--The coarse aggregate was crushed stone with
nominal maximum size of 20 am. The fine aggregate was sea sand
and pit sand, which were combined. The physical properties of
both aggregates are given in Table 2.
High-range water-reducing admixture--An admixture whose main
ingredient is sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate.
Viscosity-increasing agent--A product whose main ingredient
is polyacryl amide.
Admixtures for reducing shrinkage--An admixture whose main
ingredient is alcoholic alkylene oxide was used as SEA, and two
types of expansive additives (CSA- and CAO-type) were used.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0662949 0522255 923 m
Mixture Proportioning Method

The concept of highly-flowable concrete has been derived
from that of underwater concrete. For this study, the authors
have defined highly-flowable concrete as concrete whose slump
is greater than 250 mm and whose slump-flow is between 600 and
700 mm (Slump-flow is defined as the average diameter of the
spread concrete in the slump test). provided that the water
does not bleed from the edge of spread concrete, and that the
coarse aggregate does not accumlate at the center of spread
concrete.
The authors have proposed a mixture proportioning scheme
for highly-flowable concrete incorporating limestone powder.
The key feature is that the quantity of aggregates including
limestone powder is the same even if the water-cement ratio
(w/c), water content, and fine aggregate-total aggregate ratio
(s/a) in the concrete are different. It is possible to chose
the required average strength, water content and s/a according
to the specification of concrete work and quality of concrete
materials used.
The outline of the method is as follows:
1) The required volume of cement paste including air content
shall be more than 300 liters per 1 m 3 of concrete.
2) It is applicable in the w/c range of 0.40-0.70.
3) Limestone powder is used to replace a part of fine or coarse
aggregate by 20 %. Fig.l shows the relation between the
quantity of limestone powder and slump-flow of highly-flowable
concrete when replacing 10 %, 20 % and 30 % of the aggregate
volume with limestone powder, respectively, in the base mixture
proportion shown in Table 3. The concrete obtained by replacing
20 % of coarse aggregate content with limestone powder has been
most suitable for field use.
4) The s/a shall be determined according to the percentage of
absolute volume of coarse aggregate and the fineness modulus of
fine aggregate.
5) The quantity of high-range water-reducing admixture shall be
chosen according to the kind of fine aggregate or mixing
conditions, such as type of mixer and its capacity.
Table.4 shows examples of mixture proportions for highly-
flowable concrete incorporating limestone powder and the
quality of their mixtures has been proved to be good in field
applications.
Characteristics of Bighly-flovable Concrete
The test results for the highly-flowable concrete examples
are also given in Table 4. It is very easy to reproduce these
properties for highly-flowable concrete incorporating limestone
powder. Strength of the concrete seems to be slightly higher

A C 1 SP-154 95 E 0662949 0522256 BbT E
than that of ordinary concrete with the same w/c. And as shown
later, the drying shrinkage was also less than that of ordinary
concrete.
Generally, it is considered that highly-flowable concrete
is suited for horizontal members because it is self-leveling.
However, trowelling is difficult due to the high viscosity of
the concrete. Therefore, for monolithic concrete floor finish,
the use of ordinary concrete is preferable. The appearance of
concrete structures made with the highly-flowable concrete
incorporating limestone powder is beautiful; the concrete looks
whitish due to the color of limestone.
CRACK-CONTROL YETEOD FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
In the previous study (5) on crack-control methods for

preventing harmful cracks in external Wal 1s of the reinforced
concrete structures, the following countermeasures were carried
out and cracking was almost completely prevented:
1) Place lower shrinkage concrete using an expansive additive
and a shrinkage-reducing agent in external walls where the need
for crack-prevention is high.
2) Provide contraction joints on both sides of pillars in
external walls of each span.
3) Sufficiently reinforce against cracking around openings and
diagonal cracks in end portions of the structure.
Drying Shrinkage of Concrete with SEA and EA
By using EA and SRA together, it is possible to greately
reduce the drying shrinkage of concrete and crack-free concrete
can be obtained. However,this results in considerable increase
of the material cost of concrete. Therefore, a method has been
proposed, in which such a concrete is placed only in members
where the need for crack-prevention is high as shown in Fig.2.
The unrestrained or restrained concrete specimens with
size of 1OOX10OX400 mm and having the mixture proportions shown
in Table 5 were prepared, and the length-change measurements
were carried out. For the restrained specimens, a restraining
steel bar having a diameter of 11 mm and joined to end plates,
was cast into the center of the specimens.
Results of Yeasurewent with Unrestrained Specimens
Free shrinkage of the concrete specimens was measured
under the drying condition of 20 C and 60 %R.R. in accordance
with JIS A1129 (Testing Method of Length-change for Mortar and
Concrete).

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522257 7Tb M
The test results are given in Fig.3. It was demonstrated that

drying shrinkage of concrete could be decreased cumulatively by
using SRA and EA.
Results of Measurement with Restrained Specimens
Fig.4 shows results of the test in which expansion and
contraction of the restrained specimens prepared with various
kinds of concrete having the mixture proportion as indicated in
Table 5 were measured in accordance with J I S A6202 (Expansive
Additive for Concrete).
It is noteworty that the initial expansion due to EA is
increased by the combinated use with SRA. It is considered t o
be the synergetic effect of both admixtures.
Crack-reducing Effect with Combined use of SEA and EA
When SRA and EA were used together, the two admixtures did
not adversely affect each other; each actually enhanced the
effect of the other. Using EA and SRA together contributes to
crack- prevention in all portions of a reinforced concrete
structure for the following reasons. When EA is used alone,
concrete expands freely near surfaces where less restrained,
resulting in insufficient shrinkage reduction. Furthermore,
concrete near the surface is susceptible to shrinkage by
carbonation, which may cause surface cracks. Therefore, the co-
use of SRA can improve this weak point, and further increases
expansion stress at restrained regions.
In this test, the differences due to types of expansive
additive was examined, because the CSA- and CAO-type EA differ
from each other in reaction mechanism. However, as shown in
Fig.3 and Fig.4, there was no significant difference between
the effects of the CSA- and CAO-type EA in combined use with
SRA.
REDUCING SHRINKAGE OF HIGHLY-FLOIABLE CONCRETE
Generally, chemical shrinkage due to cement hydration and

drying shrinkage of hardened concrete increases as the content
of cementitious materials increases. However, limestone powder
which is a low reactivity material,may reduce shrinkage strains
of concrete.
The drying shrinkage of the highly-flowable concrete with
limestone powder, was less than that of ordinary concrete, as
stated later. Nevertheless, the application of SRA and EA to
this concrete further reduced shrinkage strains of it so that
it would be a crack-resistant concrete. The chemical shrinkage
due to cement hydration and the drying shrinkage of various
types of concrete are shown in Table 6.

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2949 0522256 b32 E
Mixture Proportions and Materials

The mixture proportions for various types o f concrete
involved in this study are summarized in Table 6. For ordinary
concrete as the control, an admixture having the action of air-
entraining and water-reducing was used.
Drying Shrinkage Test
The drying shrinkage of unrestrained concrete specimens
was measured in accordance with JIS A1129. The size of each
specimen was lOOX100X400 mm. Five kinds of concrete specimens
were cast and demolded at 24hrs. After the molds were removed,
the specimens were cured in water for 7 days, and then dried in
the testing room at 20 t and 60 %RH.
Autogenous Shrinkage Test
Autogenous shrinkage including chemical shrinkage due to
cement hydration, was measured after the setting was complete.
The autogenous shrinkage tests were carried out using sealed
and non-sealed specimens. The dimension of each specimen was
100XlOOX400 mm and three specimens were prepared in every test.
The principal test for sealed concrete specimens (A-test)
ras conducted according to the following procedure: Five kinds
of specimens having the mixture proportions shown in Table 6,
were cast and covered with poly-ethylene film, and left in the
casting room at 20 t for 24hrs. After they were demolded, tips
for measurement were attached to each specimen, and all the
surfaces then sealed with aluminum foil and sealant. After the
initial measurement of length and weight, the specimens were
stored in the testing room at 20 T and 60 %RH.
In pararell with the above test, drying shrinkage of non-
sealed concrete specimens prepared under similar conditions,
was also measured at 20 t and 60 %RB (B-test). This test was
started after the demolding for 24hrs.
Test Results
The characteristics of fresh concrete having the mixture
proportions shown in Table 6 are given in Table 7. The "SI"
stands for segregation index which was proposed by 8.FUJIWARA
et al. to evaluate the resistance to segregation of highly-
flowable concrete (6). The outline of the testing method is
illustrated in Fig.5. Test results of compressive strength are
given in Table 8. The 3-day and 7-day compresive strength of
No.4 concrete with EA and SRA was slightly lower compared with
the others. However, at later ages, the concrete recovered to
the same level. Strengh of No.5 ordinary concrete air-entrained
was relatively lower.

Fig.6 shows the results of of normal drying shrinkage test

of the highly-flowable concrete incorporating limestone powder
having various kinds of mixture proportions. and Fig.7 shows
the weight variation of specimens measured in the test. Drying
shrinkage of the highly-flowable concrete with limestone powder
(BFC) was slightly less than that of ordinary concrete, which
shrinks to approximately ( 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 ) x 1 0 - 6 . Consequently, it is
considered that the BFC has lower shrinkage potential than
ordinary concrete. By adding EA or SEA to the concrete, drying
shrinkage can be reduced to less than the critical value of
drying shrinkage for cracking ( 4 0 0 x 1 0 - ” ) suggested by the
authors. Furthermore,it is possible to reduce drying shrinkage
to less than 3 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 by combining these two admixtures.
Fig.8 shows the test results of autogenous shrinkage o f
the highly-flowable concretes and ordinary concrete, and Fig.9
shows the weight variation of specimens in this test. As is
evident from these figures, shrinkage strains increase with
time although the change in weight of specimen is very small.
The reason is because when the capillary water in the cement
matrix is being consumed for cement hydration, a shrinkage
stress corresponding to the surface tension of the pore-water
is generated
The autogenous shrinkage of the highly-flowable concrete
having a combination of limestone powder and a viscosity-
increasing agent, was less than that of ordinary concrete with
the same w/c. T.Kawai et al. showed that autogenous shrinkage
of highly-flowable concrete containing a polyacryl amide based
viscosity-increasing agent is almost the same as that of the
control for dosage up to 2.2 % of the unit water content (7).
Hence, it is considered that, in the highly-flowable concrete
developed by the authors, there is little influence on the
autogenous shrinkage by the viscosity-increasung agent because
the dosage is approximately 1.7 %. In the study by E.Tazawa et
al.(8), it is described that the autogenous shrinkage of cement
paste can be reduced by adding EA or/and SEA, and that of the
specimen added with EA and SRA is very small. Here, it is shown
that autogenous shrinkage of the highly-flowable concrete with
limestone powder can be reduced by adding EA and SEA together.
In addition, the drying shrinkage and weight variation of
non-sealed specimens in autogenous shrinkage test (B-test) were
about twice as large as that of sealed specimens in normal
drying shrinkage test which were cured in water for 7 days.
Accordingly,it is considered that moisture curing at early ages
is very important especially in the highly-fiowable concrete.

A C 1 SP-154 75 m 0662749 0522260 290 m
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
1) Highly-flowable concrete which is resistant to segregation,

is not only easy to place, but it also has the merits described
below, and contributes to the modernization of concrete work.
a) It reduces labor and is easier to work with.
b) Concrete quality is not influenced by skill of labor.
c) Uniformity and required properties of concrete are easily
obtained.
It is hoped that this type of concrete will be used for a
variety of projects to produce reliable and durable concrete
structures,
2) Although cracking in reinforced concrete structures is
influenced by the potential drying shrinkage resulting from
mixture proportioning and materials and also by expansion and
contraction due to fluctuations in temperature and external
stresses, the eîîect of drying shrinkage is greatest.
The authors have studied some methods of reducing the
potential drying shrinkage of concrete, and understood that it
is necessary to consider both drying shrinkage of hardened
concrete and shrinkage resulting from carbonation in air and
autogenous shrinkage due to hydration. It is confirmed that
drying shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage of highly-flowable
concrete incorporating limestone powder is less than that of
ordinary concrete.
3) Cracking generally occurs when free shrinkage of concrete is
beyond the limit of tensile deformation. Moreover, because the
cracking is also influenced by creep and restriction of
reinforcement, the relationship among the various factors is
complex. The following equation shows the relationship between
strain due to shrinkage and tensile stress.
Ec
ut=r* €f *- (1)
1+Q
where, Ut: tensile stress
Ef: free shrinkage strain
Ec: elastic modulus of concrete
Q : creep coefficient of concrete
7 : degree of restriction
For example, assuming that 7 = 0 . 4 , Ec=O. 3xlO’(MPa), b=l. O
and Ut=3.O (MPa). then Ef i s equal to 400x10 ‘.
The authors consider this value to be the limit free shrinkage
controlling cracking due to drying shrinkage.

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 0662949 0522261 1 2 7 W
4) Various types of mixture proportions for highly-flowable

concrete have been developed in Japan. The use of limestone
powder as fine material was selected because it is superior to
other fine materials in quality, cost and availability, and it
is easy to reproduce the mixture properties of concrete.
Highly-flowable concrete to which a small amount of viscosity-
increasing agent is added to prevent segregation, is highly-
flowable and resistant to segregation and bleeding. Finished
surface, strength and drying shrinkage characteristics are also
superior.
5) A method is proposed for partial placement of lower
shrinkage concrete or the highly-flowable concrete in different
sections of the structure is attractive from a cost standpoint.
Placement of different types of concrete at the same time has
been rarely carried out, since the quality of these concrete
may vary and it would be unclear where the responsibility for
quality of concrete lies, Bowever, such construction work may
be permitted in cases where the quality of the concrete is
uniform and it is clear where the reponsibility lies.
6) Highly-flowable concrete must be not only easy to place, but
must also be superior to ordinary concrete in strength and
durability. It is particularly necessary to also throughly
examine the cracking potential of the concrete. Although there
are very few problems related to shrinkage cracking of highly-
flowable concrete incorporating limestone powder, i t is still
necessary to further reduce drying shrinkage of the concrete to
prevent cracking.
The authors also examined the effects of expansive
additives and shrinkage-reducing agents to reduce shrinkage
properties. The unrestrained drying shrinkage strain was
reduced to less than the assumed limit value for cracking (400
X10 "1 through the use of these admixtures. If an expansive
additive is used in combination with a shrinkage-reducing
agent, it is possible to greatly reduce the drying shrinkage
and the potential for cracking, This could be called the ideal
high-performance concrete.
REFERENCES
1. O Z A W A , K . , MAEKAWA, K . and O K A M U R A , H. "Development of High

Performance Concrete", Proceedings of the JCI,Vol. 11, No, 1.
1989
2. AYANO, T., S A K A T A , K . , OCAWA, A. and KANEKO, T. "A Study on Mixture
Proportioning of Highly-Plowable Concrete with Limestone
Powder",Proceedings of the JCI,Vol. 26, N o . 1,pp. 167-172,1993

A C 1 SP-I154 95 IObb2949 05222b2 Ob3
3. OGAWA,A . , MURAD,M. and KANEKO,T. (1994) "Application of Highly-

flowable lowable Concrete to Actual Concrete Structures",
Proeedings of the JAS Anual Meeting,No.1306
4. SAKATA,K., AYANO,T. and OGAWA,A. "Mixture Proportioning for
Highly-Flowable Concrete Incorporating Limestone Powder",
Fifth CANMET/ACI International Conference on Fly ash, Silica
fume, Slag and Natural pozzolans in Concrete, Milwaukee,WS.,
U. S. A . , June 1995.
5. OGAWA, A. and TOMITA,E. "Crack-control of Reinforced Concrete
Structures by Using Shrinkage-reducing Agent in Combination
with Expansive Additive", International Conference 2000
Economical and Durable Construction Through Excellence,
Dundee,U. K., Sept. 1993.
6. FUJIWARA. E., SEIMOYAMA,Y., TOMITA,R. and KUBOTA,H. 'Basic Study
on the Fil ling of Highly-flowable Concrete", Proceedings of
the JCI,Vol. 14, No. 1,pp. 123-130. 1992
7. KAWAI, T. and KURODA,Y. (1994) "Research on Various Properties
of Eighly-flowable Concrete Made from Low-heat Cement",
Proceedings of JCI 2nd Symposium on Super-f lowable Concrete,
pp. 123-130, May 1994
8. Tazawa,E. and Miyazawa,S. "Autogenous Shrinkage due to Cement
Hydration".Concrete Journal of the JCI,Vol. 32,No. 9,pp. 25-30,
1994

A C 1 SP-LSq 95 0662949 0522263 T T T
TABLE 1 - QUALITY OF LIMESTONE POWDER
Moisture o. 12%
SiO2 content O. 24%
Ca0 content 55.16%
(Cab, purity) 98.50%
Specific gravity 2. 72
Fineness modulus by Blaine method 2,920 cm'/g
TABLE 2 - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate*

Specific gravity 2. 72 2. 61
Absorption,(%) 1. 41 1. 91
Fineness modulus 6. 77 2. 25
* Blended sand
TABLE 3 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS OF BASE CONCRETE

-
Air s/a Unit weight (kg/m')
V/C
(%> (%) 1 C Lp" S G IIRWRA VIA"*
2.0 0.50 47.5 170 340 - 867 1,006 8.0 3.0
' Limestone powder, ** Viscosi t.y-increasing agent
TABLE 4 - EXAMPLES OF HIGHLY-FLOWABLE CONCRETE INCORPORATING LIMESTONE POWDER

AND THE TEST RESULTS
s/a Air Slump-flow Unit weight (kg/m') Comp.Strength

No. dc
(%I (%> (mm) W C Lp SP' VJA** 7day 28day
~~ ~~
00.50 52.5 1.20 640x650 180 360 154 8.0 3.0 40.8 48.8MPa
00.55 51.0 1.80 615x620 180 327 162 8. O 3.0 34.2 43.8
@ I 50.0
0.60 1.30 610x630 180 300 174 8.0 3.0 32.3 39.8
* SP: HRWRA, * * Viscosity-increaqing agent

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522264 936 =
TABLE 5 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS OF LOWER SHRINKAGE CONCRETE
KO. Slump Air WiC s/a C t Ex" SRA"'

N 180mm 4 II; 0.57 46 % 335 kg/m3 -
E(1.2)' 180 4 O. 57 46 305t30 -
ES(1.2)' 180 4 0.S7 46 305t30 7. 5-kg/m3
*.
- Suffix indicates type of expansive additive,1)CSA-type
Ex:Expansive additive, Shrinkage-reducing agent
--*
2)CAO-type
TABLE 6 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS FOR HIGHLY-FLOWABLE CONCRETE
h. Air F/C s/a Unit weight (kg/rnj)
(%I (%I
W C Lp EA SRA HRKRA VIA
~
1 1. O 0.50 52 180 360 154 - - 10.8 3. O

2 1.0 0.50 52 180 330 154 30 - 10.8 3.0
3 1.0 0.50 52 180 360 154 - 6.0 10.8 3. O
4 1.0 0.50 52 180 330 154 30 6.0 10.8 3.0
5 5.0 0.50 46 190 380 - - - CXl.O%' -
* air-entraining and water-reducing admixture
TABLE 7 - PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Conc. Temp. Slump-flow (mm1 Air SI"
NO.
(%) . right after 30-min. later 60-min. later (96) (96)
1 22. O 640x670(655)' 640x650(645)' 630x640(635)* 2.3 2.5
2 22. O 645x625(632) 630rG50(650) 630x620(625) 2.2 2.8
3 20.5 700x665(682) 650rG50(650) 670~650G60) 1.8 2.1
4 22. O 645x655(650) 630rG60(622) 620x625(622) 2.1 1.9
5 19.0 180 mrn(s1urnp) 6. O -
Average value, Segregation Index
TABLE 8 - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF HARDENED CONCRETE
Compressive Strength (MPa)

NO.
at 3 days at 7 days at 28 days at 91 days
1 31. O 40. 8 48. 4 53.3

2 30. 1 38. 3 46. 7 56.8
3 27. 7 39. 8 47. 1 53. 8
4 21. 6 30. O 44. o 54. 7
5 - 23. O 33. o -

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522265 8 7 2 m
Percent of replacement for aggregate volume

O 7’0 10% 20% 30%
70.0
t CoarSe aggregate replacement I
O 90 180 270
Quantity of 1 imestone powder (kg/m3)
Fig. 1-Relation between quantity of limestone powder and slump-flow

of highly-flowable concrete
N: Ordinary c o n c r e t e
E: Expansive c o u c r e t e
ES: Concrete with EA and SRA
FL FL
i1
Fig. 2-Example of division for concrete placement

A C 1 SP-I154 95 I0662949 0522266 709 I
O 2 4 6 8 10 12
Age (month)
Fig. 3-Test results of free drying shrinkage
300 t " " ' / " ' 1 ' ' ' 1 ' 1 ' ~ " !
Y-- 200
O
4
x 100 .... . .. ... ... . . . . . . ..
C
3 -300
-400
O 2 4 6 8 10 12
Age (month)
Fig. +Test results of drying shrinkage with restricted specimen

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662749 0522267 645
Aeight of mortar passed through f o r 5-min. (g>

SI= x 100 (%I
Content of mortar in 2-L. of concrete sample(g)
Measuring container of 2-L
Sieve with 5-mm mesh

f - -
I Vessel
Fig. 5-Testing method of segregation index
200
O ....... ..........................................
HF*EA+SRA (No.4)
-200 .........
-400 .................
i :
-600 .............. ...............
1
L
. 4
-800 L. I . , . , I I
O 28 56 84 1 1 2 140 168 196

Age (day)
Fig. X T e s t results of drying shrinkage

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522268 581 W
(A- t e s t )
, . . , , , , , .
O 14 28 42 56
Age (day)
HF+EA (Na.?)
O +HF+EA+CRA (Na41
\y-------
-500
1000
! , , , . . ! , , 1
O 14 28 42 56
Fig. L T e s t results of autogenous shrinkage

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0 5 2 2 2 b 9 4 L ô
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
O 28 56 84 112 140 168
Age (day)
Fig. 7-Weight variation in drying shrinkage test
L ' " " ' l " r__, , , . , , , , , ,

0.0
-1.0
aJ
M
r: -2.0
cb
c
V
c -3.0
M
.-
aJ
-4.0
Fig. 9-Weight variation in autogenous shrinkage test

SP 154-5
Creep and Shrinkage of High-Strength

Concrete at Early and Normal Ages
by N. Han and J. C. Walraven
SvnoDsis: In this paper the results of an ongoing experimental research program

on creep and shrinkage behaviour of high strength concrete loaded at an early age
(16 hours) and a normal age (28 days) is presented. The experiments were carried
out on high strength concrete with three types of aggregates (crushed gravel,
granite and limestone). The concretes are dried and loaded at ages of 16 hours
and 28 days after casting. Loading levels with stresdstrength ratios ranging from
0.15 to 0.70 are adopted in the experiments. The creep deformations are
measured for a duration ranging from 90 to 210 days. The experimental results
are compared with the predictions of CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, the modified
MC90 model and the model proposed by AC1 Committee 209. The ageing effect
(in particular, at early ages) is emphasized, whereas the influences of various
factors on the ageing effect are discussed.
Kevwords: Aggregates; creeu Drouerties; high-strength concretes;

shrinkage; silica fume; stiffness; strength; stresses
73
A C 1 SP-154 75 W Obb2747 0522273 O76 =
74 Han and Walraven
Ningxu Han is a research assistant at the Delft University of Technology, the

Netherlands. His main fields of interest are: materials and mechanical properties
of high strength and high performance concrete.
Joost C. Walraven is professor of structural engineering and head of the

department of mechanics and structures of the Faculty of Civil Engineering, the
Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. He is Co-chairman of CEB
Commission II, ‘Modelling of Material and Structural Behaviour’ and member of
the CEB-FIP Working Group on ‘High Strength Concrete’.
INTRODUCTION
Creep and shrinkage of concrete are both time-dependent aspects of

behaviour, which are essential for the structural engineer in designing safe and
serviceable structures. Unlike other structural materials, concrete exhibits a far
more complex time-dependent behaviour, since its strength and stiffness change
with time and are influenced by temperature and relative humidity [i]. Up-to-date
knowledge about the mechanism of creep and shrinkage is still incomplete, and
empirical creep and shrinkage expressions are still used to predict these
behaviours.
For the construction industry, knowledge of the properties of concrete at

early ages becomes more and more important. Early form work stripping,
accelerating the construction process and shortening the production cycle time in
the prefabricating industry and early application of prestress in structural elements
are examples. In such cases, it is clear that improved knowledge of time-
dependent deformation of concrete at early ages is indispensable.
High strength concrete is a rather recent development in concrete

technology. Thanks to significant improvements of its material structure, high
strength concrete offers superior properties in relation to ordinary concrete in
many respects. Among these advantages, early high strength and stiffness become
more and more interesting for prefabricating and prestressing industries. This
offers the possibility of early demoulding and early application of prestress. To
fuily take advantage of these superior properties, a sound knowledge of the time-
dependent behaviour of high strength concrete is essential.
In this paper the results of an ongoing experimental research program on

the creep and shrinkage behaviour of high strength concrete at early and normal
ages is presented. The experimental results are compared with the predictions of
CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, the modified MC90 model and the model proposed

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 Obb2949 O522272 TO2
by AC1 Committee 209. The ageing effect (in particular, at early ages) is
discussed, whereas the influences of various factors on ageing are discussed.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Materials and Mixture Proportions
AU the HSC mixtures were prepared with rapid hardening portland cement
(class C ) . River sand was used as fine aggregate, whereas three different coarse
aggregates were used, i.e. crushed gravel, granite and limestone. The fine and
coarse aggregates were totally dried in air. therefore, they contained no moisture
before mixing. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate was 16 mm. Silica
fume was added in the form of dry powder. For one type of high performance
concrete (HSC-cg-n, with crushed gravel as coarse aggregate, for the creep test
with loading at a normal age), a superplasticizer containing lignosulfonate with a
little Na-gluconate, lignosulfonate and naphthalene was used. For three other
types of high strength concretes (HSC-cg-e, HSC-gr-e and HSC-1s-e, with
crushed gravel, granite and limestone as coarse aggregates respectively, for the
creep tests with loading at an early age), a melamine-based superplasticizer was
used. The slumps of HSC mixtures were higher than 200 mm. The details of the
mixture proportions are given in Table 1.
The test specimens were prisms which were cast III horizontal moulds of
100 x 100 mm in cross-section and 400 mm in length. Additionally, cubes of 100
x 100 x 100 mm were used for reference-tests. Immediately after casting, the
open surface of the specimens was covered with a plastic foil to avoid moisture
losses. Au specimens were then placed in a curing room with 65% relative
humidity and a temperature of 20 k 3 OC. Two hours before testing, the plastic
foil was removed in order to prepare the specimens (i.e. to glue the measuring
devices on the specimens). For the creep tests at normal ages, 65% relative
humidity and a temperature of 20 OC were kept constant during the whole test
period, whereas 50% relative humidity and the same temperature were applied for
the creep tests at early ages. AU the reference specimens were cured in the same
condition as the test specimens.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522273 949 m
76 Han and Walraven
Test Parameters and Procedures
Creep tests with loading at a concrete age of 28 days were carried out for
only one type of HSC. Three stresslstrength ratios were adopted, i.e. 15%, 35%
and 50%. For any loading level, two specimens, which were placed on the top of I
one another, were used. Also, two specimens were stored in the same condition I
for observing the shrinkage behaviour. For the creep tests with loading at an early
age (16 hours), three loading levels were used, i.e. 30%, 50% and 70% of the ~
strength at the moment of loading. Just before the test, three cubes were tested
for the strength control of concrete, and three prisms were tested to obtain the
average value of the prism-strength which was used to figure out the loading
level. In addition, the development of strength and E-modulus was determined at
16 hours, 3 days, 7 days, 28 days, 90 days and 180 days after casting of the i
concrete.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Development of strength and E-modulus versus time
Concrete is an ageing material, which implies that its properties change with
time. In fact, a lot of influencing factors are involved in this process. Among
others, the type of cement used, the curing conditions including the relative
humidity and temperature play a role. Basically, the strength and the E-modulus
develop very fast in the first period after casting (about several days). From then
on, the rate of development decreases. Fig. I and Fig. 2 show the rate of
development of strength and E-modulus. It indicates that the E-modulus develops
faster than the strength. It has to be pointed out that the test data of the strength
and E-modulus development come from measurement on reference specimens
which are free of external load. Actually, ail the specimens in the creep tests, to
some extent, are subject to pressure. Consequently, two contradictory tendencies
appear [2, 31. At a low loading level, the external pressure may result in a
beneficial effect to the strength as well as the E-modulus, whereas high initiai
stress may lead to a detrimental effect, as far as the later development of
mechanical properties of concrete is concerned. This is considered by the CEB-
FiP Model Code (MC90) as the strength development under sustained load.
In Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 the development of the strength and the E-modulus
versus time from the reference tests are compared with the predictions by MC90
and ACI-209 [4,5]. In both approaches, the type of cement, the curing
temperature and the relative humidity are taken into account. In MC90, the
cylinder compressive strength of the concrete at a time t is estimated as follows:

A C 1 SP-154 75 Obb2949 O522274 8 8 5 =
wheref, is the mean compressive strength at 28 days; t is the age of concrete in

days; ti is taken as 1 day; s is a coefficient which depends on the type of cement
used in the concrete. The E-modulus at an age t is estimated as follows:
where E, is the modulus of elasticity at 28 days. Other parameters are the same as
those in eq. (1). In the ACI-209 model, the strength at any time t is predicted by
the following equation:
wheref, is the 28-day strength; a and ß are constants which are functions of the
type of cement used and the curing conditions, respectively. The modulus of
elasticity can be estimated as follows:
where g,, is taken as 0.043; w is the unit weight of the concrete in kg/m3;fcm(t) is
calculated from eq. (3).
From the comparison, it can be clearly seen that MC90 underestimates both
strength and E-modulus at an age earlier than 28 days. Afterwards, it slightly
overestimates tdl the age of 90 days. In comparison with MC90, the ACI-209
approach shows a better late-age estimation, whereas the early-age prediction
remains poor. It has to be mentioned that, although MC90 covers the strength
range up to 80 N/mm2 (28-day characteristic cylinder strength), the contribution
of silica fume to the strength development is not considered. The ACI-209
regulation does not cover high strength concrete.
As far as the influence of the aggregate on the development of the

mechanical properties of high performance concrete is concerned, no significant

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522275 7 1 1
78 Han and Walraven
difference was found between aggregates used, especially at later ages. At early
ages, crushed gravel shows a slightly faster increase of the strength than the two
other aggregates, whereas limestone shows a higher rate of development of the E-
modulus.
Shrinkage of HSC at earlv and normal ages
In Fig. 3 the shrinkage of HSC with crushed gravel exposed to drying from
an age of 28 days is presented. From Fig. 4 to Fig. 6, the shrinkage strains
measured for HSC with different aggregates exposed to drying at very early ages
are shown. At the mean time, results from three shrinkage prediction models are
also included in these figures.
Normally, when shrinkage is mentioned, drying shrinkage is meant, which is

caused by a loss of water from the concrete. Chemical shrinkage is generally
related to the hydration process, which'is regarded as a secondary factor if the
concrete is exposed to drying at a relatively late age. This can be clearly seen
from Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. If the concrete is exposed to drying at an age of 16 hours
after casting (see Fig. 4), the shrinkage value is about twice as large as in the case
of drying at an age of 28 days, after a drying time of 2000 hours. This also implies
that, at an early age, a significant contribution of the chemical shrinkage to the
total time-dependent deformation is found. For HSC, chemical shrinkage plays a
dominant role at an early age due to the low water-cement ratio and the use of
silica fume, which results in a much finer pore-structure of the concrete [6].
As far as the influence of the type of aggregate on the early-age shrinkage is

concerned, HSC with limestone shows a smaller shrinkage than the two other
types of aggregates used. The rate of shrinkage of limestone concrete is also
smaller than in the other concrete. This might be due to the higher early E-
modulus of limestone HSC indicated in Fig. 2.
For the sake of comparison, three expressions [4, 5 , 71 for predicting the
shrinkage of concrete exposed to drying are examined by using the test data The
factors considered in the expressions are, among others, the compressive strength
of the concrete, the type of cement, the relative humidity, the size and the shape
of the specimen, the age of the concrete and the time of drying. In addition, the
ACI-209 model also takes the composition of concrete into account. However, it
has to be pointed out that ail these expressions do not involve the use of silica
fume. From Fig. 3 to Fig. 6, it can be seen that the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990
(MC90) and the modified MC90 model (from Yue et.al) underestimate the
shrinkage of the HSC at normal age (28 days), whereas, for early ages, they
generally overestimate the shrinkage, except for the first few days after the start
of the drying process. The relation given by ACI-209 appears to be better in
predicting the shrinkage of HSC at a normal age than the two other models.

A C 1 S P - I 5 4 75 = Obb2947 0522276 658 m
However, for the early-age shrinkage, it significantly underestimates the

shrinkage.
Creep of HSC at earlv and normal ages
From Fig. 7 to Fig. 10, creep values for three different types of HSC loaded
at three different stresdstrength ratios at an early and a normal age are shown. In
Table 2, the data for creep, shrinkage, the creep coefficient, etc., after a loading
duration of about 210 days for HSC loaded at an age of 28 days, are summarized.
From Table 3 to Table 5, the early creep behaviour of HSC up to 90 days is
summarised.
Regarding the test results, a first impression is that the creep strain for the
HSC used is quite small in comparison with that of ordinary concrete (see Fig. 7).
The creep deformations generally occur very fast, i.e. the rate of creep for HSC is
higher. This is specially true for HSC loaded at early ages. The large part of the
creep strains occurs during the first 20 days and the increase thereafter is rather
small as is shown in Fig. 8, Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. This is also confirmed by other
researchers [8]. The influence of the aggregate used on the creep deformation is
less significant, although slightly smaller creep strains for HSC with limestone
were observed, especially at a lower stresdstrength ratio. This might be attributed
to the higher early development of the E-modulus.
The creep deformations of HSC loaded at a normal age, is generally

considered to be smaller than that predicted by MC90 and ACI-209, whereas the
prediction by Yue’s expression is better [4, 5, 71 (see Fig. 11). For the creep of
HSC loaded at 16 hours, all three expressions do not predict the initial higher rate
of creep, whereas the later-age creep is overestimated (see Fig. 12 to Fig. 14).
This is believed to be due to the decreasing time-dependent development of
strength and stiffness development, which are not taken into consideration by
these expressions.
In Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 the strains upon introducing the load, related to the
different stressktrength ratios for various HSC mixtures are shown. For both
HSC loaded at 16 hours and 28 days, the short term strains (elastic strains) are
basically linear till a stress level of 70% of the strength. This is in agreement with
previous observations [9, 101. The long-term strains of HSC loaded at 28 days
show a linear relation to a stress/strength ratio up to 70%, whereas the long-term
strains of HSC loaded at 16 hours reveal such a linear relation only up to about
SO% of the stresdstrength ratio. Previous works revealed that the non-linear
relation between stress and deformation originates from the development of
microcracks inside the concrete [ l i ] . Because of the differences of the material
structures between HSC and ordinary concrete, the starting point of this non-
linear relation (limit of linearity) varies significantly. From this investigation, it can

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m Ob62949 0522277 594 m
80 Han and Walraven
be seen that early age HSC behaves in a similar way as ordinary concrete loaded
at a normal age. From Table 2 to Table 5 , the comparisons of the creep
coefficient and the specific creep between HSC and early age HSC c o n f i i this
conclusion. For the same type of concrete, the creep coefficient of early age HSC
can be two to three times larger than that of mature HSC, whereas the specific
creep can reach about 8 to 10 times higher values. This defitely has to be
considered when early age HSC is used in practice.
An important point regarding the influence of the stresdstrength ratio is,

that actually this ratio decreases in time. For the creep behaviour of concrete
loaded at a late age, this change of the stresshtrength ratio is not significant.
However, for early loaded concrete, a considerable reduction may occur during
the loading period (see Fig. 17). If the influence of external pressure (due to
compressive load) on the development of the strength is ignored, after 90 days of
loading, the stress/strength ratio may be reduced to half of its original value.
CONCLUSIONS
The development of both strength and stiffness of HSC at early ages is much
fast than that of ordinary concrete. To predict this increased development, the
existing expressions have to be modified. No significant effects of the
aggregate type on the development of strength and stiffness were found.
The drying shrinkage at a normal age of HSC is rather smali, whereas the
chemical shrinkage of early age HSC is very large. Among three types of early
age HSC, the type with limestone shows a smaller shrinkage than the other
ones, due to its higher early stiffness. Because of the fast initial development
of the shrinkage, the expressions used to predict the shrinkage clearly
underestimate the shrinkage at early ages, whereas, at later ages,
overestimation is found.
Creep of early age HSC and mature HSC is significantly different. The rate of
creep of early age HSC is much higher. The type of aggregate seems to have
no considerable influence on the creep behaviour. Just as in the case of
shrinkage, the expressions used generally underestimate the creep at early
ages. In comparison with more mature HSC, early age HSC has a relatively
lower limit of linear behaviour as far as the stresdstrength ratio is concerned.
Due attention to the time-dependent behaviour has to be paid when early age
HSC is used in practice.

A C 1 SP-L5Y 95 I0662949 0522278 420
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research program was financially supported by Dutch prestress and

prefabrication industry (BFBN). The authors would like to express their
appreciation to Mr. G . W. Nagtegaal and Mr. E. Horeweg for their help in the
laboratory.
REFERENCES
1. N. Han, Creep of High Strength Concrete at early ages - state of the art
report, Stevin Laboratory Report, September 1994, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, 56 pp.
2. N. Han and J. C. Walraven, Properties of High Strength Concrete

Subjected to Uniaxial Loading, Proceedings, AC1 International Conference
on High Performance Concrete, Singapore, 1994, AC1 Publication SP- 149,
pp. 269-288.
3. N. Han, Time-Dependent Behaviour of High Strength Concrete - Part I

Literature Survey, Stevin Laboratory Report, No. 25.5-92- 14, June 1992,
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, 35 pp.
4. CEB-Bulletin d’Information, CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, Final Draft

1991,No. 203, Comité Euro-Internationaldu Béton (CEB), Lausanne,
1991.
5. AC1 Committee 209, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature

Effects in Concrete Structures, Report No. AC1 209R-92, 1992.
6. F. de Larrard, P. Acker and R le Roy, Shrinkage, creep and thermal

properties, High Performance Concretes and Applications, edited by S. P.
Shah and S. H. Ahmad, Edward Arnold, 1994, pp. 65-1 14.
7. L. Yue and L. R. Taerwe, Empirical Investigation of Creep and Shrinkage

of High-Strength Concrete, Proceedings, Symposium on Utilization of High
Strength Concrete, Lillehammer, Norway, June 20-23, 1993, pp. 1263-
1270.
8. V. Pentalla and T. Rautanen, Mircroporosily, creep and shrinkage of high-

strength concrete, Proceedings, Second International Conference on
Utilization of High Strength Concrete, Berkeley, USA, AC1 Special
Publication, 1990.

A C 1 SP-154 75 0662747 0522279 3 b 7
82 Han and Walraven
9. N. Han, The behaviour of high strength concrete under sustained and slow
increasing load, 29. Forschungskolloquium, Deutscher Ausschuss für
Stahlbeton, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, 1994, pp. 13-
20. (in German)
10. N. Han and J. C. Walraven, Sustained Loading Effects in High Strength

Concrete, Proceedings, Symposium on Utilization of High Strength
Concrete, Lillehammer, Norway, June 20-23, 1993, pp. 1076-1083.
11. N. Han and J. C. Walraven, The Effect of Strain Rate on the Compressive
Properties of High Strength Concrete, Progress in Concrete Research, Vol.
2, 1991, Delft University of Technology, pp. 31-43.

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 m 0662949 O522280 089 m
in
9
o
a)

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522283 T35 =
84 Han and Walraven

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522282 951 m
7
L
5n
v,
U
I
cz
o,
U
2
c
w
c
o-
w
Ly
cz
U
U
O
z
s
2
v,
I
r+
-1
Y
m
i=

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522283 898 W
86 Han and Walraven
P
m
00
(u
Fig. 1-Cube strength development of HSC
0 crushed gravel
0 limestone
O 20 40 60 80 100
Age ( days)
Fig. 2-E-modulus development versus time

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 0522284 724 m
O 1000 2000 3ooo 4ooo 5Ooo

Time ( hours )
Fig. 3-Shrinkage of HSC for drying from an age of 28 days
0.80 I r I I
l I I
0.60
n
J
Y
a
0.40
&
.-
C
L
c
cn
0.20
0.00
O 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. &Shrinkage of HSC for drying from on age of 16 hours

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 O522285 bbO
88 Han and Walraven
0.80 1 I I I I
0.60
n
ìJ
Y
al
Y
3 0.40
.-
C
2
u)
0.20
0.00
O 400 800 1200 1600 2Ooo 2400
I
Time ( hours )
Fig. 5-Shrinkage of HSC for drying from an age of 16 hours
0.80
0 limestone
0.60
n
b%
Y
Q,
Q 0.40
Y
.-
C
L
æ
u)
0.20
0.00
O 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. &Shrinkage of HSC for drying from an age of 16 hours

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 O522286 5 T 7
0.60
n
3 0.60
v
p.
Q)
L
o 0.40
0.20
0.00
O 1o00 2000 3Ooo 4Ooo 5Ooo 6000
Time ( hours )
Fig. 7-Creep of HSC loaded at various stress levels at an age of 28 days
2.00
1
h
J
Y
p 1.00
!oi
0.00
O 600 1200 1800 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. &Creep of HSC with crushed gravel (cg) loaded at an age of 16 hours

A C 1 SP-154 95 D 0662949 0522287 433
90 Han and Walraven
2.40
1B O
h
J
Y
Q 1.20
a3
2
o
0.60
0.00
O 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. 9-Creep of HSC with granite (gr) loaded at an age of 16 hours
2.00
1.50
n
J
v
Q 1.00
a3
L
o
0.50
0.00
O 400 800 1200 1600 2OOo 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. 1û-Creep of HSC with limestone (Is) loaded at an age of 16 hours

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Ob62949 0522288 3 7 T
2.00
1.50
r
.-.-a3CI
5CI
1.00
Q
a3
2!
o 0.50
0.00
O 1000 2Ooo 3Ooo 4000 5000 6000
Time ( hours )
Fig. 11-Comparisons of creep coefficients obtained from tests with different approaches
(loaded at an age of 28 days)
Fig. 12-Creep coefficients of HSC with crushed gravel loaded at an age of 16 hours

A C 1 SP-154 95 œ Obb2949 0522289 2 0 6 œ
92 Han and Walraven
3.00
w
C
.E 2.00
u
g
n
aa
2 1.00
o
0.00
O 400 800 1200 1600 2Ooo 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. 13-Creep coefficients of HSC with granite loaded at an age of 16 hours
3.00
U
C
.g 2.00
5
L)
8
n
0,
1.00
o
0.00
O 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Time ( hours )
Fig. 14-Creep coefficients of HSC with limestone loaded at an oge of 16 hours

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522290 T28
il .-
31
-
---)--
I
I
cg-n t=o
cg-n ta10 days
l l
A
'CI2 -cg-et=û
Q ,.A'
-
O
...A.. . cg-et=90days I*
,I
m
O
c L
Q)
3 I ,
'CI
.E 1 ~~
L
z
O
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Stresdstrength ratio
Fig. 1 L l n i t i a l strain and creep strain versus stresslstrength ratio
d
Y
O
c
0
O 0.2 O .4 0.6 O .8 1
Stressktrength ratio
Fig. ló-Initial strain and creep strain versus stresslstrength ratio

A C 1 SP-354 95 = Ob62949 0522293 9 b 4 m
94 Han and Walraven
0.80
) I Cg 30%
.g
w
L
5
0
0.60
0.40
-
-
-
....A ... cg 50%
cg 70%
e
u)
À.
‘A- ---.
u) --.-a------
p!
fj 0.20 -&=--+-- ---
------a-
0.00
O 20 40 60 80 1 O0
Age of concrete ( days)
Fig. 17-Actual stresslstrength ratio development versus time

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Ob62949 0522292 B T O
SP 154-6
Resistance of Non Air-Entrained

Rice Hull Ash Concrete to Freezing
and Thawing in Saline Environment
by P. Sandberg
Svnopsis: The resistance of rice hull ash concrete to freezing and thawing in saline
environment was studied in the laboratory, for non air entrained high performance
and normal concrete. The Swedish standard test for concrete resistance to freezing
and thawing in saline environment was used.
Although the number of tests was limited, the results were very promising for
the use of RHA in non air entrained normal or high performance concrete. The
laboratory salt scaling for concrete with 1 5 3 0 % replacement of portland cement
with RHA indicated that RHA concrete without air entrainment would be fairly
resistant to freezing and thawing in most applications except for in very severe
climates. No indications on an accelerated scaling rate over time was observed for
RHA concrete, as opposite to the accelerated scaling rate found for a non air
entrained high performance silica fume concrete tested.
Keywords: Aggregates; freeze thaw durability; rice husk ash; &;

scaling; silica filme; superplasticizer
95
A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522293 737 m
96 Sandberg
P. Sandberg has been working with cement and concrete research since receiving a
M.Sc. in Chemical Engineering at Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden, in 1988.
His major research interests include chloride initiated reinforcement corrosion in
concrete, general durability of concrete, and cement chemistry. He is currently
employed at Cementa AB, and studying at the Division of Building Materials, Lund
Institute of Technology, Sweden.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the use of rice hull ash
(RHA) as a mineral admixture in concrete /1,2/. RHA is produced by burning rice
hulls from the dehusking of paddy rice. If produced properly, RHA is a highly
reactive mineral admixtures due to its cellular structure and its high amorphous silica
content. The cellular structure provides a surface area of 50-100 m2/g. RHA is
frequently available in rice producing countries. 'Ihus it is a pozzolanic material of
high potential value for the concrete industry.
This study focuses on the use of RHA in concrete exposed to cyclic freezing
and thawing in saline environment (salt scaling). Traditionally, air entraining
admixtures are used in concrete to achieve resistance to salt scaling. The use of air
entraining admixtures however, causes a strength loss in the order of 5 percent for
each percent of air voids introduced into the concrete /3/.
The use of RHA in concrete would be even more beneficial, if RHA would
help to improve the resistance to salt scaling, without the use of any air entraining
admixture resulting in strength loss. Besides the general decrease in capillary
porosity associated with the pozzolanic reaction, the cellular structure of RHA may
also have some positive influence on the resistance to salt scaling. The cellular
structure may to some extent serve as an air void system, acting as a pressure relief
when subjected to freezing and thawing. RHA is in this sense unique compared to fly
ash, slag and condensed silica fume.
LABORATORY TESTING OF CONCRETE RESISTANCE TO FREEZING AND

THAWING IN SALINE ENVIRONMENT
In this study, the Swedish standard method for laboratory testing of concrete
resistance to freezing and thawing in saline environment /4/ was used. This method
has been suggested to be implemented as an European standard method within the
EU counties. The testing is known to be severe, but concretes performing well in the
test have also been found to perform well in situ /5/.
The standard curing and conditioning of the concrete involves 7 days water
curing at room temperature (2OoC), followed by 14 days of conditioning at 50%
RH, 2OoC and air velocity < 0.1 m/s. Concrete specimens are usually 50 mm thick,
and cut from >lo0 mm thick concrete cylinders or cubes.
The exposed surface is usually a cut surface, in order to avoid any "skin"
effects and bleeding effects in the original concrete surface. After sample
preparation the concrete is conditioned for another 7 days at 50% RH, 20oC and air
velocity < O. 1 m/s. After conditioning, the concrete surface to be tested is saturated in

A C 1 SP-I54 95 IObb2949 0522274 673 I
fresh water for 3 days. The fresh water is then reJhced by saline (3% NaCl) water,
and the testing is done by exposing the concrete surface through a minimum of 56
cycles of freezing and thawing /Y. One cycle of freezing and thawing is illustrated in
Fig. 1. The test setup is shown in Fig. 2.
In the present study, each test was tun until the tubber sealing was broken,
resulting in drainage of the tested concrete surface (see Fig. 2).
Evaluation of test resub

The salt scaling is measured as the mass of scaled concrete filtered from the
saline water, per unit area of the surface tested. Acceptable levels of scaling depend
on the type of structure and the aggressiveness of the environment in the field. When
evaluating laboratory cast concrete mixtures to be used for bridges etc., with very
long expected service life in severe environments, no more than 0.5 kg/m2 is
accepted in Sweden. The normal level of scaling for such laboratory cast bridge
concrete mixtures is 0.05-0.15kg/m2. However, for less critical structural parts or
less aggressive environments, higher levels of scaling are accepted, typically 1-2
kg/m2.
An accelerated rate of scaling from 28 cycles to 56 cycles is usually not
accepted. Such acceleration or "delayed scaling" is sometimes observed on very
dense concretes, which require a certain time of wetness to reach a critical degree of
saturation before the "true" onset of scaling /6/. Testing of very dense concretes are
sometimes extended from 56 to a higher number of cycles of freezing and thawing.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Materials
Cement-A Swedish sulfate resisting portland cement was used. This cement
is usually specified for high performance concrete and for concrete in severe
environments.
Rice hull a&--RHA from a commercial U.S. source was provided by
Professor P.K. Mehta at UC Berkeley. The silica in the RHA was present in
amorphous form.
Silica fume--A Norwegian highly reactive silica fume supplied as a 50%
slurry was used in a high performance concrete mixture, as a comparison to the RHA
concrete.
Aggregates--Local natural sand (SG=2.69) and 16 mm maximum size
aggregate (MSA) crushed limestone (SG=3.11) was used.
uoerDlasticizer--A sulphonated naphtalene formaldehyde condensate was
used a s a 42% slurry, having a density of 1200 kg/m3. If needed, superplasticizer
was added to reach a 10-12 cm slump concrete 5 minutes after mixing was
completed
The materials used are specified in Table 1.

A C 1 SP-L5Y 95 m 0662949 0522295 50T m
98 Sandberg
Concrete Mixtures
A high performance concrete having a W/(C+RHA) of 0.35 with 15%
replacement of portland cement with RHA was compared with 2 reference concrete
mixtures having a W/(C+SF) of 0.35, one without mineral admixtures in the binder
and one with 10% silica fume in the binder. In addition, a medium quality concrete
having a W/(C+RHA) of 0.50 with 30% replacement of portland cement with RHA
was compared to a reference concrete having a WIC of 0.50 without mineral
admixtures in the binder. No air entrainment was used in any concrete.
The concrete mixture proportions and compressive strengths at 28 days are
given in Table 2.
The concretes were mixed for 3 minutes and cast in 150 mm cubes at 2OoC,
followed by standard laboratory moist curing as described.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The compressive strength for the concrete mixtures having a W/(C+RHA) or

W/(C+SF) of 0.35 and 0.50, with or without RHA in the binder, is shown in Table 2.
The RHA had a significant positive effect on the compressive strengths after 28 days
of laboratory curing, as compared to plain portland cement concrete mixtures
without RHA or silica fume. However, the high performance RHA concrete did not
exhibit as high 28 days compressive strength as did the high performance silica
fume concrete. Significantly lower strength levels would have been expected if the
concrete mixtures were air entrained to normal air contents for concrete being
resistant to freezing and thawing, i.e. 5 6 % air.
The resistance to laboratory salt scaling for each concrete is shown in Fig. 3.
Each test was terminated when the rubber sealing (see Fig. 2) was broken, resulting
in drainage of the tested concrete surface. The use of RHA had a strong positive
’ effect on the resistance to salt scaling for high performance concrete having a
W/(C+RHA) of 0.35, and on normal concrete having a W/(C+RHA) of 0.50.
Both RHA concrete mixtures experienced a salt scaling in the order of 1-2
kg/m2 after 56 cycles of freezing and thawing, which was considerably less
compared with the reference plain portland cement concrete mixes having no
mineral admixtures. A salt scaling level of 1-2 kg/m2 after 56 cycles of freezing and
thawing indicates that RHA concrete without air entrainment would be fairly resistant
to freezing and thawing in most applications, except for very long term exposure in
severe environment. Since most RHA is produced in warmer climates, RHA concrete
would probably also be used in warmer climates, therefore not being subjected to
any severe freezing and thawing attack in most applications.
The RHA concrete mixtures did not exhibit any tendency for an accelerated
but delayed scaling rate over time, as did the high performance silica fume concrete
tested.
A possible restriction to the use of high volumes of RHA in reinforced
concrete would be an excessive pozzolanic consumption of calcium hydroxide in the
concrete. A lack of calcium hydroxide may in some applications reduce the crack
sealing capacity of the concrete, making it more vulnerable to carbonation and salt
penetration if significant cracking would occur during service /7/.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522296 44b W
SUMMARY
Although the number of tests was limited, laboratory testing of the resistance
of RHA concretes to freezing and thawing in saline environments resulted in very
promising results for the use of RHA in non air entrained normal or high
performance concrete. The laboratory salt scaling for concrete with 1530%
replacement of portland cement with RHA indicated that RHA concrete without air
entrainment would be fairly resistant to freezing and thawing in most applications
except for in very severe climates. No indications on an accelerated scaling rate over
time was observed for RHA concrete, as opposite to the accelerated scaling rate
found for a non air entrained high performance silica fume concrete tested.
REFERENCES
1. Mehta, P. K., “Durability of Concrete Exposed to Manne Environment - A

Fresh Look”, AC1 SP-109, 1988, pp. 1-29. (Ed. V.M. Malhotra).
2. Mehta, P.K.,”Concrete Technology at the Crossroads - Problems and
Opportunities”, proceedings P.K. Mehta symposium on Durability of
Concrete, Nice, 1994, pp A3-A33.
3. Mehta, P. K.,Concrete: Stnicture, Promxîies. and Materials, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., New York, 1986, pp 129.
4. -standard ’serinPen utpåva 2, 1988, SS 14 72 4 4 (in Swedish, standard
method for testing resistance to salt scaling).
5. Petersson, P.E., “Performance testing of concrete resistance to salt scaling” (in
Swedish), proceedings Durability of Marine Concrete Structures, Stockholm-
Copenhagen 1994, pp 71-84.
6. Petersson, P.E., “The influence of silica fume on the salt frost resistance of
concrete. SP-rapport 1986:32, Statens Provningsanstalt, Borås, Sweden.
7. Fagerlund, G., Durability of concrete stnictures, (in Swedish), Upplands
Grafiska AB, Uppsala, Sweden, 1987, pp 58-75.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522297 382 m
100 Sandberg
TABLE 1 - DETAILS OF MATERIALS USED
TABLE 2 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS AND SOME CONCRETE PROPERTIES
kg dry materiallm
crushed limestone 8-16mm 1207.2 1207.2

superplasticizer 1.90 2.15
Fresh concrete density kg/m3 2475 2448 2466
air content 0.8
slumpmm I 120 I 120 I 120 II 100 I 120
28d compressive strength MPa I 94.2 I 105.8 I 114 II 61.8 I 66.5

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0522298 219
30 I I I I I
- 20
10
E
G o
-10
-20
O 6 12 18 24
Time (hours)
Fig. 1-One cycle of freezing and thawing. Temperature is registered at

surface of concrete to be tested (5)
/@-
Fig. 2-Test setup for Swedish standard method "the Bods Method" for testing of concrete
resistance to freezing and thawing in saline environment. A) thermocouple, B) lid, C) 3 percent
NaCI solution, D) concrete specimen, E) rubber sealing, and F) heat isolation (5)
O
Number of freeze-thaw cycles
Fig. ?Salt scaling results for high performance concrete having a W/(C + RHA) or W/(C +
SF) of 0.35, with 15 percent and O percent replacement of portland cement with RHA or 10
percent replacement of portland cement with silica fume, and for "normal" concrete having a
W/(C + RHA) of 0.50 with 30 percent and O percent replacement of portland cement with RHA

A C 1 SP-L5i.I 95 W Obb2949 0 5 2 2 2 9 9 1-55
SP 154-7
High-Performance Concrete
Floor Construction and
Performance Assessment
by R. L. Munn and I. Dumitru
Synopsis: During 1994 a new 50,000 n,* warchouse and similar area of
external pavement was constructed at Ingleburn near Sydney, Australia. The
client required that the warehouse meet very onerous performance criteria that
required the construction of a very flat, prestressed concrcte floor with excellent
abrasion resistance, is crack free and has a minimal number of joints. The
design required that the concrete base provide the wearing surface for the floor
without application of a surface topping.
A second industrial project which required the construction of high

performance concrete floors in a new integratcd printing facility for a major
newspaper, commenced at Chullora near Sydney in late 1994. The plant is
highly automated and sections of thc floor arc designed to be frequently loaded
with turning transporters carrying full rolls of newsprint. Such floors require
exceptional abrasion resistance and the designers dccided to seek a level of
abrasion resistance even highcr than that provided at Ingleburn.
In order to minimize joints and cracking the concretes were designed to

have 56-day drying shrinkage of less than 450 microstrain, and to exhibit an
abrasion resistance, when testcd insitu using thc Chaplin abrasion machine, of
less than 0.10-mm depth of wear. This marks the first time such a direct
measurement of abrasion resistance has been specified and assessed in
Australia.
Key dements of both projects were the high-performance concrete floors

which were requircd to meet tolerances on surfacc flatncss it 2 mm on 3-m
straight-edgc and + 4 mm overall. These and other strict performance criteria
were met consistently during construction providing clients with world class,
low maintenance warcliouses.
Keywords: Abrasion resistance; abrasion tests; drying shrinkage; flexural

strength; floors; high-t)erformance concretes; performance tests; quality
assurance; shotcrete; tests
103
A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522300 7 T 7 m
104 Munn and Dumitru
Robert Munn is the Chief Engineer of Boral Resources Limited, Sydney,

Australia. He has more than 25 years experience in management, quality
assurance and technology for building materials in Australia, South East Asia,
UK and USA. He has held senior positions in professional associations and is a
member of several Australian Standard Committees on concrete and materials.
Ion Dumitru is the Technical and Quality Assurance Manager at Boral

Resources (NSW) Pty. Limited, Sydney, Australia. A Fellow of the Institute of
Quarrying and Member of The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
he has more than 28 years experience in geological exploration, research and in
readyinixed concrete and quarrying in Australia, Komania and Zambia.
INTRODUCTION
'The production and use of high-performance concrete in Australia is

well established. Reported applications include columns and cores of tall
buildings, prestressed beams, marine infrastructure, low permeability concretes,
off-shore structures and even selected road pavements. ( I ,2.3)
In Australia, industrial floors have been traditionally constructed of

reinforced concrete, but over recent years increasing numbers of unreinforced,
fibre concrete and prestressed concrete floors have also been constructed. The
typical thickness of the concrete base varies with the design loading and the
pavement structure, especially nature and dimensions of the sub-grade and sub-
base, but is gcnerally in the range 150 nini to 250 mm.
The typical concrete strength grade used in construction of these

industrial floors has ranged froin 20 MPa to 40 MPa, with thc majority of floors
using concrete strength grades at the lower end of the range. It is general
practice not to apply topping or special finishes to these industrial floors except
in applications where significant abrasion is anticipated, and in these instances
integral application of dry shakes have been applied to enhance abrasion
resistance.
Many concrete floors have been poorly cured, and the combination of
inadequate curing and concretes of lower strength grades has led to many floors
exhibiting dusting, cracking and poor abrasion resistance subject to normal
loading and traffic. Even when metallic floor shakes have been applied to
concretes of modest strength grades, despite the improvement in abrasion
resistance, numerous cases of delamination and local scaling of the surface have
occurred, which have adversely affected the serviceability of the industrial floor.
In addition, dry shake application has been reported to adversely influence
flatness. (4)

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522303 633
Significant steps have been taken to minimize these serviceability

problems with the release of the i988 revision of the Australian Standard for
Concrete Structures, AS3600, which includes requirements for minimum
concrete strength and curing for floors subject to abrasion in various
environments.
The minimum strength grade required for an industrial floor is 25 MPa

together with a minimum curing period of 3 days or sufficient curing period to
achieve an insitu compressive strength of at least 15 MPa. Floors subject to
solid wheeled traffic and frequent passes of pneumatic tircd traffic require
higher strength grades of typically 40 MPa to be adopted. Whilst the adoption
of these higher strength grades and improved curing requirements are a
significant advance, some clients require an even higher level of performance
for their industrial floors in order to maximise productivity. These two floors
which have recently been constructed in locations near to Sydney at Ingleburn
and Chullora demonstrate the benefits of inclusion of high performance concrete
in industrial floors to enhance durability.
INGLEBURN DISTRIBUTION CENTRE
During 1994, a 50,000 m2 covered warehouse for product storage in high

racks and a similar area of external paving to provide truck access and parking
was constructed at Inglcburn to form a new distribution centre for a national
supermarket chain. Tlie client required that this warehouse meet very onerous
performance criteria which necessitated the construction of a very flat,
prestressed concrete floor. ?'he floor was designed to have a minimum number
of joints, be crack free to minimize the potential for spalling and to exhibit very
high abrasion resistance for a long period subject to frequent nlovenlents by
solid tired vehicles. The floor needed to be very flat to allow precise positioning
of pallets in racks by fork lift trucks operating in narrow aisles and stacking to
heights over 8 metres.
?'o eliminate the potential for concrcte surface delamination or scaling

due to non uniform topping bchaviour and to achieve thc flattest possible floor.
the designer specificd that no topping be applied and that the base concrete be
finished and cured to achieve very high abrasion resistance. To minimize loss
of prestress and miniinizc movement at joints, the concrete was spccified to
have a drying shrinkage of less than 450 microstrain (PE) after 56 days drying.
The overall structure consisted of a 300-mm, 3% lime stabilized, stiff

clay subgrade overlain by a 100-mm, 4% cement stabilized base and 180-mm
prestressed concrete slab of 60-MPa concrete. The whole floor consisted of 19
slabs which varied iii area but with typical dimensions of GO m x 36 m.

A C 1 SP-1-54 95 =
Obb2949 0522302 5 7 T
To ensure rapid and true operation of the high stacking forklifts,

maximum tolerances on surface flatness f 2 mm on 3-m straight-edge and f
4 mni overall were specified for the concrete floor. Abrasion resistance of the
concrete floor was specified to be determined insitu using the Chaplin abrasion
machine with a maximum wear of 0.10 mm after 15 minutes (4). The
specification required that ali construction be subject to strict quality assurance
in accordance with Australian Standard 3902 - Quality Systems for Production
and Installation, which corresponds to IS0 9002.
Prior to starting construction, a series of laboratory and field trials were

undertaken in order to fine tune the concrete mixture proportions and
construction techniques, especially the finishing practices necessary to achieve
the required degree of flatness and abrasion resistance.
The concrete mixture design included a low alkali, shrinkage limited

portland cement conforming to Australian Standard 3972, a 20-mm maximum
size, high elastic modulus, dense basalt, coarse aggregate and well graded river
sand comprising mixed sediments to Australian Standard 2758.1 - Concrete
Aggregates. Water demand was minimized by using both water reducing and
high-range water reducing admixtures conforming to Australian Standard 1478 -
Chemical Admixtures. Mixture proportions provided a weil graded pumpable
concrete of waterkement 0.35 with excellent cohesion and minimal bleeding
characteristics at a target slump of 120 mm. The concrete also possessed a
reliable rate of stiffening to assist finishing prior to concrete reaching final set.
The floor was constructed over a period of 3 months during which

almost 9000 m3 of 60-MPa strength grade, high-performance concrete was
supplied from two concrete plants according to a strict quality plan, with up to
540 m3 of concrete being placed in a single day. Concrete was batched in
computer controlled batch plants subject to strict control over mixture
proportions. It was subsequcntly mixed and transported in truck mounted
mixers to the Ingleburn site where a preliminary quality assessment was made.
Where adjustment of slump was required high-range water reduccr was added
according to a predeterniincd formula and the concrcte was remixed to a
uniform consistency prior to use.
The concrete was pumped from the edge of each slab to the point of
placement using three pumps simultaneously to minimize the length of the
leading edge during placement but placing delays ensured that the leading edge
was rarely linear. The concrete was compacted using internal vibrators followed
by a vibrating beam over the full width of the slab. Frequent level checks were
provided using laser levelling during the screeding operation to ensure that
surface tolerances were being met. The concrete was finished sequentially
using single headed, then double headed and finally triple headed power
trowels. Levels were again checked by laser at frequent intervals to ensure that
the final surface was being h i s h e d within specified tolerances. Curing was

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522303 40b
carried out by double application of a chlorinated rubber curing compound on

the day of placement. Stressing of the concrete slabs was undertaken
progressively from 24 hours to 3 days after placement.
The hardened concrete properties were assessed progressively from

samples taken at the Ingleburn site and subsequently tested in laboratories or by
insitu assessment arter a specified period.
CHULLORA PRINTING FACILITY
A sccond industrial project which required the construction of high-

performance concrete floors commenced at Chuilora near Sydney in late 1994.
This project involved the construction of a new integrated printing facility for a
major newspaper, on a sloping site underlain with stiff clay. The plant is highly
automated, and sections of the floor were designed for frequent loading by
turning transporters carrying full rolls of newsprint. Such floors require
exceptional abrasion resistance, and the designers decided to seek a level of
abrasion resistance even higher than that provided at Ingleburn.
The plant floors are divided into 13 different locations, each having its
own concrete specification. The majority of the concrete is specified to have a
strength grade of 40 MPa with a drying siirinkage of less than 600 LE after
56 days drying, howcver two areas were specified to have strength grades of
80 MPa and 100 MPa respectively, with drying shrinkage of less than 450 PE
after 56 days drying. The abrasion resistance was specified for assessment
insitu using the Chaplin abrasion machine with a maximum permissible loss of
0.1 mm.
Concrete slabs were conventionally reinforced with the exception of the

reel store which was constructed in strength grade 40-MPa prestressed concrete.
Slab sizes varied throughout the project but typical sizes were 15 m x I O m to
10 m x9 m. The slabs in areas where maximum abrasion resistance was
required werc typically 230 mm thick with edge beam thickening and the upper
edges of these slabs were fitted with flush steel angles to prevent edge spalling.
Before beginning the work, a series of laboratory and field trials were
conducted on 60-MPa, 80-MPa and 100-MPa strength grade concretes to refine
the mixture proportions and the finishing practices needed to achieve the
specified flatness and abrasion resistance.
The nominal slump at time of placement of these concretes, was

150 mm. The concrete materials were similar to those used on the Ingieburn
project, with the addition of silica fume conforming to Australian Standard
3582.3 - Supplementary Cementitious Materials, in the 80-MPa and 100-MPa
concretes. The waterlcement was 0.33 for 80-MPa concrete and 0.26 for

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 O522304 3q2
100-MPa concrete. Concretes were required to be readily pumpable, to have

excellent cohesion and minimal bleeding, and to exhibit' a reliable rate of
stiffening to assist finishing.
These high performance concrete floors were constructed over a period

of six months, during which 3000 m3 of 80-MPa or 100-MPa concrete were
placed in the areas requiring extreme abrasion resistance. Concrete was
supplied from one batch plant according to a strict quality plan similar to that
used at Ingleburn. The concrete was pumped from the perimeter of the site to
the point of placement using a single pump. The compaction procedure
included internal vibration followed by passage of a vibrating beam over the
width of the slab. Protection from extremes of weather was provided to prevent
plastic shrinkage cracking prior to finishing.
Concrete finishing was achieved using a double headed power trowelling

machine, followed by a triple headed power trowelling machine, as the concrete
stiffencd. immediately following final finishing, chlorinated rubber curing
compound was appiicd in two layers to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking and
to enhance abrasion resistance by curing. Level checks were provided during
finishing to ensure that tolerances were being met.
The entire project was subject to strict quality assurance in accordance

with Australian Standard 3901 - Quality Systems for Design, Production,
Installation and Servicing. and all concrete operations were subject to a quality
plan according to Australian Standard 3902. Concrete supply was subject to a
special inspection and testing plan similar to that used at Ingleburn.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
The high-performance concrete floor sectors in each project were subject

to similar quality assurance procedures. Assessment of the concrete quality was
made in accordance with the inspection and testing plan proposed by the
concrete supplier and ihe works specification. The principal assessment criteria
were all pcrrormance based.
All concrete deliveries were visually inspected for consistency on arrival

at thc site, regularly tested for slump and temperature and all deliveries which
appeared significantly different, were more than 1 hour old, or had initial slump
outside the range 40 5 10 mm were rejected. High-range water reducer was
added according to a preset formula to achieve the final slump with a tolerance
of rr 30 mm.
Samples of concrete were obtained at the required frequency and

specimens prepared for testing of density, compressive strength and drying
shrinkage. Concrete density was determined on the hardened concrete at age

A C 1 SP-154 95 IOb62949 0522305 289 I
24 hours, and compressive strength was also determined at 24 hours using 1O0 x
200 mm cylinders to provide early warning of potential quality variation and for
initial stressing. All concrete tests were performed in accordance with
-
Australian Standard 1012 Methods of Testing Concrete, which contains
procedures similar to relevant ASTM standards.
Testing for compressive strength was made at the ages of 24 hours,

3 days, 7 days and 28 days following standard curing, and at each stage, actual
results compared with rates of gain established from field trials. Testing was
also carried out at other ages and under site curing conditions rcquired for
progressive prestressing. Test data showing the early-age density results and the
rates of strength gain for each of the major placements at Ingleburn is shown in
Table 1. Density data and rate of strength gain are shown to be very consistent
except for placement PSI 9 where the rate of strength gain is significantly lower
than average due to inadequate protection during the initial field curing of test
cylinders. The average compressive strength at 28 days was 66.5 MPa with a
standard deviation of 3.1 MPa over the whole project.
The relationship between flexural strength, determined by testing 1O0 x

100 x 370 mm beatns, and compressive strength was established during the field
trials. Subsequently the flexural strength was calculated using this relation, with
an infrequent flexural test undertaken as an audit on the reliability of the
equation. The formula used for the calculation of flexural strength was
where fcl is the 28-day flexural strength and fc is the 28-day compressive
strength.
This formula was found in practice to be somewhat conservative and the

correct constant from field data for 60-MPa concrete was found to be 0.80
whereas for the 80-MPa and 100-MPa concrete the constant was found to be
0.95. These constants are substantially higher than the constant 0.60 found in
-
Australian Standard 3600 Concrete Structures.
By contrast, where similar audit checks were applied to the modulus of

elasticity of these high performance concretes, good correlation was found
between calculated and measured values for all concrete strength grades.
Modulus values in excess of 50 GPa were regularly measured on these Iiigh-
performance concretes or calculated using the AS3600 formula of
E = 0.043 p ' S x
where E is the 28-day modulus of elasticity, p is the density and fc is the

28-day compressive strength.

A C I S P - 1 5 4 95 m o b b z q ~ i q o s z z 3 0 ~115 m
Test data on the engineering properties of the concrete obtained from

ficld trials for Inglcburn and Chullora projccts arc found in Tables 2 and 3. For
the Ingleburn 60-MPa concrete the mean elastic modulus was measured as 40
GPa at 3 days, 42 GPa at 7 days and 47 GPa at 28 days, and for thc Chullora
IOO-MI% concrete the mcan elastic modulus was 55 CiPa at 28 days. Test data
on 28-day compressive strengths íbr each major placement at the Ingleburn
project together with 56-day drying shrinkage data as well as the measured and
calculated flexural streiigth data are found in Table 4. Flexural strengths and
elastic moduli were relatively high due to tlic high modulus coarse aggregate
and low waterkcmetit used in these concretes.
The potential serviceability of the floor surfaces was assessed by a

comprehensive level survey and abrasion resistance testing using the Chaplin
abrasion machine. Final levels were cliccked on a 3-m grid over the entire floor
area, and any high points were ground until each panel met the specified
tolerance. Due to the high standard of level control dtiring the placing and
finishing operations, very little grinding was rcquircd.
ïlie potcntial insitu abrasion resistance of the concrete floors was

assessed using the performance testing method developcd in the United I
Kingdom by Chaplin. (5) This procedure and its application to assessment of I
concrete floor wear resistance has been discussed by Garber. (4) The Chaplin
abrasion testing machine has the advantage of testing the finished floor by a I
tcchniquc which simulates tlic action of a rolling solid tired vehicle on the floor.
It is therefore considered the most appropriate method of assessing abrasion
resistance on floors where wheeled traffic is the main cause of wear.
The Chaplin tcst uses steel wheels travelling in a circular path to

simulate the wear caused by industrial vehicles. In a 15-minute test, the wheels
wear a ring-sliapcd groove in the floor. A gauge measurcs the depth of the
groove before and after the test to determine the depth of wear. A standard
survey consists of three 15-minute tcsts at randomly selected locations on the
floor. Depth of wear is reported in hundredths of a millimetre and high values
mean low resistance to wear. Most concretes show depth of wear between 0.05
and 1 mm.
Test results from the 28-day Chaplin abrasion resistance surveys on the
Ingleburn and Chullora iria1 slabs arc reported in Tables 2 and 3. The results of
the Chaplin tests for each Ingleburn and some Chullora concrete placements are
comparcd with average 28-day compressive strengt11 of concrete and the average
Schmidt Ilammer Rcbound Index in Tables 5 and 7. Thesc test results indicate
that the specified abrasion resistance has been met for the Inglebuni project with
an averagc depth of wcar of 0.05 mm.
Complete data are not yet available for the Chullora project but initial
trials and field results todate indicate that the depth of wear recorded using the

A C 1 SP-154 95 111 0662949 0522307 051
Chaplin abrasion tester will be equal to or better than that achieved on the
Ingleburn project. The rebound index numbers are significantly higher for the
Chu1lora prqject concrete which tends to confirm that the surface hardness
increased with increasing concrete strength.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF HPC FLOORS
The use of high performance concrete in industrial floors solely on the

basis of increased abrasion resistance is unlikely to be an economic option
unicss ail or many of the iniprovenients in properties Bssociated with these
concretcs are incorporated into the design. Typical properties which are
enhanced in higli-performance concrete are compressive strength, flexural
strcngth, niodulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage and crcep. These benefits can
be incorporated into the design where typical properties of high-performance
concrete available locally are established at the design stage. The result that
thinner pavements and larger slabs with fewer joints can be built. Such
refinements in design may be used to reduce the initial andior life cycle cost of
the industrial floor.
It is a very demanding task to finish high-performance concrete to the

tolerances required on these projects. Some assistance can be provided to the
concrete placing team by line tuning of the concrete iiiixturc properties to assist
placing, and by ensuring deliveries of concrete are despatched at regular
intervals throughout major placements.
In this respect high range water reducing admixtures werc used to ensure
that the slump at the time of placement was substantially higher than the normal
slump of 80 nim conimon in Australia, without increasing the water content.
The nominal slumps adopted were i n the range 120 to 150 mm, which provided
increased workability and extended windows for finishing without adversely
allecting other properties.
I i i a multiple-pass finishing operation it is essential that each operation

be carried out in a logical sequence on discreet areas of concrete surface which
are ready for that specific operation. Application of a specific finishing
operation at the incorrect time citlicr leads to failure to meet tolerances for
flatness if too fluid and for abrasion resistance if too stiff. In practice, despite
the very strict control for concrete quality and uniform nature of the placenient
conditions, specific areas of the floors exhibited finishing times which varied
significantly from thc expected sequence. Using the quality assurance records
for concrete production, delivery and placement, this finishing time variation
was closely examined and tlierinocouples installed i n the field slabs to monitor
the concrete temperature as an indicator of tlic correct concrete finishing time.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662747 0522308 T98 M
The temperatures recorded by the thermocouples installed in the floor

slab PSI3 are shown as they varied with time in Fig. 1. Generally, concrete
temperatures dropped initially and then increased steadily. The specific
finishing operations were required to be undertaken at various stages on the
rising temperature profile. Good correlation between finishing and concrete
maturity (temperature x time) was established which assisted the timing of
finishing operations.
The only concrete deliveries which were not pumped were placed at the
end of each placement represented by thermocouple location 12. ‘The initial
temperature of non-pumped concrcte was found to be up to 4°C lowcr than
identical concrete which has been pumped, and its temperaturehime profile is
significantly different. The non-pumped concrete also suffered a finishing time
delay of approximately 2 hours.
Figures 2,3 and 4 show that isochrones for placement and each stage of
finishing on one of the 60 m x 35 m Inglebum project slabs, and include the
location of the thermocouples. Contrary to expectations, each of the finishing
operations did not follow the same pattern as the placing operations duc to local
variations in concrete behaviour. These finishing time variations, with the
exception of the non-pumped concrete, appear to result from very small
variations in mixture proportions and site conditions. These random variations
in turn require a very high degree of skill on the part of the placing team to
successfully finish to strict tolerances over a large floor area.
The Chaplin abrasion testing machine was used for the first time in
Australia on these projects. Correlation with test data for other grades of
concrete and other niethods of assessing abrasion resistance and surface
hardness were carried out on field triai slabs to obtain a better understanding of
the significance of the test results. Prior to assessing the wear resistance of
floors which have curing compounds on the surface, it has been found essential
to remove the curing compound with a chemical solvent. Where the
curing compound has not been effectively removed, the Chaplin abrasion tester
skidded on the surface and a zero wear depth was recorded. Similarly, Chaplin
abrasion testing of the ground surface of the high-perfomiance concrete also
showed zero wear depth.
Chaplin abrasion wear data were obtained for some lower strength grade
concretes on each project under similar conditions to provide some
understanding of concrete strength sensitivity. On the Ingleburn project,
25-MPa concrete placed in the roof of a fire tunnel was assessed io have a mean
abrasion wear depth of 1.8 1 mm. On the Chullora project a concrete floor of
40-MPa concrete was assessed and found to have an average wear depth of
0.80 mm. These data confirm that the abrasion losses of normal concretes are
an order of magnitude greater than those of the higli-performance floors on these
projects.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522309 924
Comparative methods of evaluation of wear resistance were made on

selected concrete pavement slabs using the Schmidt Hammer to determine
rebound index, the ASTM C779-89 Procedure A to determine abrasion loss and
the Concrete Masonry Association of Australia test procedure for abrasion
index. (6) Comparative test data for the various methods are shown in Tables 5,
6 and 7. The ASTM C779 and the Concrete Masonry Association test
procedures resulted in much larger abrasion wear depths than the Chaplin
abrasion test on the same concrete. The major reason for differences in results
are the respectivc methods of test especially the abrasive stimuli and the
duration of the test. The ASTM C779 procedure uses a revolving disk operated
by sliding and scuffing of steel discs in conjunction with abrasion grit, whilst
the Concrete Masonry Association of Australia procedure uses an extended
period of intensive wet abrasion by ball bearings, which essentially wears away
all surface mortar.
Review of the test data derived from testing each concrete by different
methods was made. Given the limited range of concretes in this comparison, no
clear correlation between results reported for different methods could be
identified. The rebound index can provide useful information about the surface
hardness in the absence of abrasion testing equipment, although it does not
provide a direct measure of abrasion resistance in Fig.5. The rebound index
data from the Ingleburn and Chullora projects has been superimposed on data
reported in the United Kingdom by Kettle and Sagegzade. (7) Data obtained
from both projects classified the concrete floors as very highly wear resistant
and showed that the abrasion rcsistancc for a given rebound index was better
than U.K. concretes.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Modern industrial distribution facilities require the construction of very

flat, highly abrasion rcsistaiit concrete floors which exhibit long term, reliable
service beliaviour. This type of floor can be best provided by high-performance
concrete slabs in an economic pavement design without special toppings.
Recent projects completed in Australia using these principles have demonstrated
that given a reliable supply of consistent high quality concrete and special skill
in placing and finishing this concrete, very flat, highly abrasion resistant
concrete floors can be commercially produced.
Experiences on the Inglebum and Chullora projects highlight the need

for careful project planning to minimize the sensitivity of high-performance
concrete finishing to minor variations in temperature, age, mixture proportions
and placing technique.
Since these projects were constructed subject to strict quality assurance

procedures, performance tests were used to assess the achievement of the

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662’74’7 0522330 646
specified requirements. Performance criteria set in the respective specifications

were inet, despite the very strict limits for strength related properties, drying
shrinkage, surface level tolerancc and direct measurement of insitu abrasion
resistance.
The tcst data generated during the trial construction periods for these
projects confirmed the excellent properties which may be consistently achievcd
with appropriately designed high-performance concrete, including high early
strength, low drying shrinkage and flexural strength and elastic modulus
exceeding 10 MPa and 50 GI%, respectively. Several useful com parisons
between methods for assessing surface hardness and abrasion resistance were
made during cxccution of these projccts. It was concluded that the Chaplin
abrasion tcst technique provided the most appropriate method to assess the
potential durability of floors subject to wheeled traffic.
ACKNOWLEDCEMEN’I’S
The high level of skill demonstrated by Mr Tony Mazzarolo, Managing

Director of De Martin & Gasparini and his team of men who placed and
finislicd tlic concrcíc on íhcse projects is acknowlcdged. Thc support and
encouragement of Mr Rod Pearse, Chief General Manager of Bora1
Construction Materials whose companies supplied ccment, aggregates and high-
performance concretes for these prqjccts, is also gratefully acknowledged.
iIEFERENCES
Guirguis, S., Kell, D. And Munn, R.L., “High Performance Concrete”;

Constructional Review, Vol.66, No.3, Sydncy, August 1993.
Mendis, P., “High Performance Concrete - Technology, Design &
Applications”; Proceedings of Seminar by Department of Civil &
Environmental Engineering, University of Melbourne, February 1994.
Munn, R.L., “High Performance Concrete”; Proceedin s of the Australian
Building Industry Conference, Gold Coast, Queenslanf, September i 992.
Garbcr, G., “Design and Construction of Concrete Floors”; Published by
Edward Arnold, London, 1991.
Concrete Society, “Concrete Industrial Ground Floors”; Technical Report
34, Concrete Society, London, 1987.
Concrete Masonry Association of Australia, “Spccification for Concrete
Segmental Paving Units, Appendix D”; Sydncy, July 198U.
Kettle, R.J. and Sadegzade. M., “Abrasion Resistance”; Symposium on
Development in Concrete Testing for Durability, Concrete Society,
London, September 1984.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522311 582 m
TABLE 1 - TEST DATA ON DENSITY AND STRENGTH FOR 60-MPo CONCRETE USED IN
INGLEBURN PROJECT
Placed
Number
23.2.94 PSI9
1.3.94 PSI6
7.3.94 PSI8
11.3.94 PSI3
*
15.3.94 PS17
17.3.94 PSI5
29.3.94 PSI2
I
~~
7.4.94 PSI4
11.4.94 I PSI0 I 2540 17.5 39.5 55.5 I 69.5
-14.4.94 I PSI 1 I 2530 17.5 40.5
20.4.94 I I
~~
PS7 2530 19.5 41.5

24.4.94 I I
'*
PS9 2.530 18.5 39.5 69.0
I
27.4.94 I PS4 I 2520 27.0 40.0 52.0 I 64.0

2.5.94 I PS8 I 2.530 21.5 40.5 54.0 I 66.0
3.5.94 I PS3 I 2530 17.0 40.0 53.0 I 67.5
5.5.94 I PS6 I 2540 17.0 38.0 53.0 I 67.5
13.5.94
20.5.94
2530 15.0
15.0
e- 36.5
53.0
25.5.94 2530 22.0 40.5

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522312 419

A C 1 SP-I154 95 I0bb2949 0522333 355
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A C 1 SP-354 95 0662949 0522334 293
TABLE 4 - TEST DATA ON STRENGTHS AND SHRINKAGE FOR INGLEBURN PROJECT
@, 28 Days
23.2.94 PSI9 59
1.3.94 PS16 62.5
7.3.94 PSI8 62.5
11.3.94 PSI3 64.5
15.3.94 PSI7 67
17.3.94 PS15 66.5
29.3.94 I PSI2 I 66.5
7.4.94 I PS14 I 70.5
11.4.94 I PSI0 I 69.5
14.4.94 I I
PSI 1 I
I
69
20.4.94 1 ~ I’S7 I 69
~ ~ ~
22.4.94 PS9 69
27.4.94 PS4 64
2.5.94 PS8 66
3.5.94 PS3 67.5
I I
~~
5.5.94 PS6 65
13.5.94 [-PS2 I ~ 67
430 6.35
390 6.1

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522335 328 m
TABLE 5 - TEST DATA FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, CHAPLIN ABRASION WEAR,

AND REBOUND INDEX FOR 60-MPa CONCRETE USED ON INGLEBURN PROJECT
5.5.94 PS6 67.5 0.07 49

13.5.94 PS2 67
20.5.94 PS5 72 0.06 47.6
25.5.94 PSI 66.5

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0bb2949 0522336 Ob4 D
120 M u m and Dumitru
TABLE 6 - COMPARATIVE TEST DATA ON HARDNESS AND ABRASION RESISTANCE OF

60-MPa CONCRETE FROM PLANT TRIALS FOR INGLEBURN PROJECT
Concrete Chaplin Average Depth of Abrasion

Trial Abrasion Rebound Wear to Index to
Test - Index ASTM C779 CMAA Test
Average Method A After 5000
Depth of After 30min Revs
Wear (mm) (mm)
Mix2 Slab 1 I 0.06 47.1 I 0.32 4.7
Mix2Slab2 I 0.03 48 I 0.3 5
Mix 2 Slab 3 I 0.04 49.3 I 0.34 5.1
Mix 3 Slab 1 1 O 43.6 I 0.4 1.9
Mix 3 Slab 2 0.01 49.3 0.42 3.3
TABLE 7 - COMPARATIVE TEST DATA ON HARDNESS AND ABRASION RESISTANCE OF

100-MPa CONCRETE FOR SLABS PLACED ON CHULLORA PROJECT
Date Average Chaplin Average Depth of Wear

Placed 28 Day Abrasion Test Rebound to ASTM C779
Compressive - Average Index Method A After
Strength Dcpth of 30min
WPa) Wear (mm)
14.9.94 1O8 0.03 51.3 0.32
17.9.94 107 0.07 52.2 0.34
30.9.94 95.5 0.06 52.2
6.10.94 101 0.01 51
15.10.94 I 102.5 0.0 1 52.6

A C 1 SP-254 95 m 0662949 0522317 T T O m

A C 1 SP-154 95 M 0662949 0522338 937 m
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A C I S P - 3 5 4 95 m 0662949 0522339 873 m

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522320 595 m

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522323 421 m
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A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 m Ob62949 0522322 368 m
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A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522323 2 T 4
SP 154-8
Changes in the Composition of

Pore Solution and Solids During
Electrochemical Chloride Removal
in Contaminated Concrete
by J. Tritthart
Synopsis: Electrochemical chloride removal was applied to a

concrete test area of about 36m2 in a reinforced-concrete hall
which had been used for more than 10 years as a depot for deicing
salt, in an attempt to extract the chloride that had penetrated
into it. Since the salt had been stored loosely and the interior
of the hall was frequently exposed to outside air, the concrete
was heavily contaminated by chloride (up to about 15 %Cl- in
cement). Chloride removal was performed with an average current
density of 1 A/m2 for a period of 132 days. The studies were
aimed at determining the changes in (i) total chloride content
and (ii) the C1- and OH- concentrations of the pore solution at
varying cancrete depths. It was shown that the efficiency of
chloride removal deceased in the concrete cover with increasing
depth, and that it was least efficient near the reinforcement.
The factor that was identified as being responsible for this was
the changes in OH- concentration of the pore solution that had
been caused by reactions at the electrodes. The OH- concentration
of the pore solution decreased in the area close to the surface
during treatment, while it rose dramatically around the
reinforcement (up to approx. 2.5 mol OH-/L). This resulted in an
increase of the Chloride Transference Number and thus the
efficiency of chloride removal close to the concrete surface, and
a drastic decrease close to the reinforcement. Hence, a reduction
of the C1- content to “harmless“ levels was not possible in this
particular case. However, practice has shown that in many cases
such a reduction can be achieved as chloride contamination is
normally much less severe and thus most of the chloride can be
extracted from the reinforcement area before the rising C1-
concentration of the pore solution has diminished the efficiency
of Chloride removal. If, however, chloride has penetrated beyond
the reinforcement, it can be removed to a limited extent only.
Kevwords: Chlorides; concretes; porosity; salts
127
A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522324 130
128 Tritthart
J. Tritthart has worked at the Departement for Material Testing

at Graz, University of Technology since 1975. He is associate
Professor and heads the working group Chemistry in Civil
Engineering. A main field of research is chloride binding in
cement and concrete in connection with reinforcement corrosion.
INTRODUCTION
Electrochemical chloride removal is gradually gaining acceptance

as a method for non-destructive treatment of chloride-
contaminated reinforced concrete. The principle is to apply a
direct current between the reinforcement acting as cathode and an
anode that is placed temporarily onto the outside of the concrete
surface. The anode is preferably a titanium wire mesh embedded
into an easily removable material with good water-retention
properties, such as wood pulp. To ensure that the electro-
conductive contact between anode and cathode is not interrupted,
the pulp must be kept wet constantly. Since negatively charged
ions, such as chloride ions, migrate in the direct-current field
from the reinforcement to the positively charged outer electrode,
relatively large amounts of chloride can be removed from the
concrete within a relatively short time (the usual period of
application is 6-10 weeks). The method is similar to cathodic
protection, however, the current density applied is about 100
times higher (often 1-2 A/m2ì, and the anode is removed together
with the pulp afterwards. Contrary to cathodic protection, the
chloride extraction is not a permanent matter, so that there is
no need for continuous and elaborate monitoring.
The possibility to remove chloride from concrete by electro-

chemical process was first reported in the USA in the 1970s
(1,2,3), and it involved the application of very high direct
voltages (up to 220 V ) . In Europe, the method was patented in
1986 by "Norwegian Concrete Technologies (NCTI using
considerably lower voltages, for instance less than 40 V ( 4 ) . The
studies preceding the patent had not been published (5). It was
only at the beginning of the 1990s that reports on this method
became more frequent (6-25). The reason why the method had not
been pursued for about a decade could be the extremely high
voltages used for the first tests, which constituted a safety
risk. In the USA, the method was studied more intensively under
the "Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)", which was
completed in 1993 (16-18). At present, electrochemical chloride
removal is studied within the framework of the EU COST 509
program by cooperating research institutions in several European
countries. The studies presented are part of the research project
"A 1" carried out by the author within COST 509.

A C 1 SP-It54 95 Obb2949 0522325 077
In order to improve the method or, in case of failure, to

identify the causes, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms
underlying the method. As the electric current can be transported
in the pore solution only by ions dissolved therein, the key to
understanding the mechanism of chloride removal is to know what
changes occur in the composition of the pore solution of concrete
during the flow of electricity. However, such tests have only
been included recently (li, 13, 20, 23). In the following, I
describe the tests and results obtained prior to and during
electrochemical chloride removal in a reinforced-concrete hall
with extremely high chloride concentrations in the concrete. The
hall, which had been used as a depot for loose storage of deicing
salt, was made available for the study by the Styrian Government.
Chloride removal was performed in an area of about 36 ma by the
company System Bau (Salzburg) at no cost. All tests were carried
out in agreement with this company and the Styrian Government.
METHOD OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CHLORIDE REMOVAL
Figure 1 shows the face wall of the hall. As can be seen, the
concrete surface, which contained numerous spots of corrosion
products, was partly still covered by white paint. The area that
was selected for chloride removal was about 36 m2 and was located
behind the scaffolding. After the drilling cores to determine the
initial distribution of chloride, the closure of the holes with
mortar, and other preparatory operations, the reinforcement in
the area to be repaired was exposed at four spots to wich
electric cables were attached. Wooden slats of 20-nun thickness
were then fastened onto the concrete.These slats were used to
support a commercially available titanium mesh as anode.
Following this, another set of wooden slats were nailed as
spacers onto the previously fastened slats. Finally, pulp was
injected to fill up the 40-mm space between the concrete surface
and the top edge of the slats. Throughout the test, the pulp was
sprinkled with tap water almost daily to keep it wet and thus to
ensure electrical contact with concrete acting as electrolyte.
Average current density applied to concrete surface was 1 A per
m'. The necessary voltage was continually readjusted by hand.
Figure 2 shows the wall after the preparations had been
completed.
TESTS
Before Chloride Removal
Potential measurements and other tests that were not

directly linked with electrochemical chloride removal are not
described here in detail. Cores of SO-mm in diameter were
extracted at five different spots within the area to be repaired,
before the anode was attached. The points of chloride extraction

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 m Obb2949 0522326 TO3 m
130 Tritthart
were marked with igures between 1 and .Another core o O0 -mm

in diameter was removed at a spot where a rust stain had appeared
on the concrete surface (spot 6). By means of this sample, the
condition of the reinforcement in the area of the rust stain and
adjacent to it, where the concrete surface had not been
discolored, was to be determined. As was shown later on, the
concrete was discolored from underneath the rust stain to the
reinforcing steel by corrosion products. Thus, the area on the
steel surface from which the staining had started could be
identified easily. In the laboratory, slices of 10-mm thickness
were cut from the cores parallel to the base. As the saw blade
had a thickness of 5-mm, the slices came from depths of 0-10 mm,
15-25 mm, 30-40 mm, etc.
The core sections of 50-mm diameter were first dried and then
ground to fineness c0.09 mm. After the samples had been dried
again over-night at 105OC, determinations were made on: (i) the
total chloride content after dissolution in nitric acid by
potentiometric titration with 0.1 molar or 0.01 molar AgN03, and
(ii) the Si02 content, after dissolution in diluted hydrochloric
acid (1:l) gravimetrically. From the soluble Si02 content, the
cement content of the samples was calculated. As no information
on the Si02 content of the cement was available, it was assumed
that the soluble Si02 content of the cement was 20% (typical
value for portland cement) and that the aggregates did not
contain any soluble silica (in natural Austrian aggregates it is
normally not more than a few tenths of a percent). It was
necessary to determine the cement content in each individual
section because concrete is a highly heterogeneous material and,
therefore, the cement content in such small samples may deviate
considerably from the average cement content of the concrete; yet
the chloride content of each sample must be related to the cement
content.
The sections with 200-mm in diameter were intended for expression

of the pore solution. However, since the concrete was air-dry and
the pore solution can be expressed only in water-saturated
condition, the sections were first stored for several weeks above
distilled water in a dessicator. The expression device used is
described in reference 26. The necessary pressures ranged between
about 500-600 MPa. The expressed pore solution was free from
solids and was yellowish in color. It was examined for chloride
and hydroxide concentrations. As in the solids, the C1-
concentration was determined by potentiometric titration, and the
OH- concentration by colorimetric titration with 0.1 molar or
0.01 molar HNOJ against "Kresol Purpur". The solids were used to
determine the total chloride content.
The sections extracted from depths of 45-55 mm and 60-70 mm

contained two reinforcement bars of 8-mm diameter. The reason for
the presence of two bars was probably that the ends of two bars
overlapped at this particular point. The reinforcement from a
depth of 45-55 mm showed that in the area of the concrete stained

A C 1 SP-154 75 O 0662949 0522327 9 4 T O
by corrosion products there was severe corrosion damage in the

form of scar-like, unevenly distributed dents typical of
chloride-induced corrosion. The maximum reduction of cross
section was about 3/4 of the steel diameter. In spite of this
severe corrosion, there were no obvious cracks in the concrete,
which are normally common in carbonation-induced corrosion (where
insoluble and voluminous corrosion products develop that exert
pressure on the surrounding concrete and thus cause cracks or
disintegration of the cover). In the case of chloride-induced
corrosion, however, partly soluble iron compounds had formed, as
proven by the stains on the concrete surface, so that, at least
in the area of this core, no harmful pressure was exerted on the
concrete. Sagoe-Crentsil and Glascer ( 2 7 ) reported recently about
soluble iron chloride compounds. The steel zone outside the rust
stains had apparently not suffered any damage, but a slimy film
of partly red and partly black corrosion product had formed on
the steel surface. The same film without any visible damage was
discovered at the lower depth of the reinforcement. The cores
which were extracted later and which could be expressed on the
day of extraction (because the concrete was water-saturated due
to its contact with the pulp), showed similar reinforcement
damage, i.e. the corrosion products were completely black.
Apparently, the oxygen content in the dessicator had been
sufficient for the first extracted core to convert part of the
corrosion products into rust.
Durinq and after Chloride Removal
From the zone between the titanium mesh and the concrete
surface, a pulp sample was taken at weekly intervals and examined
for pH-value and chloride concentration. After 40 days of
migration, a first control core of 50-mm diameter was extracted
from near sampling point 4, and after 83 days of migration,
another one of 200-mm diameter from close to the extraction point
of the first core of the same diameter. After 96 days of
migration the flow of current was interrupted for about 3 months
( 9 8 days). Before the current was restored, another core of 200-
mm in diameter was taken to analyse the liquid phase and the
solids. The reason for the interruption was to determine whether
bound chloride would dissolve during such a break. It has been
reported (12) that C1- removal becomes inefficient with time,
because the dissolved chloride has already been removed, and
bound chloride dissolves very slowly, therefore, C1- removal can
be continued more efficiently after a pause during which bound
chloride has been dissolved.
Chloride removal was terminated in December 1994 after a total of

139 days of current flow. Cores of 50-mm in diameter and one core
of 200-mm in diameter were again extracted from close to the
sampling points from which the 50-mm cores had been taken prior
to the start of chloride removal. %These cores have not been

A C 1 SP-254 95 W 0662949 0522328 886 W
132 Tritthart
evaluated by the time this paper was written, hence they are not
discussed here.
Total Chloride Distribution before Chloride Removal
Figure 3 shows the distribution of chloride before C1-

removal. It contains a group of curves with similar patterns,
whose chloride content in the 0-10 mm zone is between about 12%
and 15% by weight of cement. At depths from 40 to 60-mm (it was
approximately in this area of cover that overlapping bars were
situated), the concrete still contained chloride in very high
concentrations. Even at a depth of 1 7 0 - m , chloride was still
detectable. The sample taken from Point 2 showed significantly
lauer values in the outer zone as well as a lauer concrete
penetration depth. This sample came from an area where the paint
still adhered to the concrete surface, which obviously had
inhibited chloride penetration. Th.e C1- values of Core 6, with
200-mm diameter, were similar although no paint was remained on
the concrete surface. It is unknown why the concrete of this area
contained relatively little chloride. It should be mentioned here
that perhaps the measured values did not exactly correspond to
the actual values at extraction, as minor CI- losses might have
occurred during storage in the desiccator: It was not discovered
before the sections were removed from the desiccator that water
drops had formed on the surface of the sections. Apparently, due
to the severe contamination with chloride, the concrete had
developed strong hygroscopic property which promotes surface
condensation. It seems possible that during storage, condensation
water drops had formed repeatedly and that these had leached away
some chloride.
It should be noted that it was because the concrete had been in

contact with deicing salt for more than 10 years that its
chloride content rose to such high values which are not usually
observed in concrete exposed to deicing salt or sea water.
Although this makes the hall an ideal object to study the
processes involved in chloride removal, caution is advised as the
changes taking place here may not occur in concrete with normal
chloride contamination.
Total Chloride Content durinq Chloride Removal
As can be inferred from the curves in Figure 4, the

chloride content decreased most drastically in the outermost zone
(0-10 nun). The reduction of chloride content decreased with
increasing depth o f extraction, and from 75-85 mm downward, there
was little difference between the curves of Core 4 and Cote 4a.
AS expected, it was not possible to extract chloride from further

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522329 712
behind the reinforcement. Although chloride moves away also from

behind the reinforcement due to the negative charge of the
reinforcement it cannot be removed to a higher extent due to the
relatively low current density and the long transport distances
(15). However, the differences in the amount of chloride removal
from within the cover were surprising. As it was assumed that the
chloride, which was located at the end of the migration path and
moved from the concrete into the pulp, would be replenished by
chloride ions from lower depths, it was expected that chloride
removal would be slowest in the area close to the surface. This
behavior, which is due to the migration direction of chloride in
the cement matrix, had been observed in model testa with cement
paste samples in the laboratory (13,141. Why this was not the
case in concrete, is due to changes in the liquid phase of
concrete, which will be discussed later.
In extraction zone 6 (Cores 6, 6a and 6b), the changes were

qualitatively the same as at extraction site 4 (Cores 4 and 4a).
With >1.5% C1- in the reinforcement area after 83 days and 96
days of current flow, the C1- content was still far above the C1-
limit acceptable for reinforced concrete. The differences between
Curve 6a and Curve 6b are insignificant and can be explained by
local differences in chloride content in the extraction area. But
they, too, show that no appreciable changes in chloride content
had occurred between 83 and 96 days of migration. These samples
were of interest primarily in order to determine the changes in
the liquid phase between concrete surface and reinforcement. This
area appeared to be the most important one, so that no further
studies were performed of the lower zones as they would have
required a lot of work and presented considerable difficulties
arising from the necessary expression of the pore solution from
the concrete. Thus, the respective curves in Figure 4 are short
and provide less information than those derived from extraction
point 4.
Hydroxide Concentration in the Pore Solution of Concrete durinq

Chloride Removal
Fig. 5 shows the changes in OH- concentration of the pore

solution. As expected, there was a gradient in initial OH-
concentration, with the values rising from the outside to the
inside. At a depth of 0-10 mm, for example, 0,024 mol OH-/L were
measured, and 0.26 mol OH-/L at 60-70 m. The respective
calculated pH-values were 12.38 (0-10 nun) and 13.41 ( 6 0 - 7 0 mm).
The latter value lies in the pH-range typical of a pore solution
in non-carbonated portland cement concrete. As indicated by the
height of the bars after 83 days of migration, the OH-
concentration decreased in the two outermost zones in the course
of electrochemical chloride removal, while it increased very
strongly, starting at a depth of 30-40 mm. The steepest rise in
concentration was noted at a depth of 60-70 mm, where 2.36 mol
OH-/L were measured after 83 days of migration (this core

A C 1 SP-I154 95 O662949 0522330 434
134 Tritthart
contained in the 4 5 - 5 5 mm section a bar of 0 8 mm and in the 6 0 -

7 0 nun section a bar of 0 20 m m ) . This phenomenon is caused by
reactions that occur at the electrodes:
Cathode (reinforcement):
Equation 1: H20 + 1/202 + 2e + 20H-

Equation 2 : Na+ (K+) + e + Na (K)i /primary reaction/
Equation 2a: Na(K) + H20 -+ Na+ OH- (K+OH-) + 1/2H2;
/secondary reaction/
Existing oxygen is used up at the cathode while forming OH- ions

-
(equation i) As only little oxygen is present in the concrete
and oxygen diffuses from outside into the concrete very slowly,
this reaction can be neglected. At the reinforcement the cations
are discharged to metals. These are primarily the easily soluble
ions of sodium and potassium. Since alkali metals are not stable
in the humid environment inside the concrete, sodium hydroxide
and potassium hydroxide respectively are formed immediately in a
secondary reaction while generating elemental hydrogen (equation
2a). So, a continuous production of OH- ions takes place at the
cathode, and the pH-value in the pore solution of the concrete
rises in the vicinity of the reinforcement. For each anion (OH-
ion and C1- ion) leaving the concrete, an alkali ion is
discharged at the cathode, therefore the OH- concentration of the
concrete around the reinforcement rises more strongly. According
to equation 2a, the greater the rise in OH- concentration the
more sodium chloride is contained in the concrete. In a chloride-
free concrete its OH- content would not change significantly, but
even in this case there would be a marked increase of the alkali
concentration and OH- concentration in the reinforcement area due
to redistribution of the cement alkalies in concrete.
Anode (titanium mesh) :

Equation 3 : H20 + 1/202 + 2H+ + 2e
Equation 4 : 2C1-+ C12 + 2e
According to equation 3 , electrolysis of water occurs at the

anode. Provided that the water used to wet the pulp does not
contain any salts, this is the only reaction that occurs until
anions have moved in from the concrete and are discharged. The H+
ions that have formed, migrate in the direct voltage field
towards the reinforcement and run against OH- and C1- ions moving
in the opposite direction. The OH- ions are neutralized to water,
and hydrochloric acid is formed with the C1- ions. AS a
consequence, the pH-value of the initially neutral water shifts
to the acidic range in the outer electrolyte (pH-values between
1.5 and 3 were measured); in the concrete zones close to the
surface, the OH- concentration becomes less due to the inflow of
€I+ions. According to equation 4 , the C1 ions arriving at the
anode are discharged while forming chlorine gas. The sum of
electrons produced at the anode per unit of time due to water

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2747 0522333 370 m
disintegration and chloride discharge corresponds precisely to

the number of electrons used up at the reinforcement by cation
discharge.
During the 98-day migration break, the OH- concentration fell

considerably in some of the lower zones, as shown in Figure 5,
whereas it rose noticeably in the peripheral zone, and even
exceeded slightly, at a depth of 15-25 mm, the values prior to
chloride removal. Such significant changes regarding passive
realkalization caused by OH- diffusion have previously been
reported (28).
Chloride Concentration in the Pore Solution of Concrete durinq

Chloride Removal
Figure 6 shows that the initial chloride concentration was

almost the same at O-10-mm depth as at 30-40 mm depth, while it
was slightly lower in between the two zones .
This can be
explained by leaching-out effects by condensation water during
the storage of the sections for water saturation, as described
above. However, for the relationships discussed here, this is of
little relevance. Like the total chloride content, the decrease
in C1- concentration of the pore solution within the cover was
strongest in the 0-10 mm zone and weakest in the reinforcement
zone (45-55 and 60-70 mm sections). The reason for the difference
in chloride removal capacity at different depths is the shift in
OH- concentration of the pore solution:
The proportion of total current flowing through the electrolyte

that is transported by the chloride ions - the Chloride
Transference Number - is the larger the fewer other negatively
charged ions are present and the lower their mobility in the
direct voltage field when compared to the mobility of the C1-
ions. The anions contained in Cl--free, non-carbonated concrete
are mainly OH- ions (other anions such as sulfate are normally
present in low concentrations and they can be neglected).
However, Page et al ( 2 3 ) observed recently that the strong
increase in OH- concentration at the reinforcement was
accompanied also by a rise in the S O 4 - - concentration of the pore
solution from about 10-30 mm01 SO4-- (pH = 13.5) to more than 100
mmol CO4'- (pH = 14). In the area close to the surface, the OH-
concentration was initially low and the current had to be carried
primarily by the C1- ions. Due to the continuous decrease of the
OH- concentration, the Chloride Transference Number increased
constantly in this area, therefore here the chloride removal was
particularly efficient. In the reinforcement area, where the OH-
concentration had been higher than in the peripheral zone, it
rose during migration to a value about five times higher than the
initial value. As the period of migration grew longer, the
current was transported here more and more by the OH- ions, and
there was a steady and significant decrease of the Chloride
Transference Number, so that chloride removal became less and

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522332 207
136 Tritthart
less efficient. This was visibly demonstrated by the fact that,

after 83 days of current flow, about 0.9 mol C1- (about 32000
ppm) were still present in the pore solution of the section
extracted from 40-50 mm depth, whereas the pore solution of zone
0-10 mm contained no more than 0 . 0 5 mol C1- (about 1800 ppm). OH-
ions have a much greater mobility in the electrical direct
voltage field than the chloride ions. In an "ideal' solution
(infinitely diluted) the equivalent conductivity of C1' ions is
76.4 cm2 V-l sec-l at 25OC, whereas it is 197 cm2 V-l sec-l for
OH- ions (29). This means that OH- ions are transported about 2 . 6
times faster than C1- ions. Although these values cannot be
applied to the transport of ions in concrete, it must be assumed
that in concrete, too, there are major differences in the
transport speeds of C1- and OH- ions. Hence, the Chloride
Transference Number, and thus the efficiency of chloride removal,
is definitely even lower than the difference between C1-
Concentration and OH- concentration suggests.
The values obtained after interrupting the flow of current for 98

days differ slightly from those after 83 days of migration and
are higher at 60-70 mm and 75-85 mm depth than after 83 days of
migration (Fig.6). This is related to the local fluctuation of
the total chloride content: At these depths, that total chloride
content was slightly higher than in the sample extracted after 83
days of migration (Fig.4).
In the case of extremely high chloride contamination, no bound

chloride was dissolved either in the zones near the surface or
near the reinforcement, which follows from the fact that the C1-
concentrations of the liquid phase had not changed appreciably
during the interruption of current flow. These as well as earlier
results (13) indicate that the stability of chloride binding is
not the primary factor that governs the efficiency of chloride
removal. According to the results shown in Figures 5 and 6, it
appears to be the rising OH- concentration at the reinforcement
and its influence on the Chloride Transference Number that are
more important. As corroborated by Page et al (23) and my results
(301, a rise in the OH- concentration of the liquid phase causes
an increase in C1- concentration (dissolution of bound
chlorides). The possible explanation is that C1- and OH- ions
compete for adsorption sites on the solids (30). But in case of
chloride removal, the superior C1- solubility in the
reinforcement area has no benefits, because the Chloride
Transference Number is strongly reduced by the rising OH-
concentration.
It was mentioned earlier that, in the laboratory tests, the C1-

content of the liquid phase and solid phase decreased slowly in
the zone which was located at the end of the C1- migration path
in the sample, while it decreased most rapidly in the zone where
the C1- transport had started. This is contrary to the findings
in concrete and can be explained by the fact that the cement
paste samples, that were used in the model tests, were placed

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522333 143
between two electrode chambers that were each filled with 0 . 5

molar NaOH (13). Both electrodes were outside the sample in the
electrode chambers. As the liquid volume of each electrode
chamber was almost twice the volume of the entire cement sample,
the changes of OH- concentration in the electrode chambers, that
were caused by electrode reactions, were not great enough to
effect any major changes of OH- concentration in the cement paste
sample. Thus, the efficiency of C1- removal was not changed
substantially, so that the decrease in the chloride content was
slowest in the sample zone at the far end of the migration path.
This example shows that caution is advised when transferring
results from a model test to actual practice.
CONCLUSIONS
It has been confirmed that a considerable amount of chloride can

be extracted by non-destructive electrochemical removal. The
chloride that has penetrated behind the reinforcement can be
removed to a limited extent only. Chloride removal is most
efficient in the area of most severe chloride contamination, i.e.
close to the concrete surface, and it becomes less and less
efficient at deeper depths and as the time of migration lengthens
due to the continuous rise in OH- concentration at the
reinforcement and the concomitant drop in the Chloride
Transference Number. A s , however, there is normally a pronounced
C1- concentration gradient in concrete and usually much less
chloride is present at the reinforcement than in the deicing-salt
storage hall reported here, the chloride content will, in
practice, drop to "safe" levels in many cases before the OH-
concentration of the pore solution will rise to values that make
chloride removal inefficient. However, if this is not possible
within the normal period of application, as was the case in this
study. the extension of migration time does not seem to be
desirable because the efficiency of chloride removal declines in
the vicinity of the reinforcement.
An increase in the OH- concentration of the pore solution around

the reinforcement has a positive effect in terms of corrosion
protection. But in case of concrete that contain reactive
siliceous aggregate particles, this can be dangerous because it
can accelerate the damage due to alkali-silica reaction (22,23).
Moreover, the fact that the OH- concentration is raised to levels
that never occur in normal concrete, adds another element of
uncertainty. It is conceivable that, apart from other possible
and hitherto unknown and perhaps detrimental influences,
aggregates that have been considered harmless so far may become
reactive under such extreme conditions,
To avert, among other things, the danger of alkali-silica

reaction, it has been proposed recently not to use the
reinforcement as cathode, but place electrodes in bore holes;

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0662947 0522334 OBT
138 Tritthari
this would not only facilitate the removal of chloride from

concrete but of alkalies as well, and, in addition, prevent the
formation of hydrogen at the reinforcement (25). At present it is
not possible to assess whether this idea is promising. A t any
rate, the research community will be called upon to examine
whether the method of electrochemical chloride removal can be
improved at acceptable expenses, so as to eliminate or at least
minimize the risks involved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank the Austrian Federal Ministry of

economic Affairs for the financial support given to this project
and the Styrian Government and the Company Systembau for their
interest and cooperation.
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15. Hansson, I.L.H. and Hansson, C.M.: "Electrochemical
Extraction of Chlorides from Concrete - Part I - A
Qualitative Model of the Process", Cement and Concrete
Research, V 23, pp 1141-1152, 1993
16. Bennett, J. and Schue, T.J.: "Evaluation of NORCURE Process
for Electrochemical Chloride Removal from Steel-Reinforced
Concrete Bridge Components", Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP), Report SHRP -C-620, pp 31, 1993.
17. Bennett, J, Fong, K. F., and Schue, T.J.:"Electrochemical
Chloride Removal and Protection of Concrete Bridge
Components: Fiels Trials", Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP), Report SHRP -S-669, pp 149, 1993.
18. Bennett, J. and Schue, T.J.: "Chloride Removal
Implementation Guide", Strategic Highway Research Program
(SHRP), Report SHRP-S-347,pp 45, 1993.
19. Polder, R.: "Chloride Removal of Reinforced Concrete Prisms
after 16 Years Sea Water Exposure", COST 5 0 9 annual report
1993 of project NL-2; TNO Report 94-BT-R0462, Delft, The
Netherlands, 1993, pp 2 2 .
20. Polder, R., Walker, R., and Page, C.L.: 'Electrochemical
Desalination of Cores from a Reinforced Concrete Coastal
Structure", Magazine of Concrete Research, in press.
21. Kaltenegger, W.K.and Martischnig, G.: .New Gentle Method Of
Concrete Repair", Proceedings of lSt Slovak. Conference on
Concrete Structures, Bratislava, pp 353-361, 1994.
22. Page, C.L. and Yu, S.W.: "Potential Effects of
Electrochemical Desalination of Concrete on Alkali Silica
Reaction", Magazine of Concrete Research, in press.
23. Page, C.L., Yu, S.W. and Bertolini, L.: "Some potential
Side-Effects of Electrochemical Chloride Removal from
Reinforced Concrete", Proceedings of the International
Conference "UK Corrosion & Eurocorr 94", Bournemouth, UK, pp
228- 238, 1994.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522336 952
140 Tritthart
24. Polder, R.: "Electrochemical Chloride Removal of Reinforced

Concrete Prisms Containing Chloride from Sea Water
Exposure", Proceedings of the International Conference "UR
Corrosion & Eurocorr 94", Bournemouth, UK, pp 239-248, 1994.
25. Chatterji, S. : "Simultaneous Chloride Removal and
Realkalisation of Old Concrete Structures", Cement and
Concrete Research, V 24, pp 1051-1054, 1994.
26. Tritthart, J.: "Chloride Binding in Cement I. Investigations
to Determine the Composition of Pore Water in Hardened
Cement", Cement and Concrete Research, V 19, pp 586-594,
1989.
27. Sagoe-Crentsil, K.K., and Glascer, F.P.: "Green Rust, Iron
Solubility and the Role of Chloride in the Corrosion of
Steel at High pH", Cement and Concrete Research, V 23, pp
785-791, 1993.
28. Tritthart, J.: "Changes in Pore Water Composition and in
Total Chloride Content at Different Levels of Cement Paste
Plates under Different Storage Conditions", Cement and
Concrete Research, V 22, pp 129-138, 1992.
29. Hamann, C.H. and Vielstich, W.: "Elektrochemie I", Verlag
Chemie- Physik, Weinheim, Germany, 1975.
30. Tritthart, J.: "Chloride Binding in Cement - II. The
Influence of the Hydroxide Concentration in the Pore
Solution of Hardened Cement Paste on Chloride Binding",
Cement and Concrete Research, V 19, pp 683-691, 1989.
Fig.' 1-View of wall before chloride removal

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0522337 A99 6
Fig. 2-View of wall after completion of preparatory work
c
c-
2c2
- - * - -Core4
s - - -x-. . Core 5
0-10 15-25 30-40 45-55 60-70 75-85 90-100 105- 120- 135- 150- 165-
115 130 145 160 175
Distance from Surface, mm
Fig. &Chloride distribution before chloride removal

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522338 725
142 Tritthart
- - .fi. - - Core 4a
- -0- - Core 6
- - C- - - Core 6a
-X- Core6b
0-10 15-25 30-40 45-55 60-70 75-85 90- 105- 120- 135- 150- 165- 180-
100 115 130 145 160 175 190
Fig. &Chloride content (i) before chloride removal (cores 4 and 6), (i¡)after 40 days of
ig. migration (core 44, (iii)after 83 days of migration (core 6a), and (iv) after 96 days of
migration and subsequent interruption of migration for 98 days (core 6b)
2,50
I
before migration
-
1
2,oo 0 after 83 days of migration I
E after 96 days of migrationand a

1
.-$ 1,50 break of 98 days
c
F
c
c
a>
2 1,oo
O
Y
o 0,510
0,oo
0-1o 15-25 30-40 45-55 60-70 75-85
Fio. &Chanaes” in hvdraxide concentration of pore solution

Y

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662749 0522339 b b 1 I
3,OO
before migration
2,50 0 after 83 days of migration
-
5
O
after 83 days of migration and a
E 2,oo
e- break of 98 days
O
._ ~
2
S
1,50
a
ol
c
q 1,oo
o
0,50
0,oo
0-1o 15-25 30-40 45-55 60-70 75-85
Fig. &-Changes in chloride concentration of pore solution

A C 1 SP-154 95 H O662747 0522340 3 8 3
SP 154-9
Durability of Calcium Aluminate

Cement Concrete: Assessment of
Concrete from a 60-Year Old Marine
Structure at Halifax, NS, Canada
by P. C. AÏtcin, F. Blais, and C. M. George
Synousis: Pier B in the port of Halifax, NS, Canada was built

in 1930-32 using 18 O00 tonnes of calcium aluminate cement,
CAC (Ciment Fondu), sea-dredged sand and aggregates and
mixing water pumped from an inland freshwater lake. The
climatic conditions at Halifax are extremely severe: it is
estimated that exposed concrete is subjected to about 100
freezing and thawing cycles per year. Pier B is over sixty
years old and in regular service as a container terminal for
ocean-going ships.
The main structure is permanently submerged in sea water.
A protective layer of facing concrete made of both CAC and
normal portland cement, cast over the outside faces in the
tidal zone, has needed periodic repair. The CAC concrete
displays excellent durability with cylinder compressive
strengths of 29 to 49 MPa, modulus of elasticity of about 30
GPa, and a Poisson's ratio typical of normal weight concrete.
Records indicate that the CAC concrete was cast with a W/C
of 0.5 to 0.6 and a cement content of about 330 kg/m3.
Volume porosity is of the order of 10%.
The investigation reported here of cores taken from Pier B in
1993 provides a broad characterization and guide for more
detailed examinations in a collaborative program, the results
of which will be reported as they become available. A particu-
lar focus of interest will be the speculative existence of zones of
enhanced impermeability on the exposed faces of the concrete,
an effect which has been observed in other old CACC structures.
Keywords: Calcium aluminates; durabiliíy; freeze thaw durability; harbor
structures; mechanical properties; permeability; porosity
145
A C 1 SP-354 95 m Ob62949 0522343 23T m
146 Aïtcin, Blais, and George
Pierre-Claude Aïtcin, FACI. is a professor of civil engineering at the

Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada. His main areas
of interest in concrete technology include high-strength concrete,
using industrial by-products in concrete, and concreting practices in
the arctic. He is a member of AC1 Committees 234. Silica Fume in Con-
crete; and 363, High-Strength Concrete.
Francine Anne Blah graduated from the Civil Engineering Depart-
ment of the Université de Sherbrooke. She is presently research
assistant in the concrete research group. Her main interests are the
recycling of industrial by-products in concrete.
Charles Mike George obtained the degrees of B.Sc. and Ph.D. in the
UK before joining the Morgan Group in 1961. He has been with Lafarge
since 1969 working successively in England, France and now the USA,
and has published widely in the field of calcium aluminates. He is curre-
ntly Scientific and Technical Advisor to Lafarge Fondu International.
INTRODUCIION
The work reported here constitutes the initial phase of a

cooperative study of calcium aluminate cement (CAC) concrete
durability involving several participating laboratories, Table 1.
Each laboratory will be reporting its findings as the results
become available. Laboratory IC has previously investigated
some 60-year old CAC concrete in the UK1.
The present investigation focuses on CAC concrete of a similar

age from Canada. This structure was chosen ,because it is a
major structure still in service after more than 60 years and
in extremely adverse climatic conditions.
PIER B, PORT OF HALIFAX, NS
Location and Environment
Pier B in the port of Halifax, NS was built in the period 1930-

1932 using 18 O00 tonnes of Ciment Fondu shipped from
England. The location is shown in Figure 1.
Pier B is a marine installation subject to some of the worst

weather conditions to be encountered anywhere on the

A C 1 SP-I154 95 E 0662949 0522342 1 5 6
Canadian east coast2. Meteorological records for the period

1944 to 1990 show monthly precipitation (much of it freezing
rain or snow) for 8 months of the year averaging 109 mm,
coupled with winds of typically 16 km/h but gusting to well
over 1 0 0 km/h and to as much as 150 km/h from the south
west. Mean daily temperature during the winter months
(November through April) is -2.SoC, with extremes of 18.2OC
(maximum) and -20.2OC (minimum). Relative humidity in the
early morning ranges from the low SO'S to above 90% but in
the afternoon this drops to below 80% and often below 70%.
It is estimated that concrete in the Port of Halifax is subject

to about 100 freezing and thawing cycles per year2.
Construction
Hollow, box-shaped reinforced concrete cribs were precast

using sliding form work. The rapid hardening of this type of
concrete was an undoubted advantage for speed of constr-
uction although the choice of the cement was based on its
reputed resistance to chemical attack by sea water.
The cribs, 30 in all, weighed approximately 5 O00 tonnes each

being typically 30 m long, by 15 m wide and 15 m deep. A
special construction site, A (see Figure 1) was built on the
estuary south east of the port, and local, C sea-dredged silice-
ous sand and pebbles were used. Fresh water for mixing was
pumped from an inland lake, D.
Records state3 that the initial W/C in the first crib was
approximately 0.5, subsequently increased as work progressed
up to about 0.6. At no time, it is stated, did the water-cement
ratio exceed 0.625.
Cold water was poured over the form work during the initial
hardening of each lift. However the surface temperature did
reach 4OoC within eight hours after casting.
As each crib was completed it was floated-off from a

submersible platform and allowed to cure in the estuary.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Obb2949 0 5 2 2 3 4 3 O92 m
Because of the hollow construction the cribs at this stage were

only about half submerged. Substantial areas of the external
faces of the concrete were thus exposed to the atmosphere for
a considerable period before the cribs were eventually towed
to the pier location, B and sunk into place. The rate of crib
construction was about 1 per week.
With the cribs in place, an approximately 300-mm thick facing

concrete was cast on the north, east, and south walls between
low and high water to protect them from ship and wave
damage. This was also continued above the tops of the cribs
to form a cope wall. Some of the facing concrete was made
from CAC while some, and all of the cope wall, was made with
normal portland cement. Keying concrete, believed to be CACC
was also cast between the cribs. This construction is shown
schematically in Figures 2, 3 and 4.
' Past Performance of Pier B
Periodic repairs to the facing concrete have been necessary,

particularly on the east and south walls which face down the
estuary to the open sea. A thorough inspection in 1957 by
divers showed the cribs to be generally in excellent condition
and, unlike adjacent normal portland-cement concrete
structures, free of marine growth. This observation was
reconfirmed in 1993 during the coring operations described
herein. Cores taken in 1976 are said to have shown concrete
in good condition and not converted: conversion is the process
by which low density hydrates transform into permanent,
higher density hydrates. The process is irreversible and can be
very slow at low temperatures. Unfortunately, details of this
investigation are not available. In 1989 more cores were
drilled to establish the adequacy of the structure for the
installation of a traveling crane. Concrete from the top of one of
the cribs gave a compressive strength of 21.7 MPa while
that from the keys used to link the cribs together gave 31.0
MPa. Results for some of the portland-cement concrete were
18.9, 39.3 and 39.8 MPa. Pier B continues to operate normally
today as a terminal for ocean-going container ships.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522344 T29 m
Figure 5 shows two typical core sections, (from core SS-2, LHS;
core SS-1, RHS, 200 mm long x 100 mm diameter). The magni-
fication is 0.625.
Cores Taken from Pier B
The designating codes are as follows:
preliminary cores (all from the N face)
AN - PI to AN - P4 A = above high water

P = preliminary
TN - P5 to TN - P8 T = tidal zone
S = submerged
N = N face
E = E face
S = S face
Main coring operations,
T (N, E, S) - E to T (N. E, S) - T,
S (N, E, S) - 1 to S (N, E, S ) - 8,
Horizontal coring (to a distance of 610 mm) in the tidal zone

produced an outer core of facing concrete and an inner core
of crib concrete, (see Figure 6). Horizontal coring below low
water to a distance of 305 m m produced a single core of
crib concrete. Frequently the outer and inner cores separated
as the cores were being removed showing that a good bond
between the two had often not been obtained at the time of
casting. According to the port engineers it was intended that a
good, tight bond should be developed. The elevations in Figures
7.1, 7 . 2 and 7.3 show where the cores were taken.
Confirmation of Concrete Tyue
The cores were examined by X-ray diffraction with the

exception of 7 where X-ray fluorescence was used instead,
(samples have been retained for XRD if appropriate). Cores 1
through 16 were exploratory, taken prior to the main coring

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522345 9b5
150 Aitcin, Blais, and George
operation to verify where in the pier structure CAC concrete

was located.
The X-ray fluorescence results are summarized in Table 2 and

those for X-ray diffraction in Table 3.
Figure 5 shows sections of two cores. These are fairly typical

of all the CAC concrete taken from Pier B. As can be seen,
aggregate size varies considerably and is frequently much
greater than the maximum of 38 mm (1112 inches) reportedly
employed. A large percentage of the aggregates are rounded
sea pebbles but fragments of larger precrushed pebbles are
also present.
The aggregates are siliceous, the sand being quite sharp.
From Table 3 it is evident that all concrete from the cope wall
above high water was manufactured with normal portland
cement. We know from the method of construction of the pier
that all concrete below low water was made using .CAC.
Table 3 shows that the inner concrete in the tidal zone was
made using CAC as expected but that the outer layer of facing
concrete can be of either normal portland cement or CAC.
Based on this information the remaining core drilling was
organized.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Mineralogy
The X-ray diffraction data of Table 3 was obtained primarily

in order to verify the type of cement in the cores. Only the
results from laboratory S have been subject to more detailed
interpretation. Friedel's salt was not detected but this may
have been decomposed by the formation of ettringite, which
was found. There were apparent traces of stratlingite in some
cores and this is not unusual in old CAC concretes.
While the presence of CAC is clearly confirmed by the detection

of calcium aluminate hydrates, beyond this there is no evident

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 052234b BTL m
pattern. Cores range in condition from very little converted

(preponderance of CAHlo) to partially converted (both CAHIo
and C3AH6 present) and to fully converted, (C3AH6 only).
The results from laboratory LF (France) suggest that the facing

concrete is generally not fully converted, whereas that from
the cribs is fully converted. However, the results from
laboratory S show no consistent difference between the two
types of concrete, while laboratory LF (UK) reports full
conversion in all cases.
Conditions prevailing at the time of construction of Pier B

may be linked to the variation in degree of conversion of
the concrete.
It was previously noted that self heating occurred during

the casting of the cribs. This would encourage conversion and
the effect would be more pronounced within the 533-mm
thick crib walls than in the 305-mm thick facing concrete.
On the other hand, exposure of the cribs to wind in the estuary

prior to their being sunk in place may have caused significant
reductions in moisture of the concrete to some depth and this
could have the effect of preventing conversion. A skin of dense,
low-permeability concrete containing CAH,, has been observed
on many old CAC structures, and drying of the concrete at an
early age appears to be the Laboratory studies show
that CAH,, does not convert even at high temperatures at
relative humidities below 80%6.
Compressive Strength. Modulus of Elasticitv and Poisson's

Ratio of Concrete in Compression
Compressive strength of cylinders was determined according

to ASTM C 39, Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio
of Concrete in Compression were measured according to ASTM
C 469. This work was carried out at the Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Sherbrooke, (see Table 4).

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522347 738
With the exception of core TN-N all mechanical properties

reflect good quality, normal weight concrete. (Core SN-5 has a
low value for Poisson's Ratio but the concrete showed some
visual signs of damage before testing whereas cores SN-8 and
TE-T did not).
There is however, considerable variation in the data (range

29.5 to 48.8 MPa). As previously noted, changes were made
in the water content of the crib concrete during construction
from just below 0.5 W/C initially to just above 0.6 W/C later.
Some laboratory data for concrete cubes in this range of W/C
is as shown in Table 5.
From these data it is clear that differences in W/C in the cribs

of Pier B may have been sufficient to provoke the observed
variations in compressive strength. Furthermore, strengths
increase by 40 to 50% from 3 months to 20 years to values
ranging from 20+ MPa to 30f MPa. The strengths of 29.5 MPa
to 48.8 MPa in the Pier B cribs after 60 years are not incompa-
tible with these laboratory results. At the same time Table 3
shows that at least 2 of the cores (TE-T and SN-5) are far from
being fully converted.
Table 4 shows higher strengths for the submerged concrete

than that from the tidal zone, (averages 41.9 MPa and 26.4
MPa respectively). However, core TN-N (17.1 MPa) contained
exceptionally large aggregates with little binder paste and
rupture occurred at the interface. The result for TN-N may
therefore not be representative. Nevertheless, concrete in the
tidal zone is potentially vulnerable to freezing and thawing
degradation and may therefore be expected to show lower
strengths than the permanently submerged concrete which is
not.
Porosity. Pore Size Distribution. and Permeabilitv
This work was carried out at the Department of Civil

Engineering, University of Sherbrooke. Pore volume as a
function of pore diameter was measured using mercury
intrusion porosimetry, (MIP) on (approximately 0.035 kg)
fragments of concrete dried 24 hours at 110OC.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 O522348 6 7 4 =
Two samples, a and ß from core TE-T were examined and the
results are shown in Figures 8.1. and 8.2. It can be seen that
pore diameters are predominately clustered in the range
0.1 pm to about 1.0 pm and this is quite typical of a CAC
concrete5. The total intruded porosities of 41.7 mm3/g, (a) and
38.4 mm3/g, (ß) in Figure 8.2. correspond to volume porosities
of 10.0% and 9.2% respectively assuming a density for the
concrete of about 2.4 Mg/m3. About 70% of this porosity lies
between 1.0 pm and 0.1 pm while a further 25% lies between
0.1 pm and 0.01 pm. The curves have not leveled off even at
0.005 pm, the smallest pore diameter accessible, (maximum
Hg pressure, 150 MPa). This combination of capillary plus
micro-porosity is more typical of unconverted rather than
converted CAC5, in agreement with the result given in Table 3.
On the other hand, a porosity of 10% for a CAC concrete

containing about 330 kg of cement/m3 at a total water-cement
ratio of about 0.55 implies a porosity in the cement paste
phase of 35% by volume, which is much more typical of the
open porosity of a converted concrete as measured by water
absorption. Perhaps the MIP procedure affects the micro-
structure, but this is speculative and we do not know what
qualitative or quantitative effects could occur.
ASTM C 1202, Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to

Resist Chloride Ion Penetration was used on concrete from
the tidal zone and from the submerged part of the structure.
This test, sometimes called the "Rapid Chloride Ion Perme-
ability Test" measures total current passed through a disk
shaped specimen over a period of 6 hours under an imposed
voltage of 60 volts dc. The specimen is in contact with a 3%
sodium chloride solution on one face and sodium hydroxide
solution on the other.
The test rates "permeability" according to the total current

passed. This rating together with the results from Pier B is
reproduced in Table 6.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0522349 500
154 A k i n , Blais, and George
Considerable variation is evident, even within a single core

(TN-H). In the case of core SS-1, visual examination showed a
plane of weakness at the cement paste-aggregate interfaces
not evident in the other sample. This may be due to inadequa-
te compaction at the time of casting. Large spaces within
a concrete would accelerate ion diffusion during the test but
would not necessarily be susceptible to freezing and thawing
damage.
DISTRIBUTION OF CORES TO THE PARTICIPATING

LABORATORIES
All cores from Pier B (excepting the 16 exploratory cores) were

first shipped to the Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Sherbrooke, Canada, (laboratory S). After visual examination
a selection was made for distribution to the various labo-
ratories participating in this study, as shown in Table 7.
CONUUSIONS
Since the early 1960's the sensitivity of CAC concrete durability

to water content has been recognized and an upper limit to
water-cement ratio of 0.4 has been prescribed. How then has
the Pier B concrete made with W/C well above this limit,
survived so well?
The information presented in this paper does not answer this

question but it provides some indications. When the results
from all the participating laboratories are available, a reason-
ably clear picture may emerge.
For the present we note substantial differences in mineralogy

(degree of conversion) among the cores and this is to some
extent reflected in variations in other properties. However, in
some tests, particularly the "Rapid Chloride Ion Permeability
Test," the size of the large aggregates compared to the size of
the specimen may also have influenced the results.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522350 222 I
Compressive strength results are good; ranging from about 30

MPa to about 50 MPa which is quite consistent with the W/C
reportedly used, the age of the concrete, and the types of
hydrates present.
Pore size distributions (on one core) are typical of unconverted

CAC concrete while total porosity is more indicative of a high
degree of conversion. There are reasons for speculating on the
existence of an impermeable, CAHlo-rich surface skin on some
of the concrete, and further examination of the cores will
focus, in part, on this possibility. The phenomenon is not new
and a tentative mechanism has been p r ~ p o s e d . ~
This may be an important clue in explaining the excellent

durability of the CAC concrete at Halifax, NS.
The investigation reported here provides, the initial

characterization of the Pier B concrete on which to build the
more detailed studies that are planned.
ACKNOWiEDGh4ENTS
We are indebted to Mr. Don Carter, Director of Engineering,

Halifax Port Corp., NS and to Mr. Gordon Leaman of Jacques
Whitford Consulting Engineers, for numerous discussions about
the construction, operation, and climatic environment of Pier B
as well as for organizing the taking of the core samples.
We owe special thanks to Mr. Patrick Naugle, of Eastern

Passage, NS for identifying the sites of the construction plant
and the dredging operations and providing key details from
personal memory about the conditions prevailing at the time
Pier B was built.

A C 1 SP-154 75 E Obb2747 0522351 Lb7 E
We wish also to acknowledge the generous cooperation of the

staff of the Halifax National Archives in allowing us to inspect
maps, photographs and records relating to the time when Pier
B was under construction. We must also express our gratitude
to Mrs. Irène K. Lévesque and Ms. Shahwana Rashid for help
with XRD analyses.
1. J. Houghton and K. Scrivener, "A Microstructural Study of

a 60 Year Old Calcium Aluminate Cement Concrete," awaiting
publication.
2. Private Communication with D. Carter, Director of

Engineering, Halifax Port Corporation, Halifax, NS, July 1994.
3. D. C. Tibbets, Performance of Concrete in Sea Water, (E. G.

Swenson, Ed., NRC. Canada, 1968).
4. See reference 1.
5. A. Capmas and C. M. George, "Durability of Calcium

Aluminate Cement Concretes," Advances in Cernent and
Concrete Research, M. W. Grutzeck and S . L. Sarkar, Editors,
Proc. Eng. Foundation Conf. (July 24-29, 1994). New Hampshire,
Publ. Amer. Soc. of Civil Engrs., NY.
6. Private communication with P. Barret, University of Dijon,

France.
7. R. J. Collins and G. Gutt, "Research on Long-Term

Properties of High Alumina Cement Concrete," Mag. Concr. Res.,
Vol. 40, no. 145 (December 1988), pp. 195-208.

A C 1 SP-1-54 95 M 0662949 0522352 O T 5 M
TABLE 1 - PARTICIPATING LABORATORIES

1 I
I Laboratories
I Study
University of Sherbrooke (S), Physical and mechanical proper-

Canada. Department of Civil ties: strength, porosity, elastic-
Engineering ity, permeability, mineralogy
I
I I
Visual and electronical charac-
Instituto Eduardo Torroja (ET), terization of reinforcement
Spain condition, chemistry, mineralogy,
physical properties
Polymer impregnation and

TEXSA, S.A. (TX), Spain reduction of permeability
to water
I
t I
Carbonation, chloride and sulfate
Building Research Establishment ion penetration, oxygen
(BR), United Kingdom permeability, optical micro-
scopy, electrochemical tests
The Imperial College of Science, Mineralogy and microstructure by

Technology and Medicine (IC), electron microscopy with back-
United Kingdom scattered electron imaging
Lafarge (LF), Chemistry, density, porosity,

United Kingdom and France and mineralogy

A C 1 Sp-154 95 9 0662949 0522353 T 3 1 D
TABLE 2 - IDENTIFICATION OF CONCRETE TYPE: X-RAY FLUORESCENCE
nominalCACI 39 39.5 I 18 1 I 2.5

I
nominal OPC 65 6 3 0.7 I 0.35

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522354 978
W
L C
-'E
LL
I
c
.-
I
m L
.s O
E c
-
r
a
m
-
A
Lo
N
O
r
I
a
o
óo
50
m
a
Gi
N
c?
W
I
mO

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 0522355 ô04 m
I
z w
- I -

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522356 740 1
TABLE 4 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CRIB CORES
TABLE 5 - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF CONVERTED CAC CONCRETE CUBS
(3 months at 38OC develops the minimum strength associated with

conversion.)
TABLE 6 - RAPID CHLORIDE ION PERMEABILITY RESULTS
Core I Coulombs I ASTM .Ratingc I

I Coulombs I CI- Permeability
ss-1 7400 I > 4000 I high
-
TN-H (a) 6000
TN-H (b) 3300 2000 - 4000 moderate
ss-2 2000 1000 - 2000 low
100 - 1000 very low
< 100 negligible

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0bb2949 0522357 bô7 m
TABLE 7 - DISTRIBUTION OF IAC CONCRETE CORES TO PARTICIPATING LABORATORIES
I Laboratory I Core (Diam (rnrn)) I Comment
Building Research
1 After sampling this core has been transferred ni = non identified origin
to BRE
The description of internal and external surface is given in Fig. 6.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 O522358 513 =
A - Eastern Passage - Construction Site B - Pier B

C - Barrie's Beach Dredging SiLe- D - Morris ï a k c
Fig. 1-Location of pier B, pori of Halifax, NS, Canada
km+
í 300'4"
)
Fig. 2-Plan and orientation of pier B

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522359 45T M
164 Aitcin, Blais, and George
Fig. ?Schematic diagram of cribs. Interior compartments (not shown) were cast
integrally with the walls and base. Wall thickness of cribs is 533 mm
No. L W H location
1 1: 1
c2
2: ~
23.55 m
(77’3”)
32.7 m
(1 07’3”)
1 1 1
15.8 rn
(52’)
12.8 m
(42’)
(53‘)
16.15 m
(53’)
13.1 m
(43’)
3 N
5 s
E
4 inlanc
Fig. 4-Inventory of cribs built

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662947 O522360 I171 I
Fig. %Photograph of two typical core sections
crib concrete facing concrete
o f ten
very weak
o r no bond
Fig. b o u t e r and inner cores from the tidal zone

A C 1 SP-154 95 M 0662949 0522361 O08
166 Aiitcin, Blais, and George
?St
o P4 OP3 OPZ OPI

______---- - - - - -.H.W.O.S.T.
tldal 0I OJ OH OC OP8 OP7 OP6 OP5
zone
__
O N_ O
-P- - - - - - - - - - - -L.W.O.S.T.
0 4
submerged
O5 0 7
0 6 Os
Fig. 7.1-North face elevation showing core locations
west top o f pier east (seaward)
-_- ---------
tldal OE
zone
- --------_-_- L.W.O.S.T.
submerged
01 0 2 0 3
Fig. 7.2-South face elevation showing core locations
5 th top of pler th
------------- H.W.O.S.T.
tldal OL
zone
------------- O T
L.W.O.S.T.
submerged
Fig. 7.3-East face elevation showing core locations

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522362 T 4 4 I
por9 diameter (Inrn),
Fig. 8.1-Pore size distribution from MIP: two samples, a and /3 from core TE-T
pore diameter (Mm)
Fig. 8.2-Total intruded pore volume from MIP: two samples, a and /3 from core TE-1

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522363 980
SP 154-10
New Developments in the Modeling

of Mass Transport Processes in
Cement-Based Composites: A Review
by J. Marchand and B. Gérard
Synopsis Cement-based composites are used in the construction of a wide range

of structures. During their service life, many of these structures are exposed to
various types of aggression, and their durability is generally controlled by their
diffusivity and permeability of the cement-based composite. Since the assessment
of these two properties by laboratory or in-situ tests is often difficult and generally
time-consuming, a great deal of effort has been made towards developing
microstructure-based models to predict them. A critical review of the most recent
developments in this field is presented. The report begins with a survey of the
various mathematical concepts developed to characterize the structure of porous
media. Empirical and physical models are reviewed in separate sections. Special
emphasis is placed on recent innovationsin the field of numerical and digital image
analysis based modeling. Each model is evaluated on the basis of its ability to
predict the mass transport properties of a wide range of cement-based composites,
and its potential application to the study of other micro and macrostructural
properties.
Kewords: Cements; composite materials; diffusion; microstructure;

models; permeability
169
A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 Ob62949 0522364 ô17
170 Marchand and Gérard
Jacques Marchand is assistant-professor of Civil Engineering at Laval

University, Québec City, Canada. He received his doctorate degree from the Ecole
Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in Paris. His research interests are in the areas of
the durability of cement-based composites and the performance of high-
performance and dry concretes.
Bruno Gérard is a research engineer at Électricité de France. He is currently
ompleting his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering at Laval University (Canada) and at
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan (France), His research interests are in the
areas of durability of cement-based composites and modeling of the behavior of
concrete structures.
INTRODUCTION
Cement-based composites (hydrated cement pastes, mortars, plain and fibre-
reinforced concretes) are used in the construction of a wide range of structures.
During their service life, many of these structures are exposed to various types of
aggression where, in most cases, the deterioration mechanisms involve the
transport of fluids andor dissolved chemical species within the porosity of the
material. This transport of matter (in saturated or unsaturated media) can either be
due to a pressure gradient (permeation), a concentration gradient (diffusion) or the
application of an electrical field (migration). In many cases, the durability of a
cement-based composite is controlled by its ability to act as a tight barrier that can
effectively impede, or at least slow down, the mass transport process.
Given their direct influence on durability, mass transport processes have been the
object of a great deal of interest by researchers. Although the existing knowledge
of the parameters affecting the mass transport properties of cement-based materials
is far from being complete, the research done on the subject has greatly contributed
to improve the understanding of these phenomena. A survey of the numerous
technical and scientific reports published on the subject over the past decades is
beyond the scope of this report, and comprehensive reviews can be found
elsewhere [ 1-51.
The assessment of the mass transport properties by laboratory or in-situ tests is
often difficult and generally time-consuming [6,7].For this reason, a great deal of
effort has also been made towards developing microstructure-based models that
can reliably predict the transport properties of cement-based composites. A critical
review of the most pertinent models proposed in the literature is presented in this
paper. Some of these models have been previously reviewed by other authors [ 5 ,
8-10]. The purpose of this review paper is evidently not to duplicate the works
done by others, but rather to complement them. In the present survey, emphasis is
therefore placed on the most recent developments in the modeling of mass
transport processes. The review is limited to the models developed to predict the
diffusivity and the permeabilityof saturated cement-based composites.
Theoretical considerationspertaining to the calculation of the transport properties
of a porous medium are briefly reviewed in the fiist part of this paper. This part
also includes a survey of the various mathematical concepts developed to
characterize the physical structure of porous media. The second section of the

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522365 7 5 3 m
paper is devoted to the critical review of the main models found in the literature.
Empirical, physical and numerical models are reviewed in separate sections.
Special attention is paid to the recent innovations in the field of numerical and
digital image analysis based modeling.
DEFINITIONS AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Permeability is often defined by many authors as the facility of a fluid under a
pressure gradient to move through a given material. In that sense, permeability is
not only a characteristicof the material but also refers to the driving force acting on
the fluid. Originally, however, permeability had a much less restricted meaning.
The adjective "permeable" has been traced in some texts written as early as 1625,
and permeability is defined in a French dictionary, published in 1743, as the
"quality of what flows easily". According to this definition, permeability is thus a
general term that refers to the property of materials to be passed through by matter
(that can either be a fluid, ions, an electric or a magnetic field, .,.) independently
of the driving force. In that sense, it is thus fair to use the expressions chloride
permeability,water permeability or magnetic Permeability.
In the scientific literature, it is however increasingly common to distinguish the
various processes of mass transport by the driving force acting on the transported
matter. In the following paragraphs, qualitative and mathematical definitions of the
permeation and diffusion processes are given. The various parameters developed
to characterize the structure of porous media are also defined. These definitions
will be used in the following sections. The appendix A and B give the notation
used and the definition of mathematical operators found in the following
equations.
Permeation
Permeation is usually defined as the process by which a fluid goes through a
material due to the action of a pressure gradient. Fig. 1 shows the simple case of
two pores connected by a pipe. Pore 1 is at a pressure Pi and pore 2 is at a
pressure P2, Pi being higher than P2. Under this pressure gradient, the fluid in the
first pore moves into the second through the pipe until Pi is equal to P2. In the
case where P1 and P2 remain constant and allow a laminar flow (Le. Reynolds
number < 2 0 0 ) , a steady flow is recorded and, neglecting the gravity acting on
the particles, the flow rate in the pipe can be calculated using Darcy's law:
- k
J = - - grad (P)
9
where is the volumetric flow rate of the fluid (m/s), that is analogous to a speed,
k is the intrinsic coefficient of permeation (m2) which is independent of the fluid,
q the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg/m/s) and P the pressure (Pa) acting at
coordinates x, y, z.
A modified version of Darcy's law has been specifically derived for saturated
porous materials:

A C 1 SP-154 95 W O662949 0522366 69T
where k' is the modified permeation coefficient (m3.sBg). Equation (2) was first
developed for water transport in soil, but is now commonly applied to
consolidated materials such has hydrated cement paste and concrete. It should be
noted that Darcy's law is a phenomenological equation, derived from empirical
observations, that describes the bulk flow of a fluid through a porous medium
without any reference to the microstructural characteristics of the material. In that
respect, Darcy's equation is analogous to Fourier's law for heat conduction and
Ohm's law for elecmcity conduction.
For practical purposes, equation (2) can be easily modified using the following
relation:
P=pg h (3)
where h is the hydraulic head (m), and p is the density of the fluid (kglm3). For an
incompressible fluid, p is constant and independent of the pressure applied, and
equation (2) thus becomes:
-
J = -K grid(h) (4)
where K is the permeation factor ( m / s ) that is both a function of the porous
material characteristicsand of the permeating fluid viscosity and density. For water
at 20' C,k/K = q/p/g= 10-7 (m.s).
The law of mass conservation applies to any mass transport process and provides
a differential equation when solved gives the head pressure and the flow current in
all points of the structure. For a steady flow in saturated porous media, Laplace's
equation (issues from the law of mass conservation) should thus be satisfied in all
points of the solid:
div[p i]= O (5)

For an incompressiblefluid, equation (5) becomes:
For a compressible fluid, the relationship existing between the applied pressure
and the fluid density can be derived from the law of ideal gases:
P=pRT (7)
where T is the temperature (Kelvin) and is the molar gas constant (J/moi/K).
Under isothermal conditions, equation (5) becomes:

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522367 5 2 b
E +-+--
a2h2 - div[h grãd(h)]= div[PgrGd(P)]= O (8)
ax2 ay2 az2
The applicability of Laplace's equation to saturated Darcy flows implies that most
permeation processes in porous media should be modeled using solutions derived
for similar heat flow problems[4].
Diffusion
Diffusion is usually defined as the transport of matter due to a concentration
gradient. Thus, while the permeation process is Concerned with the transport by
bulk flow, the diffusion process is concerned with the motion of individual
molecules or ions. As for the permeation process, the phenomenological equations
developed to describe the diffusion process, known as Fick's first and second
laws, have been derived from empirical observations. It was only many years after
their introduction that these laws were explained from theoretical considerations.
It has been demonstrated that the general kinetic theory of ideal gases can also be
applied to the perpetual motion of molecules in a solution. At a given temperature,
the molecules (or ions) in solution move with a uniform velocity until they collide
with one another. At the collision, momentum is transferred and particles lose
speed. Since it is extremely difficult to follow the motion of each individual
particle in solution, the transport process is generally studied from a macroscopic
standpoint i.e., the movement of molecules is monitored by measuring changes in
concentration.The movement of a species of molecules (or ions) in solution can be
expressed in terms of their free energy. In an ideal solution (which in
electrochemistry means a very dilute solution), the free energy of a molecular
species is equivalent to its chemical potential (p), and can be calculated using the
following equation:
p = p o + R T in(c) (9)
where p.0 is the standard chemical potential, R the ideal gas constant (J/moVK), T
the temperature (K) and c the concentrationof the species in solution.
The chemical potential (or the free energy) is directly related to the concentrationof
the species. Thus according to equation (9), if two points in a solution are at
different concentrations,there exists between them a gradient of free energy (Fig.
2). This gradient is the driving force of the molecular diffusion from the point of
higher concentration to the point of lower concentration. Applying the second
principle of thermodynamics (the energetic dissipation due to the movement of
ions is always positive or null), the diffusion flow of a molecular or ionic species
in an ideal solution can be expressed by the following relationship:
-
J = -B c grad@)
where B is a transport coefficient (it can be a scalar for isotropic media or a vector
if the material has a heterogeneous structure). According to equation (lo), the
steady-state diffusion flow is proportional to the gradient of concentration.
Replacing equation (9) in equation (lo), one fmds the well known empirical Fick's
first law of diffusion flux :

174
A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2949 05223b8 4b2
Marchand and Gerard
m I
d = - D gräd(c) (1 1)
where D is termed the diffusion coefficient (m2/s). For an ideal solution, D is

constant. However, for more concentrated solutions, D becomes a function of the
ionic species found in solution and of their concentrations. In this sense, D is more
a phenomenological transport factor than a true diffusion coefficient (at least from
the perspective of the Brownian motion theory).
Some researchers apparently forget the theoretical basis of equation (1 1). The ionic
species found in cementitious materials are so concentrated that the assumption of
an ideal solution is not correct. Thus one has to take into account the interaction
between the various ions present in solution, and the diffusion coefficient should
become:
diny
D=BRT (1+-)
dlnc
where y is the activity. To add to the complexity of the problem, the activity
coefficient is also a function of the concentrations of all the ionic species in
solution. Several expressions have been developed to calculate the value of the
activity coefficient. A description of these models is beyond the scope of this
review, and comprehensive surveys on the subject can be found in any good text
book of electrochemistry [i 1, 121.
As for the permeation process, the Laplace's equation should also be satisfied for
the transport by diffusion. For a steady-flow (the concentration is independent of
time), Laplace's equation can be solved to determine the concentration of a species
in all points of the solution:
div[D grãd(c)]= O (13)

In the case of a non-steady-state flow, equation (13) has to be slightly modified
and becomes:
ac
div[D grãd(c)]= - (14)
at
Equation (14) is often referred to as Fick's second law. Knowing the initial and
boundary conditions, it can generally be solved using the Laplace or Fourier
transform technique.
As previously mentioned, when diffusion is solely taking place in a solution, the
diffusion coefficient (D) is only a function of the type of diffusing species and of
their concentrations. The diffusion coefficient measured under these conditions is
generally termed the free liquid diffusion coefficient (Da). However, when
passing through a porous medium, the path of the diffusing particle is not only
affected by the presence of the other particles in solution but is also affected by the
characteristics of the solid pore structure. In the case of an inert material where the
diffusing particles do not interact with the solid surfaces (which is in most cases an
over simplification),the resulting diffusion coefficient is often termed the effective
diffusion coefficient (De& or the intrinsic diffusion coefficient (Dint). If the

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522369 3T9
diffusing particles interact physically or chemically with the material, the measured
coefficient is then called the apparent diffusion coefficient (Dapp) [13, 141.
Phvsical characteristics of gorous media
As previously mentioned, equations (1) to (14) have been developed from a global
standpoint. They do not, link the values of the transport coefficient to the
microstructural characteristics of the porous medium. In their efforts to establish
such a relationship, many authors have defined various parameters to characterize
the physical (or geometrical) properties of porous materials. These geometrical
parameters are often used by researchers to develop mathematical models. The
most commonly used of these parameters are briefly reviewed in the following
paragraphs.
Among the most commonly used parameters, the porosity of a material (0)
is
usually defined as the ratio of void to total volume:
o =void volume -- gas void volume + water volume (15)

total volume void volume + solid volume
The porosity is a nondimensional parameter (often expressed as a percentage). It

does not provide any information either on the geomemcal features of the pores or
on their size distribution. Some researchers prefer to base the calculation of
porosity on the interconnected pore space instead of on the total pore space. The
resulting value is termed effecrive porosity and is often noted (0&.
Another commonly used geometrical parameter is the specific internal area (Sa>.
This is the ratio of the internal area of the voids to the total volume and is
expressed as a reciprocal length (m2/m3):
void area
sa=
total volume
The specific internal area provides information on the refinement of the pore
Sa1 > S n means that the pores of medium 1 are
structure. For a given value of 0,
smaller than those of medium 2.
Some prefer to use the effective specific internal area (So) which is the ratio of the
internal area of the voids to the volume of solids. The effective specific internal
area is also expressed as a reciprocal length (m2/m3), and can be determined by the
following relationship:
void area
so =
volume of solids
The total porosity and the specific internal area are useful parameters that can be
(more or less) easily measured, but they are only rough estimates of the pore
structure characteristics of a material. A model that would aim to predict the
transport properties of a given material could hardly be based solely on these two
parameters. In order to provide additional information on the properties of porous
media, researchers have tried to assign mathematical definitions to develop

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662947 0522370 010
176 Marchand and Gerard
concepts such as the connectivity and the tortuosity of a porous network. While
these definitions can be used effectively to describe simple porous media, their
applications to intricate systems, such as hydrated cement paste and concrete, is
more problematic and generally less successful [15].
The connecrivis, factor (CF) is often qualitatively defined as the level at which a
porous structure is connected. Several mathematical defimitionsof this parameter
can be found in the literature. One of them is given in Fig. 3 for a simple porous
network. The porous medium is imagined as nodes connected by links. The
connectivity factor is determined as the subtraction of the number of links and the
number of nodes plus one. Unfortunately, such a definition can hardy be applied
to complex porous systems, and the connectivity parameter has never been
accurately determined for cement-based composites.
The rortuosify (~1/2)is another concept that has been introduced, at the beginning
of this century, in an attempt to characterize the complexity of a porous network.
Several mathematical definitions of tortuosity can be found in the literature. It
seems, however, that the definition proposed by Epstein [16] is used most
commonly:
tortuosity 71’2 =
L
where Le is the average pore length and L is the apparent length (which one can be
measured). Epstein also defines the rormsis,factor (2)as:
tortuosity factor z =
(t1
The tortuosity factor appears in equations of transport when considering the real
speed of the fluid. The use of these definitions in the modeling of transport
processes in porous materials is correct only in the case of ideal (incompressible
and non-viscous) fluids. Furthermore, the concept of tortuosity, as defined by
equation (18), can hardy be applied to characterize intricate pore systems.
To overcome this difficulty, various experimental techniques have been proposed
to indirectly measure the tortuosity of complex porous systems. Carniglia [171, for
instance, developed a procedure where the tortuosity factor is deduced from
mercury intrusion pore size distributions and diffusion measurements. Others have
deduced tortuosity (or the tortuosity factor) from electrical conductivity
measurements. These methods are based on the assumption that, for saturated
systems, the electrical tortuosity is equal to the hydraulic tortuosity which is also
equal to the diffusion tortuosity. Willie and Spangler [181 proposed calculation of
the tortuosity factor according to the following equation:
T = @ P (20)
where F is the formation factor and corresponds to the ratio of the electrical
conductivity of free electrolyte (oa)to the electrical conductivity of the entire
saturated porous solid (oeff):

A C 1 SP-154 95 Is 0662749 0522373 T57 m
F = afl (21)
(Jeff
The formation factor (F) is often referred to as the Archie factor (F) or the
Macmuilin number (Nm)in the chemical engineering literature [19,20].
For unsaturated media, Willie and Spangler [i81 also proposed the calculation of
Te and Fe according to the following relationship:
The coefficient I is termed the indexed resistivity and is a function of the degree of
saturation (0) of the porous medium. From numerous experimental data, Willie
and Spangler deduced the following relationship:
I = 0-n (23)
where n is a constant depending on the material and its level of damage.
Although, as will be seen in the following section, tortuosity factors calculated
from electrical conductivitymeasurementshave been regularly used by researchers
in the development of transport property models, the validity of these parameters
has been consistently questioned. In his comprehensive review of the flow
mechanisms in porous media, Scheidegger [ 151 mentions that no consistent
correlation can be found between the electrical and the geometrical properties of
porous materials. The application of tortuosity factors to cement-based composites
has also been criticized recently by Chatterji [21].
Instead of using parameters such as connectivity and tortuosity, many researchers
have chosen to base their models on information deduced from pore size
distributions. These distributions are generally obtained by mercury intrusion
porosimetry, capillary condensation techniques or image analyses. An example of
a pore size distribution obtained for a hydrated cement paste by mercury intrusion
porosimetry is given in Fig. 4 [3]. Results can either be expressed in dVldP (P =
mercury intrusion pressure) versus pore diameter plots or cumulative intruded
volume versus pore diameter plots. Parameters such as the total porosity, the
threshold diameter (noted dt in the figure) theoretical pore diameter or the
maximum continuous pore diameter (noted d,) and the mean pore diameter (noted
dm)can be deduced from these distributions (Fig. 4).
Although all of these methods generally yield reproducible results, none of them is
believed to give the "true" pore size distribution of complex systems such as
hydrated cement paste and concrete. As emphasized by Diamond [22], each
method covers a limited portion of the pore structure, and none of them can tally
the whole range of possible pore sizes found in cement-based composites. Results
given by mercury intrusion porosimetry, which appears to be the most commonly-
used method, have also been criticized. in addition to the fact that the distributions
obtained by this method are based on numerous simplistic assumptions [23], the
pore filling by mercury intrusion has been reported to significantly alter the pore
structure of hydrated cement paste systems [24,25]. Numerous studies have also
clearly indicated that the results obtained are strongly influenced by the sample
preparation procedure [26,27].

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522372 993
MICROSTRUCTURE-BASED TRANSPORT MODELS

Over the past decades, researchers have followed various paths to develop
microstructure-based models to predict the transport properties of saturated
cement-based composites. Models derived from these various approaches may be
divided in three categories: empirical models, physical (or phenomenological)
models, and computer-based models. Although the limits between these categories
are somewhat ambiguous, and the assignment of a particular model in either of
these classes is often arbitrary, such a classification has proven to be extremely
helpful in the elaboration of this review. It is also believed that this classification
will contribute to assist the reader in evaluating the limitations and the advantages
of each model.
Before reviewing the various models found in the literature, the charactensticsof a
good model deserve to be defined. The main quality of such a model lies in its
ability to reliably predict the transport properties of a wide range of cement-based
composites. As mentioned by Garboczi [lo], the ideal model should also be based
on direct measurements of the pore structure of a representative sample of the
material. These measurements should be of microstructural parameters that have a
direct bearing on transport properties, and the random connectivity and tortuosity
of the pore structure should be treated realistically. As can be seen, the difficulties
of developing a good model are as much related to the identification and the
measurement of relevant microstructural parameters than to the subsequent
treatment of this information.
Empirical models
Numerous empirical models have been proposed over the past decades. All of
them have been developed using the same approach. An equation linking the value
of a given transport coefficient to the material properties are deduced from a certain
number of experimental data. In most cases, the mathematical relationship is
derived from a (more or less refined) statistical analysis of the experimental
results. Since the development of empirical equations can not be truly considered
as an innovation in the field of microstructural modeling, only a few selected
models are reviewed in the following paragraphs. Obviously, many valuable
contributions had to be set aside in the process.
Most of the empirical models found in the literature have been developed to predict
the permeability of hydrated cement pastes and concretes. The very limited number
of models specifically devoted to the prediction of the diffusivity of cement-based
materials can probably be explained by the fact that diffusion experiments are
much more time-consuming than permeation tests.
Danyushevsky and Djabarov [28] were among the f i s t researchers to develop an
empirical equation linking the porosity and the permeation coefficient of hydrated
cement pastes. Derived from the statistical analysis of a large body of experimental
data, the authors proposed the following equation:

A C 1 SP-LSY 95 E Obb29i)7 0522373 8 2 T D
k = 1.82x 1 O-13x @4.75 (Rm)2 (24)
where k is the permeation coefficient (m2) of a given cement paste, @ its porosity
and Rm its mean pore radius (pm) deduced from a mercury intrusion porosimetry
curve. The authors also developed a set of empirical relationships to determine the
values of @ and Rm from the mixture proportions. The most interesting feature of
the model proposed by Danyushevsky and Djabarov is that it relies on at least two
empirical parameters (@ and Rm)to predict the permeation coefficient.
A second generation of empirical models emerged at the beginning of the last

decade. The work of Nyame and Illston [29] and that of Mehta and Manmohan
[30] are probably among the most well-known contributions. Nyame and Illston
studied the influence of various parameters, such as the watedcement ratio and the
degree of hydration, on the hydrated cement paste water permeability. The results
obtained are summarized in Fig. 5. As can be seen, permeation coefficients extend
over more than nine orders of magnitude. A permeation coefficient as high as 5 x
10-6 m/s was measured for a 1.0 w/c paste cured for 2 days while that of a 0.23
w/c paste after several weeks of curing was approximately 5 x lO-l5 m/s. These
results were later confirmed by others studies [31,32].
Noting the impossibility to correlate the permeability coefficient with the hydrated
cement paste total porosity, Nyame and Illston proposed the following equation:
K = 1.684 1 O-22 R 3 . 2 8 4
where K is the permeation factor (m/s) and R

, is the maximum continuous pore
radius (pm) determined by mercury intrusion porosimeay. Although the value of
the correlation coefficient was 0.96, equation (25) tends to overestimate the
permeation factor of low w/c pastes.
In a similar attempt to correlate permeation test results to microstructural
parameters, Mehta and Manmohan [30] came up with the following equation:
K = exp (3.84V i + 0.2V2 + 0.5610-6 + 8.09 MTP - 2.53) (26)

where Vi and V2 represent, respectively, the fraction of the total pore volume
occupied by pores having a diameter larger than 1320 A and the fraction occupied
by pores with diameters ranging from 290 A to 1320 A, dt the threshold diameter
determined from a mercury intrusion porosimetry curve (pm) and MTP the total
porosity divided by the degree of hydration (ml/g).
More recently, numerous empirical models have been published [33-361. In most
of these models, the permeation factor is expressed as a function of one or several
microstructural parameters obtained from a pore size distribution curve. Li and
Roy [33], for instance, found a linear relationship between the logarithm of the
water permeation coefficient and the mean pore radius. Other authors have rather
chosen to develop empirical equations where the permeation coefficient can be
calculated from the mixture material proportions. A g o d example of this approach
is the equation suggested by Hedegaard et al. [36]:

A C 1 SP-1-54 95 m Ob62949 0 5 2 2 3 7 4 7bb m
5
K=2.8.10-10(F)
where w/c is the mixture waterhement ratio. This equation is only valid for
concrete mixtures prepared without any supplementary cementing materials. For
concrete mixtures containing fly ash, equation (27) becomes:
where f stands for the fly ash content of the mixture. Apparently, no equation has
been specifically developed for other supplementary materials such as silica fume
and slag.
As previously mentioned, there exists relatively few empirical models specifically
devoted to the diffusion process in cement-based composites. Most of the
published models are presented under the form of equations (25) and (26).For
instance, Numata et al. [37] proposed the following equation to link the diffusion
coefficient of tritium to the total porosity of cementitiouscomposites:
D = 10-10.45 a0.947 (29)
Another type of empirical models has been developed by Hansen et al. [38]. The
value of the diffusion coefficient is then directly linked to the mixture proportions.
The following equation has been derived for the diffusion of chloride ions in
blended cement materials:
--
D = 1.7 1 O ( C + F + 7.0
Although the above equations generally have fair correlation coefficients, their
ability to accurately predict the permeation or the diffusion coefficients of a wide
range of cement-based composites are quite limited. As explained by Feldman [i],
the application of models like the one of Nyame and illston [29] or that of Mehta
and Manmohan [30] is restricted to normal portland cement pastes and can not be
used to predict the transport coefficients of materials prepared with fly ash or those
of mixtures containing aggregate particles or fibres. Similar comments can be
made for the most recent models, despite the fact that more sophisticated statistical
analyses were generally used to derive the empirical equations.
The intrinsic problem of these empirical models lies in the application of statistics-
based methods to the analysis of multi-parameter phenomena. Given the number
of factors having a direct bearing on the transport properties of cement-based
materials, its is practically impossible to carry out an experimental program that
would encompass all the required test conditions. Furthermore, if such a program
were to be completed, the resulting empirical model would most probably have a
low predictive potential considering that, for instance, permeation coefficients of
cement-based composites might easily extend over more than 8 orders of
magnitude.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522375 b T 2
Phvsical Models - Permeation

Researchers have tried to develop models based on a more physical approach of
the transport processes in porous media. The physical models can be distinguished
from the purely empirical equations because they are generally based on a better
understanding of the mechanisms involved in mass transport phenomena.
However, since many physical models rely, to a great extent, on empirically-based
coefficients, the line separating these two categories is often thin.
The first physical model specifically developed to predict the transport properties
of cement-based materials is probably the one derived by Powers and Co-workers
[39-41]. Extending the work originally started by their colleague Steinour [42-441,
Powers et al. adapted Stokes' law to the problem of flow through gel pores.
Following a series of simplifying assumptions, they proposed an semi-empirical
equation to predict the permeation factor [41]:
1.361O-' (1- VF)*

K=
where q is the dynamic fluid viscosity (kg/m/s) and VF is the volume fraction of
solid material. According to Powers, VF can be deduced from the porosity of the
paste (a):
VF = 1 - (@ + 0.26) (32)
Although, equation (31)was found to give a fair agreement between observed and
calculated values for a range of temperatures, it can not be used for most cement-
based composites. Equation (31) was developed to predict flow through very fine
"gel" pores, and can not be applied to materials where the permeation process also
includes flow through larger "capillary" pores.
Following the work of Powers et al., most of the subsequent permeation models
where developed by adapting Poiseuille's law to porous media. Solving the
Navier-Stokes hydrodynamic equation for viscous and incompressible fluid flow,
Poiseuille developed a mathematical relationship where the volumetric flow rate
measured between the two pores in Fig. 1 can be linked to the pore geometry*:
k = u JIVdV (33)
surface
where V is the speed perpendicular to the surface of integration and u is a constant.

The values of u and V are established according to the Navier-Stokes
* These equations are often refered to in the literature as the Hagen-Poiseuille

equations.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 P Obb2949 O522376 539 P
hydrodynamic equation. Applications of Poiseuille's equation for two simple cases

are given in Fig. 6.
Since the middle of the century, many models were developed by considering
CxLRi - 2 xN(R)L
Sa=2 -- (35)
Vtot "lot
where Vtot is the total volume of the specimen (pores+solids), Vpi is the volume
of pore i and L is the apparent pore length. The angular brackets indicate an
average over the random values of radius distribution.
As pointed out by Garboczi [lo], the artificial parameters in these equations are N,
and L. Since, for intricate porous media, N is essentially unmeasurable, many
researchers have modified equation (33, and expressed the permeation coefficient
as a function of a,Sa and a correction factor that accounts for the complexity of
the material pore structure. The most well-known of these relationships is
probably Carman's daptation [45] of the Kozeny analysis [46] of fluid flow in
granular materials. In the simplest case where Ri is equal to a constant R for all
pores, the prediction for k then becomes:
Although Carman-Kozeny type equations can generally predict fairly well the
permeation coefficients of powdered materials (where the assumption of a
monodimensionalpore size is more reasonable), their application to high-surface
area materials has been found to be much less successful. Obviously, the
prediction of the permeation process of complex solids cannot be based solely on
such global parameters as CD and Sa.
For a given pore size distribution, assuming that the flow rate in each pore may be
calculated by Poiseuille's law, Reinhardt and Gaber [47] demonstrated that, for
incompressiblefluids, the square equivalent pore radius h2 can be estimated by:
where ,Vpi is the volume of the pore size i and Vp is the total pore volume. Then,
the permeation coefficient is equal to :

A C 1 SP-I154 95 I0662949 0522377 Y75
Req2
k=@-
8
Using a Carman-Kozeny approach, Reinhardt and Gaber [47] also proposed the
following equation to calculate the water permeation factor of cement-based
materials:
where R,q2 is the equivalent radius derived from a mercury intnision porosimetry
experiment and equation (37), and u is an empirical parameter obtained from a
statistical analysis of the experimental results. The coefficient n characterizes the
tortuosity and the connectivity of the porous network. From an analogy to
electrical networks, the authors found by numerical simulations that the value of n
should be equal to 8 for mortars.
Reinhardt and Gaber [47] developed another equation to predict the oxygen
permeation coefficient (compressiblefluid):
k= 0.7 <D R,q1.5exp(-0.7 8,) (40)
where 8, is the water content (calculatedas a volume fraction).

Although the Reinhardt and Gaber model (eq. (39)) has been found to yield good
results for ordinary mortars, results obtained for low or high w/c mortars are less
accurate. Furthermore, its ability to predict the permeation factor of other cement-
based composites is quite limited. New numerical simulations are required to
establish the value of n for each type of material, and new statistical analyses have
to be performed to fit the value of u. In this respect, the Reinhardt and Gaber
equations cannot be considered as true predictive models.
In the past decade, many adaptations of the Carman-Kozeny model have been
proposed. Hughes [48], for instance, developed a model where the hydrated
cement paste pore structure was assimilated to a collection of tubes of various
diameters. The diameter of each series of tubes was determined by dividing the
mercury intrusion porosimetry curve into segments and considering an average
radius for each segment. Hughes systematicallycarried out two mercury intrusion
experiments for each cement paste and used the second intrusion curve to calculate
his equivalent radii. Although HUGHES'model was based on simplifying
assumptions (the hydrated cement paste pore structure was assumed to be totally
interconnected), the correlation between the measured and predicted permeability
factor was found to be reasonable.
The latest attempt to develop a predictive model using a Carman-Kozeny type of

approach can probably be atmbuted to Luping and Nilsson [49]. They proposed a
permeation model based on a thorough analysis of all the forces acting on fluid
particles flowing in cylindrical pores. They considered the effect of various
parameters such as the physical attraction of a particle toward the pore surfaces,
the energy dissipated by friction between the fluid and the pore surfaces and the
loss of hydraulic head due to the viscosity of the fluid. The model assimilates the
solid pore structure to a collection of Ni2 parallel cylinders of porosity <Di. A

similar description of the material pore structure had been used previously by one
of the authors to predict the mechanical properties of hydrated cement pastes [50].
The Luping and Nilsson model also includes an empirical coefficient (b) which
accounts for the connectivity and tortuosity of real porous media. According to the
authors, the water permeation factor can be predicted using the following
equations:
log (K)= 2.994 - 1.091 log (Pk) (41)
1 dP
Pk = -(-)o
b o dx
dP
where (-)o is the threshold pressure head beyond which the flow rate increases
dx
linearly with the applied pressure. Pk is a parameter dependent of the material pore
structure. According to the Luping and Nilsson model, the surface forces acting on
flowing fluid particles govern the dissipated energy of transport and cannot
therefore be neglected for low pressure gradients (Fig. 7). After a threshold
pressure gradient, the viscosity forces are greater than the electrical and friction
forces.
As in previous cases, the ability of the Luping and Nilsson model to predict the
permeation properties of cement-based materials is reduced by the fact that it relies
on a statistically-determinedcoefficient. The value of the coefficient b has to be
adjusted for each type of material (hydrated cement paste, concrete, etc.).
However, the theoretical analysis, from which the model is derived, contributes to
the understanding of the permeation process.
Certainly, the most interesting information provided by this model is that the
threshold pressure gradient is very high compared with the usual pressure applied
in most laboratory experiments. For water, a pressure gradient of more than one
hundred atmospheres per centimeter (1 atmosphere = O. 113 MPa) is required to
pass the threshold. Since it decreases with the fluid viscosity, the threshold
pressure of gas should be approximately equal to a few atmospheres. Thus,
according to this model, the water permeation factors deduced from most
laboratory experiments should not be calculated using Darcy's law!
More research is needed to investigate the influence of the pressure threshold in
water permeation experiments. If the analysis made by Luping and Nilsson is
confirmed, the large test result scatter reported in most studies might be partially
explained by this pressure-threshold effect. This also implies that one should
always mention the pressure applied to measure the permeability properties.
Without this information, one cannot truly compare the results of a given series of
tests with those obtained in other studies.
Aware of the intrinsic limitations of the Carman-Kozeny approach, researchers
looked for other avenues to model the transport properties of refined porous
media. In the past decade, many of these researchers saw the percolation theory as
a very promising alternative. According to Brown and Shi [9], the term
"percolation" was first introduced in the late 1950s. Since then, percolation theory
has been used in many fields of theoreticai and applied research [51].

A C 1 SP-154 95 CI Obb2749 0522379 2 4 8
The percolation theory deals with disordered media in which the disorder is
characterized by a random variation in the degree of connectivity. It finds
numerous applications in fields like catalysis, capillary phenomena, single or
multiphase fluid transport and ionic diffusion. Imagine a mesh composed of
square "sites" (Fig. 8). Each site can be either occupied by a black square
(probability Pr) or is empty (probability l-Pr). If one considers two conductivities,
o, for the occupied sites and O for the empty sites, there exists a probability (Prc)
to have a path (i.e. of occupied sites) connecting plane A to plane B. PX is termed
the percolation threshold. Usually, percolation studies treat infinite problems and
Prc are thus defined for infinite paths. For Pr less than Prc only isolated, non-
spanning clusters can exist. For Pr greater than Prc, there is always a spanning
cluster. Here, Pr also represents the probability of finding a neighboring occupied
site. Using the simple example of Fig. 8, it can be shown that the formation factor
F of this mesh can be written as a function of the Probability Pr:
where p is the percolation exponent which depends on the Euclidean dimension. It

is equal to 1.9 for two-dimensional problems and equal to 2 for three-dimensional
problems. For the mesh illustrated in Fig. 8, Prc is numerically found equal to
0.25.
The model of Gueguen and Dienes [52] is one of the most well-known
applications of the percolation theory to the modeling of mass transport processes
in porous media. These researchers combined percolation theory with a statistical
analysis to obtain a simple model of the permeation process in rocks. According
the Gueguen and Dienes model, the relationship between the incompressible fluid
permeation coefficient and the rock pore structure is described by the following
equation:
Rm2
k=FaQ- (44)
32
where FQ is the fraction of connected pores and Rm is the mean pore radius. For
cracked structures, the following equation should be used:
where F, is the fraction of connected cracks and wm the mean crack width.
The Gueguen and Dienes model has been severely criticized for the inherent
difficulty of measuring the values of Fw, FQ, 0 and Rm. Since, in practice, these
parameters can not be determined accurately, the use of this model is quite limited.
Relying also on the percolation theory, Katz and Thompson [53-551developed a
model where the hydraulic conductivity (permeation coefficient) of a porous rock
is a function of the maximum continuous pore radius and the electrical conductivity
of the system:

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522380 TbT
where R, is the maximum continuous pore radius obtained from a mercury

intrusion porosimetry distribution (Fig. 4), and F is the formation factor
established from electrical conductivity measurements. The constant pf can be
calculated according to the foilowing equation:
9 (P+1IP
Pf =- (47)
32 (p + 3)P+2
where p is the previously defined percolation exponent. If p equals 1.9, it can be

easily Calculated that pf equals 226.
Although the validity of the Katz and Thompson equation has never been
systematically verified for cement-based composites, according to Garboczi [lo],
it offers interesting possibilities for the prediction of the permeation properties.
The Katz-Thompson equation has also been recently evaluated by Christensen et
al. [56]. To verify the prediction potential of the model, Christensen et al. used the
mercury intrusion porosimetry data and the experimental permeation results
published by Nyame and Illston [29]. Since Nyame and Illston had not performed
any electrical conductivity measurements, the authors cast a series of similar
cement pastes, and the conductivity measurements were carried out by impedance
spectroscopy. In good agreement with Garboczi's previous evaluation, the
permeation coefficients obtained by the Katz-Thompson model were found to
correlate well with the measured values.
Despite these encouraging results, the application of the Katz-Thompsonmodel to
cementitious materials has also been criticized. As previously mentioned, Chatterji
[20] questioned the validity of using a formation factor, derived from electrical
conductivity measurements, in a permeation model. According to Chatterji, these
two phenomena are based on different transport mechanisms, and one cannot
serve to predict the other.
The Katz-Thompson model has also been criticized by Brown and Shi [9] who
state that it often leads to permeability coefficient typically less than measured
values. According to these authors, the mercury intrusion porosimetry curve does
not provide good information of crack networks often present in cement-based
composites. This last remark should, however, be considered with caution. The
Katz-Thompson model is based on the assumption that the solid structure is a
collection of cylindrical pores. If the existing cracks in the system have a mean
width of the same dimension as that of larger pores, then the model should yield
satisfying results.
On the other hand, it has been clearly determined that a significant portion of the
cracks existing in cement-based composites have widths ranging from 1 to 50 pm
[57,581 while the mean capillary pore diameter of these materials is typically
found to be in the 300 to 500 A range [26,27]. It has been recently found that, in
some cases, these "macro" cracks form a continuous network which significantly
affects the measured permeation coefficient [5, 59-62]. The presence of these
cracks cannot be detected accurately by a mercury intrusion test, and the
permeation coefficient yield by the Katz-Thompson equation should therefore be

A C 1 SP-354 95 111 0662949 O522383 9Tb
erroneous. A possible solution to this problem could be to modify the Katz-

Thompson model in order to treat the system as superposition of a cracked
medium and an uncracked medium. The input of the model would then be a
mercury intrusion porosimetry curve, and a "map" of macro cracks existing in the
system. Such a map could be deduced from replica or dye-impregnation
measurements [57,58].
Daïan et al. [63] recently published a model to predict fluid transport in porous
media where the range of pore radius is broad. These porous media are also called
multi-scale porous media. Using the percolation theory, the authors simulated the
process of mercury intrusion. The rate of pore occupation in the multi-scale
structure is derived from a simple superposition method. Generating data for more
than one hundred different porous media, they determined that the pf factor of the
Katz-Thompson model should equal 57 instead of 226. Daïan et al. atmbute this
discrepancy to the fact that Katz and Thompson developed their model for rocks
and sandstone which are known to have significantly coarser porous structures
than most cementitious materials. Daïan et al. conclude that the Katz-Thompson
model should not be applied to multi-scale materials such as hydrated cement paste
and concrete. Despite this criticism, the work of Daïan et al. has clearly
demonstrated the possibility of applying the percolation theory to multi-scale
media. Such an analysis should be systematically applied to cement-based
materials.
Phvsical models - Diffusion
The increasing importance of concrete durability problems has prompted many
researchers to study the diffusion mechanisms in cement-based materials.
Although the number of published reports on the subject has increased over the
past years, most of these were concerned primarily with the measurements of
diffusion coefficients, and very few dealt with the development of predictive
models.
Kumar and Roy [64] are probably the first to have developed a physical model
devoted to the diffusion mechanisms in blended cement pastes. Based on
numerous assumptions on the pore structure characteristics (for instance, all pores
in the system are assumed to have a cylindrical shape and the same diameter), they
proposed the following equation:
where F is the ratio between the diffusion coefficient of a given ionic species in
free electrolyte (Da) and the effective diffusion coefficient of the same species in
blended cement systems (Derf), the blended cement paste porosity, and Rm its
median pore size (as determined by a mercury intrusion porosimetry test). The
coefficients u and v are empirically fitted constants. KUMARand ROY established
that u and v were respectively equal to 10.3 I 2.6 and -0.41 1 0 . 1 3 for C1-
diffusion and equal to 4.6 I 2.5 and -0.62 I 0.08 for Cs+ diffusion.
The predictive value of the Kumar and Roy model remains quite limited. To extend
such a model to other ionic species, one would have to carry out a large number of

time-consuming diffusion tests to determine the two empirical constants.

Furthermore, the numerous simplifying assumptionsgreatly jeopardize the validity
of the model.
Aware of the fact that diffusion tests in hydrated cement systems generally take
many months to reach a steady-state regime, many researchers have looked for
quicker methods to assess diffusion coefficients, Among the investigated
alternatives, elecmcal conductivity measurements appear to be the most popular
substitute. Theoretically, diffusion and ionic conductivity are controlled by the
same mechanisms, and the relationship between the elecmcal conductivity and the
diffusion coefficient can be determined according to the Nernst-Einstein equation:
In this expression, 9 is the Faraday constant, kb the Boltzmann constant, o is the

electrical conductivity, Cj is the number of ions per unit volume, Zj is the ion
valency and Dj is the diffusion coefficient of ions of t p e j . Provided that the solid
phase is effectively an insulator, it follows that the ratio of the ionic conductivity of
a saturated sample (Oeff) to that of the free electrolyte (afi)is equal to the ratio of
the diffusion coefficient of the ionic species in water (Dfi)to its effective diffusion
coefficient in the solid (Defi):
Equation (50) implies that the pore structure only offers geometric constraint to the
particle motion. The equation neglects any physical and chemical interactions
between the ionic species and the pore walls.
Equation (50) has been used successfully to predict the effective diffusion
coefficients of porous rocks [65]and of cementitious systems [14,66]. The good
correlation is quite interesting from an experimental point of view since D,ff can
readily be calculated from the values of oeff,on and Dfl which are easier to
measure. From a modeling point of view, the validity of equation (50) is limited
since it only relates one property to an other, and no link is established with the
material's microstructure.
As for the diffusivity, there exist few publications on the relationship between the
Conductivity of cement-based composites and their microstructure. In a recent
paper, Christensen et aí. [56Jreviewed the ability of various models to predict the
conductivity of hydrating cement pastes. Among the models considered, they
evaluated the validity of Archie's law 1671:
where is the porosity and u and n are constants related to the pore structure.
Equation (51) is the generalized form of Archie's law. In most cases, the constant

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522383 777
u is set equal to 1, and all the information on the pore structure is treated via the
exponent n.
Although Archie's law has been successfully applied to porous rocks. Christensen
et al. [56]demonstrated that it could not be used to predict the diffusivity of mature
cement paste systems. Their conclusion is in good agreement with the results of
Atkinson and Nickerson [14] (see Fig. 9) who could not find any correlation
between the measured diffusion coefficients of various cement pastes and those
calculated according to Archie's law. As a matter of fact, none of the physical
models reviewed by Christensen et al. [56] were found to have any real predictive
potential. The Garboczi and Bentz approach was the only model that seemed to
yield interesting results [68]. This model is reviewed in the following section.
A very interesting model developed to predict the apparent diffusion coefficient of
metallic porous materials has been presented recently by Carniglia [ 171. Assuming
that the pore structure is a collection of cylindrical pores, the author proposes a
method to determine the tortuosity factor from mercury intrusion porosimetry and
nitrogen vapor adsorption. In Carniglia's model, the "ink bottle'' effect and the
random orientation of pores are taken into account. His simulation gives very
encouraging results and should be tested for cementitious materials.
CornDuter based modeling

In the past decade, computers have been increasingly involved in microstructure-
based modeling. As previously seen, modeling the properties of heterogeneous
and multi-scale porous materials, such as hydrated cement paste and concrete, is a
very hard task. In the case of computer-based modeling, homogenization
techniques [69,70] or auto-coherent methods [71] can be used when the material
is periodically or statistically homogeneous. However, in the case of non-linear
problems (problem of mechanics, unsaturated porous media, etc.) they are unable
to describe the material behavior. The main reason is that the non-linear
phenomena are generally driven by a small set of elements (defects, cracks, etc.)
whose presence within the material has a low probability of occurrence. For some
problems, probabilistic approaches 172, 731 can be considered as interesting
alternatives. However, in the case of mass transport processes in porous media,
their predictive potential remains limited since they do not consider the details of
the microstructure.
Given these inherent limitations, many researchers have developed computer-
based models where the microstructural features are reproduced using network or
digital-based analyses. In many cases, the materiai complexity is better described
using a combination of approaches. A review of the main developments in the field
of computer-based modeling in given in the following paragraphs.
Networks: Networks are made of elements (cylinder, spheres, etc.) tied together
according to simple geometrical rules and whose properties are postulated by
applying basic laws. The macroscopic property (conductivity, diffusivity,
permeability, etc.) is deduced from computer simulations made on the network.
This type of approach has been widely used by geophysicists, petroleum
geologists and physicists studying the properties of homogeneous materials [74-
771. Some of the most commonly-used networks are illustrated in Fig. 10.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522384 605
Holly et al. [78] used a two-dimensional tube network to predict the apparent
permeation factor of porous materials (Fig. 11). The construction of the network is
based on a random procedure using a mercury intrusion pore size distribution.
Pores are assumed to be cylindrical, and a linear relationship between the length ~
I
(distance between two nodes) and the pore radius is used in the model. At any
node, the total inflow must be equal the total outílow. Between any two nodes, the
total pressure drop is independent of the path taken. Furthermore, the sum of the
pressure drop around each loop is zero. Using Darcy's law and the Poiseuille
permeation coefficient for a cylinder, the authors calculated the apparent
permeability for various tube angles, For an angle of 45", they compared their
results to those obtained by Mehta and Manmohan [30]. The model was found to
yield higher permeation factors for hydrated cement pastes having a w/c < 0.6 and
lower values for w/c > 0.6. Globally, the errors ranged from 40 % to 1100 %.
Whereas such a network model cannot provide very accurate results, it is useful to
explain some experimental observations. The model indicates, for instance, that
the permeation factor cannot be defined in terms of an average pore size and
porosity without taking into account the pore size distribution. Furthermore, the
flow in a pore is found to be affected not only by the pore radius but also by the
radius of the surrounding pores. Using mathematically-derived pore size
distributions, the authors studied the influence of each pore category on the global
flow.
Daïan and Saliba [79] modeled the porous structure of cement-based materials
using cubic network structures (Fig. 12). Using a mercury intrusion porosimetry
curve and a random procedure, the model represents the material pore structure by
glueing together an array of cubes. In order to simulate the sorption and desorption
mechanisms, and water transport by diffusion or viscous flow, the Laplace law is
used in the model as a local law which describes the intrusion of pores, and the
Kelvin-Laplace law is used to calculate the state of the fluid (condensed of
vaporized) in each pore as a function of the relative humidity. Considering the state
of the fluid, a diffusion or a permeation law is applied to describe the mass
transport process. The equivalent conductivity of the network can also be
calculated since it corresponds to the macroscopic or apparent permeability of the
material.
Although the results of Daïan and Saliba's model have not been compared to
experimental data, the authors simulated various experiments such as mercury
intrusion porosimetry or sorption and desorption isotherms. Fig. 13 shows an
example of a simulation of an isothermal sorption-desorption experiment [80]. As
can be seen, the model simulates properly the hystheresis phenomenon also called
the "ink bottle" effect. From similar simulations, the model can rebuild the "real"
pore- size distribution of a material according to some assumptions on the
probability that larger pores can only be invaded if the smaller pores connected to
them are already invaded. If it is found to yield satisfactory results, such a model
could certainly be used successfully for various applications. It could, for
instance, provide pore size distributions that could be used as input data for other
predictive models.
Euclidean network models, such as the two previous models, are limited due to the
high number of elements required to describe the multi-scale nature of cement-
based composites. All these elements are stored in the computer memory.
Although such a procedure facilitates the modeling of non-stationary phenomena

A C 1 SP-L54 95 = 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522385 5 4 %
(the water content is a dependent of time), it consumes a lot of memory, requires

greater calculation times, and tends to increase the number of numerical problems.
Hierarchical procedures offer an interesting alternative to classical Euclidean

network models. Hierarchical processes reconstruct the porous medium according
to a recursive rule. Such a procedure reduces significantly both the required
memory and the calculation time. On the other hand, the hierarchical models do not
store the entire pore structure in the computer's memory and this increases the
difficulty of modeling cyclic phenomena such as sorption-desorption isotherms.
A good example of a hierarchical model is the one developed by Breysse et al. [Sl-
831. In this model, the porous medium is represented by a set of elements gathered
according to a very simple rule. To go from scale i to scale i+l, two elements of a
given size i are put into a series and the two series (left and right) are put in parallel
(Fig. 14). The resulting stncture is an element of size i+l whose properties can be
computed easily from those previously measured for the elements at the lower
scale.
For mass transport processes, the elements are represented by cylinders. As can be
seen in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15, the various sizes of the four different cylindrical
pores of a given element are established from a mercury intrusion porosimetry
curve. The size of each pore is randomly attributed. The various transport
phenomena are reproduced using classical laws (such as the Kelvin-Laplace
equation, Darcy and Fick's laws) as suggested by Daïan and Saliba [79] and
Quénard and sallée [84]. This basic relation provides a good description of
physical phenomenon such as sorption (Fig. 16). In the specific case of viscous
flow, the model calculates a "global" permeation factor (Knet) for the entire
network. The following relationship has been established between Knet and the
permeation factor of the porous medium:
K = <D Knet
where n is an empirical parameter. A value of 6 < n < 8 tends to yield satisfactory
results for concretes and mortars. For hydrated cement pastes, n has been found to
be a linear function of the w/c. The physical meaning of n has still to be
established. On-going research on the subject should provide more information of
the subject in a near future [83].
Digital-imaee based models: A promising approach to modeling the microstructure

and the transport processes of cement-based materials has recently been developed
by Garboczi and Bentz [85-871. The model essentially involves a cellular
automaton-type digital-image-based algorithm, and can be used to simulate the
development of the capillary porosity of cement pastes during hydration.
The cement paste is represented as a two or three dimensional array of elements.

Each elementary cell (a pixel) is identified as belonging either to a solid or a liquid
phase. The latter can be pure water or filled with dissolved particles. Two initial
solid phases are considered in the model: tricalcium silicate (C3S) or a calcium
hydroxide (CH). In some of their simulations, Garboczi and Bentz used a cubic
array of 100 x 100 x 100 pixels (one million of pixels) Fig. 17). Each C3S grain
is included in a sphere of 3 to 21 pixels in diameter. The initial number of "solid"
pixels is defined by the w/c ratio :

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 O522386 488
VF being the solid volume fraction (the number of pixels considered as solids at
the initial state).
The hydration process is simulated by moving pixels in random directions (Fig.
17). The model considers various scenarios to reproduce the precipitation of C-S-
H and CH crystals within the water filled pores, and can account for the influence
of various parameters (such as the w/c, the degree of hydration and the type of
binder) on the hydrated cement paste microstructure. The model has also been used
to simulate the formation of cement-aggregate interfacial zones and to study the
effect of supplementary cementing materials (such as silica fume) on the porosity
in these areas [88, 891.
Relying on the percolation theory, Garboczi and Bentz could calculate the
connectivity of the system [90]. When a spanning cluster exists, the pixels which
belong to it are termed "burned pixels". The total number of burned pixels is
considered as representing the connectivity of the porous medium at a certain level
of hydration. This connectivity is compared with the total pore space (porosity).
Immediately after mixing, the fraction of burned pixels is 1. As hydration proceeds
on, the model indicates that there exists a threshold porosity (pc) for which the
number of burned pixels is zero. In such a case, the porosity is closed and no mass
transport can take place through the capillary porosity. For a 0.45 w/c paste, pc is
equal to O. 18.
Garboczi and Bentz also used their model to simulate the development of some
mass transport properties during the hydration process [68, 91, 921. They
reproduced, for instance, the effect of connected paste-aggregate interfacial zones
on the mercury injection during a porosimetry experiment [91]. The authors also
studied the diffusion mechanisms in hydrated cement systems. In agreement with
the conclusions of Atkinson and Nickerson [14] and Christensen et al. [56], they
showed that, if the diffusion properties of young and porous pastes could be
estimated by Archie's law, such a model could not reliably predict the diffusion
coefficient of more mature systems. Garboczi and Bentz proposed the following
equation to calculate the diffusion coefficientof these systems:
Deff - 0.001+ 0.0702+ 1.8H(O - 0.18) (O - 0.18)'

-- (54)
Dfl
where H(@-0.18) = O when (D-0.18 < O and H((D-0.18)=1when @-0.18 > O.

Although the Garboczi-Bentz model does not account for transport processes
through "gel" pores and does not consider such phenomena as ion-pore wall
interaction, it constitutes an excellent tool to study the effect of various parameters
on the hydrated cement paste diffusion property. For instance, the authors showed
that calcium hydroxide leaching has a direct influence on the system connectivity
and that it can significantly increase the diffusion coefficient of cement pastes.
Such an effect is illustrated in Fig. 18.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522387 314 9
CONCLUDING REMARKS
As emphasized by Hall [4], no property more smkingly emphasizes the diversity
of cement-based materiais than permeation. The same remark could be made for
the diffusion process. The extreme complexity of the microstructure of
cementitious materials clearly complicates the modeling of the mass transfer
properties. While some models can predict reasonably the mass transport
mechanisms in simpler structures, such as porous rocks and soils, their direct
applications to the prediction of the properties of cement-based composites is
clearly less successful.
The recent development of models devoted specifically to cement-based
composites has yielded promising results. It appears clearly that the most
promising of these models are those which consider the multi-scale nature of the
pore structures. The combinations of these analytical and numerical models with
other mathematical tools, such as fractal analysis, will certainly contribute to
significantly improve their predictive potential. The application of fractal analysis
has proven to be extremely fruitful in the development of transport property
models in other fields [93,94].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Électricité de France (EDF) for their financial support.
The authors also gratefully acknowledge M. Pigeon and D. Breysse for their
precious collaboration
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A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 U 0662949 0522395 490
Pore 2
Fig. 1-Principle of moss transfer by permeation. The driving force is a pressure gradient
Concentration 2
Concentration 1
C l > > c2
Fig. 2-Principle of moss transfer by diffusion. The driving force is a concentration gradient
w
CF = N - m + 1 N: number of links m: number of nodes
Link
CF=l CF=5
Fig. 3-Definition of connectivity in a porous network

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662947 0522396 327
Fig. &Mercury intrusion porosimetry curve, definition of measured parameters
1 o-6
1 O-’
-- o-8
o)
1
E -9
y 10
-
c
z
g löl(
E
k 10-l1
-0
a
3 10-12
2
1ö14
-15
10
(days) (months)
T i m e of hydration
Fig. %Influence of hydration time and wlc on water permeation factor (from Ref. 29)

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 W Ob62949 O522397 2 b 3 W
_-
32 12
a) Cylinder b) Two parallel planes
Fig. bApplicotion of Poiseuille's equation for two simple cases. Permeation coefficient
is given as a function of pore geometry
al
P
c
m
L Darcian
I domain
-
O
U
Fig. 7-Influence of pressure gradient on permeation process. Above the threshold pressure
gradient, friction and electrical surface forces can be neglected (from Ref. 49)
A B
Fig. 8-Schematic of percolation theory

A C 1 SP-354 95 O662949 0522398 I i T T =
loB
-1 o -7
7y>
N E
s2
7o -8
10-1;
Waterkernent ratio
Fig. 9-Diffusion coefficient as a function of ionic species and w/c ratio (from Ref. 14)
Porous media Square network
Triangular network Honeycomb network
Fig. 1 L N e t w o r k models: square, triangular, and honeycomb (from Ref. 83)

A C 1 SP-154 75 I0662947 0522399 O36
f J J1 + J Z + J 3 + J 4 = 0
Fig. 11-Two-dimensional tube network (from Ref. 78)
Link
Site
Fig. 12-Cubic network model for cementitious materials (from Ref. 79)
Relative humidity
Fig, 13-Simulation of sorption and desorption isotherms of a mortar with a cubic network
(from Ref. 79)

Pore diameter
Fig. 14-Random pore diameter, network pore unit (from Ref. 81)
d2
Level 1->2
Level 2->3
Level 3-74
Fig. 15-Recurrent network (from Ref. 82)
O 20 40 60 80 100 O 20 40 60 80 100
RH (x 100) RH (x 100)
Fig. lú-Simulation of sorption of a mortar, wlc = 0.5 (from Ref. 82)

A C 1 SP-154 95 IO662949 0522401 514
Precipates into solid CSH

CSH upon contacting a solid
1.70 diffusing species
c3sor CSH
CH Nucleates into solid CH or

o.6, diffusing species
precipates into solid CH
upon contacting a solid
1 CH surface -
Fig. 17-Digital-image based model (from Ref. 87)
1.c
0.8
B
2 0.e
o
O
c
.-c
o 0.4
0
2
0.2
1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

I
Capillary porosity
0.16
wic ratio O
8
.-5
u)
0.12 - O 0.45
O 0.60
u
E
U
2
.- 0.08
d
-
ia
al
0.04
/? O
,G/
O 1 5
Fig. 18-Evolution of diffusion during leaching processes (from Ref. 92)

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522402 450 W
APPENDIX A
NOTATION
B: diffusion transport coefficient
C: ionic concentration (movi)
C: cement Content (kg/m3)
CF connectivityfactor
dequ: equivalent pore diameter (m)
dm: mean pore diameter (m)
dt: threshold diameter (m)
d& maximum continuouspore diameter (m)
D diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
Dam: apparent diffusion coefficient (mZ/s)
J&fG effective diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
Dfl: diffusion coefficient in free fluid (m2/s)
Dint: intrinsic diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
f: fly ash content (kg/m3)
F: formation factor
Fe: unsaturated medium formation factor
FQ: fraction of connected pores
Fw: fraction of connected cracks
g: acceleration due to gravity (= 9.8lm/s2)
h hydraulic head (m)
I indexed resistivity
J volumetric flow (m3/s/m2 or moie/s/m2)
kb: Boltzman number
k: intrinsic permeation coefficient (m2)
k': modified permeation coefficient (m3 s k g )
IC permeation factor ( 4 s )
L: apparent pore length (m)
Le: mean pore length (m)
n: empirical pore structurefactor
Nm: Macmuliin number
P: percolation exponent
Pf: Katz-Thompson constant
P: pressure (Pa)
pr: probability of occupancy
Pcr: percolation threshold or critical probability of occ:upancy
Pk: threshold pressure factor (Pa/m)
R:
- ideai gas constant (J/mole/K)
Fi: molar gas constant (J/kg/K)
%: equivalent pore radius (m)
R,: mean pore radius (m)
Rt: threshold radius (m)
L: maximum continuous pore radius (m)
Sa: specific internai surface (m2/m3)
So: effectiveinternal surface (m2/m3)
t: time (s)
T: temperature (K)

A C 1 SP-154 75 Iûbb2747 0522403 377 W
empiricai constants
volume fraction of the solid material
total pore volume
volume of the pore of size i (m3)
total volume (pores+solids) (m3)
crack width (m)
mean crack width (m)
water content (kg/m3)
coordinates (m)
valency of ionic species i
dynamic viscosity (kg/mís)

effective porosity
porosity
Faraday number (C/mole)
activity coefficient
chemical potential (J/mole)
standard chemical potential (J/mole)
density (kg/m3)
electrical conductivity of free electrolyte (ohm-l.m-l)
electrical conductivity of the saturated solid (ohm-1.m-1)
degree of saturation
water content
tortuosity
tortuosity factor
unsaturated medium tortuosity factor
APPENDIX B
MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS
a IS. the partial derivative in respect to the variable x

-
ax
Gradient of a scalar
grad(f) is termed the gradient of the scalar f(x, y, z). grad(f) is a vector :
ai j + -kaf
ar. + -
grad(f)= -I
ax ay az

where i, j and k are the unit vector
By introducing the differential operator nablu
a . -aI +. - ak
V = -i+
ax ay az
The notation Vf for the gradient is also frequently used :
grad(f) = Vf = -i
ar. + -
ar j.+ -k
af
ax ay az
Divergence of a vector
W S ì is called the divergence of the vector J.
Let s(x, y,z) be a differentiable vector, where x, y, z are Cartesian coordinates, and
Ji, J2, J3 be the components of J(x,y,z). Then the divergence is defined :
- aJ ,
div(J) = 1
aJ
A+ aJ3
-
ax ay az
The divergence of a vector is a scalar
Divergence of a gradient
If f(x, y, z) is a twice differentiable scalar function then :
a2f a2f a2t

div(grad(f)) = - +- +-
ax2 ay2 az2
This expression is also called the Lupluciun of f(x, y, z).
More information can be obtained in :

Erwin Kreysig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, ed. John Wiley & Sons

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662747 0522405 LbT m
SP 154-11
Influence of Rice Husk Ash

on Properties of Sisal Pulp-
Mortar Composites
by B. Chatveera and P. Nimityongskul
Synoosis: In order to iiiiprovc duriibility, i t is necessary to find rciiiedial solutions

to couiiteract the eiiibrittleiiicnt process of natural fibcr reinforced coiiipositc
materials. Oiie solution to alleviate fiber degradation is io reduce the alkalinity of
the pore fluid i n [lie cciiiciit paste. This can bc acliievcd by replacing a part of the
norinal poi-tlaiid ceiiiciit with a liighly active pozzolanic niatcrial. Tlic plirposc of
this research study was io investigate cxperiiiientally tlic inecli:iiiical bcliavior o í
sisal pulp-iiiortar coiiiposites containing ceincnt blended with a modified ricd husk
ash, liereinafter referred to as MRIIA. The iiiaiii variahlc was tlic pulp volunie
fraction. The results of sisal pul~~-in~~rtarcoiiiposiiLes were coiriparcd to tliose using
baiiihoo aiid pine pulps. The water-ccinciititioiis and saiid-ccnicritilioiis ratios by
weight were kept constant. Tlie dosage of superplasticizer was fixed. The tcsts o11
the coinposites included streiigtlis under direct tciisioii. axial coniprcssioii,
aiiticlastic aiid hciitliiig. Thc iii;itcrial pcrforirience tests were condiictcd for
itioisture coiiteiit, water absorption, cxpansiori, drying sliriiikagc and impact
resistance. Tlic durability of tlie coinpositcs was iiivestigated by siiiiulntcd aging
cycles. The results sliowcd that after bcing suhjcctcd to 48 siiiiulated aging cycles,
tlie sisal pulp-niortar coiitaiiiiiig 5% pulp voluiiic frxtioii showed tlic highest
rnodulus of toiigliiiess. Oilier tcsts showed that ptilp-iiiortx coiriposites were
inipcrvious, durable, possesscd high sti-eiigtli aiid good iiiipact rcsistaiice, and
tlierefoi'e can be coiisidercd :is suitable substitutcs for asbestos-fihcr boai-d.
Keywords: Bending; composite materiais; compression; mechanical

properties; mortars (material); rice husk ash; &; tension
211
A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 =
Ob62949 0522406 OTb
212 Chatveera and Nirnityongskul
Burachat Chatveera is a lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering at

Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathum Thani 12121, Thailand. He
received his M.Eng. from Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.
Pichai Nimityongskul is an associate professor in the School of Civil Engineering
at Asian Institute ofTechnology,Bangkok 10501,Thailand. He received his D.Eng.
from Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.
INTRODUCTION
Cellulose fibers obtained by chemical pulping processes are the dominant

types used For the production of thin-sheet cement products in developed countries.
These cellulose fibers contain negligible amounts of lignin and are thus expected
to better withstand alkaline attack in cement. There are, however, other aging
mechanisms which inay lead to the embrittlement of cellulose fiber reinforced
cement coinposites. In particular, i n the presence OF moisture, the gradual filling
of the fiber cell cores with hydration products and the densification of matrix i n the
vicinity of fibers ( I ) encourages brittle fracture of fibers under stress, leading to
the embrittleinent of the cellulose-fiber-reitiforcedcement composite; a similar
phenomenon is partly responsible for the embrittlement of glass-fibei.-rciiiforced
cement composites under long-term environmental effects. This phenomenon, in
the case of chemical pulps with low lignin content, can lead to increased flexural
strength and modulus of elasticity of cellulose-fiber-cenieiil composites (2).
The present study is aimed at investigating the mechanical properties of

fiber-reinforced composites in which the matrix contained a modified ricc husk ash,
and sisal pulp was used as reinforcement. The main variable was the pulp volume
fraction. The gradation of sand was maintained constant throughout the whole
experimental program. The MRHA was used to replace normal portland cement
and its percent replacement was kept constant at 10%. The water-ccmentitiuus and
sand-cementitious ratios by weight were also kept constant and equal to 0.40 and
2.0, respectively. The dosage of superplasticizer was kept constant at 2.4% of
cementitious material by weight. Sisal pulp-inortar composites were produced by
using pulp volume fractions of O%, 3%. 5%, 7% and 9%. The results were also
compared to bamboo and pine pulps taken from commercial sources in Thailand.
This study was undertaken with the following objectives:-

(i) To investigate experiinentally the physical and mechanical properties of pulps,
namely specific gravity, moisture content, water absorption, ultimate tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity.
(i¡) To investigate experiinentally the mechanical properties of sisal pulp-mortar
composites containing modified rice husk ash. The tests included strengths under
direct tension, axial compression, antictastic and bending. Moisture content, water
absorption, expansion, drying shrinkage and impact resistance were also
determined. The durability of the sisal pulp-inortar composites was investigated
by simulated aging cycles. The number of cycles varied from 0-48cycles. One
cycle consisted oí wetting of specimens for 30 minutes, followed by heating in an

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522407 T32 I
oven at a temperature of 105 "C for five and a half hours.

(iii) To cotiipare the results froin experiments with those from theoretical analysis
in order to establish predictive equatioiis for mechanical properties of composites.
NOTATION
E,., E, = effective inodulus of elasticity of composite in coinpïessioii aiid

te iision, rcspecti ve I y ;
E = inodulus of elasticity of pulped fiber;

E,,,,.,E,,,,= modulus of elasticity of ceineiit paste iii compression and
tension, respectively;
G,., c;,= shear inodulus i n the uiicracked range of composite aiid ceineiit
paste, irspcct ively;
y,,,v = total volume fraction of cenient paste matrix aiid pulped îiber,
" respectively:
u ,= Poisson's ratio iii coinpression;
o,,,= ultíiiiate streiigcii of the cornposíte in compression and tension,

respectively ;
O,,,, = ultiiiiate streiigtli-of pulped fiber; and
'
crusliiiig sti-eiigtliof ccineiit paste iiiutrix.
on>,,
=
EXPERIMENT
Materials
(a) Modified Rice Husk Asli--The major characteristics of RHA are its high
water demaiid aiid low fineness as compared with coiidensed silica fume. Another
important problem is the dispersion of RHA particles uniformly in the inix. To
increase fineness, the rccornrnended grinding time for RHA was 45 ininutes (3,4).
Ilowcver, the degree of fineness achieved was riot sufficient to make high-sireiigth
concrete. To solve this problem, rice husk ash must be ground in the gtinding
machine fora long durationoftitile i n order toachieve avery high degree of fineness.
A grinding time uf 1 hour and 15 ininutes was proposed and this was maintained
throughout thc whole testing program.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662947 0522408 979 H
214 Chatveera and Nimityongskul
(b) Sisal Pulp Fibers--A chemical pulping process called "kraft process" is
introduced in this study by using a boiler having temperature of 100 "C to treat the
fibers. NaOH and N,S having concentrations of 48 and 32 gm/L respectively were
combined and used as chemical agents for the treatment of fibers. The boiling time,
beating time and casting pressure were fixed at 8 hours, 30 minutes and 0.28 MPa,
respectively.
(c) Other Constituent Materials

Portland Cement : Normal portland cement was used.
Mixing Water : Ordinary tap water was used.
Fine Aggregate : Natural river sand passing 9 inm sieve.
Superplasticizer : The superplasticizer was a naphthalene based product of
Japanese origin.
Formwork and Casting Procedure
Since the mixture of sisal pulp and mortar is a lightweight coiiiposite material,
the casting process should be done under pressure. The formwork was made o í
wood and a I .6 min-thick steel sheet. The formwork consisted of the upper and
lower parts which werecoriiiected together with I6 min diameter bolts. The details
of the formwork are shown in Fig. I .
The pulp was beaten for 30 minutes to disintegrate the pulp which was mixed
with the cementitious inaterial for 5 ininutes. The mixing was done in such a way
that all the puips were coated with mortar uniformly. The mixing was done in two
operations. When the mixing procedure was íinished, the mixture was then placed
i n the formwork and pressed by hands i n order to check the uniformity. The casting
process had to bedoiie under pressure by applying load through a hydraulic cylinder.
In this study, the load corresponded to the required casting pressure. All bolts were
fastened tightly. The specimens were kept foi 24 hours before being removed from
the formwork and cured in the fog room at 100% relative humidity at 28 "C for 28
days. Subsequently, specimens were cut into small pieces according to the type of
testing. For durability test, the specimens were subjected to simulated aging cycles
until the time oí testing.
The dimension or fiber-reinforced cement composite for direct tension, axial

compression, anticlastic, bending, moisture content, water absorption, expansion
and drying shrinkage, impact resistance and durability tests were 126x430,
1OOx 150,300x300,150x580, I OOx 150,300~300,i 00x300,230x250 and 150x580
inm, respectively. The thickness of specimens was 15 mm whereas that of sisal
pulp-mortar and bamboo pulp-mortar specimens was 25 min.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m Obb2949 0522409 8 0 5 m
Properties of Sisal Fiber and PUIDS
The physical and mechanical properties of sisal fiber and pulps were
determined, and are shown in Table I . With a natural organic fiber, it is rather
diîficult to obtain the exact value of the ultimate tensile strength or modulus of
elasticity of sisal fiber and pulps because of the variation in cross section, moisture
content, age of fiber and pulp and some defects existing i n them.
Durability of Composites Containine MRHA and Pulped Fibers
(a) Modulus of Ruuture--Toughness data are shown in Table 2 and plotted in

Figs. 2 and 3. Froin Fig. 2, i t was observed that lhe moduli of rupture of the sisal
pulp-mortar composite boards decreased when the pulp volume fraction increased.
The control composite showed the highest modulus of rupture whereas the sisal
pulp-mortar coinposite containing 9% pulp volume fraction exhibited the lowest.
This is due to the high volume fraction of sisal pulp. In this case, the control
composite contained MRHA. After 48 siinulated aging cycles, the decreasing in
modulus of rupture for the sisal pulp-inortar composite was lower when compared
to the control composite. In this regard, the high volume fraction of sisal pulp could
provide some resistance after simulated aging cycles. Although the modulus of
rupture of the control boai-d was higher than that of the sisal pulp-mortar boards, it
was brittle while the sisal pulp-mortar boards were more ductile.
Regarding tlieeffect of pulp type on the flexural strength (Fig. 3), for simulated
aging cycles the durability of the composite containing 5% bamboo pulp was found
to be better than that of composites containing 5% pine and sisal pulps. After 48
simulated aging cycles, the increase i n strength of the bamboo pulp-mortar
composite was reinarkably higher than that the control composite. It was noted
that in this respect the bamboo pulp-mortar composite and pine pulp-mortar
composite showed a similar behavior.
(b) Modulus of Resilience--The elastic resilience of a inaterial is the amount

of energy recovcrcd for unit volume of the inaterial when it is stressed to its elastic
limit and then the stress is relieved. The highest value of the modulus of resilience
is obtained i n a inaterial with a high elastic strength and a comparatively low
modulus of elasticity. The modulus of resilience was determined froin the area
under the load-deflection curve within the elastic range represented by area OAJ
of Fig. 4.
From Fig. 5, it can be observed that the moduli of resilience of the sisal
pulp-mortar compositc boards increased with the pulp volume fraction. In addition,
the rate of decrease i n the modulus of resilience after being subjected to simulated

A C I sp-1154 95 m 0662949 05224110 527 m
aging cycles was ratlier low compared to the control. This cati be explained by the
fact that more tlie pulp content, the less the cemeiit mortar, and consequently less
alkalinity in the system. This means that the pulp suffered less attack from alkaline
pore water.
Regarding the effect of pulp type on the moduli of resilieiice of pulp-mortar

composite boards, i t is indicated that, when subjected to simulated aging cycles,
the coniposite boards containing 5% bamboo pulp showed a higher modulus of
resilience. The lest result is graphically shown in Fig. 6. It was iioted that the
control, sisal pulp-mortar, aiid pine pulp-mortar composites exhibited a similar
trend.
(c) Modulus of Toiigliiiess--Toughness is tlie capacity of inaterials to absorb

energy during tlie application of loxi to fracture. It depends upon both strength
and ductility. A tough material will withstand great deformation wider high stress.
The modulus of toughness is expressed i n term o f the work performed in deforming
a material to fracture aiid therefore is represented by the area OABF under tlie
load-dcflection diagrain shown in Fig. 4.
The results are graphically presented in Fig. 7. It was obscrvcd that the effect
of using clieinical fiber treatineiit resulted iii higher toughness than the control when
subjected to siiniilated aging cycles. The results indicated that fiber treatineiit using
some cheiiiical agents (NaOl-I arid N,S) and MRHA us cement replacement were
eífective in improving the ductility of the pulp-mortar coinposites subjected to
siinulatcd aging cycles. After O- I2 simulated aging cycles, the sisal pulp-mortar
composite coiitaiiiiiig 5% pulp volume fraction showed the highest modulus of
toughness. The toughness of the sisiil pulp-mortar composite containiiig 7% pulp
volume fractioii was similar to that of the sisal pulp-mortar composite containing
9% pulp volumc fraction. For both the control composite and the sisal pulp-mortar
composite coiitziiiiing 3% pulp volume fraction, it was found that the toughness was
the lowest. This caii be explained by the fact that the inore the cemeiit mortar, the
less the pulp content, aiid consequently, tlie more tlie alkalinity. This means that
tlie alkaline attack was relatively stronger.
Regarding the effect of pulp type on the moduli of toughness of pulp-inortar

composites, it was also noted that when subjected to simulated aging cycles, the
composite contairiiiig S% sisal pulp exhibited a higher modulus of toughness (Fig.
8).
According to ASTM C1018, tlie energy absorbed by the specimen is

represented by tlie area uiitler the complete load-deflection curve. The
load-deflection curve has been observed to depend on (a) the specimen size; (b) the
loading configuration; (c) type of control; and (d) the loading rate. To minimize
at least some of these efïects, normalization of the energy absorption capacity is
necessary. This caii be accomplished by dividing the energy absorbed by the
fiber-reinforced concrete beam by that absorbed by an unreinforced beam cf

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0522411 463
identical size and matrix composition, tested under similar conditions. The resultant
nondiinensional index, I,, represents the relative improvement iii the energy
absorption capacity due to the inclusion of fibers, as shown in Fig. 4. It is an index
for comparing the relative energy absorption of different fiber mixtures.
The data from the nondiinensional index study are presented in Table 2. It
was also observed that the effect of using pulp resulted in higher index than the
control when sub,jected to simulated aging cycles. A decrease in the rate of
nondimensional index was also observed in the case of sisal pulp-mortar composites
containing 5% pulp volume fraction. Regarding the effect of piilp type, it was also
found that, when subjected to simulated aging cycles, the composites containing
5% bamboo pulp showed a 9% increase in the nondiinensional index. This index
was compared to that of the control composite which was not subjected to any
simulated aging cycle.
(d) Comparison with Previous Study--Fig. 9 shows the relationship between

modulus of rupture and number of simulated aging cycles of composites. In case
of Wu’s study (U), thc modulus of rupture ofcoinposites containing only 14% pulp
volume fraction of sisal fiber sharply decreased within 8 simulated aging cycles.
This was probably due to rapid fiber decomposition i n the alkaline pore water
present in the mortar which reflected the poor durability of the composite. In order
to increase the duriibility of the fiber, 30% RHA was used to replace the normal
portland cement i n mortar. This can be explained by the fact that the silica present
in RHA reacts with calcium hydroxide liberated as a result of cement hydration,
thus causing a marked reduction i n the alkalinity of mortar and the decomposition
of natural fibers. It was also observed that after 48 simulated aging cycles, the
moduli of rupture of composites containing 10%replacement of MRHA with pulp
fiber were increased as compared to those containing 30% replacement of RHA
and 14% pulp volume fraction of sisal fiber. The results revealed that using both
fiber treatment aiid MRIIA iii making the pulp-mortar composites resulted in
slowing down the decomposition of natural fibers caused by alkaline attack. An
important point which should be enipliasized is that among the sisal pulp and fiber
investigated, tlie durability of composites containing MRHA and sisal pulp treated
by the proposed method is better than that of composites containing RHA and sisal
fiber.
(e) Other ïests-The results from tests on moisture content, absorption,

expansion, drying shrinkage and impact resistance are summarized in Table 3. It
was noted that both the moisture content and water absorption increased as the pulp
volume fraction iiicreased. The water absorption for all test specimens was found
to be lower than 10% as specified by ASTM C208-72 except for sisal pulp-mortar
composite containing 9% pulp volume fraction. Regarding the effect of pulp type,
it was found that tlie composite containing 5% bamboo pulp showed a higher water
absorption than that containing 5% sisal pulp. The water absorption of pine
pulp-mortar composite was lower than the control coniposite. The moisture content
ror all specimens were found to be less than 9.2%. Regarding the effect of pulp
type, the results were similar to those of water absorption.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522412 3 T T W
In the expansion test, it was observed that most of the expansion occurred
during the first 24 hours of submersion and, i n general, the expansions were quite
low. The maximum expansion for all tested specimens was found to be much less
than 0.5%. as specified by ASTM C208-72. The composite containing 5% sisal
pulp resulted in a higher expansion than that containing the same amount of pine
pulp. The expansion for the bamboo pulp-mortar was one of the lowest.
Shrinkage of the materials results froin the removal of moisture on drying.

The rate of shrinkage is dependent on the amount of drying that can take place,
consequently it is influenced by the ambient temperature and humidity, the rate of
air flow over the surface and the ratio between surface area and volume of the
niaterial. It was observed froin the shrinkage test that the shrinkage rate of the
composite decreased with time. The percentage of equilibrium shrinkage for all
tested specimens was found to be lower than O. 1%. Regarding the effect of pulp
type, i t was noted that the composite containing 5% bamboo pulp gave higher
shrinkage than that containing the same amount of sisal pulp. The shrinkage of the
control composite was similar to the sisal pulp-mortar composite. The shrinkage
of the pine pulp-mortar composite was the lowest.
The results from tlie impact resistance test showed that an increase in pulp
volutne fraction caused an increase in impact resistance. The maximum index of
impact resistance for the sisal pulp-mortar composites was 33.25, especially at 9%
pulp volume fraction when very tiny cracks appeared on the unloaded face. The
index for the control composite was 26.25. A ductile failure for tlie pulp reinforced
composites was observed in contrast to the brittle failure exhibited by the control
composite. Regarding the effect of pulp type, it was found that the coniposite board
containing 5% sisal pulp exhibited a higher index value than that containing 5%
bamboo pulp. The index values for the pine and bamboo pulps composites were
lower than the control.
Cornoarison between Experimental and Theoretical Results
(a) Direct Tension Test--Table 4 shows a comparison between the theoretical

and experimental values for ultiiiiate strength and modulus of elasticity from direct
tension test. It was observed that as the pulp volume fraction increased, the ultimate
strength increased whereas the modulus of elasticity decreased. The ultimate
strength of the composite i n tension o(,,was calculated from the equation:-
o,,,= o. I08Vpo,,, (1)
The modulus of elasticity of the composite in tension E, was calculated from

the equation:-
E, = E,,,,V,,,+O.06IE,,Vp (2)

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522413 236 m
(b) Axial Compression Test--Tables 5 and 6 show the theoretical and

experimental values for ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, and Poisson's ratio
from axial compression test. It was noticed that as the pulp volume fraction
increased, the ultimate strength and modulus of elasticity decreased, whereas the
Poisson's ratio increased. The ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity andPoisson's
ratio in compression of the composite, o(,,, E, and vc, were calculated from the
following equations:-
I, = '3",,,V!"
0, (3)
E, =E,,,~Vn,+0.061E,,V,, (4)
The theoretical and experimental values of Er/(I -u;')are also summarized in

Table 7.
(c) Anticlastic Test--The theoretical and experimental values of the shear

moduli for the anticlastic test are also included in Table 7. It was noticed that the
shear moduli of the composites depended largely on the shear modulus of tliccontrol
mortar, and the contribution of the pulp was small. The shear moduli decreased as
the pulp volume fraction increased. Regarding the effect of pulp type, the shear
modulus of bamboo pulp-inortar composite was higher than that of sisal pulp-mortar
composite. The shear modulus of the composite G, was calculated from the
equation-
G, = G,,,V,,,+ 0.020EpV,, (6)
CONCLUSIONS,
Based on the experimental results obtained in this study, the following

conclusions can be drawn:-
After subjected to 48 simulated aging cycles, the moduli of rupture of composites

containing 10% replaceniciit of MRHA and pulped fiber were significantly
increased as compared to those containing 30% replacement of RHA and 14% pulp
volume fraction of sisal fiber. The use of p ~ d pand MRHA i n the mortar matrix
considerably increased the durability of the mortar. Regarding the effect of pulp
type on the modulus of toughness of pulp-inortar composites, the sisal pulp-mortar
containing 5% pulp volume fraction showed the highest modulus of toughness.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Ob62949 05224L4 1 7 2 W
220 Chatveera and Nimltyongskul
Other tests showed that pulp-mortar composites were impervious, durable,

possessed high strength and good impact resistance, aiid therefore can be considered
as suitable substitutes for asbestos-fiber board.
REFERENCES
I . ßentur, A. and Akers, S.A.S. (1989) The Microstructure aiid Aging of Cellulose
Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites Cured in a Normal Environment.
International Journal of Cement Composites and Light-Weight Concrcte, I I (2),
99- 109.
2. Akers, S.A.S. and Studinka, J.B. (1989) Aging Behavior of Cellulose Fiber
Cetnent Composites in Natural Weathering and Accelerated Tests. International
Journal of Cement and Light Weight Concrete, I1(2), 93-97.
3. Islam, M.S. (198 I ) Grinding Methods and Its Effect on Reactivity of Rice Husk
Ash. M.Eng. Thesis No. ST-8 1-7, Asian Institute of Technology, ßangkok,
Thai land.
4.We, A.B. ( 198 I ) Production of RHA and Its Applications in Mortar and Concrete.
M.Eng. Thesis No. ST-81-20, Asian Institute of Technology, Baiigkok, Thailand.
5. Pakotiprapha, B. (1976) A Study of Bamboo Pulp aiid Fibcr Cetnent Paste

Composites. D.Eng. Dissertatioti No. D20, Asian Institute ofTechiiology, Bangkok,
Thailand.
6. Wu, M.Z. ( I 989) Use of Sisal as Fiber Reinforcement in Rice Husk Ash Mortar.
M.Eiig. Thesis No. ST-89-20, Asiaii Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.

A C 1 SP-LSi, 95 m Obb2949 0 5 2 2 4 3 5 009 W
TABLE 1 - PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SISAL FIBER AND PULPS
Il
Diameter, min
Descripiion Sisal Fiber
O. 15-0.26
Sisal Pulp
I Bainhoo
Pub
Pille Pulp
0.0305
Length, inin 1200-1 500 2.48
Bulk Specific Gravity 0.38 0.41
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 0.82 I .O9
Apparent Spcciric Ci-avity 0.69 1.46 i .27
Moisture Content. 7'0 1 1.00 0.69
Water Absorpiion, 70 119.0 52.8 189.5 168.8
Uliirnaie Tensile Strengili, MPa 297.83
Modulus of Elasticity, MPa I 1366
* Data froin rcf. NO. 5
TABLE 2 - TOUGHNESS INDEX OF PULP-MORTAR COMPOSITES SUBJECTED TO DIFFERENT

NUMBER OF SIMULATED AGING CYCLES
Series Pulp Type Tougliiicss Indcx, at No. of Agiiig Cycles (cycles) )I

No. O
O No Pulp I .o0 1.o0 1 .o0

3 Sisal Pulp 1.82 0.88 1.14 1.o2
5 Sisal Pulp 4.00 2.47 2.5 1 I64 0.95
7 Sisal Pulp 3.43 2.54 2.4 I 1.4 1 I .55
9 Sisal Pulp 3.40 2.30 1.83 1.22 1.14
5 Baiiihoo Pulp I .24 I .35 1.19 1.16 1.35
5 Pine Pulp 1.51 1.17 0.78 OX6 0.70
1 d i result is tlic avcragc valuc or 3 saiiiples

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0.522416 T 4 5
TABLE 3 - TEST RESULTS OF MOISTURE CONTENT, WATER ABSORPTION, EXPANSION, DRYING

SHRINKAGE AND IMPACT RESISTANCE
Equilihriuin Iiiipsci
No’ I 5.394
Shrinkagc
(%)
0.0842
Resisinnce
(Indcx Nuinhcr
26.25
5.225 5.784 0.0 I33 0.0883 24.00
Sisal Pulp 7.430 8.306 0.0205 0.0867 32.00
Sisal PiiII> 7.637 8.089 0.0135 0.0840 32.50
Sisal Pulp 9.160 o. I0 15 33.25
Haiiihoo Pulp 7.544 8.340 0.0135 0.0907 25.50
Pille I’ulp 5.070 5.680 0.0172 0.06 I 2 17.00
Each rcsuli i s IIic ;ivcr;igc value oí 3 S I I I I I ~ I C S
TABLE 4 - THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ULTIMATE STRENGTHS AND MODULI OF

ELASTICITY FROM DIRECT TENSION TEST
-
-
Scrics Pulp l y p c Sit-ciigilis, o,,,
Ul~iiiia~c Moduli o1 Elasiiciiy. E,
i
NO. (Ml’a) ( x 1 0 4 MPo)
Expt. Expi./llicory
-
-
Tlicoi-y ïïicory EX]”. Ilx])l.lflicoi-y
3 Sisal Pulp I .61 I. I 4 0.708 1.944 2.174 1.1 I X
5 Sisal Pulp 2.69 I .78 0.662 1.906 2.000 1 .rw
7 Sisal Pulp 3.76 I .64 0.436 1.869 2.000 I .O70
9 Sisal I’ulp 4.84 0.85 o. I76 1.83 I 1.181 0.645
5 Baiiihoo Pulp 6.74 0.88 0.131 I ,938 2.000 I,037
-
-
-
5 Pinc Pulp
Each rcsuli i s IIIC nveragc valiic o r 4 saiiiplcs.

A C 1 SP-1154 95 m 0662947 05224117 981 m
TABLE 5 - THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ULTIMATE STRENGTHS AND MODULI OF
Series Pulp 'l'ypc Ultimate Siiciigílis, o,, Moduli of Elasticiiy. E,

(MPa) I (xl0' MPa)
Expi. ExpiJïhcory Tlicory Expi. ExpLiTIicory
29.04 0.829 1.783 1.841 1.033

27.10 0.790 1.748 2.000 1.144
26.84 0.799 1.714 1.687 0.984
22.74 0.692 1.680 1.974 1.175
35.13 1.024 1.781 1.556 0.874
Diiiiciisicin 0 1 Spcciiiicii = 5 0 x 5 0 ~ 5 0iiiin

E:icli icïult is ilic average value o l 10 samples
TABLE 6 - THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ULTIMATE STRENGTHS AND POISSON'S
Series Pulp T y p U1Iiiii;iíe Siicngilis, a,,, Poissoii's Raiios
'ïhcciry Expi. Expí.n'lieory 'l'licory Expi. Ex pi.íTlicory
34.9s 34.02 0.973 0.206 0.173 0.840

34.23 35.14 1 .O27 0.206 0.202 0.98 I
Sisal Pulp 33.5 I 29.80 0.889 0.206 0.209 1.015
Sis;1l Pulp 32.79 25.38 0.774 0.207 0.208 I ,005
Batiihoo Piilp 34.23 43.2 I 1.262 0.21 1 0.207 0.98 I
PiiiC Pulp 14.73 18.95 1.287
Each result is ilie avcrage value oí 4 saiiiples.

A C 1 S P - 3 5 4 95 m Obb2949 O522438 8 3 8
TABLE 7 - THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL SHEAR MODULI FROM ANTICLASIIC TEST

Serics Pulp Typc Shear Moduli, G, E<
NO. (x I O' MPa) (1 -u:>
(x104 MPa)
ïlieory Expt. Expt.fïhcory Theory Expi. Expt./"ïlieory

3 Sisal Pulp 7.392 8.331 1.127 1.862 1.898 1.019
5 Sisal Pulp 7.248 7.804 1.077 1.826 2.085 1.142
7 S¡Sd h I I J 7.104 8.864 1.248 1.7Y0 1.764 0.986
9 Sisal Pulp 6.960 5.315 0.764 1.755 2.063 1.176
5 ßaiiihoo Pulp 7.356 8.194 I . I 14 1.864 1.626 0.872
5 Pinc Piilp - 14.288
ri
Fig. 1-Three dimensional view of assembly of formwork

A C 1 SP-354 95 Obb2949 0522439 7 5 4 =
Modulus of Rupture (MPa)

10 10
Number of Simulated Aging Cycles (Cycle)

0% Sisal I’ulp E3 3% Sisal Pulp 5% Skai I’ulp
!SI 7% Sisal I’ulp KI 9% Sisal I’ulp
Fig. 2-Relationship between modulus of rupture and number of
simulated aging tycies of composites
Modulus of Rupture (MPa)
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
O O
B Nunc Ed Sisal Pulp D Dnniliuo Pulp E3 Pine pulp
Fig. %-Relationship between modulus of rupture and number of

simulated aging cycles of composites

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0522420 476 =
Fig. 4-Diagrammatic representation of toughness index, modulus

of toughness and modulus of resilience
Modulus of Resilience (N-m)

0.3 I I 0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
o. 1
0.05
O
E! 0% Sisal Pulp E3 3% Sisal Pulp W 5% Sisal Pulp
W 7% Sisal Pulp O 9% Sisal i’uip
Fig. LRelationship between modulus of resilience and number of


A C 1 S P - 3 5 4 95 m O662949 0522423 302 m
Modulus of Resilience (N-m)

. ,
0.4 I I 0.4
Nuniber of Simulated Aging Cycles (Cycle)
Fig. &Relationship between modulus of resilience and number of

Modulus of Toughness (N-m)

1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
O O
O 4 8 12 48
Nuniber of Simulated Aging Cycles (Cycle)
3 0% Sisal Pulp EZ 3% Sisal h i p E3 5 % Sisai Pulp
i
E3 7 % Sisal Pulp Rd 9% Sisal Pulp
Fig, 7-Relotionship between modulus of toughness and number of


A C 1 SP-151I 95 = Obb2949 0522422 249
228 Chatveera and Nimityongskui
Modulus of Toughness (N-m)

1.2 11.2

E l None B Sisal I i l p E2 Bamboo Pulp 5 Pine Pulp
Fig. &Relationship between modulus of toughness and number of

Modulus of Rupture (% of Control)
120 I120
With 10% MRHA + 5% Sisal Pulp
100
80
60
40
20
%

Fig. 9-Relationship between modulus of rupture and number of

A C 1 SP-154 95 E 0662949 0522423 LA5
SP 154-12
Promising Approach to Prevent Alkali-

Aggregate Reaction in Concrete -
Effects of Blast Furnace Slag
by S. Nishibayashi, T. Kuroda, and Y. Okawa
Synopsis: This paper reports the results of an investigation of the effect of using
ground granulated blast-furnace slag to prevent alkali-aggregate reaction damage to con-
crete.
We discuss the effectiveness of the blast-furnace slag on the dilution, stabiliza-

tion, and fixation of alkali. Furthcrmorc, we report on thc relationship bctwccn thc
replaccrncnt ratio of biast-furnace slag and prevention of thc expansion duc t o the
alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete.
Kevwords: Alkali segregate reactions; alkalies; blast furnace slap;;

expansion; stabilization
229
A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522424 O11 W
I
230 Nishibayashi, Kuroda, and Okawa
S. Nishibayashi is a professor of the Department of Civil Engineering at University of

Tottori, Tottori, Japan, also a member of ACI.
T. Kubota is a research assistant of the Department of Civil Engineering at University of
Tottori, Tottori, Japan.
Y. Okawa is a researcher of the Central Research Labs, NMB Ltd. Tokyo, Japan
INTRODUCTION
The main factors in alkali-aggregate reactions (AAR) in concrete arc rcactive-

aggregates, alkali content and existence of water. Any method to prcvcnt alkali-
aggregate reactions must take these factors into account.
The Japan Concrete Institute (JCI) recommends that one of the following
measures be taken to prevent AAR in new conmtc structures.
1. Use aggregates that have been found to be nonreactive through onc of the
following: chemical method (JC1 AAR- i ) , mortar-bar method (JCI AAR-Z), and the
concrete specimen method (JCI AAR-3). ’)
2. Usc low-alkali portland cement (JIS R 5210), ¡.c. portland ccment containing
less than 0.60% of Na,O cquivalcnt (Na,Ocg=%Na,O + 0.658 x %,K,O).
3. Use an appropriate blended cement, such as Type B and C blast-furnace slag

cement ( J E R 521 1) that has a slag content of 30 to 60 % or 60 to 70%, respectively,
or use Type B and C fly ash cement (JIS R 5213) containing a fly ash contcnt of 10 to
20% or 20 to 30% respectively, or use a cement containing added matcrials which can
prevent AAR damage.
4. Control the total alkali content in concrete to 3 kg/m3 of Na,O cquivalcnt.

The prevention of AAR through the use of blast-furnace slag is on; of thc most effec-
tive ways to prevent AAR-induced damages in concrete structures.
It is important to understand the cfiect of blast-furnace slag on the prevention of

concrete expansion due to AAR by experimenting with various proportions of slag
and variation in alkali content.
The mechanism for the prevention of AAR by using blast-furnace slag can be
explained both in terms of the dilution effect of blast-furnace slag on harmful alkali
and in terms of the physical o r stabilizing effects of the slag on the alkali. I-’’ It is
believed that the slag to prevent AAR damge is a combination of these mechanisms.
In this research the alkali-dilution effect by replacing cement with blast-furnace

slag was investigated. It is assumed that the alkali content in the slag was 0%;. Also
investigated were the effects of the reactive-aggregate content and the percentage of
alkali on the concrete expansion duc to AAR in terms of a) binding material content
(cement + blast-furnace slag) and b) cement content. Additional investigations were
performed for the assessment of AAR expansion-prevention by the rcplaceincnt of
cement with blast-furnace slag.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522425 T58 m
EXPERIMENT
Q u t h of Testing
---The aggregates were: i ) a reactive-aggregate used in conccctc struc-

tures which had suffered damage (this aggregate had been judged deleterious or poten-
tially deleterious by the chemical method (Sc=732, Rc=177)), and 2) a non-reactive
aggregate.
Ordinary portland cement containing 0.5% alkali as Na,O equivalent and

blast-furnace slag containing 0.44% alkali as Na,O equivalent were Úsed. In order to
adjust the total alkali content of mortar and concrete, a reagent gradc (NaOH) was
selected. This was dissolved in tap water. Physical properties of the ceincnt and blast-
furnace slag are given in Table 1.
Test M e t M
1. Mortar: The mixture proportion of mortar was as follows: C:S=I :2.25 (by
mass) with unit water content selected by a trial test to obtain a flow valuc of 170 to
190 mm. Slag replacements were O, 25, 40, 50, 65,and 75%. Total d k a l i contents
(Na,O equivalent) were 0.5, 1 .O, and 1.5%. The dimensions of specimen5 were 4í) x 40
x i60 mm.
The length of the specimens was initially measured at 24 hours after

casting. Following initial measurement, thc spccimens were stored in a storage tank
(40"C, R.H. 100%). They were transferred to a constant temperature room (20°C) one
day before ineasurcinents. Changes in length were recorded.
2. Concrete: The mixture proportions of concrete are given in Table 2. The

mixture proportions were as follows: The unit binder content (cement + slag) was 450
kg/m3. The unit water content was sclcctcd by trial mixing to obtain I I 0 and I50 mm
slumps. These slumps were for cases when the blending ratio of ccmcnt and slag was
O%, and the reactive coarse aggregate was 10(1%,with no addition of excessive alkali.
Adjustments for variations in slump duc to changes in each blending ratio or excessive
addition of alkali were not made.
The blending ratios of the cement and thc slag were 100:Ot 50:50, and
30:70, and of reactive coarse aggregates were O , 50, and 100%. Total alkali contcnts
(Na,O equivalent) were 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5%. The dimensions of spccimcris wcrc
100 x 100 x 400 cm.
Immediately after casting, the specimens were takcn to ;I constant tcm-

perature rooin (20"C, R.H. 100%). On dcmolding at 24 hours, the initial Icngth and
dynamic modulus of elasticity were measured. After the mcasurcments of initial val-
ues, the specimens were stored in a storage chamber (40"C, R.H. 100%). They were
transferred to the constant temperature room (20°C) one day before thcir diincrisions
were measured.
The change in length and dynamic modulus of elasticity were deterinincd

at the ages of 14 days, 28 days, and every subsequent month.
Method for cvaluation of AAR txpansion-nrevention bv rmlaL&

1 , , L , )'-
I >
-AAR expansion-prevention by replacement of cement with

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 O522426 994
blast-furnace slag is evaluated on the basis of the reduction in the dcgrcc of cxpan-
sion [Re) defined by the following equation:
Re = (Eopc - Eslag)/E opc x 100 (96)
Where, Eopc: Expansion of slag-frcc specimens containing only normal portland

cement
Eslag: Expansion of specimens containing slag
Re: Reduction in expansion
RESULTS
Evaluation of the AAR Prev- Eff ec t of BIast - Fu rn-, . . * , in Mo r t a

The relationship between the slag content and the dcgrcc of expansion of inortar
at the age of 12 months at each alkali level is shown in Fig. 1. Solid lines indicate
alkali contents in the total binding material (portland ccmcnt t slag) when the slag
contains no alkali. Dashed lines indicate alkali contents in portland cement.
Fig. 1 shows that when normal portland ccmcnt is replaced with slag. the degrcc
of expansion of mortar is greatly reduced. In terms of the alkali content in the total
binding material (solid line), as the slag content incrcascs, the dcgrcc of expansion of
mortar demases linearly.
Based on these results:
1 . Alkali in slag hardly contributes to the dcgrcc of expansion ofniortar: if it

does, it is negligible compared with the expansion-prevention effect of slap.
2. When a portion of portland ccmcnt is replaced by slag, the cxpansion-prcvcn-

tion effect is discerned even when the decrease in alkali content is ignored. Thcrc-
fore, it can he considered that slag has an expansion-preventive property (possibly
due to the fixation and stabilization of alkali).
3. The AAR prevention-effect of slag can be considcrcd as duc to ;i cornbin:ition

of the effects of the slag and a reduction of the effects of alkali in ccincnt.
Fig. 2 shows the relationship between slag content and Re, and indicates the
reduction in the degree of expansion of mortar containing slag vs. standard cernent
without slag.
Based on this figure, a 70-80% Re is possible if 60% of normal portland cement

replaced with slag. The degree of expansion can be reduced to below 0.1 c%.
E v a l u a t i o n r eve-ect . s. ot Blast--F , . I . , in CcIncrctc

Evaluation of AAR expansion-prevention effects, due to the ccp1;iccmcnt of
cement with blast-furnace slag, in conmte testing are as follows:
Inflriencc of reactive-asenate conm--Fig. 3 and 4 show the change in the

degree of expansion over time due to AAR in a conmctc containing noriniil portlend

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522427 820
cement alone, and concrete in which 50% of the normal portlmd cement has been
replaced by slag, respectively. Fig. 3 shows that expansion of concrete increases as
much as 0.7% when the ratio of RCíRF is 0/100 at the age of 12 months. On the other
hand, when using reactive fine aggregate (RF) and reactive coarse aggregate (RC)
with various mixing ratios (RC/RF=50/100, 100/50, 100/0, and lOO/lOO), the dcgrcc
of expansion falls to below 3% at thc age of 12 months. in addition, when cement is
replaced with slag, the degree of expansion at all ratios is greatly reduced to below
0.3%. However, in the case of RC/RF=I00/0, the pcssimum value is discerned re-
gardless of the slag replacement.
Fig. 5 shows the dcgrcc of expansion over time in concrctc containing a

1.5% alkali content, nonreactivc coarse aggregate, and rcactivc fine aggregate, under
varying replacement ratios of slag, from O, 5 0 , to 70%. The figure shows that the
degree of expansion of a concrete without slag starts at the age of 0.3 inontlis and then
rapidly increases. The degree of expansion at thc age of 12 months is 0.7%. On the
other hand, the degree of expansion of concretes containing 50% and 70% slag arc:
0.25% and 0.12% rcspectivcly.
Fig. h shows the degree of expansion over time in concrete containing

reactive coarse aggregate and nonreactive fine aggregate with various ratios of slag
replacement. The degrec of expansion of concrete using reactive coiirsc aggrcgatc is
smaller than that of concrete using reactive fine aggrcgatc. That is, tlic rcduction
effect of slag on the degree of expansion bccomcs greater when rcactivc fine ag-
gregate is uscd.
Fig. 7 shows the expansion-preventic,n effect in concrete containing ¿i

50% slag in terms of the content of reactive-aggregate uscd.
I t was dctcrmincd that the degree of expansion of thc concretes with

RC/RF=l00/100 and 50/50 ratios (both without slag) increase to O. I % o r more,
however, the dcgrcc of expansion of the concrete with 50% slag is reduced to below
0.1%.
Bascd on these results, i t is recognized that the exp;insion-prevention

effect of blast-furnace slag varies with the mixing ratio. In particular, 21 O. 17% or
greatcr deleterious expansion can occur in concretes with RC/RF=O/I 00 and
RC/RF=50/100, cvcn if half the ccmcnt is replaced with slag.
it is considered that expansion is reduced duc to alkali-dilution d u c to slag.
Taking into account the alkali content of blast-furnace slag, and adding it to the :ilkali
content in ccmcnt, the total alkali content becomes 1.5%; (4.4 kgiin’ when 5OV of
cement is replaced with slag).
On the other hand, ignoring the alkali content in thc blast-furnace slag,
the total alkali content is 3.4 kdm’. In other words, even if ccmcnt is replaced yith
slag, and thc total alkali content excccds the regulation-limited value of 3.0 kgím’ to
prevent AAR, the expansion docs not cxcecd the regulation-limit value of O. 1 %.
Therefore, it can be presumed that the dominating factor for expansion is not only thc
alkali-ion concentration.
Fig. 8 shows the changc in rclativc clastic modulus over timc. Relative clastic
modulus is given bascd on thc value at the age of 0.3 months as 100. The changc in
the relative clastic modulus varied with the mixing ratio of reactive-aggregate. When
50% cement is replaced with slag, all rclativc elastic moduli increase to 85% or inorc.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = Obb2949 0522428 7 b ï
When the mixing ratios of concrete are RCíRF=100/0 and lOO/lOO, the relative clastic
moduli increase to approximately 100%.
Lnfluence of a m--Fig. Y to 11 show the relaticinship between alkali

content and expansion in terms of reactive-aggregate contents.
With slag-free conuete containing reactive coarse aggregate, and with

an alkali content exceeding 1.0%, the expansion exceeds 0.1%, ¡.c. as thc alkali
content increases, the expansion increases. When more than 50%; of the normal por-
tland cement is replaced with slag, the alkali content is 2.0% or less, and expansion is
greatly reduced. This is an obvious expansion-prevention effect.
When only reactive fine aggregate is used (RC/RF=O/lOO) in slag-free

cement with a 2.0% alkali content, the existence of a pessimurn alkali content is dis-
cernible. In this case, we note that even if cernent is replaced with slag, the dcgrec of
expansion increases to 0.1% or more.
on r e d u c t l » n c t due tc n-rt . , Et-furnacci

W.ith bld. slagA--Fig.
., 12
shows the relationship between the reduction in the degree of expansion and alkali
content of concretes containing reactive coarse aggregate where 50% and 70% of
normal portland cement is replaced with slag, respectively. When the alkali content is
2.0% or less and with a 50% slag replacement, expansion is remarkably reduced by
85%. With 70% slag-replaced concrete, expansion was reduced by 60-70% even
when the alkali content is as high as 2.0 to 2.5%.
When reactive fine aggregate is used (Fig. 13), and 50% of normal por-
tland cement is replaced with slag, and the alkali content is 2.074, o r less. expansion
can be reduced by 60%. When the alkali content is 2.5%, expansion is reduced by
35-4095.
In addition, when 70% of normal portland cement is replaced with slag,

as the alkali content increases, the cxpansion reducing effect decreascs. The reduction
is approx. 75% when the alkali content is 1.596, and is approx. 60% when thc alkali
content is 2.3%.
When the mixing ratios are RC/RF=100/100 and RC/RF=50/50 (Fig. 14)
and the alkali content is 1.5% or less, the rcduction in the degree of expansion is
almost loo%, ¡.c. expansion can be sufficiently prevented. However, as thc alkali
content increases, the reduction of expansion decreases.
Based on the study on the expansi»n-reduction effect duc to hlust-

furnace slag replacement, it is clear that the reduction in expansion varies with the
reactive-aggregate content; the reduction in expansion decreascs as the alkali contcnt
increases; and the reduction in expansion increases as slag content increases.
The relationship between the Re and the slag content in concrete is given in Fig.
15 which shows that the absolute volume of binding material in concrctc is smaller
than that in mortar. Therefore, the Re values are generally smallcr. When the alkali
content is 1.0-1.5% and with 50% slag replacement, the Re value is 80% o r more.
When the alkali content is 2.0-2.5%, 70% or more slag replacement is presumably
required.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0662949 0522429 b T 3
CONCLUSION
We studied the degree of the expansion-reduction due to the rcplacemcnt of
cement with blast-furnace slag, as well as the expansion characteristics of mortar and
concrete containing blast-furnace slag, and the influence of the mixing ratio of reac-
tive-agregate and the alkali content.
1. In mortar tcsting, a 60% replacement of portland cement by blast-furnace slag

brought a 70-80% reduction in expansion, with concrete expanding 0.1% o r less.
2. The expansion-reducti«n effect due blast-furnace varies with thc mixing ratio
of the reactivc-aggregate. On the other hand, when blast-furnacc slag is used and
only cxpansion-reduction effects duc to the alkali-dilution effect of the slag are taken
into account, expansion in concrete will not occur eve? if the total alkali value ex-
ceeds the regulated value for AAR which is 3.0kgim.’. It is presumed that blast-
furnace slag exhibits strong stabilizing effects on the alkali-ions, an adsorbing fixa-
tion effect on water and ions, as well as an alkali-dilution effect.
3. Even if ccmcnt is replaced with blast-furnace slag, the alkali content greatly
affects the dcgrcc of expansion which varies with reactive-aggregatc content. Except
in cases where reactive-aggregate is used alone, a 50% slag replacement can reduce
the degree of expansion t o a level at which deleterious expansion will nut occur.
Whcn reactive fine aggregate is used, the degree of expansion becomes greater than
that at other mixing ratios. Whcn a 50% ci€ the cement is replaced with slag with
i .O% or more alkali content, the degree of expansion bcccimes 0.1% or morc.
4. With a 50% slag rcplacemcnt, the limiting value of thc total alkali content
becomes roughly 8.0kg/m3 when reactive coarse aggregate is used. Taking account
of the alkali contcnt in slag, the total alkali content becomcs roughly Y.0k@m3.
REFERENCE
1. Nishibayashi, S, “Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, Now, JCI Concrete Journal, Vol. 28,

No.5, 1990, pp.30-40 (Japanese)
2. Bakker, R. F. M., “About the Cause of Resistance of Blast-Furnacc Cement Con-

Lxte to the Alkali Silica Reaction, Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. on AAR in Concrete, Cape-
town, 1YX1.
3. Hobbs, D. W., “Influence of Pulverized-Fuel Ash and Granulated Blast-Furnace

Slag upon Expansion Caused by the Alkali-Silica Reaction, Ma. of Conc. Research,
Vol. 34, NO. 11Y, 1982, pp. 83-94
4. Nixon, P. J. and M. E. Gaze., The Effectiveness of Fly Ashes and Granulated Blast
Furnace Slags in Preventing AAR, Proc. 6th Int. Conf. on AAR in Concrete, Copen-
hagen, 1Y83, pp. 61-68
5. Sinis, i . “The Influence of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag on thc Alkali
Reactivity of Flint Aggregate Concrete in the United Kingdom, Proc. 6th Int. Ccinf. on
AAR in Concrete, Copenhagen, 1983, pp. 69-84

A C 1 SP-1-54 95 m Obb2949 0522430 315 m
TABLE 1 - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT AND ADMIXTURE
Type Specific gravi-by A l k a l i content (%) Fineness (cm”/g)

(Na20 es.)
OPC 3.15 O. 50 3, Zao
Slag 2.89 o. 45 4,540
TABLE 2 - MIXTURE PROPORTION OF CONCRETE
I s/a I Unit weight (kg/m3) I
* entrupped air
W : water, C:cement, Sl:slag, S:fine agg., G:coarse agg.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522431 251 m
n
$?
W
c
O. 8
o.6
-
- 0.5
0.5
1.0
OPC
OPC+slag
OPC
O
-;
o.4 _c_ 1.0 OPC+slag
t: -cr_ 1.5 OPC
m
P
o.2
O. O
O 20 40 60 80
Slag contents (%)
Fig. 1-Relationships between slag contents and expansion (alkali content of slag:
O percent, mortar)
1 O0
80
n
6 0
8
v
a, 40
U
20
O
O 20 40 6 0 80
Slag contents (%)
Fig. 2-Relationships between Re and slag contents (mortar).

Re: effea of control for ASR

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522432 198 =
;0 .
.-
v)
-
---I-
100/100
Oll00
50/100
K 0. 2
m .....................
P
i 0. 0 S l a g cont. : 0%
A l k a l i : 1.5%
Rc : reactive coarse agg.
Rf : r e a c t i v e f i n e a g g .
- 0 . 21 ' I ' I I , I
(The s y m b o l of
0 4 8 12 1 6 2 0 f u r t h e r figures are s a m e . )
Age (months)
Fig. 3-Expansion versus age (slag O percent)
-
0.8
-8
-
h
0.6 Slag cont. : 50%
-
A l k a l i : 1.5% 100/0
t
0.4 100/100
.-u)
0
-2- O/lOO
t 50/100
OJ 0.2
0. 100/50
x
0.0
-0.2
O 4 8 12 16 20
Age (months)
Fig. LExpansian versus age (slog 50 percent)

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522433 024 m
Rc/Rf : 0/100
u 0.6
5
c 50%
O
'j; 0.4 _j) 70%
C
(d
P
x o.:
W
0.0
O 4 8 12 16 20
A g e (months)
Fig. 5-Expansion versus age
9
Yo.6.
.-OUI 0.4
Rc/Rf : 100/0
A l k a l i : 2.0% - Slag cont.
I
0%
50%
I=
m
0.2
W
0.0
O 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 14
Age (months)
Fig. &Expansion versus age

A C 1 SP-354 95 Ob62949 O522434 TbO
-
0.4
-
A
O. 3
s.
Y
50/50
SOI50 50%
c 0.2 100/100 0%
.-Ou)
c 0.1
o
P
x
0.0
Alkali : 1.5%
-0.1
O 4 8 12 16 20
A g e (months)
Fig. 7-Effea of slag on expansion
1 1 01 I
8
100-
-
- Rc/Rf Slag c o n t .
-
v
9 0- 100/0 o %
. 100/0 50
n
-
i 80- 100/100 o ye
100/100 50 %o
a 0/100 0 %
7 0-
0/100 50 %
6 O-,
O 4 8 12 16 20
A g e (months)
Fig. L R e l a t i v e dynamic modulus of elasticity versus age

A C 1 SP-I154 95 E 0662949 0522435 9T7 E
C
0.8
0.6
-
- Rc/Rf
100/0
100/0
100/0
o
50
70
Slag c o n t .
%
Ya
Y'
.-O
u) 0.4
C
Q
Q.
;0 . 2
Age: 1 2 m o n t h s
0.0 I I
0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

A l k a l i content (%)
Fig. 9-Relationship between alkali content and expansion
Rc/Rf Slag cont.

h -e100/100 o
Y
.-
u)
0.4-
i'
C
Q
Q. Age: 1 2 m o n t h s
X
w 0.2-
0.0
0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
A l k a l i content (%)

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m O662949 0522436 833 m
O.
n
8
<y
e
.-O
g
o.
o.
-
- Rc/Rf
0/100
0/100
0/100
S l a g cont.
o
50 %
70 %
m
P
X
u o.
O.
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Alkali content (%)
2 0-
o --
0.5
1 ,,
:8':8:B 1.o
RcIRf
1.5
Slag cont.
2.0 2.5 3.0

A l k a l i c o n t e n t (%)
Fig. 12-Relationship between Re and alkali content

A C 1 SP-I154 95 D 0662949 0522437 7 7 T D
A
O
.
100 I A g e : 12 m o n t h s
Rc/Rf Slag cont.
ci
Q Oll00 70
0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-
4 0-
Rc/Rf Slag cont.
2 0-
7 50/50 50 %
I
o ! I I l I
0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0


A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 D 0662949 0522438 bob D
244 Nichibayashi, Kuroda, and Okawa
i;;/ A l k a l i : 1.0 o r
1.5%
ii
1 Alkali :
8
v
60 A l k a l i : 2.0%
!
$ 1 2.0%
2.5%
al
d A l k a l i : 2.5% 4i
20
0 1 ' I ' 1 ; I i I *
O 2 0 40 60 80 100
Slag cont. (%)
Fig. 15-Relationship between Re and slag contents (concrete)

A C 1 SP-154 75 0662749 0522437 542
SP 154-13
Tests for Classification of Aggregates

for Frost- Resistant Concrete
by Z. Rusin
SvnoDsis: Disintegration of many concrete pavements (Dcracking, popouts, etc), exposed to

freezing and thawing, is often connected with poor physical quality of aggregates used in the
concrete. Inability to differentiate between good and poor quality aggregates is due to the lack of
appropriate laboratory techniques for aggregate evaluation. A growing shortage of easily
available sources of good quality aggregates highlights the need for aggregate classification. A
new rapid laboratory test, called RAO-Method, as well as a new Pore Size Distribution Index
based on the mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) analysis, has been proposed to meet
engineers' expectations in the field of aggregate classification.
An analysis of some research data of the RA0 and MIP tests is presented to illustrate practical
usefulness of the techniques. Results of long-tem observations of concrete blocks subjected to
outdoor conditions and the results of the new laboratory tests of the aggregates previously used
in the blocks are compared. The new tests seem to provide means for more successful evaluation
of coarse aggregates for purposes of diagnostics, design, and prediction of service life of
concrete.
Keywords: Ageregates; durability; freeze thaw durability; performance;

service life; tests
245
A C 1 SP-I154 95 m O662949 0522440 264 m
246 Rusin
Zbigniew Rusin is a professor of the Technical University of Kielce, Department of Civil

Engineering, Poland. His main research interests include the concrete durability problems with
particular reference to diagnostics and classification of coarse aggregates for concretes exposed
to freezing and thawing. He is a member of the Science Committee of the Polish Civil Engineers
Association.
ìI"RODUCïI0N
The deterioration of concrete structures due to durability problems is extensive and widespread.
One of the main problems is caused by poor physical characteristics of aggregates in concrete
structures exposed to freezing and thawing. Unintentional use of poor quality aggregates may
occur due to the lack of appropriate laboratory tests for their evaluation. A growing shortage of
good quality aggregates accentuates the problem.
Results of some standard tests like sulfate soundness, unconfined freezing-and-thawing,

absorption, have rough and unreliable empirical correlation with concrete performance. Due to
often unrealistic test conditions the tests on concrete specimens may produce results of little
importance to actual concrete performance. Besides the tests on concrete specimens are time-
consuming.
It is known that certain aggregates show an apparent propensity for quick absorption and
retention of water in their pores, while others have pores which cannot be filled at ali in cement
matrix. Generally, aggregates with a large number of small size pores, are considered to be of
questionable quality for use in concrete structures. However, laboratory tests, including the
determination of properties such as, microporosity, specific surface, water adsorption and
absorption, Expected Durability Factor (EDF)[I], Iowa Pore Index Test (iPIT)[2] and other non-
standard tests which reflect an opinion about the strong relation between pore characteristics of
the aggregate and its performance in concrete structures, do not always yield satisfactory results
to correlate with field performance [3,4,5,6]. Therefore, the prediction of performance of
aggregates in concrete under field conditions is sometimesvery difficult and questionable.
A study was undertaken to develop a new, more reliable and rapid laboratory test, called the
RAO-Method (RA0 in Polish, stands for RÓWiicowa Analiza Odksztaken, which means
differential analysis of strains), to meet engineers' expectations in the area of aggregate
classification [7].
A new Pore Size Distribution Index (PSDIndex) based on mercury intrusion porosimetry (ME')
analysis is proposed as an additional tool for aggregate classification too.
Resuits of the RA0 and MIP tests and their correlation with concrete field performance are
discussed in the paper.
THE RA0 METHOD
The method is based on theoretical analysis which relates the MO-Index directly to the
mechanism of frost action in aggregate particles as well as indirectly to the mechanism of water
absorption prior to freezing. I have proposed [SI that the destructive mechanism of frost action
is directly connected with the crystallization of water in two qualitatively dinerent stages in

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522443 1 T O W
aggregate pores. In the first stage there occurs crystallization of water supercooled in larger
pores. This is accompanied by a flow of unfrozen water to areas with a lower pressure and by a
d e a s e of a relatively large amount of latent heat of crystallization. In the second stage, which is
much slower, a part of water is frozen in smaller pores. This phenomenon is accompanied by a
considerable increase in pressure (expansion) with a relatively small amount of measurable heat
of crystallization.
Phenomena such as osmosis, adsorption, diffusion have a considerable significance for the
conditions in aggregate pores prior to freezing. Similarly to the capillary phenomena they exert
an influence on a general balance of water in accessible voids. Hydrated cations and adsorbed
water molecules exert an influence on the viscosity of water and its capacity to be displaced from
areas with a higher pressure to areas with a lower pressure. They have a m-ng effect on the
process of crystallization but they do not change the character of the destruciive mechanism.
Generally, the larger the part of water in aggregate pores which freezes in the second slower
part of crystallization, the poorer is the physical quality of aggregate in terms of concrete
durability. Sound rocks display freezing which occurs as a strong single puise at the first stage
of crystallization.The hypothesis is an extension of Powers' hydraulic-pressure theory [9].
It is assumed that most of the aggregates with fully saturated pores, including those of low
porosity, will damage concrete when exposed to freezing temperatures. An exception can be
aggregates of total porosity below 0.3 %. According to Verbeck and Landgren, they represent
particles with the ability of elastic accomodation [3].
Thus, the usefulness of aggregate for concrete depends on the capacity of aggregate grains to
absorb and hold water while confined in the cement matrix. The rationale behind the method is
that the character of the process of water ciystallization during freezing in fully saturated pores
indirectly reflects the characteristics of the pores. The size and the distribution of the pores
essentially controls the rate of water absorption prior to freezing. Diíferent aggregates have
different pore characteristics and, therefore, different rates of crystallization of water. I believe
that a measure of the rate of crystallization of water in an aggregate sample could be used to
predict the performance of aggregates in concrete, exposed to freezing and thawing conditions.
The RA0 method depends on observations of the relative changes in volume and temperature of
coarse aggregate particles during cooling. Measurements are made in two identical dilatometers.
The capacity of the dilatometer is about 250 cm3. One of the dilatometers contains aggregate
particles saturated in water, while the other dilatometer contains the identical aggregate
saturated in carbon tetrachloride (CC14). The advantage of using CCl4 is that it does not freeze
until cooled to -23OC and does not mix with water. Both dilatometers are filled with CC14.
The dilatometers are cooled from approximately +5OC to about -15OC. The volume changes are
measured by reading a scale on a glass tube attached to the dilatometers. The temperature
changes are recorded automatically by data logger from thermistor probes placed inside the
dilatometers. The difference in volume changes and that of the temperature changes are
represented by the following notations:
- Delta V = difference in volume changes as shown in Fig. 1

- Delta T = difference in temperature changes as s h o w in Fig.2.
These two values are termed as RA0 parameters. The procedure described above, indirectly
measures the rate of crystallization of water in the pores of aggregate particles during freezing.
The RA0 parameters are precise enough to distinguish small differences in the pore structures
of different aggregate samples of low to medium absorption. The RA0 method has been
described in [ 6 ] .

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0662949 0522442 O37
248 Rusin
RA0 parameters of aggregate (dolomite, 2% abs.) of a good field performance record are shown
in Fig 1 and 2. In the first rapid phase of ciystallization, nearly 100% of the water contained in
aggregate pores is frozen. This phenomenon is observed in the form of a jump in the values of
both parameters.
For contrast Fig.4 and 5 represent parameters of an aggregate of very poor field performance in
concrete (dense limestone, 0.9% abs.). This test was camed out under identical conditions, with
the same rate of cooling (Fig.3). In this aggregate in the first phase of crystallization a small
part of the total water volume is frozen (about 20%). The most of the water is frozen in the
second, slow phase, which can be clearly seen on the diagram in the form of an increasing
parameter delta V.
Fig. 6 and 7 represent parameters of an aggregate (0.7% abs.) of a very good field performance
in which in the first phase of crystallization equally a small amount of water is frozen as in the
case of the aggregate in Fig. 4, but the phenomenon of water freezing and related expansion of
grains in the second phase are not observed. The character of the parameter deita V is identical
as in the case of the aggregate in Fig. 1.
Fig. 8 represents superimposed diagrams of parameters deita V of several aggregates of a

practically verified high value [6,7]. For a better comparison of the function character, values of
the parameter delta V are represented in relative units - the value 1 is ascribed to the maximum
value of the parameter delta V. The presented aggregates had absorption from 0.5% to 2.7%.
In Fig. 9 analogous parameters of four aggregates of a decidedly poor field performance are
shown. As can be inferred the character of the curve deita V is more significant for the needs of
aggregate diagnostics and classification than the estimation of absolute values of the parameter
deita V.
COMF'ARISON OF DIFFERENT FROST RESISTANCE INDICES
The experiments [6,7] confrm earlier observations that the relationship between total aggregate
porosity or absorption and its applicability to frost-resistant concretes is not unequivocal.
Aggregates with absorption of 0.5% can be dangerous, causing Dcracking whereas aggregates
with absorption of 2% and above can be completely safe.
Reference (71 presents an example of the application of the records of RA0 parameters to
developing a qualification table on the basis of the MO-Index. The MO-Index is a quantitative
index which characterizes aggregate. It is calculated as a ratio of two values. In the numerator is
wTitten a number equal to the difference of the value of the parameter delta V between the
beginning and the 5th minute of crystallization. In the denominator is written a number equal in
value to the theoretical increase in the volume of water contained in aggregate pores assuming
100% crystallization. Aggregate absorption in vacuum was used as the other applicable index;
Fig. IO illustrates their relationship. The information about aggregate field performance was
obtained from analysis of 30-year-long observations of concrete blocks made from the
aggregates. Haif-immersed in water the blocks were exposed to the effect of atmospheric
conditions on the test ground of Ontario Hydro in Toronto [6,7].
The crystallization character of water in aggregate pores as an index of aggregate applicability

to frost-resistant concretes has a universal significance. Aggregates of moderate and low
absorptions can be evaluated. The effect of pore structure on concrete durability begins to
disappear only when aggregate absorption is below 0.5%. However, Verbeck and Landgren have
found that aggregates are completely neutral only if porosity is below 0.3% 131.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522443 T73 a
For comparison purposes Fig. ll,i2,13 and 14 show results performed according to ASTM C
127, ASTM C 666 @roc. A), ASTM C 88 and EDF, on the same aggregates as the ones
presented in Fig. 10 [ 101.
Figure I I shows absorption values of the aggregates. The values roughly indicate the pore
volume. Earliest studies on the properties of nondurable aggregates showed that unsound
aggregates are characterized by a low specific gravity (a high porosity) and a high degree of
saturation. Thus the absorption test has been recognized as an indicator of aggregate frost
sensitivity. The value of absorption about 3% is frequently recommended as an acceptance
criterion. However, as Fig. 11 shows, aggregates of much lower absorption can be harmful in
concrete structures exposed to frost. A little more information can be obtained by comparing the
results of absorption and vacuum absorption tests. As presented in Fig.11 most cases of good
quality aggregates have lower values of absorption in relation to values of vacuum absorption,
than the poor aggregates. The phenomena gave support to the degree of saturation hypothesis,
but there is no laboratoiy test based on the idea which could be easily adopted to predict
aggregate performance in concrete.
In Fig.12 are shown the ASTM C 666 (pr0c.A) results versus vacuum absorption. The
commonly used ASTM C 666 method is based on the assumption that rapid freezing and
thawing tests on concrete beams can be used to differentiate those aggregates which yield good
field performance from those having poor performance. Almost since the beginning the test was
criticized due to often unrealistic conditions [ 11). The ASTM C 666 method may yield results of
little importance to actual concrete performance, especially among so called "marginal"
aggregates. Anyhow the ASTM C 666 tests as well as other tests on concrete specimens are
time-consuming. The results in Fig. 12 reflect above remarks.
Sulfate soundness tests (Fig. 13) have been widely used for many years. I share the opinion of
Verbeck and Landgren [3] that the sulfate test results have rough and unreliable empirical
correlation with aggregate performance and the mechanism of disruption is different from that
resulting from the freezing of water. However, as Fig.13 presents, it is generally a g r d that a
low sulfate soundness loss is usually, but not always, evidence of good durability, whereas a high
loss places the aggregate in a questionable category.
There is no question that the results presented in Fig. 1412 and 13 are strongly related to the
pore characteristics of aggregates, especially absolute pore volume, size of the pores, and their
continuity. Many studies have confirmed the importance of these properties. On the basis of
such studies it can be qualitatively concluded that nondurable aggregates have a large volume of
small pores giving rise to a stronger tendency to absorb and retain water. In Fig. 14 the results of
mercury intrusion porosimetiy (MIP) analysis are presented in the form of the so called
Expected Durability Factor (EDF) [i]. A good correlation between pore size distribution of an
aggregate and its durability factor @F) based on the ASTM C 666 test, was pointed out as a way
to predict the frost durability of an aggregate. The following limits to distinguish between
potentially good or poor aggregates were proposed [ 121:
EDF < 40 - non-durable

EDF = 40-50 - marginal
EDF > 50 - durable
As one can see in Fig.14, the EDF test did not give suffcient information to classiíj the
aggregates properly.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522444 90T
250 Rusin
PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS
The geometrical properties of aggregate pores differ depending on rock origin. The largest pores
can be seen with the unaided eye or under an optical microscope. The smallest pores are usually
larger than gel pores in cement paste. The total pore volume depends on the kind of rock from
which aggregate originated. Generally, pores in grains of crushed aggregates and gravels are
open. This is directly due to the process of rock formation. Pores in sedimentary rocks were
formed as non consolidated free spaces between components, whereas in igneous rocks pores
were formed mainly as cracks between individual crystals. In both cases pores are accessible to
water.
Pore sizes have an essential importance from the point of view of the evaluation of aggregate
applicability to frost-resistant concretes. Particulary, presence of so-called dominant pores is
essential, i.e. pores whose geometrical sizes differ little and their summary volume constitute the
essential part of the total porosity of an aggregate. Fig. i 5 represents a graphical record of pore-
size distribution with a distinct group of dominant pores. The more geometrically approximate
are pores to one another, the more similar is their capacity of water absorption and uptake. This
conception is illustrated by simplified diagram in Fig. 16 [13].
Capillary pressure of water is inversely proportional to the pore radius r:
Ap=f(l/r) (1)
If, for simplification, we neglect the problem of adsorption and diffusion of water vapor, Fig. 16
illustrates the successive phases of water saturation of aggregate grain. With a considerable
differentiation of the values of pore radii (R>>r), pores of largest sizes can remain empty even
under a prolonged contact of concrete with water. This mechanism is certainly effective in air-
entrained cement pastes and it exerts a significant positive influence on concrete frost
resistance. Therefore, a question arises why it should not be effectivein coarse aggregate.
On one hand, differentiation of pore sizes within one grain of aggregate exerts influence on its
capacity to absorb and keep water in pores, and on the other, the geometrical similarity of
aggregate pores and the surrounding cement paste exert influence on the capacity of water
displacement between aggregate and cement matrix. Pores in cured cement pastes of W/C in the
range of 0.4 to 0.5 have radii between 0.05 and 0.005 pm. The more pores in an aggregate of
sizes much larger than those of pores in cement paste (air pores in cement paste of sizes 1000 to
10000 times larger than capillary pores remain empty), the greater are chances that the
aggregate grain will have a reserve of air voids suEicient for the preservation of multiple cycles
of concrete water saturation and freezing.
The idea of the PSD-Index is based on the assumption that poor quality aggregates, have pores
of size similar to or smaller than the sizes of pores in the cement paste. Such pores visibly
dominate in total porosity of aggregate (Fig.15). It means that the graphical record of any pore
size distribution contains the relatively narrow range of pore sizes where one can observe
relatively high cumulative pore volume. The range of pore sizes is far below 1 pm. This kind of
pore structure causes an aggregate to absorb water easily, in some cases more readily than
surrçunding cement paste. The presence of pores with these characteristics rather than the total
porosity controls the field performance of aggregate in concrete structures.
in Fig. 15 the idea of PSDIndex is presented. The normalized value of the range of pore sizes is
expressed by:

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522445 846 M
where:
Z is the size of an "active window" of pore radii fok searching the PSD record to
find the range where the maximum change of porosity occurs,
rn - the largest pore radius of the "window",
rn+l - the smallest pore radius of the "window".
Scanning the pore size distribution data with the specific "window Z" makes it easy to find the
value of rn and rn+l for which the expression 3 has the maximum value:
PSD-Index = APP (3)
-
where: AP the change of porosity inside the "window Z"
-
P the total porosity of an aggregate.
For rn and rn+l related to the maximum value of PSD-Index (3) the value of (average pore
radii of pores inside the "window Z" ) is calculated from the expression 4:
I o d = logr, - 0.5Z (4)
Calculated values of for the aggregates presented earlier in Fig. 10,11,12,l3 and 14 are
plotted in Fig. 17. The size of the "active window Z", for establishing the PSD-Index, was chosen
arbitrarily as Z = 0.25.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The RA0 method as well as PSD-Index seem to be relatively convenient tools for testing
aggregates. They provide rapid and accurate information about the physical characteristics of
coarse aggregate, which are correlated with field performance of the aggregate in concrete
structures exposed to freezing and thawing. As was mentioned earlier, the physical quality of an
aggregate and its usefulness for frost-resistant concrete depends not only on the behavior of
water during cooling in pores, but also on the ability of an aggregate particle to achieve a
critical saturation state while the concrete structure is being exposed to wet conditions.
From both points of view, the size, kind, and number of pores in aggregate have a decisive
importance. The RA0 method enables investigation of these properties of pores. As was
represented in Fig. 8 and 9, it is possible to make a rapid classification of aggregate exclusively
on the basis of the qualitative analysis of the character of water freezing. The shape of the curve
delta V informs about the potential properties of aggregate. It also results from Fig. 10 that it is
possible to represent aggregate properties in the form of single numerical parameter. It should
be noted that aggregates of very low absorptions (below 0.5 %), in spite of an unfavorable
structure of pores can constitute a relatively safe component of concrete.
A direct analysis of pore size distribution enables the character of aggregate pores to be
represented in the form of two numerical values:
- radii of dominant pores R

- parameter of PSD-Index.
Analysis of PSD-Index can provide information which allow to make rapid engineers' decisions
and complements in a natural way RA0 analysis.
The PSD-Index is related to the pore characteristics of the aggregate, which controls the
behavior of an aggregate particle during freezing and thawing. The idea of the PSD-Index is

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 = 0662749 0522446 782
252 Rusin
based on the same theoretical philosophy as the RA0 method. However, the PSD-Index is of
questionable accuracy for predicting field performance of aggregates with lower absorption due
to the lower precision of mercuiy intrusion porosimetiy with low porosity aggregates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express his appreciation for the funding and the opportunity
provided by the Ontario Hydro Research Division, Toronto, to carry out the research activities
presented in this paper, as well as the Committee of Scientific Research, for the financial
support of the paper by the Research Project No 77227 92 03.
REFERENCES
1. Kaneuji, M., Winslow, D.N., and Dolch, W.L., "The Relationship Between an Aggregates
Pore Size Distribution and Its Freeze Thaw Durability in Concrete," Cem. Con. Res., Vol.10,
1980, pp. 433-441.
2. Myers, T.D., and Dubberke, W., "Iowa Pore Index Test," Interim Report, Highway Division,
Iowa Department of Transportation, 1980.
3. Verbeck, G., and Landgren, R., "Influence of Physical Characteristics of Aggregates on Frost
Resistance of Concrete," Proceedings, Am.Soc.Testing Mats, Vo1.60, 1960, pp.1063-1079.
4. Traylor, M.L., "Efforts to Eliminate DCracking in Illinois," Transportation Research Record

853, 1982, pp.9-14.
5. Williams, F.M., Trefny, A., Paxton, J.T., and Davis, H.D., "Development of Laboratory
Methods for Determining D-Cracking Susceptibility of Ohio Gravel and Limestones Coarse
Aggregate in Concrete Pavements," Ohio Depariment of Transportation, Bureau of Testing,
Final Report OHIO-DOT-07-74, 1974.
6. Rusin, Z., "Prediction of Aggregate Performance in Concrete Structures Exposed to Freezing

and Thawing," Report No 91-234-K, Ontario Hydro Research Division, Toronto, 1992, pp. 130.
7. Rusin, Z., and Mukhejee, P.K., "Test for Prediction of Aggregate Performance in Concrete
Structures Exposed to Freezing and Thawing," International Conference CONCETE 2000,
Dundee, U.K.,1993, pp. 1395-1407.
8. Rusin, Z., "A Mechanism of Expansion of Concrete Aggregate Due to Frost Action," Cement
and Concrete Research, V01.21, 1991, pp.614-624.
9. Powers, T.C., "Freezing Effects in Concrete,'' Durability of Concrete, AC1 Special Publication
SP-47-1, 1975, pp.1-Il.
10. Rusin, Z., "Prediction of Aggregate Field Performance in Concrete Exposed to Freezing,"
Fourth International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites, Warsaw, 1994, pp. 447-454.
1I. AC1 Committee 201, "Guide to Durable Concrete," AC1 Manual of Concrete Practice. 1990,
p.201.2R-7.
12. Winslow, D.N., Lindgren, M.K., and Dolch, W.L.,"Relation Between Pavement D-Cracking
and Coarse Aggregate Pore Structure," Transportation Research Record 853, 1982, pp. 17-20.

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 0662949 0522447 b L 9 D
13. Fagerlund G., "Frost Resistance of Concrete with Porous Aggregate," Cement and Concrete
Research Institute at the Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1978.
1.2
I
0.8
E
0.6
t
>- dV5- change in volume within
5 minutes of
- 0.4 crystallization of water
0.2
O 1 I
tI
-0.2 I
I
O 50 1O0 150 200 250

time, min
Fig. 1-Record of Delta V
[ aggregate sample i
O
o
2.5
2
--
--
If dT5- change in temperature
within 5 minutes of
Fig. 2-Record of Delta T

A C 1 SP-I154 75 0662749 0 5 2 2 4 4 8 555
254 Rusin
5
I aggregate sample i
O
o O
E!
3
ci
Cu -5
àj
E
i!?
-10
-15
O 50 1O0 150 200 250
time, min
Fig. 3-Record of temperature changes
0.3
0.2
c3
E
o
>- 0.1
-0.1 I I
O 50 1O0 150 200 250

time, min
Fig. &Record of Delta V (poor aggregate)

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522449 491 m
1
I aggregate sample 2 I
0.8
L- 0.4
e
a,
= 0.2
O
-0.2
O 50 1O0 150 200 250
time, min
Fig. &Record of Delta T (poor aggregate)
0.2
m
E
o
0.15
>- 0.05
0.1
1 aggregate sample 3
-m
ci
a
U o
-0.05
-0. I
O 20 40 60 80 IO0
time, min
Fig. ó-Record of Delta V (good aggregate)

256
A C 1 SP-I154 95
Rusin
0662949 0522450 103 -
I
O.8
1 aggregate sample 3 I
0.6
o
E- 0.4 i
=aim 0.2
-0
O
-0.2
-0.4 4 :-
O 20 40 60 80 IO0
time, min
Fig. 7-Record of Delta T (good aggregate)
0.8
> 0.6
*
-
c,
(II
0.4
0.2
O
O 50 1O0 150 200 250
time, min
Fig. &Records of Delta V (aggregates of good field performance)

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0 5 2 2 4 5 1 0 4 T
0.2
O
O 50 1O0 150 200 250
time, min
Fig. 9-Records of Delta V (aggregates of poor field performance)
2
good
-
L
1.5
LI
11”1
O 2 4 6 8 10
vacuum absorption, %
Fig. I L P r o p o s e d aggregate classification for concrete structures exposed to
freezing and thawing, based on RA0 index and vacuum absorption[A

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522452 T8b m
258 Rusin
i I field performance:
o. I 1 10
vacuum absorption,%
Fig. 11-Absorption test as a tool for aggregate classification
relative
acceptance
criterion
o 110
w Ò 40
o
Co
LL
20
-
+
.-
)r
0
e3 o
0 0.1 I 10
vacuum absorption,%
Fig. 12-ASTM C 666(A) test as a tool for aggregate classification

ACI s p - 1 5 4 95 = Ob62949 0522453 912
s
A 100
ao
o +a
=
I-
(B
10
n
U
a
v
cn o
m l U
a,
D
S o
C
8
m
0.1
u)
o. 1 I IO
vacuum absorption,O
h
Fig. 13-Sulfate soundness test as a tool for aggregate classification
-1000
5
f
.-
27
- A acceptance
2 100 !: m criterion
n
L
3 dl
U
a,
c,
o
&-- o
n
X
m
10 1 p ;=
o. 1 1 10
vacuum absorption,%
Fig. 14-Expected durability factor (EDF) for aggregate classification

A C 1 SP-154 75 m Obb2949 0522454 857 m
260 Rusin
CJ) 35
3
E 30 - lOgrn+l
E
ai 25
E
=> 20
O
PSD-Index = ( APP)
2 15
O
Y
W O
a,
W
3 5L
ci
.G 0
‘n+i ‘n
I 10 IO0 IO00 1E4
pore radius, nm
Fig. 15-Proposed PSD index
Fig. 16-Successive phases of water saturation of pores with a considerable

differentiation of values of pore radii[l3]

A C 1 SP-LSY 95 = 0662749 0522455 775
1
mop-outs
E
1
v
Ini-
o. I very
tn Poor
.-3
U
E v
al
L 0.01 v
8 poor field performance
0.001
o. 1 1 10
vacuum absorption,%
-
Fig. 17-Pore radii R related to maximum values of PSD index versus vacuum
absorption of aggregates

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522456 6 2 1 =
SP 154-14
Toward Gap-Graded HPC in Vietnam

Using Crushed Rock, Very Fine Sand,
and RHA Blended Cement
by P. Stroeven, D. H. Dalhuisen, N. T. Quy
D. D. Bu¡, and A. V. Dong
Syiiopsis: Ecoiioiiiic solutioiis for productioii of liigli streiigtli coiicretes iii

Vietiiaiii require use of locally available - iiidigeiious - resources. Proportioii-
iiig of gap-graded iiiixtures iii Nortlierii Vietiiaiii is tlierefore based 011 brokeii
rock and very fiiie Red River saiid. Additioiially, iioriiial portlaiid ceineiit
bleiided with fiiie-graiiied rice Iiusk asli (R.HA) is eriiployed iii coiiibiiiatioii
with a superplasticizer.
The paper discusses results obtained iii a Dutch-Vietiiaiiiese research
cooperatioii prograiii. R H A was iiiciiierated iii a specially constructed oven
under teiiiperatures up $0 75OoC, yielding aiiiorplious silica with a relatively
high carbon coiiteiit (23%). .ish was grouiid for 18 hours iii a laboratory ball
mill iii combiiiatioii with or witliout use: of a iiaplitlialeiie type of superplas-
ticizer. Dutch salid aiid gravel were used, simulatiiig as close as possible the
Vietiiaiiiese aggregate.
Particularly proinisiiig data was obtaiiied for 19% saiid coiiteiit iii tlie
aggregate aiid a paste couteiit of 500 kg/i1i3, iii wliicli tlie RHA coiiteiit
ainouiited to IO0 aiid 200 kg/1ii3 with a correspoiidiiig water to paste ra-
tio of 0.3 aiid 0.35 respectively. RHA grouiid with tlie superplasticizer was
used iii such cases (yielding 75% of particles to be sinaller tliaii 5 p i ) . Com-
pressive streiigtli wits fouiid to exceed 50 MPa at seven days aiid 70 MPa a t
28 days.
Kevwords: Aggregates; cements; compressive strength; concretes; gap

graded aggregate; mortars (material); rice husk ask;
263
A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522457 568 =
264 Stroeven et al
Piet Stroeveii is associate professor of iiiaterials eiigiiieeriiig at Delft Uiiiver-

sity of Tecliiiology. He is a iiieiiiber of AC1 aiid RILEM coiiiinittees aiid for
30 years active iii a wide field of research in coiicrete techiiology.
Dik. H. Dalliuiseii is a research fellow of tlie same iiistitutioii. He is actively
iiivolved iii building materials teclinology for 25 years.
Nguyen Tail Quy is professor iii coiicrete tecliiiology at Hanoi Uiiiversity of
Civil engineeriiig. Presently lie is vice rector. He is actively engaged in
research on concrete aiid coiicrete coiistructioiis.
Aii Van Doiig and Dai Daiili Bui are both assistaiit professors at Haiioi Uiii-
versity of Civil Eiigiiieeriiig aiid actively eiiganged iii research oii coiicrete
aiid concrete coristructioiis.
INTRODUCTION
Portlaiid ceineiit is tlie iiiost iiiiportaiit iiiorgaiiic biiider iii tlie coiistruc-
tioii iiidustry. Various bleiidecl cemeiits iiicrease the versatility of ceiiienti-
tious binders for coiistructioii purposes. A need is felt however to search for
cheaper b i d e r s , wliicli (additioiially) lielp to save eiiergy aiid precious raw
materials, aiid to protect the eiiviroiiiiieiit. Moreover, iii iiiost areas iii de-
veloping couiitries, portlaiid ceiiieiit is not readily available or only at liigli
cost. Iii sucli cases, use has to be iiiade of locally available raw iiiaterials aiid
waste coinpoiieiits. Rice husk asli (RHA) is reported to be tlie most proinis-
ing biiider coiiigoiieiit. It is placed iii tlie sanie category of liiglily pozzolanic
materials as coiideiised silica fuiiie (CSF) by RILEM (1). CSF is however
aii expeiisive by-product, siiice it is oiily available to a liiiiited extent. Com-
pared to tlie world’s CSF produc,tiori (iii 1989) of 0.5 iiiillioii toiis (a), the
world’s productioii of rice husks iii 1990 was 100 iiiillioii tons (3). Cook (4)
lias estiiiiated that about 6 iiiillioii tons of RHA c,ould be produced for use
as (partial) replaceiiieiit of portlaiid ceiiieiit.
Approximately 3.6 iiiillioii tons of rice liusks are produced per year iii
Vietriain (3), wliicli could possibly be coiiverted into 0.G iiiillioii tons of RHA.
This aniouiits to 20% of the aiiiiual ceiiieiit productioii iii tlie couiitry. Tliere-
fore, this iiiiiieral ‘waste’ could be eiripliasized for produciiig, iii coiiibiiiatioii
with lime, lower qualities of coiic.rete, to be applied iii tlie rural sector of this
country (5-11). High coiicrete qualities are additioiially required for tlie re-
building of tlie larger cities iii tlie iiortlierii part of Vietiiaiii (sucli as Hanoi),
or for coastal structures, aiid liarbour works. To that eiid, replaceiiieiit of

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522458 4 T 4 m
CSF by RHA sliould be empliasized (12-15). This forms tlie major theine of
this paper.
The appropriate tecliiiology coiicept lias to be considered with respect

to the aggregate grading as well (16). Readily available iii tlie region are
coarse cruslied rock aggregates aiid very fine Red River sand. Tlie fiiieness
modulus of this saiid is far outside tlie working raiige of the code of practice
(ie. 1.7 - 1.75). Blending of tlie said with (expeiisive) coarse saiid is iiot
practical, because the major portion would be tlie coarse saiid. A straight-
forward approach would be to accept a gap-graded concept. Iii doiiig so,
relatively liigli deiisities aiid liigli compressive streiigtlis can be achieved (1 7-
20). It is kiiowii, that iii gap-graded coiicrete aii optiinuin gradation exists
for a certaiii aggregate. Tliis optiinuin varies with paste content (21). An
optimization study was therefore perforiiied in wliicli c,oiiipressive streiigtli
and sliriiikage were the selection criteria for the production of ecoiioinic mix-
tures (17,18). T w o ~najorranges could be defiiied, of wliicli tlie oiie leading
to the best results was coiisidered (only) appropriate for tlie precast indus-
try because of tlie Iiarsliiiess of tlie mixtures. Siiice that tiine, reasoiiably
prized plasticizers appeared on tlie market iii Vietiiaiii. A superplasticizer
was therefore iiicluded iii tlie optiiiiizatioii procedure for tlie ‘RHA-bEended
portland cement gapgraded coiic~etes’.
SCOPE OF INVESTIGATIONS
The tests were executed iii tlie Steviii Laboratories of Delft University
of Tecliiiology. Vietiiaiiiese aiid Taiizaiiiaii types of rice liusks aid a sinall
sa~iipleof fine Red River saiid were transported to Tlie Netlierlaiids. Tlie
inorpliological characteristics of tlie fine sa.iid were aiialysed. Tlie fiiieiiess
modulus of tlie smooth-textured saiid graiiis aiiioiiiited to 1.72. Further,
tlie said coiitaiiied some silt aiid relative large aiiiouiits of mica. For tlie
experiments, liowever, use was made of Dutch river aggregate, of wliicli the
saiid reseiiibled as close as possible tlie Vietiiaiiiese one. For tlie maximum
grain size of tlie gravel, 16 inin was clioseii.
A Dutch portlaiid cement (PC) type A (NEN 3550) - wliicli is equivaleiit

to ASTM Type I Noriiial portlaiid - was bleiided with tlie a l i of tlie Taiizaiiiaii
type of rice liuslis, wliicli liad a relatively low silica conteiit witliiii the raiige
ineiitioiied iii the literature (ô0-05% (22)). Tlie results oltaiiied will therefore
be 011 the coiiservative side. Tables 1 aiid 2 preseiit successively the cheinical
analyses of tlie liuslis aiid of tile aslies obtaiiied froin tliese types of liusks after
complete oxidation of tlie carbon in ail electrical laboratory oven (LOI=O).
A specially coiistructed oveii was used for the iiiciiieratioii of tlie rice liusks
to be employed iii the inecliaiiical experiiiieiits (Fig. 1)

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0662949 0522459 330 m
266 Stroeven et al
For a detailed description of the oveii and of its operation, see (10,17,22).
Various provisions liad to be taken to fulfil environmental and safety regula-
tions in the Netherlands. Tlie oven is filled froiii tlie top. Initial ignition is
performed by a torch fueled with natural gas. It will be extinguished when the
pyrolysis process of the husks produces enough gas to maintain the burning
process. Temperatures were measured by tlierinocouples at three locations
in tlie oven, ie. in the firing zone, outside the coinbustion chamber, and in
the ash-pan. Tlie temperature was regulated by tlie rate of air flow and ash
removal. The air circulation was accomplislied by a fan and controlled by a
system of stopcocks. Temperatures in the oveil were kept well below 75OoC.
After gasification tlie residue was mechanically removed from the bed into the
ash-pan. This was accomplislied by means of a very slowly rotating motor-
driven vane. Tlie asli was kept liere for 15 hours. The chemical composition
of the ainorplious silica asli produced in this oven aiid used for tlie investi-
gation is given in Table 3. Tlie X-ray diffraction pattern is shown iii Fig. 2.
The aslies froiii the oven were ground to yield two different qualities of
RHA. Tlie first was produced by grinding tlie ash for 18 hours in a ceramic
laboratory ball mill; this quality is denoted by RHA(18). Merely to study the
effect of griiiding 011 particle size, an asli sample was takeii after 14 hours; this
is indicated by RHA(14). Tlie second quality of RHA was produced similarly,
but tlie ash was pre-mixed with a iiaplitliale~ie-basedsuperplasticizer (VN-
BETONMIX 415). This quality is denoted by RHA(18)+. These aslies were
used for blending with portland ceiiient. As a reference, an uiigrouiid asli
was analysed (denoted by RHA(0)). Data 011 BET specific surfam area of
the different ash samples 'obtained by nitrogen adsorption are presented in
Table 4.
Particle size distribution was analysed by a Malverii 2600 classifier. De-

tails are given in (22). RHA(0) revealed a very wide particle size distribution.
Of RHA(18) 56% of the particles were siiialler tliaii 511x11, aid for RHA(18)+
this amounted to 75%.
MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
Tlie mixture proportions of ,gravel and sand are presented in Tables 5

and 6, respectively. The optiiiiization study reportad in (17,18) yielded for
the leaii mixes a cement coiitent of 300 kg/in3, a ininiinuiii water content of
128 kg/ni3 (W/C=0.425) and a fine sand content between 0.19 and 0.23 of
tlie total aggregate. No water reducing agent was used in this case. Some of
the data which are relevant for the present study are listed in Table 7.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 0522460 052 =
TEST SERIES
Mortar
Mortar reference mixtures were made containing unblended portland cement.

Further, two niain series of speciineiis were made in wliicli tlie portland ce-
ment was blended with either RHA(18) or with RHA(18)+. In tlie first case,
substitution percentages amounted to 10, 15 and 20. Iii tlie second series,
substitution percentages were 10, 15, 20 aiid 30.
A constant dosage of superplasticizer (1.5% of tlie cement inass) was

employed in all cases, except for the mixture containing portland cement witli
20% of RHA(18)+, wliere tlie dosage was increased to 2%)and for one of tlie
reference mixtures, wliere tlie superplasticizer was omitted. All mixtures liad
a consistency of (about) i10 inni, determined on a flow table. Tlie result-
ing water requireiiieiit is sliowii i n Table 8. Proportioning, consisteiicy and
iiiixiiig of the inortars were in accordance with ASTM ‘2348. Compaction of
specimens 40x40~160inni was accoiiiplislied on a vibrating talde with a fre-
quency of 2,800 cycles per minute and an aniplitude of 0.35 inni. The moulds
were filled in two successive layers, wliicli were separately vibrated for 10 sec-
onds. The speciiiieiis were stored uiider controlled c.onditioiis of temperature
aiid humidity (2O0C; 95-100%RH) until tlie day of testing at an age of 3, 7,
28 or 180 days. Specimens were denioulded after one day. Test series en-
compassed tliree specimens in flexure, wliereupoii tlie six remaining portions
were used for compressive streiigtli testing; inetliods were iii accordance with
ASTM specifications ( ASTM (348 aiid C349).
Gap-graded concretes
From an earlier aggregate grading study of gap-graded mixtures (17,18) (see

also Table 7) four niixtures were selected wliicli yielded for a given water to
cement ratio, optiiiium results as to economy aiid coinpressive strength. On
tlie basis of tliese mixtures (CI to C4) an additional series of 16 niixtures
was designed in wliicli sand to gravel ratio and percentage of blending tlie
portland cement with type RHA(18)+ were varied. A series of 100 mm cubes
were prepared in two consecutive layers, that were successively compacted
for 10 secoiids on tlie earlier ineiitioiied vibration table. A series of tliree
specimens were tested for coiiipressive streiigtli at an age of 7, 28 or 180
days. Tlie mixtures are sliowii in Table 9. Speciineiis were stored until the
day of testing under tlie sanie conditions as the mortar specimens.
RESULTS
The inortar reference streiigtli data confirm tlie general trends reported
iii tlie literature (13, 23). Since tliis is not tlie major subject discussed iii this

paper, it suffices here to refer for details to (22). It is generally observed that
tlie mortars witli superplasticizer (PS) aiid ordinary asli (Le. RHA(18)) had
strengths coiiiparable to that of tlie portland cement inortar (PC) with su-
perplasticizer. The ash fiiieiiess strongly iiiflueiiced the strength of tlie spec-
iineiis; the iiiixtures with RHA( 18)+ showed superior coiiipressive strength
properties at all ages, with only a single exceptioii for tlie 3-days strength at
30% cement replacenieiit. In addition to the obvious effects steiiiining from
the reduced water to binder ratio aiid the increased pozzolaiiic activity of
tlie ash, iiiiproveiiients are probably also due to tlie higher density and bet-
ter packing of tlie interphase area (ITZ) between aggregate particles and tlie
ceiiieiit pas te.
The coiiipressive strength data of the gap-graded concrete iiiixtures with

fine sand are sliowii iii Table 10.
DISCUSSION
The use of a superplasticizer iiiiproved tlie workability of the gap-graded

coiicrete with fine saiid. This is reflected by an increased slump value and
a reduction iii tlie coiiipactioii energy. Coiiipressive strength was also better
in most cases, with an exceptioii of mixture Cl which manifested excessive
bleeding. Replacing part of tlie portland ceiiieiit by RHA reduced the sluiiip.
On tlie other liaiid, these iiiixtures were very cohesive aiid showed 110 sign
of bleeding. As an example, iiiixtures with a binder coiiteiit of 500 kg/rn3, a
water to cement ratio of 0.35 aiid a sand to aggregate ratio of 0.19 to 0.20
liad a very high workability Lut showed no bleeding. Heiice, profits coiiiiug
froiii partial replacement of the portlaiid cement by RHA can only be fully
exploited upon concurrent application of a superplasticizer. Water to binder
ratio and sand to gravel ratio have a iiiarked influence on workability of the
fresh mixtures containing RHA. For a given sand to gravel ratio workablity
was found to be directly proportioiial to tlie water to cement ratio aiid to the
water content. Contrary, workability was inversely proportioiial to tlie sand
to aggregate ratio, provided Cie water to binder ratio was constant.
Table 10 also reveals the coiiipressive strength to be significantly im-

proved by coiiibiiied use of a superplasticizer aiid the RHA-bleiided ceinent
even iii case of 40% cement replaceiiieiit. It should be noted liere again, that
tests were performed witli RHA(18)+. Rice husk ash particles are shown by
electroiiiiiicroscopy to contain micropores with a diaiiieter of about 10 pm
(5794). Hwaiig and Hu (26) used inercury penetration for this purpose, and
fouiid average pore size one order of magnitude sinaller for rice husks burnt
at teiiiperatures below 700°C. Chidiiig the RHA to particle sizes below, say,
1 pin will as a result eliiiiiiiate tlie micropore structure, wliicli slioiild lead
to a drop in BET specific surface area. Table 4 sliows that this situation is

A C 1 SP-I154 95 D 0662949 0522462 925 D
arrived at for the ultra fine ash! Influence of grinding tiiiie on BET specific
surface area can be expected to be sinal1 for tlie coarser particles. Tliis was
confirmed by earlier investigations (17,24). Using tliis fine asli, the present
experiments demonstrate that even for cement contents between 240 aiid 300
kg/in3, a 7-day strength exceeding 50 MPa can be obtained for very differ-
ent workability conditioiis. The last two iiiixtures in Table 10 differ only in
blending percentage aiid show tlie same liigli compressive strength
. level at a
slulllp of 200 111111.
CONCLUSIONS
Tlie present experiments, thougli of a preliininary nature, have demon-

strated that active rice husk asli obtained under ‘realistic’ field conditions
(tlius witli a finite carbon content) at temperatures below 75OoC can be used
to replace a significant portioii (in the experiinents up to 40%) of tlie portland
cement. 7-day coinpressive strength values exceeding 50 MPa cai1 be obtained
in tliis way, wlieii tlie asli is ground to a level wliere tlie iiiicropore structure
lias collapsed. Tliis is iiiost effectively realized by adding a superplasticizer
during grinding. Proportioning of such iiiixtures will only be effective when
a superplasticizer is used in coinbination witli a RHA-blended portlaiid ce-
ment. Use of very fine sand in gap-graded mixtures can lead to relatively high
densities and coinpressive strengtli values. Hence, this combined concept of
a ‘gap-graded mixture with a iiiiiiiinuin of very fine sand aiid a RHA-blended
portland cement binder’ seems to offer economical solutioiis iii delta areas
in developing countries wliere rice is tlie niaiii crop. Northern Vietiiain is a
striking exainple, wliere coarse aggregate (in tlie forin of cruslied rock), aiid
the rice liusks are locally available aiid tlie large river(s) provide tlie very fine
sand.
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A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 05224b3 8 b L
270 Stroeven et al
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A C 1 SP-154 95 = Ohb2949 O522464 7 T ô
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V., ”Gap-graded coiicrete optiiiiuiii
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cation SP-46, Detroit, 1974, pp. 65-72.
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proportioiiiiig,” Proceediiigs, AC1 Jouriial, Voluine 36, No. 6, 1970, pp.
597-613.
22. Bui, D.D., ”Gap-graded coiicrete with very fine sand using portlaiid
RHA blended ceiiieiit,” Report 03.21.1.32.04, Fac.ulty of Civil Eiigi-
iieeriiig, Delft IJiiiversity of Teclinology, 1994.
23. Melita, P.K., ”Studies 011 iiiecliaiiisiiis by wliicli coiideiised silica fuine
iiiiproves tlie properties of coiicrete,” Proceedings, Worksliop Coiideiised
Silica Fuiiie iii Coiicrete, CANMET, Ottawa, 1987, pp. 1-17.
24. Al-Klialaf, M.N. aiid Yousif, H.A., ”Use of rice liusk asli iii coiicrete,”
Jouriial of Ceiiient Coinposites and Lightweight (‘:oiicxete, Voluine 6,
NO. 4, 1084, 1 ) ~ .241-248.
25. Melita, P.K., ”The clieiiiistry aiid tecliiiology of ceiiieiit inade froiii rice
husl< asli,” Proceedings, IIN I DO/ ESC AP/RCTT Worksliop Rice Husk
Asli Cemeiit, Pesliawar, Pakistan, 1979. R.egioiia1 Centre for Tecliiiol-
ogy Transfer, Bangalor, India, 1979, pp. 113-122.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0662949 05224b5 634 =
272 Stroeven et al
Pent osans 1.9 - 2.1 I 17.5 - 18.0

Hemicellulose 20.5 - 20.9 20.5 - 21.9
Cellulose 41.0 - 41.9 25.8 - 26.5
Lignin 18.1 - 18.6 11.5 - 11.6
Asli 16.5 - 17.4 23.2 - 23.5
TABLE 2 - CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF ASHES OBTAINED FROM RICE HUSKS OF TABLE 1

AFTER COMPLETE OXIDATION OF CARBON. NOTE THAT SOME ACID-SOLUABLE OXIDES
HAVE NOT BEEN ANALYZED
Vietiiaiiiese rice liusks Tanzaiiiaii rice liusks

in % by weight in % by weight
96.7 88.9
0.08 0.30
o.O 3 0.19
0.30 0.43
0.73 3.67
0.16 2.07
TABLE 3 - CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RICE HUSK ASH USED FOR INVESTIGATIONS.

NOTE THAT SOME ACID SOLUABLE OXIDES HAVE NOT BEEN ANALYZED
Coinposition
iii % by weight
68.5
0.23
0.15
0.33
0.01
2.83
1.59
1LOI 23.0

A C 1 SP-154 75 W 0662749 0522466 570
TABLE 4 - BET SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA DETERMINED BY QHANTACHROME AUTOSORB-68

GAS SORPTION ANALYZER; OUTGASING AT 150 C UNDER VACUUM FOR 16 HOURS
RHA-qriali ty
RHA(0)
RHA(14)
RH A( 18)
RHA(18)+
TABLE 5 - SIEVE ANALYSIS OF 5 kg OF DUTCH GRAVEL WITH 16 m m MAXIMUM GRAIN SIZE
Sieve size Rest on each sieve Average rest per sieve Cumulative rest
111111 gram
. .
graiii % %
1 1st 2nd I
16 I 113 79 I 96.0
I
1.92 I 1.92
8 4,424 4,226 4,325.0 86.50 88.42
4 436 625 530.5 10.61 99.03
2 27 70 48.5 0.97 100.00
TABLE 6 - SIEVE ANALYSIS OF 1 kg OF DUTCH FINE SAND USED FOR EXPERIMENTS
1 Total I1000 1000 ~ 1 0 0 0 . 0 100.00 I 172.35 u

0 Fiiieiiess modulus M,,=l.72

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 Obb2949 0522467 407
274 Stroeven et al
TABLE 7 - COMPOSITION AND %-DAY COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DATA OF CONCRETES
No C W S G S+G C/S+G S+G/C Compressive

kg/in3 strength in MPa
W/c=0.45
5 300 135 416 1,563 1,979 0.210 6.60 41.4
6 300 135 455 1,524 1,979 0.230 6.60 41.4
7 300 135 495 1,484 1,979 0.250 6.60 41.7
8 300 135 544 1,435 1,979 0.275 6.60 40.4
W/C=0.425
’ 9 300 128 379 1,618 1,997 0.190 6.66 46.8
10 300 128 419 1,578 1,997 0.210 6.66 48.9
11 300 128 459 1,538 1,997 0.230 G.66 42.4
W/C=0.4
300 120 383 1,635 2,018 0.100 6.73 44.8
300 120 414 1,594 1,018 0.210 6.73 47.2
300 120 464 1,554 2,0113 0.230 6.73 45.1
300 120 505 1,513 2,018 0.250 6.73 43.7
320 128 376 1,604 1,980 0.190 6.19 43.3

320 128 416 1,564 1,980 0.210 6.19 45.3
320 128 455 1,525 1,980 0.230 6.19 46.4
TABLE 8 - WATER REQUIREMENT OF RHA-BLENDED PC MORTARS
W/C+RHA Flow
inin
0.470 110
Pc 0.340 110
RHA( 18) 0.365 110
RH A( 18) 0.370 110
RHA(18) 0.400 110
RHA( l8)+ 0.354 112
RH A( 1S)+ 0.370 110
RHA( 18)+ 0.360 113
0.376 110

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0 5 2 2 4 b 8 343 m
TABLE 9 - MIXTUREPROPORTIONS OF GAP-GRADED CONCRETES PER i m3
- - -
- __ - -
c: RHA/C: s/s+c:
_.
RHA SP W S G W/RHA+C
kg kg kg -
kg kg kg
-
306 169 557 1297 0.55 O 0.30
300 120 383 1635 0.40 O 0.19
438 175 521 1215 0.40 O o3 0
500 175 590 1095 0.35 O 0.35
306 3.80 169 557 1297 0.55 O 0.30

300 3.80 120 383 1635 0.40 O 0.19
438 5.48 175 52 1 1215 0.40 O 0.30
500 6.25 175 5 90 I o95 0.:?5 O 0.35
260 4 (i, 3.80 169 557 1207 0.55 O. 177 0.30

255 45 3.80 120 385 1635 0.40 0.176 0.19
240 li0 7.60 120 3 83 1635 0.40 0.250 0.19
210 90 5.00 I20 383 I6:35 0.40 0.428 0.19
372 li (i 5.48 175 521 1215 0.40 0.177 0.30
400 1O0 8.30 175 590 1o95 0.35 0.250 0.35
400 1O0 8.30 175 675 1016 0.35 0.250 0.40
400 I O0 8.30 160 350 1366 0.32 0.250 0.20
400 1O0 8.30 175 340 1334 0.35 0.250 0.20
400 I O0 8.30 150 332 1409 0.30 0.250 0.19
400 1O0 8.30 175 320 13358 0.35 0.250 0.19
300 200 8.30 175 320 1358
- 0.335 0.66’7 0.19
- - __ __
- __
_. -
~

A C 1 SP-1-54 95 = 0bb2949 0 5 2 2 4 b 9 28T
276 Stroeven et al
TABLE 10 - AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DATA OF GAP-GRADED CONCRETES BASED

ON COARSE RIVER AGGREGATE (16 mm MAXIMUM GRAIN SIZE), VERY FINE SAND (FINENESS
MODULUS 1.72) AND RHA-BLENDED PORTLAND CEMENT
sluilip Duration of Coinpressive strength iii A

iii 111111 vibration iii min 7-days 28-days
O 30 25.9 33.6
O 120 44.8
O 30 40.3 50.4
O 30 48.3 55.4
10 20 22.2 30.8
5 40 41.3 49.8
30 20 43.9 56.1
20 20 47.9 61.2
10 20 29.8 47. I
O 50 44.4 52.7
10 3O 53.5 72.3
5 40 49.1 64.1
25 20 44.7 64.3
15 20 50.4 69.9
6 20 47.3 70.2
15 20 53.8 69.1
200 20 50.3 68.9
8 LO 56.9 73.7
200 20 51.6 70.1
200 20 52.5 70.5

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522470 T T L m
Fig. 1-Oven used for incineration of rite husks, simulating 'field' conditions in Vietnam

A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522471 938 9
278 Stroeven et al

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662947 0522472 ô74
SP 154-15
Improvement in ConCrete Performance

and Durability Using Permeable Sheet
by Y. Tsukinaga, M. Shoya,
R. Sugawara, and H. Nonorne
Synopsis: In t h i s study, t h e use of a new permeable sheet was

evaluated in making t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r of concrete denser, thus
improving t h e performance and d u r a b i l i t y of t h e concrete.
The application of permeable s h e e t was confirmed effective in

t h e lowering of water t o cement r a t i o corresponding t o t h e
decrease of p o r e volume, t h i s resulted in t h e increase of pull-off
t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , rebound number, pulse velocity and pin
penetration resistance in t h e s u r f a c e layer. I t was also observed
t h a t t h e air bubbles were l i k e l y t o move from t h e i n t e r n a l portion
t o t h e s u r f a c e with t h e expelled flow of water, remarkably
reducing bugholec on t h e concrete surface.
The use of new t y p e of permeable sheet improved resistance t o

freezing and thawing cycling, reduced t h e depth of carbonation
and t h e ingress of chloride ions. Furthermore, t h e water
tightness was a l s o improved.
Kevwords: Air entrainment; carbonation; chloride ions; durability; freeze

thaw durability; penetration tests; permeability; porosity; shotcrete;
surface layers (of concrete); tensile stress; water cement ratio
279
A C 1 SP-154 75 = 0662747 0522473 700 D
280 Tsukinaga et al
AC1 member Yoichi Tsukinaga is an associate professor in t h e

Department of Architecture at Hachinohe I n s t i t u t e of Technology,
Hachinohe, Aomori, Japan. He has been engaged in research on t h e
d u r a b i l i t y of c o n c r e t e structures and non-destructive testing.
AC1 member Masami Shoya is a professor in t h e Department of Civil

Engineering at Hachinohe I n s t i t u t e of Technology. He received
his Doctor of Engineering degree in 1984 from Hokkaido University
in Sapporo f o r t h e t h e s i s concerning concrete shrinkage. He has
authored numerous papers on concrete d u r a b i l i t y and shrinkage.
Takashi Sugawara is an associate professor in t h e Department of

Civil Engineering at Hachinohe National College of Technology.
H i s c u r r e n t research i n t e r e s t i s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s u r f a c e
layer of concrete.
Hiroshi Nonome is a senior engineer in t h e Department of Dam

Engineering at Toda Corporation, Tokyo, Japan. H e has been
involved in research on t h e d u r a b i l i t y of concrete dams.
INTRODUCTION
I t has been recognized t h a t a key f a c t o r indicating t h e

d u r a b i l i t y of a c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e is t h e degree of q u a l i t y of
c o n c r e t e in t h e s u r f a c e layer. The surface l a y e r of concrete
functions as a p r o t e c t i v e layer against t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n caused
by environmental a t t a c k , and its quality s t r o n g l y influences t h e
d u r a b i l i t y of a s t r u c t u r e .
Recently, various types of permeable s h e e t s which enable us

t o make s u r f a c e l a y e r s of c o n c r e t e very dense have been
developed, and t h e i r application can be expected t o improve t h e
d u r a b i l i t y of c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s .
This paper r e p o r t s t h e research r e s u l t s on t h e improvement

of c o n c r e t e q u a l i t y using a new permeable sheet. The improvement
is evaluated by determining water t o cement ratio, air void
parameters, porosity, pull-off t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and by o t h e r
non-destructive tests. This research a l s o d e a l s with t h e
improvement of c o n c r e t e durability, which is evaluated by
freezing and thawing t e s t s , carbonation studies, chloride-ion
penetration tests and water permeability experiments.
MATERIALS
Two series of c o n c r e t e mixtures were made. The cement used

was commercially available high-early s t r e n g t h portland cement
and o r d i n a r y p o r t l a n d cement in series I and I I , respectively.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0662949 0522474 b 4 7 =
The chemical composition and physical properties of t h e cements

a r e given in Table 1. The coarse aggregate used in s e r i e s I and II
was crushed s t o n e with maximum size of 20 mm, with fineness
modulus of 6.60 and 6.70, and specific g r a v i t y of 2.93 and 2.70,
respectively. The fine aggregates used in s e r i e s I and II were p i t
sand with fineness modulus of 2.60 and 2.80, and specific g r a v i t y
of 2.62 and 2.70, respectively. An air-entraining water reducing
admixture was used in both series. For t h i s study, a new
permeable s h e e t shown in Table 2 was used. A s shown in Fig. 1, t h e
permeable s h e e t has t h e a b i l i t y t o remove excess water and a i r
bubbles from f r e s h c o n c r e t e without disturbing t h e cement
particles.
MIXTURE PROPORTIONS AND SPECIMENS

~
The mixture proportions of concrete a r e given in Table 3.

The model concretes with and without permeable sheet shown in
Fig. 2, were c a s t using ready-mixed concrete. Permeable s h e e t s
were a t t a c h e d t o all t h e side of forms and t h e end p a r t s of s h e e t s
were l e f t hanging from both top and bottom p a r t s of forms. The
concretes in s e r i e s I and II were cured under vinyl sheets on
site u n t i l t h e removal of forms a t 14 days and 7 days, respectively.
Then, t h e concretes in s e r i e s II were continuously l e f t on s i t e
u n t i l an age of 28 days.
TEST METHODS
Series I
Amount of expelled water-- A g u t t e r was set up a t each form

j o i n t and t h e amount of expelled water flowing in t h e gutter was
measured a s requires.
I
Frequency of bugholes-- The a r e a of bugholes on t h e

c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e was t r a c e d using 100x200 mm transparent sheets,
then t h e frequency of bugholes was calculated.
Water to cement ratios of fresh concrete-- The samples from

model c o n c r e t e were taken a t 2 hours a f t e r adding t h e mixing
water. The water content w a s measured by heating t h e 50 g
wet-screened mortar samples using a microwave oven. The cement
c o n t e n t was analyzed by t i t r a t i o n with sodium hydroxide solution
a f t e r dissolving t h e cement in samples by hydrochloric acid
solution. (1)
Air void parameters-- These were determined in accordance

with ASTM C457 Linear Traverse Method using c o r e samples with a
diameter of 150 mm. Determinations were made a t many points
s t a r t i n g from t h e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e then moving towards inner part.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522475 583 m
282 Tsukinaga et al
Porosity-- Porosity was measured by a mercury intrusion

porosimeter using mortar samples of about 3 g, which passed t h e
5.0-m sieve and retained on t h e in 2.5-mm sieve. These were
obtained from t h e broken concrete pieces.
Pull-off tensile strength-- The apparatus f o r t h e test i s

shown in Fig. 3. A c i r c u l a r groove with a diameter of 75 m a t
required depth is made at t h e s u r f a c e of t h e concrete using a d r y
coring bit. A c i r c u l a r steel probe with a hollow cylinder equal t o
t h e depth of t h e groove in concrete w a s bonded t o t h e concrete
s u r f a c e with a epoxy resin. After bonding, t h e pull-off s t r e n g t h
tester was used t o p u l l off t h e concrete. The pull-off t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h w a s calculated by dividing t h e recorded maximum load by
t h e circular c o n c r e t e a r e a of t h e groove.(2)
Rebound number, pulse velocity and Pin penetration depth--

Those values were measured with Schmidt hammer, u l t r a s o n i c pulse
apparatus and pin-penetration t e s t e r ( 3 ) on t h e surface of t h e
model concrete.
Series II
The c o r e s with a diameter of 100 mm were d r i l l e d from both t h e

v e r t i c a l side and t h e s l a n t side of model concretes a t 28 days.
They were cured in a room maintained a t constant temperature of
20°C and R.H. of 60% f o r a period of 28 days, t h e samples f o r water
permeability test were cured f o r 119 days. The surfaces, except
t h e form side s u r f a c e of c o r e samples and t h e bottom c e n t e r
s u r f a c e with a diameter of 15 mm of t h e samples f o r freezing and
thawing test, were sealed with epoxy resin during t h e exposure in
t h e c o n t r o l l e d room.
Freezing and thawing test-- The c o r e samples cured in t h e

c o n t r o l l e d room were subsequently soaked in t h e water at 20°C
f o r 14 days. Then, t h e test f o r t h e resistance t o rapid freezing
and thawing in water was conducted in accordance with JIS A 6204.
In t h e t e s t , t h e temperature of c o r e samples was c o n t r o l l e d t o
f r e e z e from +5OC t o -18°C within t h r e e hours and t o thaw from
-18°C t o +5OC within one hour. Loss in weight and change in ~
dynamic modulus of e l a s t i c i t y during t h e freezing and thawing

regime were measured f o r every 30 cycles up t o 300 cycles.
Carbonation test-- The c o r e samples were t e s t e d in 10% COz

concentration, temperature of 40°C and R.H. of 40%. The
carbonation depth w a s measured by spraying 1%phenolphthalein
ethanol solution t o t h e surfaces obtained a f t e r s p l i t t i n g t h e
samples.
Chloride-ion penetration test-- The c o r e samples were soaked

in a 3%sodium chloride solution a t 20°C f o r 7 days and
subsequently dried in t h e c o n t r o l l e d room a t temperature of 20°C
and a R.H. of GO% f o r 7 days. After six cycles of soaking and

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522476 YLT m
drying, t h e chloride-ion p e n e t r a t i o n depth was measured by

spraying t h e s p l i t s u r f a c e of t h e samples with 0.1% uranine
s o l u t i o n and 2%s i l v e r n i t r a t e solution.
Water permeability test-- Tests were conducted.in accordance

with t h e input method under a water p r e s s u r e of 0.49 MPa f o r 8
hours, and t h e n t h e average depth of water p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e
c o r e sample was measured. The diffusion coefficient was
c a l c u l a t e d by t h e following equation 1.(4)
Where
B ;z= diffusion coefficient (crnZ/sec:)
Dm = depth of water p e n e t r a t i o n (crn)
t = time required (sec)
cy = coefficient corresponding t o time applying p r e s s u r e
(81.5 when 8 hours)
E = c o e f f i c i e n t corresponding t o p r e s s u r e of water
(0.905 when 0.49 MPa )
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Series I : Improvement of concrete quality
Amount of expelled water-- Fig. 4 shows t h e r e l a t i o n between

t h e amount of t h e expelled water v e r s u s time. A l a r g e amount of
expelled water with t h e permeable s h e e t was observed. The e f f e c t
of t h i s s h e e t was estimated t o be about 650 cc/m', s u b t r a c t i n g t h e
amount of discharged water without t h e s h e e t a t 120 minutes a f t e r
c a s t i n g.
Frequency of bugholes-- Fig. 5 shows t h e t e s t results. The

biigholes on t h e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e decreased pronouncedly and t h e
appearance of t h e s u r f a c e was improved when t h e permeable s h e e t
was applied. These r e s u l t s indicate t h a t t h e s h e e t had t h e a b i l i t y
t o remove a i r bubbles, and t h i s e f f e c t w a s remarkable on t h e
s l a n t i n g s u r f a c e in t h e middle p a r t of model concrete. I t i s
s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e air bubbles accompanied by t h e bleeding were
s t a g n a t e d and t h e bugholes were produced on t h e s l a n t i n g s u r f a c e
when permeable s h e e t was n o t used.
Water to cement ratios of the fresh concrete-- Fig. F shows

t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of measured water t o cement r a t i o with depth.
The water t o cement r a t i o s at required depth from t h e s u r f a c e OP
t h e model c o n c r e t e showed almost c o n s t a n t value when t h e
permeable s h e e t was n o t used. When t h e s h e e t s were used, t h e
water t o cement r a t i o decreased remarkably near t h e s u r f a c e . The
reduction in t h e water t o cement r a t i o compared with t h a t without

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0bb2949 0522477 356 m
284 Tsukinaga et al
t h e s h e e t s ranged from 4% t o 15%near t h e s u r f a c e and t h e

reduction followed t h e p a t t e r n : upper p a r t < middle p a r t < lower
p a r t . This is perhaps caused by t h e d i f f e r e n t degrees of
consolidation from t o p t o bottom.
Air- void parameters-- Fig. 7 t o 9 show t h e r e s u l t s of t h e

parameters of air-void system. On t h e whole, in t h e upper p a r t of
model c o n c r e t e with t h e permeable sheet, t h e content of a i r voids
and t h e number of air void showed a s l i g h t decreasing tendency,
and t h i s means t h e air bubbles accompanied by t h e bleeding water,
could be expelled by t h e c a p i l l a r y suction of t h e permeable sheet.
However, in t h e near s u r f a c e n o t deeper than 10 mm, t h e content of
a i r voids and t h e mean of a i r void diameter showed a l i t t l e
increasing tendency. The possible reason i s t h a t t h e a i r bubbles
might be joined t o g e t h e r , and grew during t h e removal process of'
t h e a i r bubbles accompanied by t h e flow of t h e excess water, then,
remained near t h e surface. In t h e lower p a r t , t h e a i r void
parameters did n o t indicate t h e clear tendencies e i t h e r with o r
without t h e permeable sheet.
Porosity-- Fig. 10 and 11 show t h e pore s t r u c t u r e . Total p o r e '

volume of t h e model c o n c r e t e with t h e permeable s h e e t was lower
than t h a t without t h e s h e e t in t h e near surface. This tendency was
clear a t t h e lower p a r t of concrete and was similar t o one
previously noted f o r t h e water t o cement ratio. Accordingly, t h e
reduction of t h e water t o cement r a t i o near t h e s u r f a c e layer
contributed t o perform dense and rigid s t r u c t u r e . Besides, t h e
p o r e size distribution showed a l i t t l e change f o r concrete with
and without t h e permeable s h e e t i n t h e upper part of specimen.
However, i n t h e lower p a r t with t h e sheet, t h e pore volume, with
t h e p o r e diameter ranging from 300 Ao t o 1500 Ao , decreased
remarkably .
Pull-off tensile strength-- Fig. 12 shows t h e t h e pull-off

t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h a t t h e designated depth of t h e model concrete.
The pull-off t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e surface layer when using t h e
permeable s h e e t tends t o show t h e higher value than t h e s u r f a c e
without t h e sheets. Such a c l e a r tendency was found at t h e lower
p a r t of t h e specimens, and t h e increase of s t r e n g t h was about 1
MPa, which corresponded t o t h e reduction of t h e water t o cement
ratio.
Rebound number, pulse velocity and Pin-penetration depth--

Fig. 13 t o 15 shows t h e r e s u l t s of t h e above tests. The rebound
number and pulse velocity increased when using t h e permeable
sheet, and t h e o r d e r of increase was: upper p a r t < middle p a r t <
lower part. Pin-penetration depth was a l s o favorably affected;
besides, on t h e s l a n t i n g s u r f a c e of t h e middle part without t h e
permeable s h e e t , t h e r e s u l t s showed an increase in value,
r e f l e c t i n g t h e increase of bugholes.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 O522478 292
Series II : Improvement of concrete durability
Freezing and thawing test-- Fig.lG and 17 show t h e r e s u l t s of

freezing and thawing test. The r e l a t i v e dynamic modulus showed
s l i g h t l y increasing tendency both with and without t h e permeable
sheet, which was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e progress of t h e hydration
during t h e test. The c o n c r e t e with t h e permeable s h e e t showed
s l i g h t weight increase; t h i s is a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e progress of t h e
hydration and water absorption. However, without t h e sheet,
weight loss were noticed. These tendencies indicate improvement
in t h e f r e e z i n g and thawing resistance of concrete when using
permeable sheets.
Carbonation test-- Fig. 18 shows t h e r e s u l t s of t h e

carbonation depth. Carbonation of concrete without t h e
permeable s h e e t reached an average depth of 30mm, while t h e depth
with s h e e t remained at 18mm. The carbonation depth in t h e
s l a n t i n g p a r t of model c o n c r e t e was a l i t t l e g r e a t e r than t h a t of
t h e v e r t i c a l part.
Chloride-ion penetration test-- Fig. 19 shows t h e chloride-ion

penetration depth in concrete. Chloride-ion penetration without
t h e permeable s h e e t reached an average depth of 33 mm, while t h e
depth with t h e s h e e t remained at 17 mm. This result showed t h e
same tendency as t h e carbonation depth, and t h e effectiveness of
permeable s h e e t was confirmed a s t o t h e increased resistance of
t h e c o n c r e t e t o t h e chloride-ion penetration.
Water permeability test-- Fig. 20 shows the results of

t h e water permeability tests. The diffusion coefficients without
t h e permeable s h e e t ranged from 5 3 0 ~ 1 0 -cm2/sec ~ in t h e v e r t i c a l
part t o G ~ O X ~ Ocm2/sec
- ~ in t h e s l a n t i n g part. When t h e s h e e t w a s
used, t h e s e ranged from 35Gx10-" cm2/sec in t h e v e r t i c a l part t o
~ G O X ~ Ocm2/sec
- ~ in t h e s l a n t i n g p a r t . Thus, t h e latter decreased
by 20 t o 30%, confirming t h e improvement in t h e water t i g h t n e s s of
c o n c r e t e when t h e permeable s h e e t was applied.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Bugholes on t h e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e decreased and t h e

appearance of t h e s u r f a c e was pronouncedly improved by t h e
expelling of excess water and air bubbles from t h e f r e s h
concrete.
2. In t h e near surface, it w a s observed t h a t t h e lowering of t h e
water t o cement r a t i o r e s u l t e d in t h e decrease of pore volume
and increase in t h e pull-off t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , rebound number,
pulse velocity and pin-penetration resistance.
3. The content of air voids and t h e number of air voids showed a
s l i g h t decreasing tendency by t h e c a p i l l a r y suction by
permeable sheet. However, in t h e near surface, t h e content of
air voids and t h e mean air-void diameter showed a l i t t l e

A C 1 SP-154 75 m Obb2947 0522479 127
286 Tsukinaga et al
increasing tendency.
4. The d e g r e e of improvement of c o n c r e t e q u a l i t y varied with
height of model c o n c r e t e , perhaps caused by t h e degree of
consolidat ion.
5. The improvements in t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e f r e e z i n g and
thawing a c t i o n , t h e carbonation and t h e i n t r u s i o n of chloride-
ion were experimentally confirmed.
6. The improvement of water t i g h t n e s s was confirmed from t h e
d i f f u s i v i t y d a t a in t h e water permeability test using t h e input
method.
REFERENCES
1. Nakajima,M., Sato,Y., and Segami,M., "Study on analysis of
water cement r a t i o of f l e s h concrete", Transaction of N.M.B.
c e n t r a l r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r y , Nisso master b i l d e r s limited
central r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r y , Japan, No.2, pp.G3-88, 1979.
2. Tsukinaga,Y., Shoya,M., and Kasai,Y., "In-situ test methods
assessing t h e q u a l i t y of t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r of concrete", Proc.
of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on NDT&SSM, FENDT'92, vol. 1,
pp. 477-484, 1992.
3. Nasser,K. W. and Al-Manaseer,A.A., "New Nondestructive Test",
AC1 Concrete 1nternational:Design & Construction, Vol. 9, No. 1,
pp.41-44, 1987.
4. Murafa, j., "Studies on t h e permeability of concrete", TanS.of
JSCE, N0.77, pp.89-103, 1961
5. Hall,C., "Water S o r p t i v i t y of Mortars and Concretes", A Review,
Magazine of Concrete Research, 41, No. 147, pp.51-G1, 1989.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 O522480 940
TABLE 1 - CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Chemica 1 composi t ions i:06 :I

'l'vpc o Ì ccmc'nt
1 Mg0 I so, ~ Loss on ignition
Oi-d i na i-v 1. 7 2. 1 I. 4
High cai.lv s t r e n g t h I. 7 3. 2 I. 3
Oi-d i na rv 3. 16 3350 2:'22 3:29 ~ 16. I 25.5 , 42. I

High cai.iy strength 3. 13 4480 1 :53 2:50 29. 2 38. 8 48. 7
TABLE 2 - QUALITY OF PERMEABLE SHEET
Concrc%tcsidc I I:orm side
i'ci'íoi'atcd pcilvethvicnc. Ti lm I'olvpimpvlcw nonwvcn fabl ic
TABLE 3 - CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
28 day
Sri-ic compressive
strength
I
II
0.65
0.62
80
120
3.0
4.0
42.5
17.4
164
162
~ 252
261 '
1 807
885
~
'
1222
1015
~
!
O. 50
2.78
22. 7
25. 7

A C 1 SP-154 75 Ob62747 0522481 8 8 7
288 Tsukinaga et al
.&onCrete *
‘o . ‘o’
o -
.,@. * o
Concrefe Side
o .
I Excess Water I@
ri{/y
Fig. 1-Schematic sketch explaining function of permeable sheet
300
M
~~~ .$
N
4
O cu .4
4
Lower part 0 .2
Y,
CI
k-
1 1200
1
i GOO 1
1
900 * &
1100 1
Front view Side vicw I‘ront view s i d e view
Series I Series n
Fig. Z-ûutline of model concrete used in test
EDOXVresin I I Load cell Digital load indicator
1 - 5 0 4
Circular steel probe
with hollow cylinder
Fig. 3-Test apparatus for pull-off tensile strength

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 0522482 713 m
Time a f t e r placing (minutes)
Fig. "Amount of expelling water
x
W
't
o
Fig. SFrequency of bugholes

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 O522483 b5T
290 Tsukinaga et al
Fig. &Distribution of measured water to cement ratio

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = Ob62747 0522484 596 M
C+ -lilon
Distance trotn surfac.e (,inml
Fig. 7-Distribution of content of air void

A C 1 SP-154 95 D 0662949 0522485 422
292 Tsukinaga et al
01 I l I I I l I l I
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Distance from surface (mm>
1200
2 1000
W
U
--
O
800-
1 I Lower p a r t I
A
+Sheet
O- -Non
3
L
' A
.-
~u
'+
6 a o ~ ~ - ~ - . A ~ -_ A
A
_ .-_
A
- - --- - -AA
O A
L 40Q-A A AAA A A A
rli
0
A
2 200-
O I I I I I I I l 1
Fig. &Distribution of number of air void

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 O522486 3b9
I Upper part. I
I Lower part. I
+Sheet,
Q- -Ilon
+-
(u
E
GS
._
-5
A A
50 -
25 I I I I I I I l I
n in 20 30 40 50 60 7n 80 8n
Distance from surface (mni)
Fig. &Distribution of mean of air void diameter

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522487 2T5 m
294 Tsukinaga et al
1
0. 10 4
3
L +Sheet.-upper part
AT- Sheet-l ower p a r t
-
c
t’ 0- Non-upper p a r t
t-
3
i+ -Non-l owr p a r t
D i starice from surf ace (mni j
Fig. 1LDistribution of total pore volume

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522488 L3L W
I Upper p a r t (Depth o f 0-15mm)l

T. P. V. ( 4 4 )
-Sheet. o. o735
nn t-:
r-i
I I
-- -Non O. O947
r-
H
:-iI
;-flI r---1
I I I
Lt 10' 10" 10'' IO5 IOb
I Lower p a r t (Depth of O-15mml I

rI - 7 I T. F. V. ( c c l g )
o. inis- I
I
I
I
-Shee?. II.O526
;-; I in i or^ n. ion5
A
gh
L.
c)
o 1 ' 1
L Ø 1 1 1
I I I
-o om-
r - i I I
I I I i-,
I l I I I
I I I I I
3 r-i I I I I
I I _ I
L I
I
I
1
I
L-
2 0.~05- r-i - -
1-r-1
I I
r-i
I
I
-
l
L
- -
L-1
l
b-1
I

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522489 078 E
296 Tsukinaga et al
L Sheet-upper p a r t
\ t-Sheet-l o w r p a r t
\
1
e
\
w \
c
a,
't
o
-
-3
a
4-
A
rn
z
w
w
c 3-
a,
L
c, A
m
a,
.-
m o++ \ \
e
'
'
t
t
Qi
0
2- A--+ -- - - - _ _ -A
-
-!
1. I l l I I I l I I I I
Fig. 12-Pull-off tensile strength in each depth

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 0522490 89T H
k 40
L I
E
3
c
30
3
o
22
lz 20
Upper p a r t Middle p a r t Lower part.
Fig. 13-Results of measurement of rebound number
h
tl
._
0
-o
$ 4
a)
-3
(0
Q
3
Lower part. Middle part. Upper part,
Fig. 14-Results of measurement of pulse velocity
Upper p a r t Middle p a r t Lower p a r t
Fig. 15-Results of measurement of pin-penetration depth

A C 1 SP-354 95 Obb2949 0522493 726 W
298 Tsukinaga et al
*Sheet-verti cal p a r t
(o +Sheet-sl ant i ng p a r t
-
3
3
O=-Non-vert i cal part
73
O h Non-sl ant i ng p a r t
E
105-
1ou
9 5 l , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
0 60 120 i 80 240 300
Freezing and thswi ng cycl es
Fig. l b l e l a t i v e dynamic modulus of elasticity versus freezing and thawing cycle
-Sheet-vert i cal p a r t
&-Sheet-slanting Part
A
x
W
ai
o)
t
m
-c
o
+
-c
m
.-
Qi
3
- 2 1 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
o 60 120 i 80 240 300
Freezing and thawing cycles
Fig. 17-Weight change versus freezing and thawing cycle

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522492 662 m
%
O
30
c
2
t)
20
m
5 10
2
,T
‘> n Vert ical p a r t SI a n t i ng p a r t

Fig. 1Marbonation depth
Fig. 19-Chloride-ion penetration depth
SI ant i ng p a r t
Fig. 2LDiffusion coefficient by water permeability test

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662749 0522493 5T9 m
SP 154-16
Self-Compacting Property of
Highly Flowable Concrete
by S. Nagataki and H. Fujiwara
Svnopsis: In recent years, there has been an increasing demand for high-
performance concrete with better workability, higher strength and greater durability
to meet current structural design needs. In Japan, studies of highly flowable
concrete with self-compacting properties have been undertaken with the goal of
improving reliability of concrete compaction in forms having complicated shapes or
densely arranged reinforcement. To produce highly flowable concrete, it is
necessary to create high-fluidity concrete by adding a superplasticizer and to
eliminate segregation by adding a viscosity-controlling admixture or a large volume
of powdered material. It is also necessary to provide the concrete with the ability to
pass between the steel reinforcing bars in order to make it self-compacting; this is
achieved by controlling the rheological properties of mortar and volume of coarse
aggregate. in this paper, the properties of self-compacting concrete are described.
Kevwords: Admixtures; coarse aggregates; compaction; fiowabilitr;

fluidizing; segregation; viscosity; yield point
301
A C 1 SP-I154 95 m Obb2949 0522494 435 m
302 Nagataki and Fujiwara
Shigeyoshi Nagataki is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo

institute of Technology, an AC1 Fellow and Chairman of the Committee on Concrete
as well as the Subcommittee on Highly Flowable Concrete of the Japan Society of
Civil Engineers (JSCE). He received his D.Eng. from the University of Tokyo in
1966 and has written many papers on cementitious materials and concrete.
Hiromi Fujiwara is an Assistant Senior Research Engineer at Nihon Cement Co.,

Ltd.’s Central Research Laboratory in Tokyo. He has been engaged in fundamental
research in the fields of cement and admixtures for concrete. He qualified as an
authorized consulting engineer in the field of construction in 1990 and is a member
of JSCE.
INTRODUCTION
Recent years have seen concrete structures increase in height and overall size,
resulting in an increasing demand for a wider diversity of types of high-strength,
high-performance concrete. In an effort to meet these needs, high-strength, high-
durability and high-fluidity concretes, among others, have been studied.
In Japan, high-fluidity concrete has been receiving particular scrutiny in recent
years, and application of highly flowable concrete is approaching the stage of
practicality. With highly flowable concrete, the use of a vibrator for compacting at
site is unnecessary because the concrete is self-compacting within the form. That
there is an increasing demand for improving the reliability of concreting work in
Japan, can be seen from the following information.
The topography of Japan comprises many precipitous mountains and rugged
valleys; thus it is often the case that concrete placement must be camed out under
extremely difficult circumstances. Further, the increasingly complex shape of
concrete structures is making it more difficult to use a vibrator, while the more
densely arranged reinforcing bars resulting from the increasing height of concrete
structures make consolidation more difficult to carry out.
i n addition, the following reasons may be cited for the increasing demand for
self-compacting, highly flowable concrete: a) there are not enough workers to carry
out compacting work at construction sites; b) vibrator compaction of concrete is
extremely noisy and deleterious to the health of workers, as well as an annoyance to
people in the surrounding neighborhood; and c) it is costly and time-consuming.
Highly flowable concrete not only alleviates these problems, but also improves
the efficiency of construction. in other words, the use of highly flowable concrete
requires only the setting up of forms and placement of concrete by pumping; the
previously required hard, labor-intensive work of compacting and the related setting
up of scaffolding are eliminated. For these reasons, it is expected that the use of
highly flowable concrete will become widespread.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522495 372 m
BASIC CONCEPT OF HIGHLY FLOWABLE CONCRETE
Among the most important characteristics of self-compacting highly flowable

concrete are its high fluidity, resistance to segregation and ability to pass between
steel reinforcing bars. Segregation of highly flowable concrete means separation
into mortar and coarse aggregate; it is mainly caused by settlement of coarse
aggregate. The properties of fluidity and resistance to segregation are dependent on
the raw materials and mixture proportions, while the ability to pass between steel
reinforcing bars is affected by the shape of the form and reinforcement conditions.
High fluidity is achieved by the addition of a comparatively large amount of
superplasticizer; however, excessive fluidity causes segregation. This segregation
can be controlled by the addition of a viscosity-controlling admixture or a large
volume of powdered material; however, excessive resistance to segregation results
in loss of fluidity. It is therefore necessary to obtain the highest possible fluidity
within the range of non-segregation. Even if high fluidity and non-segregation are
achieved, there is no guarantee that the concrete will have the ability to pass between
the steel reinforcing bars. In order to achieve this ability, the arrangement of the
steel reinforcing bars must be considered and the volume and maximum size of
coarse aggregate must be controlled. If all of these properties are achieved, self-
compacting highly flowable concrete will have been produced.
Materials and Prouortions Used in Highly flowable Concrete
Chemical admixtures--In order to provide concrete with high fluidity, the

addition of an admixture called a superplasticizer or a high-range water-reducing
admixture is required. These types of admixtures are required to provide the
concrete with high fluidity and enable this fluidity to be maintained, without having
any adverse effect on the concrete after it has hardened. In Japan, naphthalene
sulfonic acid, polycarboxylic acid type polymer, etc. are generally used.
Mineral admixtures--One method of providing the concrete with resistance to
segregation is the addition of a large volume of powdered material. However, if the
entire volume of powdered material were cement, problems such as increased cost of
materials and high heat of hydration would result. Therefore, to eliminate these
problems, blast-furnace slag powder, fly ash and limestone powder are used.
Typical mixture proportions for a highly flowable concrete made using a large
volume of these powdered materials are shown in Table 1 under Type A (1,2).
Viscositv-controlling admixture--Concretemay be provided with resistance to
segregation by the addition of a viscosity-controlling admixture such as an acrylic-
or cellulose- based water-soluble polymer or a polysaccharide polymer, among
others. Addition of a large volume of powdered material is not required if a
viscosity-controlling admixture is used. Sample mixture proportions for highly
flowable concrete containing an acrylic-based viscosity-controlling admixture are
shown in Table 1. under Type B (3).

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522496 208
Samule Auulications for Highly Flowable Concrete
Following are some examples of the application of highly flowable concrete in

Japan: concrete buildings and bridges with architecturai relief on the surface; bridge
piers and high-rise buildings with densely arranged steel reinforcing bars; sections
of stadiums which are complex in shape and where vibratory compacting is difficult;
the anchorage for the long bridge connecting the main Japanese island of Honshu
with the smaller island, Awajishima; box culverts; and railway bridges. These are
just a few among a large number of applications for which highly flowable concrete
has been put to practical use. At present the Japan Society of Civil Engineers and
the Architectural Institute of Japan are working toward the standardization of highly
flowable concrete in Japan.
EXPERIMENT SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGHLY FLOWABLE CONCRETE AND FACTORS
AFFECTING MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
Outline of Exueriment
Highly flowable concrete can be considered a two-phase material: mortar in

the liquid phase and coarse aggregate in the solid phase. By varying the amount of
viscosity-controlling admixture added, mortars having six levels of rheological
properties were produced and the coefficients of viscosity and yield values
measured; each of these six levels of mortar was combined with three volume levels
of coarse aggregate to produce 18 types of concrete whose fluidity, resistance to
segregation and ability to pass between reinforcing bars were evaluated. Based on
the results, the volume of coarse aggregate and effective ranges of yield value and
coefficient of viscosity of mortar required to produce highly flowable concrete were
determined.
Cement and Aemegate Used
Normal portland cement (NPC)from a source in Japan was used. Crushed

sandstone with a 20-mm maximum aggregate size and a specific gravity of 2.65 was
used as the c o m e aggregate. For fine aggregate, crushed sand having an F.M. of
2.77 and a specific gravity of 2.64 was used.
Chemical Admixtures Used
An air-entrahing admixture was used, with naphthalenesulfonic acid used as

the supexplasticizer and an acrylic-based water-soluble polymer as the viscosity-
controlling admixture.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522497 144 W
Mixture Proportions
The mixture proportions of mortar are shown in Table 2. A viscosity-

controlling admixture was added to this mortar in six levels ranging from O to 3.3%
by weight of cement. Three volume levels of coarse aggregate (X,) were added to
each of the six levels of mortar to produce 18 types of concrete with mixture
proportions as shown in Table 3.
Rheoloeicai Properties of Mortar
The rheological properties of mortar, as measured with a rotation viscosimeter,

are shown in Fig. 1. Viscosity and yield value(q,.l and zf,respectively, in the
figure) increased in a straight line as the amount of viscosity-controlling admixture
(p) added was increased.
Fluiditv of Concrete
The slump flow, that is the diameter of the slump test base after release of the
slump cone, was measured and fluidity of concrete evaluated. Since slump flow is
measured when the concrete is in a static condition, yield value can be considered as
the controlling factor (4). Further, the yield value of concrete can be considered as
being determined mainly by the volume of coarse aggregate and the yield value of
mortar (5). Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the slump flow and yield value of
mortar for various volumes of coarse aggregate.
In Fig. 3, the Y-axis indicates volume of coarse aggregate and the X-axis
shows the rheological properties of mortar; based on the results obtained from
experiments, approximate lines were drawn to show slump flows of 500,600 and
700 millimeters. From this figure, it can be seen that the yield value of mortar
increases, while the slump flow value of concrete decreases as the volume of coarse
aggregate increases.
Resistance to SeFerration
Segregation of highly flowable concrete means separation into mortar and

coarse aggregate caused by settlement of coarse aggregate. In order to evaluate
resistance to segregation in concrete, concrete was gently poured from a two-liter
steel bucket, 14 cm in diameter and 13 cm deep, onto a five-millimeter-mesh screen
and left there for five minutes. Then, the mortar which had passed through the
screen was weighed and the segregation index (SI) was calculated using the
following equation (6).
Mf
SI = x loo(%)
Where: SI=Segregation index

Mf=Weight of mortar passing through screen
Mc=Weight of momr contained in 2 liters of concrete

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 0522498 080
Fig. 4 shows the relationship between yield value of mortar and the SI of
concrete. in each case, the SI falls sharply (solid line in center of figure) as the
mortar yield value increases; when the 'sfexceeds a certain level, it progresses to a
value near zero (broken line in center of figure). This is because the volume of
mortar adhering to the coarse aggregate, which accompanies the increase in q,
causes the SI value to decrease.
As shown in Fig. 5 , highly flowable concrete, with a SI of 4% or 8%, was
poured from the top of the form and left for ten minutes, after which samples'were
taken from the upper, middle and lower sections. Ten liters of concrete was
measured and taken from these samples; coarse aggregates were washed out using
water and a five-millimeter mesh screen. The results of measurement of volume of
coarse aggregate are shown in Fig. 6. From these results, it was found that, when
the SI was about 5% or lower, no sinking of coarse aggregate or other segregation
occurred. Thus, for each volume of coarse aggregate, the yield value of mortar
giving a SI of approximately 5% was obtained from Fig. 4 and superimposed on
Fig. 3 , resulting in Fig. 7 . The area to the right of the line (boundary of
segregation) 'chows the range in which sufficient resistance to segregation is
demonstrated, while the area to the left is the range in which segregation occurs.
Abilitv to Pass Between Steel Reinforcing Bars
The ability of concrete to pass between the steel reinforcing bars was evaluated
as follows. First, concrete was poured into the left side of the vessel shown in Fig.
8 until the concrete reached the upper lip of the vessel. Next, the gate was opened
and the concrete permitted to flow into the right side of the vessel. When the flow
stopped, the difference between the height of concrete in the left and right sides of
the vessel was measured and the pressure difference was calculated from the specific
gravity of the concrete. From this type of experiment, it can be roughly determined
if the concrete will have the ability to pass between the steel reinforcing bars or if it
will be stopped immediately after the gate is opened; however, in this experiment,
concrete having a pressure difference of 5,000 Pa or less was evaluated as having
sufficient ability to pass between the steel reinforcing bars.
In order to achieve sufficient ability to pass between the steel reinforcing bars,
the mortar must have sufficient ability to carry the coarse aggregate with it when it
passes between the bars. Other factors thought to have an effect on the ability of
concrete to pass between the steel reinforcing bars are space between the bars,
volume of coarse aggregate contained in the concrete, maximum size of the coarse
aggregate and viscosity of the mortar (7). In this experiment, the space between the
steel reinforcing bars was 37 millimeters and maximum size of coarse aggregate was
20 millimeters; within these conditions, concrete was evaluated as having the ability
to pass between the steel reinforcing bars for each volume of coarse aggregate
contained in the concrete.
Fig. 9 shows the relationship between viscosity of mortar and pressure
difference. The results of this experiment may be divided roughly into two
categories: when the pressure difference is 2,000 Pa or less, most concrete is able to
pass between the steel reinforcing bars; however, when the pressure difference is
7,000 Pa or more, the concrete is unable to pass between the bars. In other words,
when the volume of coarse aggregate is 24.5%,except under conditions where the
concrete was unable to pass between the bars, even when a viscosity-controlling
admixture was not used, most concrete was able to pass between the steel
reinforcing bars; when the volume of coarse aggregate was 34.5%,concrete was

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0522499 T17
unable to pass between the bars under all conditions. Further, when volume of
coarse aggregate was set between these levels at 29.5%, only concrete having a
viscosity within the range from 7,000 to 9,000 mPa*s was able to pass between the
bars.
in Fig. 10, conditions under which concrete was able to pass between the steel
reinforcing bars (see Fig. 7) are indicated by a white circle and those where concrete
failed to pass between the bars by a black circle. It is thought that concrete failed to
pass between the reinforcing bars when the viscosity of mortar was low, because of
segregation or because the mortar lacked the ability to cany the coarse aggregate
between the bars, thus permitting it to accumulate and clog the spaces between the
bars; failure to pass between the bars when viscosity was high is thought to be due
to insufficient fluidity.
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT
Eighteen types of concrete with differing volumes of coarse aggregate and

rheological properties were evaluated for the characteristics required in highly
flowable concrete: high fluidity, resistance to segregation and the ability to pass
between steel reinforcing bars. The range in which all requirements for the above
three characteristics were satisfied is I ~ Fshown in Fig. 1 I .
CONCLUSION
With highly flowable concrete, the need for consolidation is eliminated as the
concrete is self-compacting within the form. In order to achieve this property, the
concrete must satisfy all of the following three conditions: high fluidity, resistance
to segregation and the ability to pass between the steel reinforcing bars. It was
found through these experiments that concrete having the volume of coarse
aggregate and rheological properties of mortar falling within the range shown in Fig.
1 I meets these requirements.
REFER ENCE S
1. Matsumoto, N., “A Study on Chloride Ion Penetration of High-fluidity

Concrete”; Proceedings of the 49th Annual Conference of the Japan Society of
Civil Engineers, 5, pp. 328-9, September 1994.
2. Sakamoto, J., “Exposure Tests in the Tidal Zone of High-fluidity Concrete”;
Proceedings of the 49th Annual Conference of the Japan Society of Civil
Engineers, 5 , pp. 326-7, September 1994.
3. Fujiwara, H., “Fundamental Study on the Self-compacting property of High-
fluidity Concrete”; Proceeding of the Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 14, No. 1,
pp. 27-32, June 1992.
4. Murata, J., 100 Lectures on Concrete Engineering; Sankaido Co., Ltd., p. 93,
May 1993.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522500 5 b 9
5 . Wami, H., “A Study on Flow Properties of High-strength Concrete Using the

Two-point Method”, Concrete Research and Technology, Vol. 1 , No. 1, pp.
133-41, J ~ ~ U 1990.
XY
6. Kimura, M., “Fundamentd Studies on Quantitative Evaluation of Segregation in
Concrete”; The Cement Association of Japan Proceedings of Cement &
Concrete, No. 44, pp. 306-11, December 1990.
7. Dozono, A., “A Study on the Ability of High-fluidity Concrete to Pass Between
Steel Bars”; Proceedings of the 49th Annual Conference of the Japan Society of
Civil Engineers, 5, pp. 308-9, September 1994.
TABLE 1 - SAMPLE CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
Abbreviations used in Table 1

NPC: Normal portland cement
BFS: Blast-fumace slag cement
F A Fly ash
u: Limestone powder
SP: Superplasticizer (naphthalene sulfonic acid)
VCA Viscosity CoIitroliing admixture (acrylic-type water-soluble polymer)
TABLE 2 - MORTAR MIXTURE PROPORTIONS’
% by weight SP AE admixture
Cement I Water 1 Fineaggregate (%Io) (%)
28.0 12.7 59.3 3 .O 0.033
*Viscosity controlling admixture in the amounts of O%, 0.88%, 1.32%, 1.76%,

2.20%and 3.30%of cement by weight was added to each of the above.
TABLE 3 - CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONING CONDITIONS*

I coarse I W/C I
45.5
I
420
390
Unit: kdm3
892
I 178 I 829 I 910
778 i+
I
I
(%o)
*Viscosity controlling admixture in the amounts of O%, 0.88%, 1.32%, 1.76%,

2.20%and 3.30%of cement by weight was added to each of the above.
admixture

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0bb2949 0522503 4 T 5
Viscosiiy-controllingadmixture p (%)
Fig. 1-Relationship between rheological properties of

mortar and addition of viscosity controlling admixture
ímm) +~,=24.5%
-A- ~,=29.5%
-1 1x,=34.5%
500 1
Fig. 2-Relationship between yield value of mortar and

slump flow of concrete

A C 1 SP-II54 95 Ob62949 0522502 3 3 1
I I I I I
3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 (mPa-s)
Coefficient of viscosity
Fig. 3-Equivalent line of slump flow value
,Yield value of mortar (z f)

Fig. LRelotionship between yield value of mortar and
SI value of concrete

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Obb2949 0522503 278 =
Advances In Technology 311
Fig. 5-Form for measurement of segregation
0 SI=4.0%
SI=4.8%
A SI=8.5%
20 , Lower
section
Middle
section
Upper
section
Fig. L V o l u m e of coarse aggregate by sampling

position (design volume: 30 percent)

A C 1 SP-II54 95 0662949 0522504 II04
Yield value
I l I I I
3,000 6.000 9,000 12,000 (h4Pa.s)
Coefîicicnt of viscosity
Fig. 7-Boundary line between segregation and nonsegregation
/Gate n
Fig. &Method of evaluating ability to pass between steel bars

A C 1 SP-154 95 H 0662949 0522505 040
Advances In Technology 313
O000 k
5000
5000
O
3000
RI5 6000 9000
~,=24.! 6
xv= 2 9.5%
x,=34.5%
12000 (mPa
Cocfficicnt of viscosity (ilpi)
I
Fig. 9-Relationship between coefficient of viscosity

of mortar and pressure difference
0Pass Don'tpass
".$ e e e "\.\ O
ßoucdary line of segrcgation 5& (qm)
M
i'.,
O
I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 (Pa)
Yield value
I I I I I
3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 (mPa-s)
Cocfficicnt of viscosity
Fig. 10-Results of tests of ability to pass between steel reinforcing bars

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522506 T87 D
0Pass Don'tpass ea Range of suitability for

highly flowable concrete
35.0 O
u
+
w
m
ki
2
w
0
u
30.0
c-
O
-$
s
25 .O
10 20 30 40 50 60 (F
Yield valuc
I I I I I
3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 (mpa-s)
Cocnicicnt of viscosily
Fig. 11-Range in which requirements for highly flowable concrete are satisfied

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662947 0522507 îL3 I
SP 154-17
Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber Reinforced

Cement Composites - A Review
by N. Bonthia and I. Genois
Svnousis: Improvements in the performance characteristics of cement-based

matrices when reinforced with pitch-based carbon fibers are described.
Under tension and flexure, increases both in strength and strain capacity are
reported as a result of fiber reinforcement. Carbon fiber reinforced cement
composites are also much more impact resistant than the parent matrix. Under
compression, however, no increases either in the compressive strength or in the
elastic modulus are noticed.
Crack propagation in these composites is characterized using crack growth

resistance curves @-Curves) where it is demonstrated that carbon fibers lead to a
higher resistance to both nucleation and growth of cracks. The paper emphasizes
the desired durability characteristics of these composites and discusses their
current and fùture applications.
Keywords: Carbon; composite materials; compressive strength; cracking

(fracturing); durability; fatigue (materials); fiber reinforced concretes;
fibers; flexural strength; impact; shrinkage; tensile strength
315
A C 1 SP-I154 95 E 0662949 0522508 85T W
316 Banthia and Genois
Nemkumar Banthia is an Associate Professor of Civil Engineering at the

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada. He serves on various
RILEM, ACI, ASTM and CSCE Committees and is actively involved in research
related to fiber reinforced cement-based materials.
Isabelle Genois is a Graduate Student in Civil Engineering at the University of

British Columbia, B.C., Canada. She received her B.A.Sc. from Laval University,
Québec, in 1993. Her research interests include steel fiber reinforced concrete and
micro-fiber reinforced cement composites.
INTRODUCTION
The low tensile strength and poor fracture toughness of cement-based

materials are of great concern. Historically, in thin sheet applications,
reinforcement with asbestos fiber helped ease these concerns, and allowed the
asbestos-cement industry to flourish for over a hundred years. Unfortunately, the
linking of asbestos to fibrosis of the lungs (asbestosis) and two other forms of
lung cancer (1) has led to a quest for environmentally safe substitute fibers.
Attempts with glass fibers have proven to be discouraging given that even the
alkali-resistant (AR) variety shows signs of deterioration within ten years (2). The
moisture sensitivity of natural cellulose fibers is a well known concern and
ordinary steel fibers will invariably rust and produce surface stains.
One fiber that is inert in the cementitious environment and is not
associated with any health hazards is the carbonfiber. Historically, the first trials
with carbon fiber in cements were with the high modulus, polyacrylonitrile
(PAN)-based carbon fiber (3) which had an already proven track record in
polymer based composites. Given the nature of the construction industry, the high
cost of PAN-based carbon fibers became a deterrent to their use in cements and a
widespread commercial use did not occur. In the seventies, the low modulus
pitch-based carbon fiber was developed in Japan which was also much less
expensive than the PAN variety. In the following years, significant research was
camed out to judge the reinforcement potential of pitch-based carbon fibers in
cements and also to assess their durability characteristics (4-20). Particularly
noteworthy were the efforts in Japan where mass production and industrialization
of carbon fiber reinforced concrete (often abbreviated as CFRC) took place in the
form of high-rise curtain walls (6,7,9). As a result of these pioneering efforts,
much more is now known about the field performance of CFRC which has paved
the way for its eventual application in other areas.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522509 796 m
This paper describes the properties of cement-based composites reinforced with

randomly oriented, discontinuous pitch-based carbon fibers. Current as well as
future applications of these composites are also discussed.
PITCH-BASED CARBON FIBER
Typical properties of PAN-based and pitch-based carbon fibers are given

in Table 1. Industrially, the PAN-based fiber is produced by the polymerization of
acrylonitrile, a special monomer, in the presence of a solvent and a catalyst
followed by additional chemical and surface treatments. Manufacturing of the
pitch-based carbon fiber, on the other hand, involves the following steps (21).
First, the parent material, petroleum or coal tar pitch, is thermally treated to
obtained a molten pitch. The pitch is then melt spun to produce a tow which
consists of numerous filaments 7 to 15 pm in diameter. The tow is then made
infusable by oxidation at temperatures below its softening point to avoid fusing
the filaments together and is then carburised at temperatures normally around
2000°C.Finally, the tow is chopped to produce fibers of desired lengths.
PRODUCTION OF CFRC
Given their small size (Table 1) and hence their high specific surface
areas, mixing carbon fibers in cements using conventional means is usually
difficult. Carbon fibers tend to ball and disperse non-uniformly. Beyond 1% by
volume of fibers, a suitable dispersing agent (carboxyl methyl cellulose,
condensed silica fume or granulated blast furnace slag) and appropriate quantities
of superplasticizer (about 3 % by weight of cement) h e needed. The availability
of a mixer with a higher shear capability, such as the omni-mixer, may facilitate
uniform mixing and dispersion even at high fiber volume fractions. The
workability of CFRC is usually characterized by the “flow number” measured
using a “flow table” as described in JIS R 5201 (5,13). For carbon fiber reinforced
composites, the “flow number” is found to be proportional to the fiber diameter,
inversely proportional to the fiber volume fraction but independent of fiber length
(5313).
For a good fiber-matrix bond, a dense packing of hydration products
around the fibers is essential. This is often achieved by using cements with a
maximum particle size less than 45 pm and mixtures with low waterkement ratio
and silica fume. Fig. 1 shows the dense packing of hydration products around
carbon fibers.

A C 1 SP-354 75 0bb2747 0522530 408 m
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CFRC
Tensile Behavior
Some stress-strain curves for CFRC under uniaxial tension are given in
Fig. 2,3. The somewhat stiffer response of fiber reinforced composites over the
plain, unreinforced matrix may be noted. In general, for fiber volume fraction
higher than I%, there are strength and modulus increases due to fiber
reinforcement and the composites can be expected to support much higher strains
at peak load than the parent matrix. Notice also that curves in Fig. 3 obtained for
mortars in a closed-loop test environment become distinctly bilinear at a fiber
content of about 2% by volume and significant increases in the fracture energy
(total area under the curve) can be expected. The behavior of CFRC in tension is
influenced not only by the length of the fibers used but also by other factors such
as matrix strength, fiber modulus, fiber-matrix bond, extent of fiber dispersion,
etc.
Flexural Behavior
One of the simpler ways of studying fracture in CFRC is in flexure. In

Fig. 4, some load-displacement curves in flexure for composites previously
characterized in uniaxial tension (Fig. 2) are given. A comparison of flexural
strengths (modulus of rupture, MOR, values in Fig. 4) with strengths in uniaxial
tension (Fig. 2) indicates that for the composites based on mortars matrices,
strengths in flexure are much higher than those in uniaxial tension. For composites
based on a cement paste matrix, even higher flexural strengths have been reported
and are presented in Fig. 5 (5,12).
Scale effects in CFRC under flexure, as in any other mode, are expected.
A decrease in the flexural strength of CFRC beams with an increase in the width
and the span has been reported (9) and a power law for estimating the factored
decrease in the flexural strength as a function of specimen ixd (span x depth) has
been proposed as shown in Fig. 6.
Compressive Behavior
Variation in the compressive strength as a function of the carbon fiber

volume fraction for different types of mortars is presented in Fig. 7 (23). Notice
that usually there is no increase in the compressive strength and there may
actually be a slight decrease. The decrease in strength is normally related to
increased air in mixtures containing fibers and also to the overall difficulty
encountered in compacting stiffer CFRC mixtures.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 05225lt3 344
Similar effects were noted by Ohama and Amano (4) but only &er
exceeding a fiber volume fraction of 3%. While minor improvements in the
compressive strength are possible by using the shorter 3 mm fiber as compared to
the longer 10 mm fiber (4), on the whole one may conclude that the compressive
strength is almost unaltered by carbon fiber inclusion. This is equally true for
other types of fibers (2).
Elastic moduli for carbon fibers reinforced mortars in compression are
given in Fig. 8 (23). Notice a minor decrease in the elastic modulus due to fiber
addition. Overall, no substantial change in the elastic modulus due to pitch-based
carbon fibers, as in the case of other fibers, can be expected.
Fatigue and Imuact Behavior
With their superior strain capacity and toughness, carbon fiber

reinforced cement-composites can be expected to be highly resistant to fatigue
(9). Fig. 9 presents the results of uniaxial tensile tests on lightweight CFRC under
cyclic loading. It can be observed that fatigue resistance of the composites is
excellent since the envelope of the tensile stress vs. strain curve obtained during
cyclic loading is similar to the curve obtained under monotonic loading.
Also, based on instrumented impact tests on carbon fiber reinforced
pastes in uniaxial tension (1 O), significant increases in fracture energy absorption
have been reported under impact as a result of carbon fiber reinforcement (Fig.
1O).
Crack Growth Studies
Bend Over Point, BOP, is defined as the point on the stress-strain curve
at which first cracking in the matrix occurs somewhere in the composite and the
non-linear constitutive behavior commences. An interesting feature of the stress-
strain curves in tension (Fig. 2) as well as the load-displacement curves in flexure
(Fig. 4) at higher fiber volume fractions is the pseudo-strain hardening that occurs
between the BOP and the peak load. Pseudo strain-hardening implies that once
the first matrix crack occurs at the BOP, further cracking or extension of existing
cracks will occur only if additional energy is supplied from the loading source.
Naturally, this behavior is quite desirable from the field performance point of
view. In the pseudo strain-hardening regime, the capacity of the composite to
carry the imposed far-field stresses and strains is controlled entirely by the
conditions at the tip of the critical crack which has nucleated at the BOP and wiil
propagate first in a stable manner but eventually attain unstable dimensions. With
the section having developed cracks, the global stresses and strains measured in a
test in the pseudo strain-hardening regime are at best only a crude estimate of the
composite performance and are not related to the fundamental behavior of the
material. For a fundamental characterization, one needs to study the nucleation
and propagation of cracks in these composites through Controlled Crack Growth

A C 1 SP-254 95 m Obb2949 O522522 280 m
Studies. Such studies are also usefùl in predicting the sensitivity of CFRC to
strain-rate and to estimate the response under fatigue loads.
A test set-up for Controlled Crack Growth Studies on CFRC using
Contoured Double Cantilever Beam Specimens is shown in Fig. 11 (23). During
the test, the load is applied by means of wedges and the horizontal component of
the load (the opening load) as well as the crack mouth opening displacement
(CMOD) are monitored. The crack advances during the test, and the objective is
to characterize the stress field at the crack tip as it advances. Typical opening load
vs. CMOD curves obtained for mortars reinforced with different volume fractions
of carbon fibers are shown in Fig. 12a. Notice that for plain mortar the maximum
opening load and corresponding CMOD are low while carbon fiber reinforced
mortars carry much higher opening loads and exhibit much greater crack opening
displacements at the peak load.
These opening load-CMOD curves can be further analyzed to obtain
fundamental crack growth resistance curves, R-Curves (22). Typical R-Curves
plotted in terms of the stress intensity factor, K,, at the crack tip and the effective
crack length are given in Fig. 12b (23). The effective crack length, u@ is
determined using a compliance calibration while the stress intensity factor, KR,at
the tip of the corresponding effective crack is calculated using the available linear
elastic fracture mechanics equation for a contoured double cantilever beam (23).
This leads to
where P is the opening load, B is the width of the cantilever beams, b is the
cracked width and Hois the depth of the beam at the tip of the effective crack
length aeF
These curve indicate that mortars reinforced with carbon fibers can
withstand a substantially higher stress intensity at the crack tip (indicating a
significantly higher fracture toughness) and that the cracks can grow in a stable
manner to much greater lengths compared with unreinforced specimens. It is also
worth noting that the maximum values of the stress intensity factor do not occur
at the peak load, but rather soon after the peak load (Fig. 12b).
DURABILITY OF CFRC
Superior chemical inertness of carbon fibers over almost ali other high
performance fibers is one of the important benefits. Pitch-based carbon fibers are
more than 90% elemental carbon and, are not corroded in the alkaline
cementitious environment like the ordinary glass fibers. Although the fibers

A C 1 SP-154 95 E O662949 0522513 117
themselves are attacked by strong oxidizing agents such as nitric and sulfùric
acids (S), their composites have been found to have no appreciable retrogression
either in the strength or in toughness when subjected to cyclic exposures of weak
acids (pH = 4.0) for up to 90 days (14). Carbon fibers tolerate heating of up to
250OOC in inert atmospheres but oxidize slowly at 3OO0C or more in air.
Limited data with regard to the fieezing-thawing resistance of non air-
entrained CFRC with tests performed in accordance with ASTM C666 &er 300
cycles have indicated that the diminution of dynamic modulus of elasticity is
insignificant (9). In Fig. 13, it may be observed that, under restrained shrinkage
conditions in a drying environment, carbon fibers lead to a substantial reduction in
the maximum crack widths, thus improving the durability (18). Notice also in Fig.
13 that a longer 10 m m fiber is more effective in restricting crack widths that
shorter 3 mm fiber.
APPLICATiONS OF CFRC
One of the major uses of CFRC is in thin pre-cast products such as

roofing sheets, panels, tiles, curtain walls, ferrocements, fender plates, permanent
forms, free-access floor panels, and I- and L- shaped beams. The first large scale
application of CFRC was in the form of lightweight cladding tile panels (10,000
mz) for the Al Shaheed Monument in Iraq in 1983. Following this successful
application, in 1985 Kajima Corporation constructed the Ark-Mori building in
Tokyo using 32000 m2 of CFRC curtain wall (Fig. 14). The Ark-Mor¡ building
alone consumed over 160 tons of carbon fiber, and the use of lightweight curtain
walls resulted in a reduction in structural steel requirement from 24,000 tons to
20,000 tons. Following the Ark-Mori experience, over 100 high-rises have been
clad with CFRC curtain walls totaling over 250,000 m2 in area. Some prominent
examples are the Suidobashi building of the Tokyo Dental College, Hitachi Civic
Center, World Buskess Center in Makuhari, Sea Fort Square in Tennosu,
Shinagawa-Ku Building, the International University of the United Nations and
the Edo-Tokyo Museum.
In the cast-in-place applications, CFRC has potential for use in mortars for
external walls especially for structures in seismic regions, for thin repairs (20), for
small machinery foundations, etc. The good conductivity of these composites (1 7)
may be put to use in the secondary anode system in the cathodic protection of
reinforced concrete bridge decks, in conductive floor panel systems, in concrete
for lightning arresters and for the encapsulation of transmission tower grounding
wire.
Numerous non-structural applications of CFRC have also been
suggested. The potentially beneficial applications include their use in the electrical
and electronics industries.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0 5 2 2 5 3 4 053
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Author wishes to thank Dr. Shigeyuki Akihama of FRC

Corporation, Japan, Mr. Nobuyuki Uehara of Kureha Chemical Company of
Japan and Prof. Yoshihiko Ohama of Nihon University, Japan for their valuable
advice and support.
REFERENCES
1. Gilson, J.C., “Health Hazards of Asbestos, Composites”, Vol. 3, No. 2,

March 1972. pp. 57-59.
2. Bentur, A. and Mindess, S., “Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites”,

Elsevier Applied Sciences, 1990, pp. 191, 218-278.
3. Ali, M.A., Majumdar, A.J. and Rayment, D.L., “Carbon Fiber

Reinforcement of Cement, Cement and Concrete Research”, 2, 1972, pp.
20 1-212.
4. Ohama, Y. and Amano, M., “Effects of Silica Fume and Water Reducing
Agent on Carbon Fiber Reinforced Mortar”, Proc. 27th Japan Congress
on Materials Research, Society of Materials Science, Kyoto, 1984, pp.
187-191,
5. Ohama, Y., Amano, M. and Endo, M., “Properties of Carbon Fiber

Reinforced Cement with Silica Fume”, ACI, Concrete International,
March 1985, pp. 58-62.
6. Akihama, S. Suenaga, T. and Banno, T., “Mechanical Properties of

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites”, International Journal of
Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, 8(1), Feb. 1986, pp. 21-
33.
7. Akihama, S., Kobayashi, M., Suenaga, T., Nakagawa, H. and Sumki, K.,
“Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Cement Composites and the
Application to Buildings (Part 2)”, Kajima Inst. of Construction Tech.,
Report No. 65, Tokyo, Oct. 1986, 54 pp.
8. Ohama, Y., “Durability and Long Term Performance of FRC”, In

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced

A C 1 SP-I154 95 E Obb2949 0522515 T î T
Concrete, (Eds. V.S. Parameswaran and T.S. Krishnamoorthy), Oxford

and IBH Publishing, New Delhi, Vol. 2., 1987, pp. 5.3-5.16.
9. Akihama, S., Suenaga, T. and Nakagawa, H., “Carbon Fiber Reinforced

Concrete, Concrete International”, 10(l), January 1988, pp. 40-47.
10. Banthia, N. and Ohama, Y., “Dynamic Tensile Fracture of Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Cements”, Fiber Reinforced Cements and Concretes: Recent
Developments (Eds. R.N. Swamy and B. Barr) Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers, 1989, pp. 251-260.
11. Ohama, Y., “Carbon-Cement Composites”, Carbon, 27(5), 1989, pp. 729-
737.
12. Banthia, N. and Sheng, J., “Micro-Reinforced Cementitious Materials”,

Materials Research Society Fall Meeting Proc., Vol. 21 1 (Eds. S. Mindess
and J. Skalny), Boston, Nov. 1990, pp. 25-32.
13. Ando, T., Sakai, H., Takahashi, K., Hoshijima, T., Awata, M. and Oka,
S., “Fabrication and Properties for a New Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Cement Product”, in Thin Section Fiber Reinforced Concrete and
Ferrocement (Eds. J.I. Daniel and S.P. Shah) American Concrete Institute,
SP-124, 1990, pp. 39-60.
14. Banthia, N. and Sheng, J., “Durability of Carbon Fiber Reinforced

Cements in Acidic Environments”, Proc. CANMET-AC1 Second Int.
Cod. on Durability of Concrete, Montreal, ACI, SP-126, 1991, pp. 837-
850.
15. Soroushian, P., Aouadi, F. and Nag¡, M., “Latex Modified Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Mortar”, AC1 Materials Journal, 88(1), 1991, pp. 11-18,
16. Banthia, N., Djeridane, S. and Pigeon, M., “Electrical Resistivity of

Cements Reinforced with Micro-Fibers of Carbon and Steel”, Cement and
Concrete Research, 22(5), 1992, pp. 804-814.
17. Banthia, N., “Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cements: Structure,

Performance, Applications and Research Needs”, Canadian Journal of
Civil Engineering, Vol. 19, 1992, pp. 26-38.
18. Banthia, N. Azzabi, M. and Pigeon, M., “Restrained Shrinkage Cracking

in Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites”, Materials and Structures
RILEM (Pans), 26(161), 1993, pp. 405-413.

A C 1 SP-154 95 O Ob62949 0522516 926
19. Banthia, N. and Dubeau, S., “Steel and Carbon Micro-Fiber Reinforced
Cement-Based Materials for Thin Repairs”, ASCE J. of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 1, February 1994, pp. 88-99.
20. Banthia, N., Moncef, A., Cholu-i, K. and Sheng J., “Uniaxial Tensile
Response of Micro-Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites”, RTLEM,
Materials and Structures (in press), 1995.
21. Hull, D., “An Introduction to Composite Materials”, Cambridge

University Press, 1981, pp. 9-16.
22. Ouyang, C. and Shah, S.P. (1992). “Toughening of High Strength

Cementitious Matrix Reinforced by Discontinuous Short Fibers”, Cement
and Concrete Research, 22, pp. 1201-1215.
23. Genois, I., M.A.Sc. Thesis, “Crack Growth Resistance in Micro-Fiber

Reinforced Cement Composites”, in preparation, 1995.
TABLE 1 - CARBON FIBERS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF CEMENT
Fiber Diameter Specific Tensile Young’s Approximate

Type (Pm) gravity strength modulus cost ratios
(MPa) (GPa)
PAN-based 7-8 1.7-1.8 3000-4000 250-400 7
Pitch-based 14-18 1.6-1.7 500-2000 30-200 1

A C 1 SP-154 95 I
I 0662949 0522537 862
Fig. 1-Fractured surface of carbon fiber reinforced cernent composite

A C 1 SP-354 95 = 0662947 0522538 7Tï
S/C = O 5, SF/C = O 2
8 Pitch Based Carbon Fiber:
18 p m dia, 3 mm long,
3% fiber -1
t
\
\
I/gL
95 rnm (15 mm
x 7 rnrn)
3 I
I
I
2 c
Strength (MPa) E (GPa) Strain at Peak Load (%
1
4 75 12 50 O 065
2% 6 44 13 94 O 126
3% 14 80 o 220
O
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Strain (%)
Fig. 2-Stress-strain curves in uniaxial tension for carbon fiber reinforced cement mortars (20)

A C 1 SP-154 95 O 0662949 0522539 b35 m
L.
Fiber: Discontinuous pitch-based carbon,

10 rnrn long, 14.5 prn 0
I l I I I
I / 8
3.98 1
4 . 3 . 1 8
--
Paste w 1 c = 0.30
S I c = 0.40
A: Aggregate
S: Silica fume
ví : Fiber volume content
O 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

strain (x
Fig. 3-Stress-strain curves in uniaxial tension for carbon fiber reinforced cement
pastes (5) and carbon fiber reinforced cement mortars (6)

A C 1 SP-L54 95 H Ob62949 0522520 357 H
1 .c
0% 6 08 1 57
0.e
I
0.6
n Mortar: WIC = O 35,
SIC = o 5, SFIC = o 2
H Pitch Based Carbon Fiber:
m
V 18 prn dia, 3 rnrn long,
3
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
Mid-span displacement, mm
Fig. 4-Load-displacement curves for carbon fiber reinforced cement mortars in flexure

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522521 293
45
40
35
I +BanthiaandSbemg(I990)
Beamr: 1 5 x l S x l S O m
-f Ohana et al. (1985) W/C=0.3;
SF=40% ofC; Beams: 40~10x160mm
W/C=0.3;
’
I
+ I I “ II 1)
30
25
20
15
10
5
SF=Silica Fume
O
O 1 2 3 4 5
Volume Fraction of Carbon Fiber (%)
Fig. &Variation in flexural strength as a function of carbon fiber volume fraction

and length for cement pastes composites (5,12)
..
0.4 -
O 3-
: Experiment No.3
__
(Third point
- -loading)
._._ ... ..
5 10 50 100 500 \O00 5,OOOlqOOO

(Spanlx( D e p t h ) : l o g ( l - D ) (in*)
Fig. bRelationship between geometry of specimens and Rob (9)

A C 1 SP-LSL1 95 0662949 0522522 L 2 T M
3,,, 40 -
OW/B=0.35, S/B=0.5
AW/B=0.35, S/B=l
OW/B=0.35, S/B=l, SF=lO% of C
V HW/B=0.35, S/B=l, SF=20% of C
I
O 1 2 3
Volume Fraction of Carbon Fiber (5%)
Fig. 7-Variation in compressive strength as a function of

carbon fiber volume fraction for reinforced cement mortars
LEGEND (Fig. 7 and 8)

W =Water, C = Cement
SF=Silica Fume, B=C+SF
Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber
3 mm long, 18 pm in diameter
Tensile Strength=590 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity=30 GPa
h n d e r s 50x100 mm
O 2
Volume Fraction of
Carbon Fiber (%)
Fig. &Variation in modulus of elasticity os a function of carbon fiber volume fraction for
reinforced cement mortars

A C 1 SP-154 75 Obb2747 0522523 Ob6
10.0
- 7.5
a
E
In
5.0
-0)
.-
'
In
2.5
O
O 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 30W 3500 4000 4500 51
Strain (x
Fig. 9-Fracture energy increases under impact as a result of carbon fiber reinforcement (10)
Fig. 10-Tensile stress-strain curves for

lightweight CFRC under cyclic loading (9)

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0522524 T T 2
Fig. 11-A test to study crack growth in

CFRC in progress (23)
%
2000
h
i1500
500
O
O 200 400 600
47 67 87 107
CMOD (pm)
Effective Crack Length (mm)
Fig. 12-0) Opening load versus crack mouth opening displacement curves for some carbon fiber
reinforced mortars from the test shown in Fig. 11. b) Typical R-curves for CFRC (23)

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2949 0522525 939
3.5
3
Mortar ( W l M . 6 ; SF40 %of C,SIC%)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
O
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Volume Fraction of Carbon Fiber (%)
Fig. 13-Variation in maximum crack width as a function of carbon fiber volume fraction for
reinforced pastes and mortars (18)
Fig. l a r k - M o r i Building in Tokyo with CFRC curtain walls

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522526 875
SP 154-18
Development of Superworkable
Concrete for MuIti- Functional
Port Str uctu res
by T. Fukute, A. Moriwake,
K. Sano, and K. Hamasaki
Svnoosis: The Japanese economy has been highly developed through foreign trade. Port facilities
have been supporting this econoinic growth and inany concrete port structures have been
constructed and maintained during the past few decades.
Recently, various social and cconomical demands have required port facilities to he inulti-
functional. New facilities are being constructed to meet this trend. These changes include new
types of breakwaters, revetment and under-sea tunnels which iinprove aesthetics, and reduce cost,
labor and construction lime.
Fresh concrete used in the construction of these new types of structures is often required to have
high flowability and be sclf coiiipactable because of thc complicated shape and densely
arranged reinforceiiients of these structures.
In ordcr to ineet these demands, the authors have developed super workable concrete using
viscous admixture (ccgregation reducing admixture) and superplasticizer.
In this paper, the ink design and material properties of this super workable concrete and
exaniples of its application to new port concrete structures are presented.
Kevwords: Admixtures; air entrained concretes; drying shrinkage;

durability; porosity; reinforcing materials; supenvorkable concrete;
superplasticizer; viscosity
335
336 Fukute et al
T. Fukute is the chief of Materials Laboratory, Structural Engineering Division, Port and Harbour
Research Institute, Ministry of Transport, Yokosuka, Japan. He received his Dr. Eng. from Nagoya
University in 1984. He has been engaged in research related to durability of concrete and
development of new type materials for marine environment.
A. Moriwake is the chief of Materials Laboratory, Technical Research Institute, Toa Corporation,
Yokohama, Japan. He has been closely associated with durability of concrete structures.
K. Sano is the chief of Materials Laboratory, Naruo Engineering Research Institute, Toyo
Construction Co., Ltd., Nishinomiya, Japan. He has been engaged in research related to
anti-washout underwater concrete and durability of reinforced concrete structures.
K. Hamasaki is the chief engineer of Engineering Research Institute, Penta-Ocean Construction

Co.,Ltd., Tochigi, Japan. He has been associated with development of fiber reinforced plastics
(FRP) for marine concrete structures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPER WORKABLE CONCRETE
The super workable concrete developed here have three basic characteristics, namely, high
flowability, high segregation resistance and high self compactibility. To provide these properties
in concrete, mixture proportions and materials are proposed as shown in Fig.l(').
Flowability, an important property of the super workable concrete, is commonly evaluated by
its slump flow value. This value is determined by measuring the diameter of concrete base instead
of the slump of the concrete top. When the slump flow value is large, the flowability is evaluated
to be high.
To achieve satisfactory self compactibility as for a super workable concrete, high segregation
resistance is as essential as flowability. To evaluate the segregation resistance, several test
methods such as the V-shape funnel test, the box test and others are proposed. In the V-shape
funnel test, as shown in Fig.2, the falling time of the concrete through the 75mm square outlet
of the funnel is measured. For the box test, a transparent box separated at the center is used as
shown in Fig.3. The test results are evaluated by the difference of concrete levels in two
chambers after the concrete has flowed from one chamber into another through the obstacles of
reinforcement with 50mm opening.
These test results are explained in connection with rheology parameters. The yield value and
plastic viscosity are expressed as Fig.4 when concrete is assumed to be a Bingham liquid('). The
relations of the slump flow values and yield value are indicated by some researchers. The falling
time of V-shape funnel test and the slump flow speed are suggested to be related to the plastic
viscosity of concrete. The slump flow speed is represented by flow time which is obtained by
measuring the time of the concrete reaching a size of 50cm in diameter in slump flow test. It is
understood that these several tests are essential to evaluate the super workable concrete from the
viewpoint of rheology.
MIXTURE PROPORTIONING AND THE PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
The segregation resistance and self compactibility of this super workable concrete is provided
by a viscous admixture which is made from "water-soluble cellulose ether" and flowability is
provided by superplasticizer. This conaete technology is an extension of anti-washout underwater
concrete in which a high volume of the viscous agent and superplasticizer are dosed to get
segregation resistance and self compactibility in water. The outline of mixture proportions of super
workable concrete developed here is shown in Table 1. The properties of fresh concrete are

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522528 648 =
dominated not only by the viscous admixture and/or superplasticizer but also by water content,
sand-aggregate ratio and content of coarse aggregate in the concrete.
Mixture proportions must be modified according to the difficulty of compaction of concrete.

Namely, as for the complex shape of formwork, high flowability is required for the concrete and
for the structure with densely arranged reinforcements, high segregation resistance is essential. The
mixture proportions must be changed according to the requirements. Through the laboratory test
and actual applications, the satisfactory properties of fresh super workable concrete are proposed
as in Table 2.
The initial and final time of setting of super workable concrete show delay by the influence
of viscous admixture and superplasticizer when compared with those of conventional concrete. The
difference of time of setting measured for super workable concrete and for conventional concrete
mixed with blast-furnace slag cement type WBB) specified by JIS R 5211, for example, are two
hours and 3.5 hours respectively as shown in Fig.5. The delay of initial setting time of super
workable concrete leads to the increase of lateral pressure against the formwork. It should be
assumed that the lateral pressure of concrete is distributed hydrostatically if the rising rate of
concrete placing is high(3).
CHARACTERISTICS O F HARDENED CONCRETE
ComDressive strength, soiitting tensile strength and Young's modulus
The specimens for compressive and splitting tensile strength test of super workable concrete
are cast with rocking (without rodding) the cylindrical molds of 10cm in diameter and 20cm in
height. The compressive strength and splitting tensile strength are measured according to JIS A
1108 and JIS A 1113 respectively after 3,7 and 28 days of aging.
The relations between compressive strength and Young's modulus are shown in Fig.6. Young's
modulus of super workable concrete is a little less than that of conventional concrete (solid line
in the figure, as specified by JSCE)(4). The relations of compressive and tensile splifting strength
are shown in Fig.7. The splitting tensile strength of super workable concrete seems to be larger
than that of conventional concrete indicated by solid line when the compressive strength is high.
Drying shrinkage
Specimens for drying shrinkage were cast in accordance with JIS A 1129 and removed from
the mold the day after casting. After 7 days of curing in water, the measurements of drying
shrinkage of the specimens cured in a room of 20°C temperature and 60% relative humidity are
started.
The test results are shown in Fig& The drying shrinkage of super workable concrete is
observed to have close relation to the volume of mixing water. The shrinkage of concrete mixed
with 200kg/m3 of water is larger than those of concrete mixed with 180kg/m3 and 190kgim3. To
decrease the drying shrinkage of the super workable concrete with a viscous admixture and
superplasticizer, it is important to decrease the amount of mixing water.
Penetration deuth of chloride ions
To measure the chloride penetration depth, specimens are prepared with the same procedure
as those for the compressive strength test and are cured in water for 91 days before a testing. The
penetration depth is evaluated by soaking the cylindrical specimens in sea water for specified
periods. The specimens are split and are sprayed with 0.1% fluorescent natrium solution and with

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522529 584 m
338 Fukute et al
0.1N silver nitrate solution to evaluate the penetration depth of chloride. The test results are
expressed by the average depth of the fluorescent area where the chloride concentration is
evaluated to be more than 0.25% by weight of concrete. The comparison of penetration depth
between super workable concrete(W/C=50%,,55%,60%) and conventional concrete(W/C=55%)
are shown in Fig.9.
The results show that penetration depth into super workable concrete is less, regardless of
W/C, than that of conventional concrete. The reason is considered to be the decrease of defects
induced by bleeding in super workable concrete. The difference of the penetration depth of
chloride ions is not obsened in super workable concrete, regardless of its W/C.
Carbonation
The specimens for carbonation test are prepared with the same procedure as for the test of
penetration depth of chloride ions. After 91 days of curing in water, specimens are placed in a
room of 20°C temperature and 60% relative humidity for specified terms. Carbonation depth
from the surface is evaluated by spraying of 1% phenolphthalein alcohol solution. It is seen that
carbonation depth of super workable concrete (WiC=50%,55%,60%) is less than that of
conventional concrete (W/C=55%) as shown in Fig.10.
Influence of flow distance on uuality of concrete
High flowability and segregation resistance make it possible for the super workable concrete
to flow a longer distance. Before applying the super workable concrete to actual structures, the
influence of flow distance on the quality of concrete must be assessed.
Influence of flow distance on quality of super workable concrete is evaluated by block

specimens. The specimens of 2.0m in width, 1.lm in height and 7.2111 in length are used. The
reinforceinenis of D51 and D32 (nominal diameter) in four layers at the top and bottom of the
specimens are arranged as shown in Photo.1. The compressive strength, Young's modulus and
coarse aggregate content are evaluated by core specimen taken from the blocks.
The compressive strength, Young's modulus and coarse aggregate content are shown
respectively in Fig.l I,i2,13 versus the flow distance. The fluctuation of compressive strength
(expressed by the ratio of compressive strength of core to that of specimen cured in water of
20°C) is not observed noticeably along the flow distance. The same tendency can be observed in
Young's modulus ratio (Young's modulus of core is divided by that of specimen cured in water
of 20°C). The segregation resistance or uniformity of concrete along the flow distance is evaluated
by coarse aggregate area ratio (the area of coarse aggregate appeared on the core surface is divided
by total area of core surface). From the measurements, uniformity of concrete along flow distance
of 7.2111 is maintained.
From these assessments, it is suggested that the super workable concrete shows high
reliability when it is applied to actual structures in which the reinforcement is densely arranged.
APPLICATION O F SUPER WORKABLE CONCRETE TO A NEW TYPE OF

BREAKWATER
Outline
From the previous studies, the super workable concrete using a viscous admixture and
superplasticizer is confirmed to have good flowability, segregation resistance and self
compctibility. In this section, an example of the super workable concrete applied to a new type
of breakwater is described. The qualities of concrete are traced with sampling at the batching

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522530 2Tb
plant, at delivery site, at the top of the conveying pipe and as it is placed in-situ through the
reinforcement.
The double cylindrical caisson type breakwater, as shown in Fig.14, is adopted for Shibayama
port area. The location of the port is shown in Fig.15. In this area, the depth of the seabed is about
30in and wave conditions are severe in winter seasons. This breakwater is developed for the
structures suitable for the deep sea and the arca of rough waves with the double cylindrical walls
dissipating wave energy effectively.
This caisson has a densely reinforced floor in which 14 layers of reinforcement is arranged
crosswise in 1 . h of thickness. As it is evaluated that compaction of conventional concrete is
difficult, the super workable concrete is applied.
Materials and mixture proportion of concrete
Materials and inixture proportions used for the super workable concrete are shown in Table
3 and 4. The concrete has been dosed with 0.3% viscous admixtures by weight relative to
mixing water so as to get enough segregation resistance. The super plasticizer made with "poly
carboxylic ether" and "crosslinked polymer" is used to maintain the workability during the placing.
WiC of 48% is adopted for the concrete mixture to attain a coiiipressive strength of iiiorc than
30MPa at the age of 28 days.
Mixing at the batchina plant
As the super workable concrete is placed without coiiipaction, properties of fresh concrete
(flowability, segregation resistance and filling ability) definitely dorninate the reliabili~y and
durability of concrete structures. Thus, the quality control of super workable concrete at the inixing
plant is very iinportant. The inking tiiiie, as shown in Fig.16, is sufficiently long s o aï to disperse
the siiiall voluiiie of viscous adiiiixture to obtain uni forin concrete.
One of the inost iiiiportant control itcnis to inix this type of concrete at a inking plant is to
ineasure the inoisturc content of fine aggregate. To satisfy this requireinent, a inicrowave nioisture
sensor is inounted just under the sand loading gate (just before the weighing bucket) as shown in
P h o t o 2 The iiioisturc content nf sand is inonitored at every hatch by the sensor. In accordance
with JIS A i I I l , iiieasureiiient of iiioisture content is perforiiicd at every tenth batch iiianually.
As shown in Fig.17, both ineasurciiients are coincident with each other. Froin these results, it is
confiriiied that continuous monitoring by microwave sensor is useful in stabilizing the quality of
fresh concrete. Averages of four or five ineasureiiients by the sensor are carried over to the next
inixture.
Delivery
It takes about 30 iiiinutes for concrete delivery froiii the batching plant to the placing site by
truck agitators. The changes of properties of fresh concrete during transportation are traced.
The changes of slump flow ineasured at the batching plant and at the placing site are shown
in Fig.18. This figure shows that the slump flow is increased by about 5cin during the
transportation. This characteristic of concrete is considered to coine froin the superplasicizer. The
ineasuteinents of sluinp flow at the placing site are satisfactorily controlled within the specified
value of 60 2 5ciii. The 50ciii flow t h e and falling tiiiie of V-shape funnel are shown in Fig.19
and Fig.20. Froin these test results, noticeable changes during the transportation are not
inoni tored.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0 5 2 2 5 3 1 1 3 2
340 Fukute et al
Placing
After the concrete is delivered, mobile concrete pumps, shown in Photo.3, are used for placing.
The concrete is conveyed to the proper position with flexible hoses connected to a turn table as
shown in Photo.4. Birds'-eye views during concrete work are shown in Photo.5. It takes about 12
hours to place about 760m3 of super workable concrete without the noisy vibrator. For the placing
work, eight skilled workers (two for operating the mobile pump, four for top of flexible hose and
two to operate the turn table) are engaged.
Due to the viscosity of super workable concrete, pumping resistance is observed to increase
in comparison with conventional concrete. As shown in Table 5, the pumping pressure reduced
the slump flow by 5cm. The 50cm flow time, the falling time of V-shape funnel and the air
content in concrete increased a little during the pumping process.
Curinp
As bleeding of super workable concrete is negligible, curing of the concrete surface should
immediately follow the completion of concrete placing. In this case, the concrete surface is
covered with a thin layer of potable water and cured for seven days.
ProDerîies of hardened concrete
The test results of compressive strength of concrete specimens made during the work are
shown in Fig.21. The test results show satisfactory strength and small deviation in strength
through the placing are observed. The compressive strength of specimens sampled at mixing plant,
after delivery, after pumping, after flowing through reinforcements are shown in Fig.22. There is
little difference in compressive strength between the specimens. From these measurements, it is
obvious that the work process affected the concrete strength just a little.
The spacing factor of concrete sampled at each step of work (mentioned above) has
been measured in accordance with ASTM C457-94. As shown in Fig.23, the spacing factor of
concrete becomes smaller (less than 15Oflm) as the work proceeds. The effective change of
spacing factor is observed during the pumping work. As advantageous changes are observed in the
spacing factor, the concrete is assumed to have enough resistance against freezing and thawing
action.
The pore size distribution measured with a mercury intrusion porosimeter is shown in Fig.23.
The pore volume of around IO4 angstrom in pore diameter is observed to increase during the
pumping process. It is assumed that the pumping pressure affects air-void system in concrete.
Though these microscopic changes are negligible, these test results tell the importance of
appropriate work process which is suitable for the properties of concrete in constructing reliable
concrete structures.
CONCLUSIONS
The authors have developed super workable concrete with viscous admixtures and have applied
it i o actual concrete structures in which reinforcement is densely arranged. The following
conclusions are made from the above work:
(1) Concrete with viscous admixtures and superplasticizer shows high flowability, segregation
resistance and self compactibility.
2) The initial and final time of setting of super workable concrete tend to delay when compared
with those of conventional concrete. This delay is due to the viscous admixtures and super-

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0522532 079
plasticizer.
(3) Mechanical properties of the super workable concrete such as compressive, splitting tensile
strength and Young's modulus are similar to conventional concrete.
(4) To reduce the drying shrinkage of this super workable concrete, it is important to reduce the
mixing water.
(5) Penetration depth of chloride ions and carbonation of the super workable concrete are less than
that of conventional concrete.
(6) From the application of super workable concrete to a large-scale structure in which the
reinforcement is densely arranged, it is confirmed that few skilled workers are needed to place
concrete without the noisy vibrators.
(7) Judging from the fresh and hardened concrete sampled at each execution process, change in
concrete properties during execution is ncgligible.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express sincere thanks to the Third District Port Construction
Bureau of Ministry of Transport and the persons involved in the breakwater construction. The
developinent of super workable concrete was performed and is being coniinued by "The
Research Group of Super workable concrete for Marine Environment" which consists of 12
organizations, Oinotoguini Co.,Ltd., Japan Industrial Land Development Co.,Lid., Sack¡
Kensetsu Kogyo Co.,Ltd., Daito Logyo Co.,Ltd., Honina Corporation, Mitsui Harbour and
Urban Construction Co.,Ltd., Rinkai Construction &.,Lid., Wakachiku Construction Co.,Ltd
and authors.
REFERENCES
(1)Fukute T. et al.:"Application of super workable using viscous agent to densely reinforced

concrete ineinbers",Repori of Port and Harbour Research Institute, Vo1.33, No.2, 1994.6,
pp233-257(in Japanese)
(2)Tanigawa Y.:"Rheology and flow simulation of fresh concrete",The 37th combined conference
of material research, The Science Council of Japan,1993.9,ppl23-126(in Japanese)
(3)Okainura H. et al.:High perforinance concrete,Gihodo Publication Co., Ltd.1993.9,
pp90-91(in Japanese)
(4)Japan Society of Civile Engineering:"Standard specification of concrete (design)", 1991.3,
pp22-23

A C 1 SP-I154 95 W 0662747 0522533 TO5
342 Fukute et al
TABLE 1 - OUTLINE OF MIXTURE PROPORTIONING OF SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE
Mixture p r o p o r t i o n s
Water content Sand Volume of Visoxity ageit
per unit volume percentage uiarse aggregates dosage
Type of cement (kglm31 (%) (l/m3) (W*%)
180 190 200 46 48 50 52 300 325350 0.25 0.35
I I I I l I I I I I I I I
Blast-hace slagcement
type-B*) !U
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
,
u
,
I
‘i!I
I
j
I
I I
I
I
I I
Blast-hace slagcement
type-BOow heat type)’’
, I ,
I
; i
,
I
,
I I ,
i; :
<
ai , , I I I
TABLE 2 - SATISFACTORY PROPERTIES OF FRESH SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE
I I For hieh seareeation resistance I For hieh flowabilitv I

Slump flow value 6025cm 65 k 5cm
50cm flow time less than 25sec less than 15sec
V-funnel test value less than 2Ssec less than 15sec
BOKtest I not specified I less than 2 cm I
TABLE 3 - PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Cement Blast-furnace slag cement t ype-B”

specific gravity:3 04
Fine aggregate River sand
specific gravity:2.56
absorption: 1.83%
fineness modules:2.87
Coarse aggregate Cmshed stone
specific gravity:2.66
absorption:û.95%
fineness modules:6.65
Viscocity agent Water-soluble cellulose ether with low surface activity
Superplasticizer Polycarboxylic ether and crosslinked polymer
Air entraining agent Rosin acid salt based anionic surfactant

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obh2949 0522534 941
TABLE 4 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONING OF SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE
W/C s/a Unii \mghr(h~/rn3) Viscocity Super Air enüaining

(Yo) (Yo) agent plasticizer agem
W C s G (W‘%) (Ca%) íkdm’)
48 52 185 385 872 820 030 3.00 5 775
l ’ r < ~ i i r i i i c i ipcriod
i Slwiip ilow value 50cni Sliinip Ilow iiiiie V-fuiinnel test value Air content value
(Ciil) (sec) (sec) (%)
A i i u deli\ cry
(heliirc piiriiliiiig) 64 5 11.4 14.6 4. I
,\llcr [iwiipiiig
io0 13.5 17.3 4.8

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Obb2949 0522535 & & & M
344 Fukute et al
@High flowability Q Using superplasticizer
@High segregation resistance Using viscocity agent
@High self-compactibility Using a lot of powder
Fig. 1-Required properties and using materials for superworkable concrete
500
u75 75
(in mm>
Fig. 2-Shape of V-funnel
Fig. 3-Shape of instrument for box test

A C 1 SP-L5Y 95 I0662949 052253b 714 I
Shearing stress (7)
Fig. 4-Bingham model
35
30
25
20
15 . .
10 ANormal concreteV P C)
ANormal concrete(BB)
5
O Supenvorkable concretc(BB)
A
O
Fig. L T i m e of setting

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522537 650 m
346 Fukute et al
35
30
h
a 25
$?9
-
-0
1
20
2 15
in
-9 10
5
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Compressive strength fc(MPa)
(
Fig. LRelotionship between compressive strength and Ycung's modulus
5 I I 1 I l 1 I I l
- 03days A -
M
fi
e
+-a 3 -
v>
-
M -
Conventional concrete -
-
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Compressive strength fc(MPa)
Fig. 7-Relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0bb2949 0522538 597 =
I . , , . I . . ,
O 5 10 15
Drying t¡me(weeks)
Fig. 8-Drying shrinkage
15 I I I 6 I I I
Cernent BB(1ow hcat type)

Viscocity agent W*O 275(nt%)
Exposure(months)
Fig. 9-Change in penetration depth of chloride ions

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2747 0522539 423
348 Fukute e t al
151 I I I I l I I
I
Ceinent:BB(low heat type)

Viscocity ageiit:W*O.Z75(wt%)
Exposure(rnonths)
Fig. 10-Change in carbonation depth with exposure duration
u I I I l I I 1
1. o 20 30 0.4 I O 6.0 1. o
Flow distance (m)
Fig. 1 1-Compressive strength versus flow distance

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522540 1 4 5
.................... ____________________----
8 --o----
O 0 O 0 .
O .
O
_--_________________-----__-__-----_-___----------_
O : upper layer
O : middle and lower layer
I l I I l I l
Fig. 13-Coarse aggregate area ratio versus flow distance

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522541 O ô 1 W
350 Fukute et al
.9.00; , , InsideofPort
c w c r smsrc11
Fig. 14-Double cylindrical caisson-type breakwater
Fig. 15-location of site (Shibayama port)
Fine aggregate Water

Coarse aggregate Superplasticizer
Cement Ming Air entraining agent Mixing
Viscociîy agent
(30cec) (60sec)
Fig. ló-Mixing time of superworkable concrete

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522542 T L 8 m
P 12
:
L
2 8
10
.-
v)
L
F 61
- Sensor
g
a 4 +JISA1111
' t 2
% 50 100 150 200 250 300
Number of batch
Fig. 17-Results of moisture measurement of fine aggregate
70
I
i3
? 50
o-o after delivery
cr, 45
Hafter mixing
4% 20 40 60 80 1001201401~
Number of the agitating truck
Fig. 1 L Re su lts of slump flow test

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 m Obb2949 0522543 954 m
352 Fukute et al
8
10 5 o-o afterdelivery
H after mixing
Fig. 19-Results of 50 cm flow time test
=: Haíter mixing
% 20 40 60 80 1001201401~0
Number of the agitating truck
Fig. 2 L R e s u l t s of V-funnel test

A C 1 SP-154 95 E 0662949 0522544 890 E
3 50
'
Q
5 40 B
0
- - + ~ - #
E 30
+
0
.-9
(B
2
(B
!?? 10 o-e
7days
E" H 28days
Fig. 21-Results of compressive strength test
40
S
al
a
7 d w 4)
20
10
O
after mixing after delivesr after pumping after placing
Step of works
Fio. 22-Results of comoressive strenath test

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0bb2949 0522545 727 m
354 Fukute et al
n
300
E 250
I
W
+0 200'
'o
0-l
.-
!=
150
D
2 100
50
O
after mixing after delivery after pumping after placing
Step of works
Fig. 23-Results of measurement of spacing factor
O.OSO(
0.01oc
h
M
\ 0.0100
o
W
o
W
-5>
O
0.0200
W
8 0.0100
a
Pore radius(Angstrom)
Fig. 24-Pore size distribution of concrete at each process of work

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2949 0522546 663
Photo 1 - Setup of specimen and placing work of supenvorkable concrete
Photo 2 - Microwave moisture sensor
Photo 3 - Mobile concrete pumps and truck agitators

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522547 5 T T m
356 Fukute et al
Photo 4 - concrete placing work
I - I - __ -
Photo 5 - Bird’s-eye views during concrete work

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb294q 0522548 436
SP 154-19
The Thaumasite Form of Sulfate

Attack in Concretes Containing a
Source of Carbonate Ions -
A Microstructural Overview
by N. J. Crammond and M. A. Halliwell
Synopsis: Over the last 50 years, many researchers have investigated the
subject of sulfate attack of concrete and special cements have been formulated
to combat the problem. However, recent site investigative work and
laboratory-based studies carried out by the Building Research Establishment
have shown that a particular form of sulfate attack can proceed even in some
concretes which were specifically designed to provide good sulfate resistance.
In this type of attack, the main mechanism of deterioration is the breakdown
of the calcium silicate hydrate phases in the hardened cement paste in the
presence of an available supply of sulfate and carbonate ions to produce the
minerai thaumasite (CaSi03.CaSOq.CaC03.15H20).A microstnicturai
overview incorporating three examples of the thaumasite form of sulfate
attack is presented in this paper. The combination of optical and electron
microscopy has proved to be a very powerful technique for examining the
processes of deterioration in carefully selected site samples.
Kevwords: Calcite; carbonates; concretes; dolomite; foundations;

microstructure; petrography; portland cement; scanning electron
microscopy; sulfate attack; thaumasite
357
A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522547 372
358 Crammond and Halliwell
Norah Crammond is Head of the Materials Diagnostic Section at the Building

Research Establishment, UK. Her fields of expertise include sulfate attack
mechanisms in concretes and mortars and the long-term performance of
ageing high alumina cement concrete components in existing UK buildings.
Max Halliwell is a Higher Scientific Officer in the Materials Diagnostic

Section. He is carrying out in depth laboratory studies and tield investigations
into the thaumasite form of sulfate attack. The results of this work will be
incorporated into his PhD thesis.
INTRODUCTION
The chemical reactions responsible for causing sulfate attack of concrete have
been studied by many researchers over the years. The two main reactions
which have been identified are the transformation of portiandite (Ca(OH)2) to
gypsum (CaS04.2H20) and calcium aluminate hydrate to ettringite
(3CaO.Al203.3CaSO4.31H20). These findings resulted in the formulation of
sulfate-resisting portland cement (SRYC), in which the quantity of the
sulfate-susceptible tricalcium aluminate is kept at a low level. SRPC was
introduced into the UK in the 1960’s and has since been widely used in
concrete construction where sulfate resistance has been specified. During this
era the instances of sulfate attack in the field were mainly restricted to ground
floor slabs and other forms of concrete with at least one evaporating surface to
encourage the throughput of sulfate ions and therefore the initiation of sulfate
attack. A large-scale UK project was launched in 1970 in order to simulate the
performance of foundation concrete with no evaporating surfaces by burying
concrete specimens in a wet, sulfate-rich clay site. Thames Valley flint
aggregate was the type of aggregate used exclusively in the preparation of
these buried concretes. The analyses of the specimens recentiy excavated after
15 years exposure have shown that the SRPC concretes have performed better
than those made with normal portland cement. In practical terms, however,
the general performance of the normal portland-cement concretes was
satisfactory because, even though some deterioration due to sulfate attack was
identified in the outer layers of the weaker concretes, the interiors were found
to be still sound (l).

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522550 094
Despite these reassuring results, BRE have identified two recent cases in the
UK where sulfate attack has lead to rapid deterioration in foundation concretes
with a different composition to those studied in the above long-term
investigation as they contained a source of finely divided calcium/magnesium
carbonate. The first case (referred to as Case A) occurred in the tops of
foundation piles made using SRPC concrete (2) and the second (referred to as
Case C) in normal portland-cement concrete strip foundations (3). A third
case (referred to as Case B) has also been reported in the Canadian Arctic (4),
where concrete columns and slab-on-grade containing carbonate aggregates
deteriorated so rapidly that some had to be replaced two years after
construction.
The main difference in the degradation process found in these recent case
studies is that, in the presence of available carbonate and sulfate ions, a third
chemical reaction can occur in which the calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) in
the hardened cement paste react to form the mineral thaumasite
(CaSi03.CaC03.CaS04.15H20). SRPC concretes are just as susceptible to
this form of sulfate attack as normal portland-cement concretes because they
each contain similar quantities of CSH (2,576,778).The Building Research
Establishment ( B E ) has reproduced this form of sulfate attack in laboratory-
cast concrete and mortar specimens made using both sulfate-resisting and
normal portland cements and a variety of aggregates containing a readily
available source of calcium carbonate. ( 2 3 . Deterioration has been observed
in test specimens exposed to a range of different sulfate solutions and is more
rapid in the samples stored at cold temperatures below 15OC. A promising
observation from these preliminary experiments has indicated that the use of
slag cement could prevent thaumasite from forming in a concrete containing a
readily available supply of carbonate ions.
The number of cases of sulfate attack of concretes containing a finely divided

source of calcium carbonate is still very low and the significance of the
problem in practice is not yet clear. However, some consideration has to be
given to the three reported failures because two have been identified in buried
foundation concretes not generally associated with failures due to sulfate
attack and, in one case at least, the concrete was designed specifically to
provide good sulfate resistance. Also the speed and extent of the deterioration
witnessed in the three cases warrants attention so that similar problems can be
identified and dealt with in the future. The current UK recommendations for
concretes buried in sulfate soils (9) incorporates a short paragraph warning
that concretes containing a finely divided source of calcium carbonate can be
susceptible to the thaumasite form of sulfate attack. Further precautions have

A C 1 SP-354 95 m 0662949 0522553 T20
360 Crammond and Haliiweli
been recommended by Bickiey et al (4) for consideration when concreting in

cold regions of the Canadian Arctic.
Sulfate attack which involves thaumasite formation is not restricted to

foundation concretes or concretes containing fine particles of calcium
carbonate. other researchers have investigated a wide range of scenarios
where thaumasite has been identifed as the deterioration product in building
materials which on the whole contained or were in contact with an identifiable
source of carbonate ions. The majority of these papers are listed in previous
publications
(274).
This paper presents an overview of the three recent case studies A, B and C.
The paper concentrates on the microstructural aspects of these investigations
because a great deal has been learnt of the reaction mechanisms by studying
the changes in microsîructure encountered during the deterioration process of
the concretes. Particular attention is given to the most recent investigation
(Case C) in which the technique of using a combination of opticai microscopy
and scanning electron microscopy on the same polished sample proved to be a
very powerful analytical tool.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE THREE CASE STUDIES
Case A
In July 1990, BRE investigated the cause of severe deterioration in the tops
of 300 mm diameter concrete piles below a 4-year-old housing estate (2). The
piles had been cast on site using SRPC and an oolitic limestone aggregate.
They had been exposed to extremely wet, moderately severe Class 3 sulfite
conditions (analysis of the 2:l clay extract in accordance with BRE Digest
363 (9) was 2.5 g/L SO42-,0.56 g/L Caz+, 0.18 g/L Mg2+ and 0.30 g/L
Na+). Sulfates had penetrated to a depth of several tens of millimetres into
the tops of the piles, transforming the high quality pile concrete into an
incohesive, white pulpy mass containing abundant thaumasite. The
requirements for sulfate resistance current at the time of construction had been
fulfilled as sound parts of the concrete were well compacted and contained a
recommended cement type and content. This was the first recorded case
where deterioration due to sulfate attack had occurred in concrete foundations
specifically designed to provide good sulfate-resistingproperties.

A C 1 SP-154 ’75 Obb2949 0 5 2 2 5 5 2 9b7 =
Sound samples of the pile material and groundbeam concrete (SRPC concrete
containing dolomitic and oolitic limestone coarse aggregate and a quartz sand)
were exposed to various laboratory-prepared sulfate solutions at 5OC and
deterioration as a resuIt of sulfate attack was reproduced in both MgS04 and
Na2SO4 solutions. The deterioration was so extreme that the groundbeam
sample stored for three years in strong MgSO4 deteriorated into a sludge
which could be poured into a perspex box as shown in Fig. 1. These
laboratory studies provided conclusive evidence that the carbonate ions
needed for thaumasite formation were derived from the concretes themselves.
Case B
In the early 199O’s, another case of the thaumasite form of sulfate attack was
discovered by Bickley et ai (4) during an inspection of columns supporting a
building and parts of a slab-on-grade of a hangar at Resolute Bay in the
Canadian Arctic. Expansion and premature loss of structural integrity had
occurred to such an extent in some of the bases to the columns that they had
to be replaced two years after construction. Samples of the deteriorated
concrete had a mush-like consistency and contained the reaction products
gypsum and thaumasite. The base of the piers were embedded in permafrost
for 10 months of the year and for the remaining 2 months, they stood in the
ponded melt water. The levels of sulfates detected in the groundwater ranged
in severity from ’positive’ to ’considerable’ and the elevated levels of Mg and
Na in the deteriorated concrete samples suggested that both these cations were
present in the groundwater. The concrete was composed of portland cement
(both sulfate resisting and normal) with a coarse aggregate comprising both
dolomite and calcite and a fine aggregate dominated by the same two
minerals.
Case C
In June 1994, BRE were asked to comment on a problem of subsidence in the

rear garage wall of a 12-year-old house built on the sulfate-bearing lower Lias
clay found in certain parts of England. Several inspection pits were dug at
various places round the property and the main pit running along the base of
the defective garage wall is shown in Fig. 2,3. The sîrip foundations had been
laid using ready-mixed concrete and these were exposed during the

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 0662949 0522553 ô T 3 W
excavation. The condition of the concrete at the bottom of the main'inspection

pit was found to be particularly poor throughout its whole depth as it readily
disintegrated in the hand. The foundations contained n o r d portland cement,
a coarse aggregate comprising Carboniferous limestone (both dolomite and
calcite) and fuie aggregate composed of Jurassic oolitic limestone sand.
A large crack 10 to 20mm deep had opened up along the damp proof course
as shown in Fig. 2,3,4 with a follow-on crack passing downward through the
brickwork footings (normally above ground level) and the underlying
blockwork (normally below ground level) into the concrete foundations. This
cracking was first noticed between two and five years ago and has become
progressively worse ever since. A gulley or ditch which frequently becomes
water logged runs close by the defective wall and the back garden often
floods as a result. The site is therefore normally very wet.
The 2:l clay extract results (1.88 g/L S042-, 0.64 g/L Ca2+, 0.07 g/L
Mg2+ and 0.09 g/L Na+) showed a composition characteristic of Class 2
conditions, which is very close to that of a saturated gypsum solution. The
recommendations in BRE Digest (9) permit the use of normal portland-
cement concrete in Class 2 conditions provided it contains a minimum cement
content of 330 k,g/m3 (approximately 14%). A selection of samples were
collected from the strip foundations, all showing different degrees of
deterioration. Their cement contents ranged from between 5 % to 11% and
were therefore all lower than the recommended value. However, none of the
samples examined were completely sound as they all showed some evidence
of sulfate attack. This may have affected their cement contents as the low
values found in the most damaged concretes were a result of severe leaching
of the cement paste (see later section). It is therefore possible that leaching
has accompanied sulfate attack to a lesser degree in the other samples and so
all the cement contents analysed could be lower than the actual value of the
concrete as placed.
BRE carried out a geotechnical assessment of the site which concluded that
significant shrinkage of the clay soil had occurred under the defective rear
garage wall resulting from moisture removal by the nearby vegetation. Had
the concrete been sound, the foundation would possibly have been able to
span over the area of ground subsidence (since the loads on the wall are
small), resulting in littie or no damage to the wall. However, given that the
foundation concrete had been weakened by deterioration, it appeared to have
been unable to span the necessary distance resulting in the localiseú damage.
There was also significant lateral movement of the wall outwards from the

A C 1 SP-154 '35 0662747 0522554 7 3 T
rest of the garage and this could be explained if the sulfate attack of the
foundations was accompanied by expansion.
In contrast to the deteriorated concrete foundations found on site, the

overlying blocks and mortar joints (Fig. 2,3) were found to be in very good
condition. This difference was very marked considering both were subjected
to the same percolating sulfate-bearing groundwaters. The aggregates in the
blocks comprised a mixture of boiler clinker and natural aggregate composed
of sandstones, metaquartzites and cherts. The adhering mortar contained
adequate cement and a quartz-rich sand. It follows, therefore that the
thaumasite form of sulfate attack had not occurred in the blockwork because it
did not contain an available source of carbonate ions.
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED
Sulfate attack is diagnosed using a Combination of chemical, mineralogical

and microscopical techniques. In the three case studies described in this
paper, petrography (optical microscopy) was used to provide an overall
assessment of each of the main sample types. The most interesting, significant
features were then selected and examined in more detail using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with microanalytical capability. In Case
C, analysis of the same 30 pm thick polished sample (thin section) by these
two techniques has proved to be a very powerful tool for following the
sequence of events leading to the destruction of the concrete strip foundations.
Other analytical tools employed IL. .t?e X-ray diffraction (XRD) for
identifying specific reaction products, c::emical analysis for determining
cement content (10) and total sulfate content and finally the microscopic test
described in BS 1881 (lo) which can be used to differentiate between SRPC
and normal portland cement in hardened concrete.

A C 1 SP-154 95 B 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522555 b7b B
MICROSTRUCTURALINVESTIGATION
Case A
In the deteriorated tops of the SRPC foundation piles, the cement-paste

matrix, including the fine grained calcium carbonate, had mostly disappeared
and had been replaced by a mass of thaumasite crystals. This thaumasite
occurred as straw-yellow crystals under the optical microscope (plane
polarised light) which can be seen in Fig. 5 as the pale-colored material
growing around a 10mm grain of oolitic limestone and replacing the cement-
paste and fine aggregate matrix. ûptical microscopy studies revealed that a
transition zone existed between sound and unsound concrete and that this was
associated with excess cracking. The broken surface of one of these crack
planes was examined using electron microanalysis, which detected the
presence of recrystallised calcite and a fine-grained, globular deposit, rich in
magnesium and silicon which was identified as magnesium silicate hydrate
(MSH). The breakdown of CSH is an important step in the formation of both
MSH and thaumasite and MSH was probably a crucial intermediate reaction
product in the process responsible for the deterioration of the piles. The
presence of ettringite was not observed in either the transition zone or the
deteriorated concrete.
-
.Case B
The swelling and softening of the cement paste in the severely deteriorated
Resolute Bay concretes was due to sulfate attack in which the main reaction
products were gypsum and thaumasite. The authors deduced that the gypsum
formed as a consequence of 'acid' attack in which reaction between CSH and
magnesium sulfate produced gypsum, brucite and silica gel. It follows that,
in a concrete containing an available supply of carbonate ions, the formation
of thaumasite is the next logical step in the reaction sequence. The most
obvious source of these carbonate ions was found to be the fine grained
calcite and dolomite present within the concrete itself. Microanalysis using
SEM was carried out on both polished and fracture surfaces which detected
that the normal hydrated portland-cement microstructure was only present in
isolated areas. The aggregate/paste boundary was found to be very weak and
aggregate pieces were frequently surrounded by empty peripheral voids.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662747 0522556 502 I
However, it was also observed that the most distressed areas were the least
cracked. Ettringite was not observed in any of the samples examined.
Case C
In case C, the technique of studying the same area of sample using both
petrography and SEM assisted in identifying the following Ave stages of
deterioration (called stages 1 to 5) in a selection of samples coilected from
site.
Stage 1 The cement paste matrix of the strip foundation concrete contained
abundant spherical pores and in the first stage of the deterioration process,
many of these were found to be lined with ettringite as shown in Fig. 6
(photomicrograph taken under plane polarised light and x50 magnification).
In addition, the surrounding cement paste shown in Fig. 7 contained degraded
cement clinker grains (one example shown at the centre of Fig. 7), small
accumulations of ettringite approximately 10 to 20 pm across (pale-colored,
cracked areas spread throughout the paste in Fig. 7) and sulfur-bewing
calcium silicate hydrate (CSH).
Stage 2 At this stage of the deterioration process, the spherical pores no

longer contained ettringite but were filled instead with radiating acicular
crystals of thaumasite as shown in Fig. 8 (photomicrograph taken under plane
polarised light and x125 magnifïcation). Similar thaumasite-filled pores were
also identified by Baronio et al (11). This thaumasite, called 'type I',
displayed second-order colors under the optical microscope (crossed polarised
light), making it more birefringent than normal. Microanalysis using SEM
(Fig. 9) showed that the composition of the type I thaumasite in the pore was
consistently 27.9%Ca, 5.9%Si, 7 S % S and 0.3%A1. Fig. 9 also shows
thaumasite growing into and replacing the surrounding cement' paste. The
birefiingence of this 'type II' thaumasite was found to be lower and therefore
more Spical of the minerai's appearance under cross polarised light. Further
spot analysis using SEM did not detect any compositional differences between
the two types of thaumasite. The only difference found was that the type I
thaumasite in the pore was much more densely compacted. The XRD traces
obtained for both types of thaumasite corresponded very closely to that of the
pure mineral.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 0522557 449 I
The cement pastes in these areas still contained the ettringite accumulations
and the calcium silicate phases were found to be more enriched in Si and
depleted in Ca compared with their normal composition. Crumbie et al (12)
have shown that excess Ca is sometimes needed to satis@ the formation of the
ettringite and gypsum formed during sulfate attack and that under certain
conditions, this Ca can be provided through progressive dissolution of CSH
until only hydrated silica remains. It therefore follows that the breakdown of
the CSH by preferential removal of calcium ions could readily lead to the
formation of thaumasite in a concrete undergoing sulfate attack and containing
an available source of carbonate ions.
Stage 3 The microsbucture changed yet again in this stage of the reaction
sequence as the calcium silicate phases, calcium aluminate phases (including
the ettringite accumulations) and fine carbonate particles less than about 150
gim in diameter present within the cement paste matrix disappeared and were
replaced with the low birefringent 'type II' thaumasite. This thaumasite can
be seen in Fig. 10 as the pale-colored material spreading in from the left hand
side of the photomicrograph (taken under plane polarised light and x125
magnification). Ferrite was often the only one of the original cement phases
remaining but even it disappeared in the most severely attacked areas. Fig. 11
represents another view of thaumasite replacing the cement-paste matrix.
Three circular features can be seen which were originally pores but were then
filled with the denser, more highly birefringent type I thaumasite. This is the
view as seen using an SEM and in the accompaning X-ray map, lower
amounts of Al appear to be present in the type 1 thaumasite compared with
the type II variety.
The samples taken from the positions marked as '3' in Fig. 4 have reached
stage 3 of the deterioration process within their surface layers and show
evidence of stages 1 and 2 at depth. These samples were still relatively robust
in hand specimen, although their outer surfaces, which contain abundant,
soft, white inclusions were more friable.
Stage 4 The amount of void space found at this stage of the deterioration
process was in the order of 20% making it considerably higher than the
previous stages. It was found by means of optical microscopy that these pores
were not spherical as shown in Fig. 6 but were more interlocking. The
concrete had in fact become more porous through the leaching of the
spherical accumulations of type I thaumasite. In the worst areas, the

A C 1 SP-154 95 M Obb2949 0522558 385 M
aggregate pieces were being loosely held together with type II thaumasite.
Isolated areas, usually adjacent to aggregate fragments, contained remnant
cement paste with ferrite being the only cement phase remaining. Large
crystals of gypsum were observed in places intermixed with the type II
thaumasite but no evidence was found of ettringite or portíandite.
The sample which was taken fiom the position marked '4' in Fig. 4, just
below the subsidence crack, had reached 'stage 4' in the deterioration
process. This sample was much more friable throughout and easily
disintegrated in the hand. The spaces between the aggregate pieces were filled
with a soft, white material identified as thaumasite by XRD.
Stage 5 The final stage of the deterioration process involved severe leaching
of the remaining type II thaumasite from the concrete leaving a very porous,
extremely friable concrete as shown in Fig.12 (photomicrograph taken under
crossed polars and x25 magnification). This concrete had no compressive
strength and would be capable of a great deal of compaction as in places there
was hardly any cementitious material holding it together. The cement content
was found to be 5 % and the sulfate content was very low (order of 1.4% by
mass of cement). Care must therefore be taken when diagnosing similar cases
of sulfate attack in which the reaction product has come and gone.
The final sample which had reached stage 5 in its reaction sequence was
collected from position '5' in Fig. 4, 100mm below position '4'. This sample
was also very friable throughout but lacked the white, interstitial thaumasite.
DISCUSSION OF MICROSTRUCTURALANALYSIS
In these three case studies, a particularly rapid form of sulfate attack was
identified in concretes in which the cement-paste matrix containing calcium
silicates, calcium aluminates and a finely divided source of calcite, dolomite
or both was replaced by the mineral thaumasite
(CaSi03.CaSOq.CaCQ. 15H20). The onset of this type of deterioration
relies on the stability of the CSH under the specific sulfate conditions found
on site. If the CSH in a concrete reacts with sulfate and carbonate ions under
cold, wet, conditions, the formation of thaumasite will be initiated. Providing
external conditions do not change, this reaction will continue to completion
because once thaumasite forms, its precipitation acts as a powerful driving

A C 1 SP-154 95 O b b 2 9 4 9 0522559 211
force drawing in all the relevant reactants. At 5OC, thaumasite i s in the order
of a hundred times less soluble than at 2oOC (13) which accounts for the
increased rate of deterioration at colder temperatures.
The study of the microstructure of carefully selected site samples has revealed
valuable information on the reaction mechanisms involved in the deterioration
of concrete as a result of thaumasite formation. Examination of the surface of
a polished thin section using both optical and electron microscopy proved to
be particularly useful This technique was used on the normal portland-cement
concrete samples from the 'Case C' investigation, in which five stages of
deterioration were observed and analysed. In the first stage, ettringite was
found in pores and in minute accumulations within the paste. The ettringite in
the pores gradually disappeared and was replaced by a highly birefringent
variety of thaumasite. ln the second stage of the reaction sequence this
thaumasite growing in the pores could be clearly seen coexisting with the
small ettringite accumulations in the adjoining paste. The whole cement paste
and very fine aggregate matix, including the ettringite accumulations, was
replaced by a more typical form of thaumasite in the third stage. The final
two stages of deterioration involved severe leaching of one type of thaumasite
Iollowed by the other leaving a porous, extremely friable and weak concrete.
It was this final leaching process which contributed to the subsidence seen on
site. In other parts of the site, where it was only the surface concrete (down
to a depth of several tens of millimetres) which contained aggregate pieces
Ioosely held together with thaumasite, evidence of movement above ground
was not detected.
The composition of the groundwater in Case C was found to be very close to

that of saturated gypsum solution whereas in Cases A and B, the presence of
magnesium sulfate influenced the reaction sequence with the intermediate
reaction products brucite and hydrated magnesium silicate playing a
significant role.
There are a number of different reaction mechanisms which can lead to the
thaumasite form of sulfate attack, some involving ettringite or gypsum as
initial reaction products. In the deteriorated tops of the SRPC piles found in
Case A, thaumasite was the only deterioration product identified. However,
this was not so in the other two studies. Ettringite was found to form first
before thaumasite formation in Case C and the samples from Case B
contained large amounts of gypsum as well as thaumasite.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I Obb2949 0522560 T33 m
The thaumasite form of sulfate attack can be accompanied by swelling or

expansion of the affected concrete. This was particularly noticeable in the
Resolute Bay (Case B) samples, where the added problems of freezing and
thawing probably contributed to the degradation process.
CONCLUSIONS
The thaumasite form of sulfate attack was found to be the cause of severe
deterioration in the three case studies reported in this paper, where portland-
cement concretes containing calcium/magnesium carbonate dust had been
exposed to moderately severe sulfate-bearing groundwaters for a period of
two to twelve years. Microstructural examination has shown that in these
concretes, the calcium silicate and calcium aluminate cement paste minerals
and the dusty carbonate material can be completely replaced by thaumasite.
It could be concluded from this paper that ali types of portland-cement

concretes containing finely divided carbonate rock dust as a source of
carbonate ions are potentially more vulnerable to sulfate attack compared
with similar concretes which contain low amoiints nr no carhonate material.
However the amount of field evidence is still relatively limited and much
more laboratory- and site-based research is needed in order to ascertain the
significance of these findings. One important observation has been the fact
that large aniounîs of thaumasite have been detected in foundation concretes
without any evidence of structural damage above ground. This means that
similar problems could exist elsewhere which have hitherto gone unnoticed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Andrew Baxter and Mike Crilly for their
assistance on site and Kelvin Pettifer, David Rayment and Mike Bowley and
their respective analytical units for the materials analyses. We also appreciate
the invaluble discussions with the Canadian Researchers working in the field
and others elsewhere including Lars Hjorîh, Torben Knudsen and Mario
Collepardi.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = 0662949 0522561 97T
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(i) Harrison W.H. "Sulphate resistance of buried concrete", the third

report on a long-term investiagation at Northwick Park and on similar
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(2) Crammond N.J. and Nixon P.J. "Deterioration of concrete foundation
piles as a result of thaumasite formation", 6th Int. Conf. on Durability of
Building Materials, Japan, pp 295-305, 1993
(3) unpublished work (BRE)
(4) Bickley J.A., Hemmings R.T., Hooton R.D. and Balinski J.
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technology: Past, Present and Future AC1 SP: 144-8, pp159-175, 1994
(5) Bensted J. "Thaumasite - a deterioration product of hardened cement
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(6) Taylor H.F.W. "Cement Chemistry", Academic Press, London, 1990
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f8ì Alksnis F.F. and Alksne V.I. " Effect of silicate phases on the process
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(9) Building Research Establishment Digest 363, "Sulphate and acid
resistance of concrete in the ground", 1991
(10) British Standard BS1881 part 124 (1988), Testing concrete - Methods
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( I i) Baronio G. and Berra M. "Concrete deterioration with the formation
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(12) Crumbie A.K., Scrivener K.L. and Pratt P.L. "The relationship
between the porosity and permeability of the surface layer of concrete and
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(13) Knudsen T. Instituttet for Mineralindusîri, Copenhagen, Denmark -
personal communication

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 ob62949 05225b2 8Ob m
Fig. ]-Case A: Severely deteriorated concrete after laboratory immersion test
Fig. 2-Case C: Defective garage wall

A C 1 SP-L54 95 E 0662949 0522563 742 =
Fig. 3-Case C: Crack opening up along the damp-proof course

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 75 S 0662947 0522564 689 W

A C 1 SP-154 95 a 0662949 0522565 515
Fig. 5-Case A: Thaumasite replacing the cement paste and fine aggregate matrix
Fig. &Case C: Ettringite lining spherical voids (center left and center right)

A C 1 SP-154 95 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522566 45L
Fig. 7 - C a s e C: Electron photomicrograph of degraded cement paste
Fig. &Case C: Type i thaumasite lining a spherical pore

A C 1 SP-I154 95 W Obb2949 05225b7 398 W
Fig. 9-Case C: Electron photomicrograph and spot analyses of same pore as shown in Fig. 8

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522568 224
Fig. 9 [ont.-Case C: Electron photomicrograph and spot analyses of same pore as shown in
Fig. 8

A C 1 SP-I54 95 m Obb2949 05225b9 I b O
Fig. 1 L C a s e C: Type II thaumasite replacing cement paste and fine aggregate particles
c 150 prn across

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Ob62949 0522570 982
Fig. ll-Case C: Electron photomicrograph and spot analyses for two types of thoumasite

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522573 8 3 9
Fig. 12-Case C: Aggregate grains mainly surrounded by void space (black areas)

A C 1 SP-154 75 S 0662747 0522572 755
SP 154-20
Application of Superworkable Concrete

in the Construction of 70-Story
Building in Japan
by M. Hayakawa, Y. Matsuoka, and K. Yokota
Synopsis: A super-workable concrete, which has excellent deformability and

resistance to segregation, and can be placed in heavily reinforced formwork
without vibrators; was developed and employed in the construction of a 70-story
building. The height of the building is 296m, and the height of the super-workable
concrete in the tubular columns is about 40m. Some of the columns have two
diaphragms with opening ratio of 7% at each joint of column and beans. Before
actual construction, the placing of the concrete into three model columns was
conducted. From the tests, it was confinned that the super-workable concrete had
excellent filling ability, and left no voids under the diaphragms. A 6-m high
removable column was set on top of the 40-m high column of the building to check
the quality of filled concrete. The super-workable concrete was placed
successfully into 66 columns of the tallest building in Japan.
Keywords: Admixtures; columns (supports); formwork; supenvorkable

concrete; superplasticizer; viscosity
381
A C 1 SP-I154 95 = Obb2949 0522573 691
382 Hayakawa, Matsuoka, and Yokota
Mitsutaka Hayakawa is a senior research engineer at the Technology Research

Center of Taisei Corporation. He received his B.Eng. from the University of
Tokyo and his M.Eng. from University of California, Berkeley. His research
interests are concrete material, mixing methods of concrete, and the interfacial zone
between cement paste and aggregate.
Yasunori Matsuoka is a sectional manager of Construction Material Section,
Technology Research Center, Taisei Corporation. He received his D.Eng. from
the University of Tokyo. His research interests are concrete material, chemical
analysis, durability and development of new material for used in concrete.
Kazunao Yokota is a researcher at the Technology Research Center of Taisei
Corporation. He received his B.Eng. from Kyushu Institute of Technology. He
has been working on development and application of super-workable concrete.
INTRODUCTION
The Landmark Tower, Yokohama is a 70-story building, most columns

of which are concrete filled steel tubular coiumns from basement to the ninth floor.
The concrete filled steel tubular columns have advantages in requiring no column
formwork and providing excellent ductility and load retention. On die other hand,
it is difficult to place concrete inside tubes without developing voids, especially if
diaphragms exist inside.
A super-workable concrete, which has excellent deformability and

resistance to segregation, and can be placed in the heavily reinforced formwork
without vibrators, was developed (1). Since the super-workable concrete was
considered to have good performance as filling concrete in steel tubular columns, it
was employed in the construction of The Landmark Tower, Yokohama.
In this report, outline of the super-workable concrete and results of the

filling experiments and the actual filling work are reported.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 O522574 528
OUTLINE OF THE CONSTRUCTION
Outline of the Building
The Landmark Tower, Yokohama, a 296-m high building, was

constructed near the Port of Yokohama in Tokyo Bay. This is an office and hotel
building with four floors of basement, 70 stories, and a penthouse. The lower part
of this building, from basement to ninth floor, is a steel framed reinforced concrete
structure, and the upper part is a steel structure. The building area is 23,20Xm2,
and its total floor area is 392,885m2.
Filling Work
The types and plan of concrete filled steel tubular columns are shown in
Fig. 1 and Table I. The height of the fill is 39.4m or 36.0m. Pipes and tubes are
utilized as steel tubular columns. The pipe columns have diaphragms only outside
of the pipe, and the tube columns have two diaphragms inside of the tube at each
joint of column and beams. The diaphragm in the tube has a center hole with
diameter of 180mm, and four air release corner holes with diameter of 30mm.
Basically, concrete was placed in the steel tubular columns from bottom of the
columns with a concrete pump.
CONCRETE FOR FILLING
Super-workable Concrete
The original idea of the super-workable concrete was developed by the

research team from the concrete laboratory of the University of Tokyo. The
purpose of developing the super-workable concrete was to construct high quality
concrete structures even with unskilled labor. The super-workable concrete should
be excellent not only in the fresh state but also in strength and durability.
When the super-workable concrete is subjected to a slump test, the slump

will be about 250mm and the average base diameter of the concrete mass after the
slump test, which is called slump flow, will be 600 to 700mm.
Materials and Mixture Prooortion
Various types of super-workable concretes can be made with selected

materials and mixture proportions. In this project, concrete was made with normal
portland cement, blast-furnace slag, fly ash, aggregates, water, air-entraining

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522575 464 m
water reducing admixture, superplasticizer, and newly developed viscosity

admixture. The viscosity admixture is a kind of polysaccharide with a molecular
weight of about 7000. As it is derived from process of biotechnology, it is called
biopolymer. It is in the form of a white powder having a specific gravity of 1.44.
The mixture proportion of the super-workable concrete utilized in this

project is shown in Table 2. A large amount of fine materiais are required than in
ordinary concrete in order to yield excellent deformability and high resistance to
segregation. The combined use of superplasticizer and the viscosity admixture
improves both deformability and resistance to segregation of the fresh concrete.
FILLING EXPERIMENT
Prior to construction, three experiments were performed. The specimens

for the experiments are shown in Fig.2.
Experiment I
Experiment 1 was conducted to observe how the super-workable concrete

would be placed into the column specimen especially around diaphragms.
Concrete was pumped from the bottom side of the steel tubular specimen which
had three diaphragms. Fig.3 and 4 show the concrete flow when it goes through a
diaphragm. The slump flow of the concrete was adjusted to 700mm. When the
concrete began to go through the center hole of a diaphragm, the concrete also
began to pass four small comer holes, which are placed for air release. It was
confirmed that the top surface of the super-workable concrete was kept almost flat.
After the concrete had hardened, the steel tube was removed to inspect the
placed concrete. The concrete had fully filled the underside of the diaphragms and
the corners of the column without any voids. Some air bubbles were seen on the
side surface of the concrete, and the number of the bubbles increased with the
height. It was considered that the flow characteristics of the concrete decreased as
concrete went up in the steel tube, and the entrapped air remained on the side
surface of the concrete.
Ex-piment 2
Experiment 2 was conducted to examine the influence of diaphragms

inside the steel tubular columns on the pressure to pump up the concrete. A 6.6-m
high specimen with 10 diaphragms was prepared for the experiment (Fig.2).
Mortar was pumped into the column specimen before pumping concrete in
order to reduce the loss of flow-ability of the concrete and to avoid bubbles on the

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 0662949 0522576 3 T 0
side surface of the column. After removal of the steel tube it was confirmed that
the pumping of the mortar was effective in reducing the air bubbles on the side
surface of the column.
Pressure gauge was set up on the pumping pipe near the column specimen
and concrete pressure was measured and is reflected in F i g 5 To evaluate the
influence of diaphragm on pressure, pressure for pumping was calculated by the
formula shown below:
P=P1+ a WH/98 (1)
where
P = pressure for pumping ( M a )
Pi = pressure from pipeline ( M a )
a = factor from diaphragms
W = unit weight of concrete (tonne/m’)
H = height (m)
If diaphragms do not affect the pressure, a will be 1.0. The concrete

pressure in experiment 2 was about 0.26MPa, when concrete reached a height of
6.6m. When W is 2.3 and H is 6.6, WH/98 is O.15MPa. Since pressure was
measured near the specimen, PI was almost O. If the pressure increased from
O.15MPa to 0.26MPa due to the existence of diaphragms, a will be 1.73
(0.26/0.15).
Experiment 3
In experiment 3, concrete was placed from the top of the columns. The
purpose of experiment 3 was to examine the filling ability of the super-workable
concrete when the concrete was placed from the top of the column without any
consolidation. The 6.6-m high specimen with 4 diaphragms was used in the
experiment (Fig.2).
Concrete was delivered through a pipe and hose to the top of the specimen
and dropped. After the concrete has hardened, the steel tube was removed and the
filled concrete was inspected. The concrete was placed well under the diaphragms
and corners of the column similar to when the concrete was placed from the bottom
with a pump (experiment 1 and 2).

A C 1 SP-I154 75 E Obb2747 0522577 2 3 7 9
FILLING WORK
Production of Concrete
The super-workable concrete was produced at a ready-mixed concrete

plant, which had a forced mixer with two horizontal axes. Average time for the
transportation from the ready-mixed concrete plant to the site was 30 minutes.
Properties of Concrete
The average slump flow of the super-workable concrete used for filling
the columns was 710mm, and the average air content was 2.5%. Compressive
strength of the concrete was shown in Table 3.
A video camera was hung from top of a column to inspect concrete flow
in the tubular column. It was confirmed by observing with the video camera that
the concrete went through the center hole and four comer holes of a diaphragm
simultaneously just as observed in experiment 1.
Some concrete samples were picked from the top of the columns just after
the placing had been completed. Slump flows of the concrete before placing, the
concrete from the top of the columns, and the concrete stored in a container during
the placing are shown in Table 4. The slump flow of the filled concrete decreased
to 360mm, but the slump flow of same concrete stored in a container decreased
much less. The slump flow loss of the filled concrete is due to a reduction of
m o m during the placing of concrete. Higher aggregate content of filled concrete
was also observed (Table 4).
The settlement of the placed concrete is shown in Table 5. When there are
diaphragms in the column, concrete settled about 2mm, and concrete settled about
4mm in the column with no diaphragm. These settlement were considered very
small compared with the filling height of over 36m.
Pressure for Filling
Concrete pressure in the pipeline from the pump was measured. A

pressure gauge was set adjacent to the column. An example of the pressure is
shown in Fig.6. Pressure of concrete showed pulsatory motion and increased
linearly with the rise of the concrete. The relationship between the height and the
pressure of the concrete are shown in Fig.7.
In the actual concrete filling work, concrete pressure was almost equal to
the product of unit weight of the concrete and the height. This means that a in

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 I0662949 0522578 1 7 3
formula 1 is 1.0 regardless of the existence of diaphragms. This may have

happened because distance between diaphragms of the actual column was relatively
large. But in some cases a was as high as 1.4.
Strain gauges were set on one of the columns, and the strain in the steel
column was measured. The result is shown in Fig.8,9. Fig.8 shows strains at
third floor, and Fig.9 shows strains at each floor.
Oualities of Placed Concrete
A 6-m high removable column was set on one of the 40-m high column to
check the quality 'of filled concrete. Concrete was pumped from the column to the
removable column.
No voids and gaps were seen in the removable column. The ratio of the
total area of the bubbles on the surface of concrete in contact with the diaphragm is
shown in Fig.10. The ratio becomes higher along the height, but the total area of
the bubbles was small. Compressive strength in the column is shown in Fig.11
and Table 6 . Every core specimen showed higher strength than the specified
design strength of 35MPa.
CONCLUSION
A super-workable concrete was employed in the construction of a 70-

story building as filling concrete in steel tubular columns. The performance of the
super-workable concrete was examined in three filling tests and the test of concrete
from a removable column set on the actual column. Through these tests it was
confirmed that dependable placing can be accomplished with the super-workable
concrete. The super-workable concrete was placed successfully into 66 columns
to the height of 40m.
REFERENCE
1. Kuroiwa,S., Matsuoka,Y., Hayakawa,M., and Sindoh,T."Application of

Super-workable Concrete to Construction of a 20-Story Building", AC1
Special Publication SP 140, 1993, pp147-161 (Editor: P.Zia)

A C 1 SP-I154 95 = Obb2949 0522579 O O T
TABLE 1 - FILLING WORK OF CONCRETE
7Symbol
8I
for One
I
Volume
96.9 I
156.5
124.7
C5A 10-850x40-60 1 I 17.8 I 17.8 I
36.0
9.0 215.3
2 I 9.4 I 18.8 I
Total 66 885.2
TABLE 2 - MIXTURE PROPORTION
Materiais Quantities (kg/m3)

Water 170
Normal portland cement 180
Blast-fumace slag 220
Fly ash I 1 O0
Fine aggregate 753
Coarse aggregate 926 ~~ ~~~
AE water reducing admixture 0.75

Superplasticizer 7.0
Biopolymer 1.5
Maximum size of aggregate 2bm
Type of superplasticizer Naphthalene-base

A C 1 SP-154 75 H Obb2747 0522580 8 2 2 =
TABLE 3 - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (STANDARD CURED)
7 Days I 28 Days 91 Days

5/14 I 25.6 I 43.0 I 56.4
5/15 I 29.9 I 49.8 I 58.7
5/16 30.4 48.7 58.5
5/17 27.0 45.5 52.7
5/21 I 25.1 I 42.3 I 48.9
5/22 26.4 43.1 51.2
5/23 24.9 41.6 50.6
5/24 24.9 41.9 48.2
5/27 26.6 43.4 54.6
27.9 I 44.8 I 55.6
5/29 25.0 41.8 50.7
Average 26.7 I 44.2 I 53.3
TABLE 4 - CONCRETE BEFORE AND AFTER FILLING

Coarse Aggregate Content
Slump Flow (mm)
(kg/m’)
Before Filling 720 x 690 883
From Top of Column 370 x 350 1100
Stored in Container 600 x 570

A C 1 SP-154 95 m
0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522583 768 m
TABLE 5 - SETTLEMENT OF CONCRETE
Settlement (mm)
Type of column No.
1 hour 24 hour
1 1.5 2.0
2 1.o 2.0
3 0.0 3.0
Tube 4 0.5 2.0
5 1 .o 1.o
6 1 .o 2.0
7 2.0 2.5
Pipe 1 I 4.0
TABLE 6 - PROPERTIES OF PLACED CONCRETE (CORE SPECIMENS)
Center f Column Corner of Column

No. Compressive Modulus of Compressive Modulus of
Strength Elasticity Strength Elasticity
(MW (GW (MW (GW
5A 56.8
5B 66.6
5c 67.8 37.5
5D 70.3 65.6

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522582 bT4 M
-Tower ImC7 c44r - C5A '0 c4

I
~~
Elsvaiinn i
Plan of %eBuilding
Fig. I-Plon of concrete filled steel tubular column

Direction of
Concreti cing
Diaphragm i T
O
O
oi
-I
O
O
Center Hole: $ 180
i
Corner Holes: $30
o b
i
!
Pump
:$'
- +
O
O
\o
i
O
oi
O
m
O
-L Unit: mm
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3
Fig. 2-Specimens for filling experiments

A C 1 SP-L54 95 m 0bb2949 O522583 530 m
Fig. 3 4 o n c r e t e flow in the specimen (1)
Fig. &Concrete flow in the specimen (2)

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 O522584 477
0.3
E?M 0.2
VY
e!
a
O
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 Height (m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
I I I I I I I I I I
Number of Diaphragms
Fig. 5-Concrete pressure in Experiment 2
1.o
h
2 0.5
E
: t

A C 1 S P - I I ~ L , 95 =
06629L,9 O522585 303
Concrete Pressure (MPa)

Fig. 7-Relationship between pressure and heighi

A C 1 SP-I154 95 E 0662949 0522586 2 4 T E
80
20
O
O 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (hour)
Fig. 8-Strain in steel column at third floor
80
60
Y
W
20
O
O 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Time (hour)
Fig. 9-Strains in steel column

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 = Obb2949 0522587 L ô b =
Fig. 1 L B u b b l e oreo around diaphragms

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522588 O 1 2 W
I
0.6m
n
E 4 e-a Center
v
o.--- 0-0 Corner
t1
~ 50 60 70 80
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 11-Compressive strength in removable column

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662949 0 5 2 2 5 8 9 T59
SP 154-21
ElectricaIIy Conductive Concrete

and Its Application in Deicing
by P. Xie and J. J. Beaudoin
Svnopsis: Basic information on a newly developed electrically conductive

concrete is presented. The concrete differs from previous inventions in that both
high conductivity and mechanical strength are simultaneously achieved. The
electrical and mechanical properties of the conductive concrete developed at
Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada are
given. The material has superior electrical conductivity values and excellent
mechanical strength.
Experimental results of a laboratory-scale study on the application of conductive

concrete to de-icing and/or snow melting are presented. The results indicate that
heat can be uniformly produced by the conductive concrete heating element when
the element is activated by an external electric power supply. The new method is
effective for de-icing purposes. Power output of the conductive concrete heating
element is stable over a wide range of temperature. The minimum heater power
output required for de-icing at various air temperatures was determined. This value
is linearly dependent on the air temperature, ranging from 150 to 855 W/m2 as air
temperature varies from -5OC to -30°C.
Kevwords: Carbon; compressive strength; concretes; conductivitv; u;

fiber reinforced concretes; fibers; flexural strength; heating; lightweight
concretes
399
A C I SP-154 95 m O L L ~ ~ V0522590
I 770 m
400 Xie and Beaudoin
Ping Xie served as a process engineer in a cement factory, China, 1982-1983, and
is currentiy a postdoctoral fellow, Dept of Civil Eng., Univ. of Ottawa, Canada.
He obtained his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from the Univ. of Ottawa, 1992. He
has authored or co-authored more than 50 research papers in cement & concrete
technology. His current research focuses on new materials and their applications.
James J. Beaudoin is a Principal Research Officer and Head, Materials Laboratory,

Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada. He is
the author of more than 200 research papers and two books on concrete materials.
His current research focuses on micro-fibre reinforced cement systems and the
application of a.c. impedance spectroscopy in cement and concrete science.
INTRODUCTION
There is a need for an effective solution to problems with ice and snow on
road surfaces without a negative impact on the environment. It is specially
important for the highway and municipal transportation systems in cold regions.
Current de-icing methods usually involve the use of de-icing chemicals (salts). In
spite of the effectiveness of de-icing chemicals (usually containing chlorides), it is
weil recognized that their use can result- in corrosion of reinforcing steel in
highway concrete bridges. Rehabilitation of deteriorated concrete bridges is usually
very costly. Use of de-icing chemicals is also becoming a major environmental
concern. Research and development of novel and environmentally friendiy de-icing
methods are required.
An electrical de-icing technique for roads was developed and applied in

practice in the late 1950s and early 1960's in the United Kingdom (1). This
technique involved installation of electric cables (heaters) between the road
foundation and pavement, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Heat is produced and transferred
to the road surface to melt the ice and snow when heaters are activated by an
electric power supply. It was reported that this technique was vey effective in de-
icing. It has, however, a serious disadvantage, i.e. high installation cost. This
technique requires a high density distribution of electric cable to maintain a
uniform surface temperature distribution and sufficient power output.
It is apparent that there is still a need to develop simpler and less expensive
alternatives based on electrical de-icing concept. A novel technique using
electrically conductive concrete has been developed at the National Research
Council of Canada (NRC). The new technique is based on the following concept:
A layer of electrically conductive concrete is cast between the road foundation and
the pavement. A few electrodes are embedded in the conductive concrete layer.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522593 607
Heat is uniformly produced by the conductive concrete and transferred to the road
surface for de-icing when the system is activated by an external power supply. This
is illustrated in Fig. 2. The conductive concrete (i.e. the heating element) is a
primary component of this system. Some technical requirements for this material
are as follows:
1. High conductivity (or low resistivity): the conductivity value determines

the power capacity of the heating element (conductive concrete layer and
electrodes) for a given electrode configuration and external electric potential. The
higher the conductivity value, the larger is the electrode spacing required.
2. Stable conductivity value: the conductivity value should not change

significantly with time and temperature; this enables the heating element to have a
stable power output.
3. High mechanical strength: High values of compressive and flexural

strength are required since the heating element is subjected to varying loading
conditions.
Electrically conductive concrete with both superior conductivity and high

mechanical strength has been developed at NRC. Details of material fabrication are
described in a Us patent application (No. 08/197,270).
The principal objective of this paper is to present data characterizing the

electrical and mechanical behavior of a newly developed conductive concrete.
Results of laboratory-scale de-icing experiments are also presented.
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE
Conventional concrete is a poor electrical conductor, especially under dry

conditions. The electrical resistivity of dried concrete usually ranges from 6 . 5 4 ~ 1 6
to 1 1 . 4 ~ 1 6Qcrn (2). This indicates that dry concrete is actually a good insulator.
Resistivity values range from 2500 to 4500 Qcm when concrete contains
moisture. Electrical conduction in wet normal concrete is electrolytic, Le. through
the motion of ions, e.g. Na+, K+,OH-, SOT'and Ca2+, in the pore solution.
Aggregates are usually non-porous and hence non-conductive. The electrical
current can only travel through the cement paste. It is apparent that the electrical
conductivity value of the normal concrete is dependent on the moisture and
aggregate content, chemical composition of cement, especially alkali content,
porosity and pore size distribution, continuity of pores and temperature. A detailed
review of the electrical properties of normal concrete is provided elsewhere (3).
Electrically conductive concrete can be considered as a cement-based

composite containing electronically conductive components with a much higher

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Ob62949 0522592 543
and stable conductivity value than normal concrete. A brief comparison of the
characteristics of conductive concrete and normal concrete is given in Table 1.
Applications of conductive concrete include electromagnetic (radio

frequency) shielding, low resistance eartwground connections for electrical
installations, antistatic flooring, lightening protection and use as secondary anodes
in cathodic protection systems for corrosion protection of reinforcing steel in
reinforced concrete structures. Acetylene black was used to make conductive
portland cement mortar in the 1940s. The conductive mortar was used for
antistatic flooring in hospital operating rooms. A conductive mortar containing
coke was developed in 1975 for use as an overlay on reinforced bridge pilings, in
conjunction with cathodic protection systems (4). Resistivity values of about 30
Chcm were obtained at cement-coke and water-cement ratios of 0.5. Development
of a conductive concrete containing carbonaceous aggregates, a by-product of oil
refining, was reported in the UK in 1978 (5). The material with an aggregate-
cement ratio of 2.0 and w/c of 0.58 has a compressive strength of about 24 MF'a
and resistivity of 10 to 15 R-cm. Development of a conductive concrete used for
cathodic protection systems was also reported in 1988 (6). The material containing
3.5% carbon fiber (bked on composite mass) and 0.6% carbon black has high
strength (compressive strength of 42.0 MPa at 28 days) and relatively low
resistivity (54 R a n ) . A similar material using carbon fiber and steel fiber was
fabricated by Banthia et al. (7). The resistivity values however were much higher.
Carbon fiber-reinforced cement mortar developed for electromagnetic interference
shielding purposes was reported by Chiou et al. (8). The attenuation coefficient is
25.1 dE3 at 2.0 GHz for a 3.9 mm thick specimen.
It is apparent that the conductive concrete referred to above can be

classified into two types: (i). conductive fiber-reinforced concrete, (2). concrete
containing conductive aggregates. The first type usually has higher mechanical
strength but relatively lower conductivity values of about 100 Rcm. The lower
conductivity value is due mainly to smail fiber-fiber contact area. The overall fiber-
fiber connectivity in the composite is poor. It is suggested that high fiber content
improves the connectivity but worsens the mixing conditions. The second type has
a high conductivity value (10 -30 R c m of resistivity) but relatively lower strength
(less than 25 MPa). Lower mechanical strength is due mainly to the high water
content required during mixing to offset the water-sorption effect caused by
conductive aggregates such as carbon black and coke.
í
PROPERTIES OF THE NOVEL CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE
The electrical and mechanical properties of the newly developed portland

cement-based conductive composites are described in the following sections. The
material has both high conductivity value (resistivity value is as low as 1-2 atm)
and high strength (28-day compressive strength approaches 50 -55 MPa). The

A C 1 SP-154 95 = O662949 0522593 4 8 T =
development of the new composite systems is based on "electrical percolation

phenomena" (9).
The general composition of four typical composite systems is described as

follows:
1. Mixture 1 (M-F): This system consists mainly of portland cement, silica sand as
fine aggregate and carbon fibers.
2. Mixture 2 (M-G): This system consists mainly of portland cement and granular
carbonaceous material.
3. Mixture 3 (M-GF): This system consists mainly of portland cement, carbon

fibers and carbonaceous particles.
4. Mixture 4 (M-GF-S): This system consists mainly of portland cement, limestone

as coarse aggregate, carbon fikrs and carbonaceous
particles.
The electrical resistivity, compressive and flexural strength values vs

hydration time are plotted in Fig. 3-6 for the above four systems, respectively. The
d.c. resistivity values were measured using a multimeter. The specimens were
oven-dried before resistance measurement to eliminate the polarization effect
between specimen and electrodes due to presence of moisture. Strength values
were measured using saturated specimens (4cm x 4cm x 16cm for flexural strength
and 4cm x 4cm x 4cm for compressive strength). The bulk density values of the
four composites are plotted in Fig. 7.
Typical features observed in Fig. 3-6 are briefly described:
(1). Very low resistivity: Low resistivity values, especially for the systems M-G
(about 1.2 Rcm) and M-GF (about 2.5 Qcm), have been obtained. For the
system M-F which contains conductive fibers only, the resistivity value is about
16 Q-cm. The M-GF-S system containing non-conductive coarse aggregate
(about 34% (wt.) by composite mass) has a relatively high resistivity value of
about 20 Qcm. It is however still superior to that reported in the previous
works.
(2). High mechanical strength: The compressive strength is usually above 35-40
MPa at 28 days hydration. A value of 55.2 MPa at 90 days is obtained for the
M-F system. The flexural strength for the conductive fiber-reinforced systems
is significantly enhanced in comparison to the system without fibers (M-G), i.e.
8-1 1 MPa at 28 days hydration. A value of 15.6 MPa was obtained at 90 days
hydration for the system M-F.

A C 1 SP-154 95 M 0662947 0522594 3Lb
(3). Stable resistivity values: The resistivity value for the four composites remains
essentially constant during hydration.
(4). Lightweight: The bulk density of the composite without non-conductive

aggregates varies between 1450 and 1850 kg/m3.
It appears that the combination of high mechanical strength and electrical

conductivity value are inherently unique characteristics of the newly developed
conductive concrete.
USE OF CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE IN DE-ICING APPLICATIONS
An operational flow chart of an electrical de-icing system is illustrated in

Fig. 8. The system consists of the following components: (i). an electric heating
element, (ii). control system, (iii). power supply. The heating element is the key
component. It converts electric energy into heat to melt ice and snow when
activated by an external power supply. It consists mainly of a conductive concrete
slab and electrodes. The electrical de-icing system is managed by an automated
control system. It activates the power supply according to air temperature, road
surface temperature and icdsnow conditions on the road etc. It also controls the
power output (determined by the applied electric potential).
Emphasis is given only to the electric heating element in this paper.

Laboratory-scale experiments were carried out to determine the efficiency of the
conductive concrete heating element in de-icing and the minimum power output
required to maintain the concrete surface temperature above the freezing point
under varying environmental temperature. The relationship between the required
minimum power output and environmental temperature is one of the most
important parameters for design of the heater power capacity.
1. &glen'mental
A conductive concrete slab, 12" x 9.5" x 2", was made by casting M-GF-S
concrete formulation into a plastic mould. Bolts were embedded (about 2 cm in
depth) on opposite sides for attaching electrodes. The slab was demoulded after 24
hours curing at lûû% R.H.and 23OC. Curing continued under the same conditions
for an additional 27 days. The slab was then placed in a room under ambient
conditions for a week. Two electrodes, 9.5" x 2" aluminum plates, were
subsequently mounted on the two opposite sides of the slab, Fig. 9(a). A thin layer
of conductive paste was applied at the electrode-slab interface to maintain good
contact.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = O662949 0522595 252 =
The experimental setup for the electrical heating test at different air
temperatures below the freezing point is illustrated in Fig. 9(b). The electric
heating element is placed in a soil mass with only one surface exposed to the
environment. This is to simulate practical situations. The heating element and the
soil mass were placed in a freezing room. The temperature of the freezing room is
controllable to -40°C. Temperature at three locations, air, the heater surface and
core, were recorded using thermocouples and a digital thermometer. Electricity, 60
Hz,is supplied by an electric transformer with adjustable output potential. Electric
current intensity, I, through the heater and potential, V, crossing the heater were
monitored by a multimeter.
The power output required for de-icing for a given air temperature can be
adjusted by changing the potential V so that the heater surface temperature is
maintained above the freezing point. Economical electrical de-icing is a process
during which heat loss is in equilibrium with heat supply at the freezing point, 0°C.
In practice, however, the surface temperature control setting was set to be about
3°C to maintain high system efficiency (1). The minimum heater power output in
this experiment was that required to maintain the surface temperature at 2-3OC.
The total heater power output, Pt, can be calculated using the following
equation:
V2
Pt=I.V, or pt= -
R
where, R is the resistance of the heating element. The heat loss occurs
mainly through the upper and lower surfaces of the slab-like heater. It is
proportional to the road surface area and the temperature difference between the
road surface and air. It is therefore more convenient to express the heater power
output in terms of unit surface area, denoted by Pout ,i.e.
Pt
Pout = -
A
where, A is the total heater surface area.
2. Results and Discussion
Efficiencv of conductive concrete heatino element--The surface

temperature of the heating element at different air temperatures, about -3OOC and -
lO"C, and the corresponding heater power output vs operation time is plotted in
Fig. 10, 11. The surface temperature of the conductive concrete heater can be

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 75 9 0662947 0522596 199 =
maintained above O°C as long as sufficient electric power is supplied. It is apparent

that the electric power required increases with decreasing air temperature. There is
no remarkable temperature difference between the surface and core. This is
important for the heater durability since thermal stress and hence cracks may be
induced if a large temperature gradient occurs in the heater. The surface
temperature fluctuates around a fixed value, 2-3OC, corresponding to the air
temperature variation. The system is therefore approximately in a thermal
equilibrium condition at the given heater power output, Le. the heater power
output offsets the heat loss.
Minimum heater power output--The power output, Pout, required to

maintain the surface temperature around 2-3OC vs air temperature, Tair, is plotted
in Fig. 12. Pout is linearly dependent on Tair. It ranges from 150 to 855 W/m2
corresponding to an air temperature between -5°C and -3OOC. It should be noted
that Pout values are based on results from a 12" x 9.5" specimen. Much lower Pout
values would be expected for a practical size heater due to a reduced boundary
effect on heat loss.
Surface temperature increase rate--The heater surface temperature vs

heating time at different electric power output values is plotted in Fig. 13. The
heater begins to be powered at the same temperature as that of air, around -22OC.
It can be seen that the surface temperature increases slowly to values above O°C at
the minimum power output value. It quickly reaches O°C if the power output
increases. This result indicates that a larger power output value is usuaiiy required
to activate the cold heater and quickly increase the road temperature in practice.
Stability of the heater power output--Stability of the power output of

conductive concrete heating element in varying temperature is one of the major
concerns. The heater power output, from equation (i), is determined by resistance
value (or resistivity value of conductive concrete for a given electrode
configuration) if the electric potential is given. The effect of temperature on the
heater resistance and resistivity of the conductive concrete is depicted in Fig. 14. It
can be seen that the resistivity of the conductive concrete only marginally
decreases by 0.8 Recm when temperature increases from -15°C to 25°C. The
power output vs temperature at different electric potential values is depicted in
Fig. 15. It is apparent that the power output is very stable. The normal heater
operation temperature is expected to be around 2-3OC. The results indicate that the
power output for a given applied voltage is independent of the temperature of the
specimen. The operation of the heater will therefore not be affected by powering in
the cold state.

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2949 0522597 025 E
CONCLUSIONS
1. High performance electrically conductive concrete has been developed.

This material has both low resistivity and excellent mechanical strength.
The resistivity value usually ranges from 1 to 30 Q c m and is controllable
through proper formulation depending on the requirement. The 28-day
compressive strength of the material is generally about 40 MPa. The 28-
day flexural strength normaily ranges from 6 to 11 MPa, depending on the
formulation.
2. The resistivity value of the new material is stable. It is approximately

independent of hydration time.
3. The new material is usually lightweight. The density usually ranges from
1450 to 1850 kg/m3. It increases to about 1900-2250 kg/m3 if non-
conductive normal aggregate is used.
4. The newly developed conductive concrete is suitable for de-icingisnow

melting applications. The results indicate that heat can be uniformly
produced when the concrete is activated by an external power supply. The
power output of the concrete heating element is very stable over a wide
range of temperature.
5. There is a linear relationship between the air temperature and the mjnimum
heater power output required to maintain the heater surface temperature
above the freezing point. The minimum power output value ranges from
150 to 855 W/m2 of concrete surface as air temperature varies from -5OC
to -3OOC.
6. A larger power output value than the minimum is usually required in

practical operation to augment the rate of temperature increase of the
heater.
REFERENCES
(1). Williamson P.J., Hogbin L.E., "Electrical Road Heating", Ministry of

Transport R.R.L. Report No. LR. 303, 1969.
(2). Whittington, H.W., McCarter J., Forde M.C., "The Conduction of Electricity
through Concrete", Mag. Concr. Res., 3(114), 48-60 (1981).

A C 1 SP-I154 95 E Obb2949 0522598 T b l
Gu P., Xie P., Fu Y.,Beaudoin J.J., "Microstructural Characterization of

Cementitious Materials: Conductivity and Impedance Methods". Materials
Science of Concrete, Vol. IV, Ed., Jan Skalny, The American Ceramic
Society, in press, (1994).
Ratliff J.L., Hawkins H.F., "A Study of Cathodic Protection for Corrosion
Control of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Pilings", Contract No. 99700-7 142-
010, Office of Materials and Research, College of Engineering, Universi9 of
South Florida, Tampa, FX,1975.
Farrar J.R., "Electrically Conductive Concrete", GEC Journal of Science &

Technology, 45(I), 45-48 (1978).
(6).Clemena G.G., "Electrically Conductive Portland Cement Concrete", Materials

Performance, 19-25, March 1988.
(7). Banthia N., Djendane S., Pigeon M., "Electrical Resistivity of Carbon and
Steel Micro-Fiber Reinforced Cements", =(5), 804-8 14 (1992).
(8). Chiou J.M., Zheng Q., Chung D.D., "Electromagnetic Interference Shielding
by Carbon Fibre Reinforced Cement", Composites, 20(4), 379-381 (1989).
(9). Xie P., Beaudoin J.J., "Electrical Percolation Phenomena in Cement

Composites Containing Conductive Fibers", Submitted to the Journal of
Materials Science, October, 1994.

A C 1 SP-154 75 0662749 0522577 7T8
Normal Concrete Conductive Concrete
Resistivity 6.54- 11.4 x lo5 (dry) < 100

(i2.cm) 2500-4500 (wet) Very stable
Unstable
Conduction Electrolytic Electronic

Mechanism
Components Contains non-conductive Contains conductive phases

phases
Mixing Method Normal mixing Normal mixing
Production Precast or cast-in-field Precast or cast-in-field
Mechanical Excellent Excellent
Materials Cost Marginally higher than

normal concrete

A C 1 SP-i154 95 IO662949 0522600 4 4 T I
Pavement Electric cable

(heater) (
I \ < I
Foundation 5
Fig. 1-Schematic of British technique of electrical deicing of road surfaces
Conductive concrete layer

I I
I Foundation * Electrode I
Fig. 2-Schematic of electrical deicing of road surfaces using electrically conductive concrete

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522601 386 m
Advances in Technology 41 1
80
h
E
Y
v 2o16 I Resistiviîy
M-F system
60 h
40 3
20
s
2 4- 8
w
O' 10
O 20 40 60 80 100
Hydration time (days)
Fig. 3-Electrical resistivity, compressive and flexural strength versus

hydration time for M-F system
1.6 80
h M-G system
E
Y
g 1.2 60
i;j
o
.d
>
.d
0.8
Compressive strength
v
5;
.d
v1
40 c,
M
i2 5
'oE 0.4
s
r/)
20
o
d
w Flexural strength
A
v Q
O n
O 20 40 60 80 100

hydration time for M-G system

A C 1 SP-154 95 U 0662949 0522b02 212 m
E9 M-GF system
Resistivity
s 3- - 60 n
2- - 40
z'Ei 1- Flexural strength

- 20
8
w 0-9
P Q
O' 'O
O 20 40 60 80 100

hydration time for M-GF system
80
'=.
25 M-GF-S system
Resistivity
s 20 i 60 n
a
Compressive strength
+ E
Flexural strength
n O
O' 10
O 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. &-Electrical resistivity, compressive and flexural strength versus

hydration time for M-GF-S system

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522603 I159
2% 2026
-
1635 1579
M-G M-GF M-F M-GF-S
Fig. 7-Bulk density values of typical conductive concrete formulations
Power
Power orúoff ?
Power output = ?
i
Tsurface = ?
I
Electric Control
heating system
element
Tair=?
icelsnow
Environmental on road ?
Fig. &Operational flow chart of an electrical deicing system

5 m
A C I ~ ~ 4 95 ~ m
4 o b b z w q O ~ Z Z L O095
I
12" J
m
Thermometer
Freezing room
Fig. 9-Conductive concrete heating element, (a)

and deicing experimental setup, (b)

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662747 0522605 T2L W
5 O
U
v
o 1 Pout = 812 W i d
* Surface
g-20-lob tCore
t
.I
O 2 4 6 8 10
Time (days)
Fig. 10-Surface temperature of powered specimen at air

temperature around -30 C
t Air
Pout= 265 Wim'
$
Y -4: 6 Surface
a -8-
I t core
o, -
-12
--
-161 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
O 2 4 6 8 lo
Time (days)
'
Fig. 11-Surface temperature of powered specimen at air
temperature around -10 C

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 0522606 968 m
Pout = 7.71 - 26.8.Tair (W/m2) I
O -10 -20 -30

Air Temperature ( T)
Fig. 12-Power output required to maintain surface

temperature around 2-3 C
10
Pout = 1063 W/m '
Pout = 606 W/mz
E
s Air temperature
g -20
-30' " I ' " " '

O 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min.)
Fig. 13-Effect of heater power output on rate of

temperature increase of conductive concrete surface

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 O522607 ö T 4
5 19
4.9 18.5 3
h
4.9 :
c
O
v
4.8 18
1
<-
3
.+
.-
>
c>
.+
CA
2 4.7 17.5 2
-ri" I ,
-20 -10 O 10 20 30
Temperature of specimen (OC)
Fig. 1AEffed of temperature on concrete heater

resistance and resistivity of concrete heater material
1200 -
N
Applied electric
potential -e V=lOv t v=20v
g 800-
9
0 60Oe',-
I I - -
U
-15 -5 5 15 25
Temperature of Specimen ( OC)
Fig. 15-Effect of temperature on concrete heater power output

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 U 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522608 730
SP 154-22
Strain, Cracking, and Failure

Described by an Ultimate Modulus
by E. K. Schrader
Synopsis: For years the concrete industry has used ultimate compressive
strengthand elastic modulus as principal design and analysis tools. This can be
very misleading when cracking and failure are evaluated. With modern concretes
that include Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) and lower strength mass
applications, cracking that is serious may not occur until the concrete is strained
well beyond the elastic region.
Two things are needed:
First, a new property called the "ultimate modulus" should be determined,

along with the elastic modulus. If these values are nearly the same, the concrete
is brittle and may have a low strain capacity - even if it has a high strength. If the
ultimate modulus is much lower than the elastic modulus, the material is "tough"
and may have a high strain capacity despite a low strength. Examples are given
where deliberately designing a lower strength concrete has resulted in a much
higher strain capacity. In one case with roller compacted concrete (RCC), a
mixture with five times less strength resulted in a tensile strain capacity (and
resistance to thermal cracking) that was three times greater.
Second, there should be a better understanding of the relationships between

strain capacity, strength, and modulus (ultimate and elastic), in compression as
compared to those material properties in tension. With the broader range of
concrete mixtures possible in today's concretes (RCC being an example), the ratio
between split cylinder tensile strength and compressive strength may be twice as
high for a lower strength mixture than it is for a higher strength mixture.
Somewhat offsetting this is the fact that the conversion factors from split tensile
strength or flexural strength to direct tensile strength are substantially smaller for
low strength concretes and greater (exponentially) for high strength concretes.
When only concretes in the compressive strength range of say 20 to 50 MPa are
considered, the adjustment factor happens to be about 1, so this phenomenon has
not been obvious or very important in the past.
Keywords: Cracking (fracturing); creep properties; f a h r e ; modulus of

elasticity; strains; strength; tension
419
A C 1 SP-154 95 I0 b b 2 9 4 9 0 5 2 2 b 0 9 6 7 7 I
420 Schrader
Ernest Schrader is a consulting engineer from Walla WaUa, Washington, USA.

He has been involved with the planning, design, construction, inspection and
analysis of many concrete structures including approximately 100 conventional and
roller compacted concrete dams. He is a member of several AC1 committees
including cracking and mass concrete.
ILNTRODUCTION
The general assumptions that concrete has an elastic modulus of about 20

to 30 GPa, and that the elastic modulus can be used to get a reasonable indication
of ultimate strain capacity and resistance to cracking is fairly accurate for most
conventional concretes with compressive strengths on the order of 20 to 50 MPa.
However, at lower strengths, and especially with low to medium strength mass
placements of Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC), the elastic modulus can be
much lower. The elastic modulus typically indicates a strain capacity much less
than actually exists in these mixtures. An "ultimate modulus" which quantifies
this behavior, can easily be determined along with the standard elastic modulus
test.
The modulus is almost always determined from compression tests, but it

is the strength, modulus, and strain capacity in tension that determines whether
or not the concrete will crack. Direct tension tests of concretes in the range of
O. 1 to 3.0 MPa, has shown that high ultimate strain capacity can be achieved with
lower strengths, and that it generally then decreases as the strength is increased.
A very high creep rate, which can relax stresses caused by thermal
contraction and foundation deformation, is also associated with lower strengths
that are still quite adequate for dams and other massive applications.
Direct tende strength tests of concrete are difficult and expensive, so they
are seldom performed. The indirect, or B d i a n , splitting tensile test of concrete
cylinders is easy and economical, but it does not indicate the true direct tensile
strength. A conversion factor is needed that depends on the strength of the I
~
concrete. It changes significantly for low strength concrete.
This paper presents an abundance of data for different mixtures, with

different aggregates, cement, and pozzolans, and different pozzolan contents that
demonstrate typical properties and relationships for low strength concrete,
especially RCC.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662749 0522630 399
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, TENSILE STRAIN, AND CRACKING
Designers generally assume that mass concrete has an elastic modulus of

about 25 GPa. This has been a safe and reasonable assumption in the past, but not
any more. Designers of RCC dams must understand that RCC can have a
modulus similar to conventional concrete, but the concrete can also be designed
to have a much lower modulus, and in some cases, it may have a higher modulus.
This significantly affects cracking analyses.
Considerable attention has been given to thermal stresses and thermal

cracking in most RCC dams. Sometimes, efforts are concentrated on achieving a
high tensile strength in order to resist cracking. This can be opposite to what
should be done. A high modulus (or normal modulus by conventional concrete
standards) is associated with higher strength RCC. Also associated with higher
strength is more cracking as weii as more cementitious materials, more cost, more
traditional concrete controls and specifications, and traditional concrete problems.
If the modulus is decreased, the stress developed by a given foundation or

thermal movement is decreased. A lower modulus is obtained by using a LOWER
strength, by selecting aggregate gradations that separate the coarse aggregate better
and incorporate aggregate fines (smaller than 75 micron), and sometimes by using
a "worse" quality aggregate (by traditional standards). These techniques have
resulted in dramatic reductions in modulus on some projects with little or no
cracking and little or no forced cooling.
Figure 1 shows the typical range of modulus values as a function of age for
most conventional concretes. The purpose of Figure 1 is to demonstrate that
RCC can have very low elastic modulus, but that care must be taken to check this
property because it also can have a very high modulus if the cementitious content
is increased and/or a large amount of pozzolan is used. It should be noted that the
RCC mixtures shown are extreme cases. Generally, concrete with cementitious
contents in the range of about 50 to 100 kg/m3 will have elastic modulus values
on the order of about 5 to 15 GPa.
At Burton Gorge Dam [the mix labeled RCC(BG) in Figure 11 , a

deliberate effort was made to achieve a mix with a low modulus and
corresponding high strain capacity. This extremely low elastic modulus of about
2 GPa was achieved by using a basalt aggregate which contained weathered rock
with some clay coatings, and by using more sand than would be normal. The mix
had a cement content of 85 kg/m3, no pozzolan, and no admixture. The 90 day
compressive strength was 9 MPa, with an indirect split cylinder tensile strength
of 1.4 MPa. This modulus was 15 to 20 times lower than would traditionally have
been expected. When increased creep was taken into account, the result was
essentially 20 time less potential for cracking, and elimination of any forced
cooling requirements in the hot climate of North Queensland, Australia.

A C 1 SP-LSY 95 W Obb2747 0522bLL 225 W
422 Schrader
The modulus for the mix labeled RCC (AGOS) on Figure 1 is for a
concrete that used clean aggregates and was designed to give better strength. It
had a 1 year strength of 14 MPa. The mix had a cementitious content of 120
kg/m3, with 25 % of that being added pozzolan. However, the aggregate
included about 5 % fines (smaller than 75 microns) which were a combination of
natural and freshly ground siliceous sand. These fines were considered to be
pozzolanic, and resulted in the very high long term elastic modulus, despite the
fact that they did not cause a similar increase in strength.
Another way to analyze cracking is by comparing the expected tensile

strain in the structure to the expected tensile strain capacity of the mix. Tensile
strain capacity testing is difficult and not commonly done. With the exception of
large dams or unusual conditions, these tests are seldom justified or accomplished.
Fortunately, data is developing to show that information from the easier
compressive modulus of elasticity test can be used to indicate the probable tensile
strain behavior. Again, lower strength mixtures, not higher strength, can be the
answer to cracking. Figure 2 shows results of direct tensile strain tests of low,
medium, and high strength RCC mixtures. The low strength sample was capable
of undergoing much more tensile deformation before cracking.
The mix designations in Figure 2 indicate "cementitious content- %

pozzolan-% water. " For example, mix "95-25-4.4"has a cementitious content of
95 kg/m3 with 25% of it being pozzolan, and a moisture content (above SSD
aggregates) of 4.4% of the total mass. Mix "136-43-4.6"has a total cementitious
content of 136 kg/m3 with 43%of it being pozzolan and a water content of 4.6%.
The "240-33-4.3"mix has a total cementitious content of 240 kg/m3with 33 % of
it being pozzolan and a water content of 4.3 % .
A better look at the stress-strain behavior of the low strength mix in Figure
2 is shown in Figure 3. It helps explain what is happening. The stress-strain
curve is elastic only in the very early stages of stress. It then takes on a toughness
attributed to microcracking, creep, and plastic flow. When these types of
mixtures are tested in compression, they define a similar stress-strain behavior.
The problem with very low tensile strength concrete is that it tends to have
substantial variability when samples are taken. This needs to be acknowledged,
but it is not a major problem for large mass application. Large mass applications
such as dams usually use large aggregate. It is difficult to extract core samples
that use a pcticai and affordable nominal core diameter of 150 mm. A nominal
150 mm diameter core hole actually yields a smaller core diameter. Also, it is
very easy to damage the cores during drilling and handling. Figure 4 shows the
results of direct tensile strength tests on cores drilled from a low tensile strength
RCC dam in Honduras and sent to the USA for evaluation. The nominal diameter
of these cores was about 100 mm and the maximum aggregate size was a nominal
76 mm. This concrete used a poor quaiity and highly variable cement and natural

A C 1 SP-I154 95 I0662949 0 5 2 2 b L 2 LbL
pozzolan, with a pozzolan percentage that ranged from about 15% to 25 % . The
aggregate was a poor quality ignimbrite with a specific gravity of about 2.3 and
an absorption ranging from 5 % to 11% . The cement plus pozzolan content of the
cores tested was either 90 or 95 kglm'. Although the variability can be criticized,
the overall result is that even with the worst of construction materials, less than
ideal coring, and significant handling of the specimens, the overall in-situ material
has been shown to have substantial strain capacity.
It is important to recognize that in a mass application where the section or

area subjected to tensile stress is very large (typically 500 to 5,000 m'), more
variability can be tolerated than in a column or slab. In this case, the fact that
some cores had essentially no tensile strength is averaged out by the cores with
higher tensile strength. The particular project that this concrete came from,
Concepcion Dam, has been in fuli operation for about five years with no cracking.
The low cementitious content and low elastic modulus permitted essentially
continuous placement in the hot climate with no cooling or strict temperature
controls for thermal stresses. The elastic modulus in compression based on
construction cylinders was about 10 GPa at 90 days. The overall modulus in
tension, as indicated by the cores at an age of over 1 year, was on the order of
only 0.6 GPa. Clearly, using the elastic modulus from compression tests, even
though it was low, would indicate a more serious cracking problem than actually
developed in the structure. A more descriptive and accurate modulus value from
compression testing, discussed below as the "ultimate modulus," can be used to
better understand this improved cracking resistance.
ULTIMATE and ELASTIC MODULUS
Figure 5 shows the stress-strain behavior of RCC made with identical .

aggregates and materiais, but different cement contents. The higher strength
mixture had a substantially greater elastic modulus (but still less than conventional
concrete) when compared to the lower strength mixture. Data for companion
cylinders of the same mixtures are included on Figure 5 to also show that the
stress-strain behavior of RCC mixtures is very reliable and reproducible, even at
lower strengths.
The mix designation "133-0-4.2" in Figure 5 refers to a cementitious

content of 133 kg/m3with a pozzolan content of 0% and a water content (above
SSD) of 4.2% of the total mass. Similarity, the "59-0-4.2" mix has a total
cementious content of 59 kg/m3with O % pozzolan and a water content of 4.2 % .
Figure 5 also shows a new and useful value referred to as the "ultimate"
modulus. It is the slope of the secant drawn from the origin of the stress-strain
curve to the average peak compressive strenph of companion cylinders. It is clear

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522633 O T B
424 Schrader
in this typical example that it îakes much more deformation and substantial energy
to fail a lower strength mixture when compared to a higher strength mixture. A
lower ultimate modulus is associated with more deformation before cracking. In
a cracking analysis, it is the ultimate condition that should be studied, not just the
elastic condition. As the mix becomes stronger, the elastic modulus and ultimate
modulus approach the same value, so it is not as important with those types of
concrete. With low strength mixtures, use of the elastic modulus alone in a
cracking analysis can be extraordinarily overconservative, by many orders of
magnitude. Initial work has indicated that the ultimate modulus from compression
testing is a reasonable indicator of the modulus value that can be used for tensile
cracking analyses. Additional work to verify this is underway.
Figures 6 and 7 indicate the overall relationship between compressive

strength and eiastic modulus for a multitude of different mixtures at the San Rafael
and Big Haynes projects respectively. They include results at ages ranging from
3 days to 1 year. The San Rafael project used a range of cementitious content
from 60 to 200 kg/m3with a constant pozzolan content of 20 % . The Big Haynes
mixtures used different cement, pozzolan, and aggregates. They also included
pozzolan contents ranging from 0% to 5076, and total cementitious contents
ranging from 59 to 133 kg/m3, and some mixtures with different admixtures.
It is clear from these graphs that the elastic modulus decreases dramatically
at compressive strengths below about 10 MPa, and that it is fairly constant above
that level of strength.
Figures 8 and 9 show the relationship between the ultimate modulus and
compressive strength for the same respective projects and broad range of mixtures.
The San Rafael data for ultimate modulus includes data from two different labs.
The mixtures and tests were supervised by the same person, but the work was
done by totally different people who were new to the ultimate modulus. It is clear
from the results that the test can be done with confidence as a standard.
The difference in scale between the graphs showing elastic modulus and
those showing ultimate modulus should be pointed out. At lower strengths, on the
order of 5 MPa, the ultimate modulus is generally about one tenth of the value
of the elastic modulus. As the strength increases, the ultimate modulus gets closer
to the elastic modulus. Data not included in this paper indicates that the values are
essentially the same for very high strength concrete. A large difference between
elastic and ultimate modulus indicates an inherent toughness and improvement in
ultimate strain capacity. The test provides a method of evaluating this very
desirable property when selecting a mix for a project where toughness and ultimate
crack resistance are important.

A C 1 SP-LSY 95 9 Obb2949 0522bL4 T 3 4
Another useful tool to help better understand how the elastic and ultimate
modulus are effected by strength is to look at the ratio of modulus to compressive
strength as a function of strength. This is shown in Figures 10 and 11 for the San
Rafael mixtures. The scatter of data in the elastic modulus for the strength level
from about 2 to 10 MPa has been observed at other projects. The peculiar higher
average ratio of elastic modulus to compressive strength within this stress level as
compared to higher strength concretes is also typical. Figure 11 shows that the
large scatter of data is not present for the ultimate modulus test. It is easier to
determine and reproduce than the elastic modulus.
CREEP
A dramatic increase in stress relief due to creep is also associated with low
strength concretes. Creep essentially has the effect of further reducing the
sustained modulus over time. In addition to the benefits from decreased initial
elastic and ultimate moduli, creep has the effect of further reducing the modulus,
referred to as a sustained modulus. In low strength mixtures it can significantly
reduce the long term potential for cracking. Figures 12 and 13 demonstrate the
radical increase in creep when the strength at the time of loading is below about
15 MPa. As shown on the Figures, this relationship appears to be independent of
pozzolan content, whether the mixture is conventional or roller compacted, or the
age at the time of loading. Data for these figures comes from mixtures with a
wide range of cementitious contents, pozzolans ranging from 0% to 70% of the
cementitious content, and ages of loading from 7 to 180 days.
INDIRECT TENSION TESTING
Direct tension testing is difficult and expensive. An indirect way to get an

indication of the direct tensile strength of concrete is through the splitting tension
test (ASTM C 496), sometimes referred to as the Brazilian test. A core or
standard cylinder is laid on its side in a compression machine and loaded until it
breaks. Failure occurs by splitting down the middle of the specimen due to
indirect tensile stresses.
The splitting tensile strength increase with age similar to what can be
expected with compressive strength. Figure 14 shows the relationship between
age and splitting tensile strength for relatively low strength mixtures having a
cementitious content of 89 kg/m3, with pozzolan contents ranging from 0% to
50 % . Figure 15 shows the relationship for the same aggregates but with mixtures
having no pozzolan and a range of cement contents from 59 to 133 kg/m3.

A C 1 SP-354 95 0662949 0522635 970
426 Schrader
Figures 16 shows the relationship between splitting tensile strength and

compressive strength for these particular materiais. Figures 17 and 18 show the
ratio of the splitting tensile strength to compressive strength as a function of the
compressive strength for the San Rafael and Big Haynes projects respectively.
The shape of the curve, or relationship of the ratio to compressive strength has
been simiiar for the many projects that the author has investigated. For practical
purposes the ratio is fairly constant within the normal range of strengths that are
typically experienced during the service life for any particular mixture.
However, when the broad spectrum is investigated, the relationship varies as
indicated in Figures 17 and 18.
More importantly, the ratio can be very different from project to project.
The tendency is for higher strength mixtures to have splitting tensile strengths that
are a lower percentage of the compressivestrength. However, a trend is not being
shown here because of exceptions. To demonstrate how much the ratio of split
tension to compressive strength can vary from project to project, the following
examples are offered for some typical RCC projects: Upper Stillwater 4 %-7%,
Willow Creek 7%-12%,Monksville 9%-13%,San Rafael 10%-16%,Urugua-I
10%-18%,Concepcion 12%-17%,Big Haynes 12%-18%,and Middle Fork 13%-
18%.
Probably the most important aspect of using splitting cylinder strengths to

determine probable direct tensile strengths is the generally unknown fact that the
ratio of split tensile strength to direct tensile strength decreases significantly for
low strength mixtures. At the normal strength level of about 25 to 50 MPa, the
conversion factor is close to 1, or unity, so it is noticed in those situations. Figure
19 has been developed by the author based on an accumulation of test data from
different projects. The ratio of splitting tensile/direct tensile strength is a
logarithmic function of the compressive strength. The author has found a similar
relationship between the flexural strength or modulus of rupture and direct tensile
strength. Figure 19 also indicates this relationship as a function of compressive
strength.
When the adjusting factor is applied to split cylinder strengths, and the
resulting direct tensile strength calculated from appropriate factors, it typically
plots as a straight line function of compressive strength as indicated Figure 20.
This agrees with results from direct tensile tests, at least within the range of about
O to 20 MPa.

A C 1 SP-154 95 IOb62949 0522636 ô07 W
CONCLUSIONS
Low strength concretes can have significantly more crack resistance than
indicated by using the elastic modulus as determined in compression tests. An
indication of how resistant the concrete wiii be to cracking, and its ultimate tensile
strain capacity can be obtained by continuing the stress-strain test to failure, and
calculating the "ultimate modulus."
Low strength RCC mixtures can be designed 'to have extremely low
ultimate modulus values, as well as low elastic modulus values.
The crack resistance of low strength concretes is also improved by

dramatic increases in creep, which further reduce the effective sustained modulus
and relax internal stresses.
The split cylinder indirect tensile test is a useful tool for easily obtaining
an indication of direct tensile strength. Special care and adjustment factors are
needed when converting the split tensile strength to direct tensile strength. This
is particularly important at lower strengths.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The data used in this article was developed from a variety of projects,
involving a number of organizations. Among those who should be recognized are
the Federal Electric Commission of Mexico, Jordan Jones and Goulding, ATEC,
Bechtel, CONCIL, and the North Pacific Division Lab of the U. S. Army Corps
of Engineers.

A C 1 SP-354 95 W 0662949 0 5 2 2 6 3 7 7 4 3
428 Schrader
ELASTIC MODULUS (GPa)

40
35 - +85-0-5.3 Prod Agg * 120-25-4.2 AGOS
30 -
25 -
RCC (BG)
1 10 1O 0 1O00
AGE (DAYS)
Fig. 1-Sample modulus of elasticity for different concrete mixes
2.5 - + AMRIV 4583-60
I 3 240-33-4.3
---l
1
2t d
*I-
f
%
C 4 3 4 . 6
95-25-4.4 .
I I 1 I I
o 50 1O 0 150 200 250 300 350

STRAIN (MILLIONTHS)
Fig. 2-RCC tensile strain capacities

0.5
0.4
Q.3
0.2
0.1
-
A C 1 SP-I54 95 I0662949 0 5 2 2 b L 8 b8T I
DIRECT TENSILE STRESS íMPal
+CORE R2-25-95A
o
O 50 1O0 150 200 250 300 350
STRAIN [MILLIONTHS)
Fig. T e n s i l e strain capacity of low-strength RCC
STRESS íMPa) NUMBER OF SAMPLES

0.6 30
0.5 25
* AVG-SDEV
0.4 20
28 Cores, 90 & 95 K g h 3 Type IP cernent
Resulis are grouped by strain capacity
0.3 15
0.2 10
0.1 5
O
O 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
STRAIN (MILLIONTHS)
Fig. 4-Summary of Concepcion Dam tensile stress-strain cores

A C 1 SP-154 75 Obb2749 0522637 5Lb
430 Schrader
STRESS iMPa)
20 I I
O
2
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
STRAIN (millionths x 1000)
Fig. 5-Compressive stress-strain curves with elastic and ultimate moduli
O 5 10 15 20 25
COMPRESSION iMPa1
Fig. ó-Elastic modulus versus compression, Son Rafael Project

A C 1 SP-I154 75 W 0 6 6 2 7 4 9 0522620 238 =
30
MIX
25 - ' RCCNOASH
+ RCCWITHASH
20 - * RCC WITH RETARDER

- TYP. CONV. CONCRETE
Fig. 7-Elastic modulus versus compression, Big Haynes Project
10
9-
8 -
7-
6 -
5-
4-
3-
2-
1-
0-p
Fig. Cliltirnate modulus versus compression, San Rafael Project

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 m O662949 0522621 174 m
432 Schrader
15
l4 - MIX
13 -
NO ASH
12 -
a
11 - + WITHASH
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
O
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)
Fig. 1"Son Rofoel, compression versus ratio of elastic modulus/compression

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 O522622 O00
ULTIMATE MODULUSICOMPRESSION X 1000

4
3.5
MEXICO CITY
3 -k SANRAFAELUB
2.5
1.5
0.5
O I
.l I
I
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
COMPRESSION iMPa)
Fig. 11-San Rafael, compression versus ratio of ultimate moduluslcompression
CREEP FACTOR FíK)

40
35
30 f 23%TO30%
25
Specific Creep Imüiiomths/Mpal = FIK) inlt + 1)
20
15
10
O
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
STRENGTH AT INITIAL LOADING (MPa)
Fig. 12-Specific creep versus compressive strength when loaded

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m Obb2949 0522b23 T 4 7 m
434 Schrader
40
CONCRETE TYPE
35 -
30 - + CONVENTIONAL
25 -
Specifc Creep Imillionths/MPa) = FíK) Ln It+ I ]
20 -
15 -
10 -
.. ++.
-+
5-
+
+, ‘ Y
O’ I I I I I I I
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
STRENGTH AT INITIAL LOADING (MPa)
Fig. 13-Specific creep versus type of concrete and strength when loaded
SPLITTING TENSION IMPal

3
% Pozzolan
2.5 0 % + 17% * 33% 50%
1.5
0.5
o I I I I I I 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1
1 10 1O 0 1O00
AGE (DAYS)
Fig. 14-Splitting tension versus pozzolan C + P = 89 kg/rn3 I

A C 1 SP-154 75 E Obb2949 0522624 983 W
SPLITTING TENSION (MPa)

2.
"I
*-: c
1
1.51
0.5 -
I
-
/------
I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I
Fig. 15-Splitting tension versus cement content, no pozzolan
SPLITTING TENSION (MPa)
30
25
I
+-
MEXICO CITY LAB SANRAFAELLAB
20 -
15 -
10 -
5-
O 5 10 15 20
COMPRESSION (MPa)
Fig. 1 b S p l i t tension versus compression, San Rafael Project

436
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
o. 1
A C 1 SP-154
[
Schrader
SPLITTING TENSION/COMPRESSION
. .. ..a*
-
95 m 0bb2949 0522625
MEXICO CITY LAB

ALT
0.05
I I I I
O
O 5 10 15 20 25
COMPRESSION iMPa1
Fig. 17-San Rafael, compression versus ratio of splitting tension/compression
0.3
-
' NOASH + WITHASH t WITHRETARDER
0.25
0.2 -
0.15 -
0.1 -
0.05 -
O 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 18-Big Haynes, compression versus ratio of splitting tension/compression

A C 1 SP-154 ’75 066294’7 0522b2b 756
RATlOkplitting tension/direct tension)

1.2
I
1
-Split Cylinders I,
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 . ..,
0.5
0.4 1
0.11 p-”
O b I I I I I IlII I I I I I III
o. 1 1 10 1O 0 1O00
Fig. 19-Tensile strength conversion factors versus compressive strength
1-
f =
d/
0.5 - t
f
I I I I
Fig. 2 G De r ive d direct tension versus compressive strength

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0662949 0 5 2 2 6 2 7 692 m
SP 154-23
Relationships Between Deterioration

and Structural Performance:
Three Case Studies
by R. A. Miller, B. M. Shahrooz, and A. E. Ahan
Svnoosis: This paper examines the relationship between deterioration of

concrete and the structural performance of bridge structures.
Case 1: A 37-year-old, three span, concrete slab bridge was decommissioned

due to heavy deterioration. Modal testing was used to detect the most heavily
damaged areas in the bridge and to construct a flexibility matrix which
described the damaged bridge. The bridge was then tested to destruction.
Failure occurred in shear with the results showing that the damaged areas
heavily influenced the behavior and caused a substantial reduction in capacity.
Case 2: A 10-year-old precast box bridge beam was removed due to corrosion
of three comer tendons and spalling of the concrete which resulted in an
asymmetrical tendon pattern and cross section. Modal testing was again used
to detect damage in the beam. The beam was then tested to destruction.
Failure was brittle and occurred before the AASHTO nominal moment was
reached. This was probably the result of a lateral instability caused by the
asymmetry of the beam and the damage to the web concrete.
Case 3: Three slab bridges with light, moderate and heavy deterioration of the
concrete over the pier areas were tested using truck loading before, during and
after repairs were made. It was found that removing the deteriorated concrete
from around the top reinforcing bars during repair caused a temporary loss of
continuity which may have resulted in a redistribution of dead load moments.
After repair, the continuity and stiffness were restored in two of the three
cases, but the redistributed dead load moments were probably locked into the
structure.
Kevwords: Beams (supports); bridges (structures); deterioration; models;

nondestructive tests; performance; slabs; structural analysis; tests
439
A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0662947 0522628 529 m
440 Miller, Shahrooz, and Aktan
R Miller is an Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

University of Cincinnati, P. O. Box 210071, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0071.
B. Shahiooz is an Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

University of Cincinnati.
A. Aktan is a Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University

of Cincinnati, and Director of the Cincinnati Infrastructure Institute.
INTRODUCLION
Decay and deterioration of structures, especially those related to

infrastructure, is a major problem. Unfortunately, the impact of deterioration
on structural performance is largely unknown. Deterioration which appears to
be severe may have little effect on structural performance while deterioration
which appears minor or is hidden may have a major impact on performance.
The consequences of not understanding the role of deterioration in structural
behavior are enormous. Usable structures may be removed simply because
they look bad or, worse, dangerous structures may be left in place because
critical damage is either misjudged or not detected. Therefore, the challenge
to the structural engineers is to find reliable methods of detecting structural
deterioration and then accurately assessing the impact of this deterioration on
structural performance. This paper explores three case studies involving
deteriorated bridges or bridge components:
1) A 38-year-old concrete slab bridge with heavy deterioration on the side

and shoulder region was tested with both nondestructive (NDT) and
destructive methods.
2) A 10-year-old prestressed concrete box beam with corroded tendons

and spalled concrete was tested both with NDT techniques and to
destruction.
3) Three slab bridges with various states of deterioration were tested with
nondestructive truck load testing before, during and after repair.
In each case, the deterioration was evaluated and then the effect on structural
performance assessed.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0 5 2 2 6 2 9 465
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
In order to accurately evaluate older, deteriorated structures, it is

necessary to understand the relationship between material deterioration and
structural performance. In this research, damage to the material has been
measured and the effects of this damage on the structurai performance has
been quantified through nondestructive testing and destructive testing
techniques.
CASE STUDY #1- 37 YEAR OLD,THREE SPAN, SLAB BRIDGE
DescriDtion of Bridge and Deterioration
In 1991, researchers at the University of Cincinnati conducted

nondestructive and destructive tests on a 37-year-old, three span, concrete slab
bridge which was scheduled for demolition. The bridge was 11.2 m wide,
had a 30" skew and spans of 9.75 m, 12.2 m and 9.75 m (Fig. i). Originally,
the 440 mm thick deck was covered by an asphalt layer and the only visible
damage was severe cracking and spalling along the edges of the bridge. As
with many bridges of this type, no drainage was provided and salt laden water
simply drained over the edges. Removal of the asphalt revealed that the
entire shoulder area (the 2 m wide area on each edge) was deteriorated to the
levei of the reinforcing bars. Subsequent coring and petrographic examination
revealed that the shoulder had been primarily damaged by a combination of
freezing and thawing (especially freezing and thawing of the coarse
aggregates) and alkali-silica reaction (1). Chloride penetration and the
associated corrosion were also found in the shoulder areas. The corrosion
probably occurred after the freezing and thawing and alkali-silica reaction had
damaged the slab, but the corrosion contributed to the damage in the shoulder
areas.
In the slab areas under the driving lanes, no deterioration was found.
Core samples showed no signs of corrosion, damage from freezing and
thawing, alkali-silica reaction or chloride intrusion. It is postulated that during
the winter season, chloride laden snow and water was pushed from the
roadway areas to the shoulder areas of the bridge and allowed to remain there.
This chloride laden water soaked through the asphalt and saturated the
concrete slab in the shoulder areas. The saturated slab areas were then
vulnerable to freezing and thawing and alkali-silica reaction. The chlorides
penetrating into the slab accelerated the corrosion.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522630 187
Modal NDT
The modal testing performed in case studies 1 and 2 uses a technique

known as polyreference modal testing. In this technique, the structure is
impacted (usually with an instrumented hammer) so that it will vibrate and
the vibrations are measured. This information can then be processed into a
modal flexibility matrix which can be used to identifj the structural response
and any damage which may be present.
The first step discretize the structure using a grid system.

Accelerometers are placed at three or more grid points, termed reference
points. The reference points are usually chosen to minimize disruption to
traffic, mitigate data corruption and such that they do not coincide with the
node point of a low frequency vibrational mode. The structure is impacted at
each grid point using a sledge hammer which contains a load cell. To assure
accurate data, each grid point is impacted at least five times so reasonable
average responses can be obtained. The load response of the hammer and the
response of each accelerometer are recorded. During or after the test, the data
are converted from time domain to frequency domain using a fast fourier
transform (FFT). The ratio of the output (accelerometer) FFT to the input
(hammer) FFT is called the frequency response function (FRF). FRFs
normalize the data to account for differences in the hammer impact force.
Natural resonant frequencies, damping factors and modal shapes can be
obtained from the FRFs using commercially available dynamic analysis
computer programs. These programs use polyreference techniques, which use
data from multiple references to generate a single best estimate of the mode
shapes which optimally match the measured FRFs. The resulting mode shapes
and frequencies can then be used to formulate the modal flexibility matrix for
the structure. In theory, an infinite number of mode shapedfrequencies are
needed for an exact flexibility matrix. In practice, reliable matrices are
obtained with approximately 10-12 modes with accuracy improving if more
modes are identified. However, there are damage detection algorithms, based
on modal flexibility matrices, which can be used even if fewer (3 - 6) modes
are identified,
For case study 1, modal testing was done before removal of the
asphalt overlay (so the shoulder damage could not yet be seen). The resulting
flexibility matrix revealed abnormalities in the shoulder areas. Thus, the
damage to the shoulders was detected even though it could not be seen. Also,
this first test provided a baseline for a second modal test which was
conducted during the destructive test. This second modal test was conducted
just before the failure load was reached (see next section). Comparisons
between the first and second modal tests showed a significant change in
flexibility in the loaded region, thus revealing damage which was not yet

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 0522631 013 m
visible to the research team. These tests demonstrate the effectiveness of

modal flexibility as a global condition index that is sensitive to damage which
may not be visible. More details of this modal test are given in the
literature (2).
Destructive Testing
After modal testing was complete, the bridge was tested to failure.
This was accomplished by drilling small core holes in the deck and passing
posttensioning cables through the holes. One end of the cables was securely
grouted into the bed rock below the bridge and the other end was attached to
a 1 555 kN capacity hydraulic cylinder. A total of 4 cable and cylinder
assemblies were used providing a total load capacity of 6 220 kN. The
cylinders were mounted in two concrete blocks cast onto the bridge deck (Fig.
2). The size of the blocks was chosen to simulate a truck tandem axle.
Load was applied in total load increments of 71 kN (Le. each cylinder

applied 17.8 kN) which is approximately 1/2 the axle load of an HS20-44
truck. After each load increment, the loading was held constant and the bridge
was inspected for cracking. At various load levels, the bridge was unloaded
and reloaded to measure permanent deformation and loading/reloading
behavior. A total of 150 instruments were used to measure deflection, strain,
deformation and rotation.
The test took three days to complete. The first day of loading
consisted of loading in the linear range. On the second day of loading, the
bridge was loaded to a total load of 2840 kN and unloaded. At this time, the
bridge was inspected and no additional or severe damage was noted. As
previously noted, a modal test was conducted at this time. Unfortunately, the
data could not be processed before the next loading took place. Subsequent
analysis of the modal test data revealed that there was additional, severe
damage in the deteriorated shoulder regions which occurred due to load
application, but. this damage was not visible.
For the third day of loading, the load was reloaded to 2840 kN in 71
kN increments and additional 71 kN increments were then applied. At 3200
kN, the slab failed suddenly in shear (Fig. 2). Note that this load far
exceeded any reasonable load which may have actually been applied to the
bridge, but it was below the calculated flexural capacity and well below the
calculated punching shear capacity (capacities calculated with f,' = 54 MPa and
f, = 330 m a ) . Although previous research (3) indicates that slab bridges tend
to fail in punching shear, the AASHTO (4) and AC1 (5) provisions for shear

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522632 T S T =
are generally conservative for bridge structures. The fact that the bridge failed
well below the calculated punching shear capacity indicates that deterioration
reduced the shear capacity of this bridge.
Relationshit> Between Deterioration and Structural Behavior
The bridge in this study was a skew bridge (Fig. 1). According to
finite element analyses, such bridges should carry loads perpendicular to the
skew. However, at first, this bridge carried load parallel to the traffic lanes.
At a total load of 1000 kN, there was a sudden change in rotational stiffness
at the abutment followed by a sudden increase in rotation at the pier line.
Analysis of instrument responses indicated that the load path had shifted from
parallel to the traffic lanes to the expected path perpendicular to the skew. It
appears that the abutment had been locked or frozen by deterioration and
rotation was restrained. This prevented the bridge from assuming the normal
load carrying path perpendicular to the skew. However, when the load was
sufficient to overcome the resistance at the abutment, the abutment rotated and
the bridge assumed the skewed load path.
The shift of load path to the skew path had an important impact on the
structural response. Once the skew load path was assumed, the damaged
shoulder near the point of load application was no longer in the load path so
the damage had no effect on the structural response.
At a total load of about 2840 kN, the bottom rebar under the point of
load application began to yield. As the bar yielded, the instrumentation
showed that the load path shifted back to a path parallel to the tranic lanes.
After this point, the reinforcing bar over the pier in the damaged shoulder
region (point "A" in Fig. 1) began to show increased strain and yielded. At
a total load of 3200 kN, the damaged shoulder failed in shear and the failure
propagated around the loading blocks (Fig. 2).
The failure appears to be a punching shear failure. However, the

failure load of 3200 kN was approximately 40% less than the punching shear
capacity calculated by the AASHTO (4) or AC1 ( 5 ) codes. This reduction in
shear capacity is consistent with previous research on the punching shear
capacity of slabs with flaws (6). A more complete treatment of the bridge
test can be found in the literature (7).

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522633 996
CASE STUDY #2 - DETERIORATED PRESTRESSED BOX GIRDER
DescriDtion of the Beam and Deterioration
The second case study involves a 10-year-old deteriorated prestressed

box girder (Fig. 3). This girder had been a sidewalk support girder and was
838 mm deep, 914 mm wide, had 127 mm thick walls and was 23.3 m long.
The bridge from which this beam was removed is an adjacent box bridge,
meaning the box girders are placed touching each other and are tied together
with shear keys and transverse tie rods. However, in this particular bridge,
gaps were intentionally left between some beams to provide roadway drainage.
To prevent deterioration, any beam whose sides were exposed by one of these
gaps was to be waterproofed and sealed to prevent chloride penetration. Since
this box girder bordered a gap, the sides should have been sealed but
apparently were not. Chloride intrusion caused three strands in one comer of
the box to corrode and the comer concrete spalled off. The beam was
removed from the bridge and transported to Cincinnati for destructive testing.
At the time of testing, one strand in the beam was missing and one
strand was corroded, but it appeared intact and was still partially embedded.
A third strand was corroded so badly that each of the individual wires were
broken at several places along the length. Damage to the concrete varied
along the length, but the area of missing concrete was approximately 75 mm
x 203 mm. As a result of the deterioration, both the concrete cross section
and the strand pattern were asymmetrical. This asymmetry caused some out
of plane bending; there was a lateral deflection of about 13 mm at the
beginning of the test.
Modal Testing
Prior to destructive testing, a modal test was conducted to determine

if the modal test could detect the damage in the beam and produce an accurate
flexibility matrix. Eight modes were identified from the modal test and these
8 modes were compared with theoretical modes generated by linear elastic
finite element analyses. For the finite element analyses, a model with
damage and a model without damage were constructed. There was little
difference between the theoretical frequencies (both damaged and undamaged)
and the experimental frequencies, but there were significant differences in the
mode shapes. The mode shapes generated by the finite element model without
damage showed that all modes were either purely flexural or purely torsional
with no simultaneous occurrence of torsion and flexure in any mode. The

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522634 822
experimentally determined mode shapes showed modes where torsion and

flexure occurred simultaneously (torsional coupling). This torsional coupling
was caused by the asymmetry in the beam which resulted from the
deterioration. The finite element model which incorporated-the damage to the
concrete cross section was able to duplicate this torsional coupling. Thus
damage could be identified by changes in the mode shapes.
Using the mode shapes and frequencies generated by modal test, a

flexibility matrix was generated. Fig. 4 shows the deflected shape of the beam
generated using the modal flexibility matrix assuming the beam is simply
supported and loaded by two point loads of 45 kN per point (this duplicates
the loading configuration of the destructive test - see the next section). Note
that the modal deflected shape has a "kink" at the point of maximum visible
damage. Thus, damage was also identified by irregularities in the deflection
profiles generated by the modal flexibility matrix. Also, the modal test results
agree well with the static (destructive) test deflections. The complete modal
test study can be found in the literature (8).
Destructive Testing
The beam was supported as a simple span (duplicating the original

bridge condition) and loaded with two point loads, each 3.2 m from midspan.
The beam was instrumented for deflection at the midspan, points of load
application, the two quarter points and the point of maximum visible damage.
Strain measurements in the concrete and steel were made at the midspan and
near the point of maximum visible damage. For maximum control, the test
was conducted in deflection control with the beam being displaced in 8 mm
increments. For comparison purposes, a similar beam with no damage
(symmetrical cross section and all 18 strands intact) was tested.
At a load of 100 kN per point, the damaged beam cracked. After

cracking, the damaged beam stiffness changed dramatically. Fig. 5 shows the
load deflection plot for the damaged beam and an experimental load
deflection curve for the similar, but undamaged beam. It can be seen that the
damaged beam is much less stiff than undamaged beam in the post cracking
range. This difference in stiffness cannot be attributed only to loss of strands
and cross section in the damaged beam.
The damaged beam failed suddenly and collapsed at a load of 150 kN

per point. Due to asymmetry of the prestressing force and cross section, the
beam had an initial lateral deflection of 13 mm and during the test experienced
an additional 30 mm of lateral deflection. In contrast, a similar, undamaged
beam behaved in a ductile manner; exhausting the 450 mm deflection capacity

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522635 769 W
of the testing frame. It carried a load of 260 kN per point and did not fail.
As expected, this beam showed no lateral deflection as the cross section was
symmetrical.
Analysis of Results
The experimental results showed that the beam remained linear elastic
before cracking and precracking behavior of the damaged beam was explained
reasonably well using linear elastic theory. Load-deflection and load-strain
calculations made using linear elastic methods (including FEM) matched the
experimental results quite closely in the precracking region if a correction for
loss of cross section and strands was made. The calculated cracking moment
(using a calculated 18% loss of prestressing force) was 1410 kN-m compared
with the 1440 kN-m cracking moment actually measured.
However, the post cracking behavior was not explained by any simple
theory. Part of the reason for this is that there is no simple and/or accepted
method for post cracking analysis of asymmetrical prestressed beams. A
predicted failure moment of 1930 kN-m was obtained using the AASHTO
Specification (4) (which assumes symmetry) for the damaged beam. When
compared with the actual failure moment of 1805 kN-m, it can be seen that the
AASHTO Specification was not conservative for this beam, even though a
correction was made for loss of cross section and strands.
As previously noted, the final failure of this beam was a sudden

collapse which, at first, appeared to be a compression failure of the top flange.
However, further examination of the data revealed a different story. Recall
that, due to asymmetry, the beam deflected laterally as well as vertically. The
lateral bending would have placed in web above the damaged strands in
tension (Fig. 3). Just prior to failure, the strain gages indicated that
prestressing strands in the damaged beam yielded. It was observed that just
as the steel yielded, the lateral deflection began to increase. Also, the cracking
in web above the damaged strands extended to within 75 mm of the top of the
beam. Since the top flange is 127 mm-thick, the cracking extended into the
top flange of the box. The authors theorize that the lateral deflection increase
after the steel yielded was the beam becoming laterally unstable. As the beam
deflected laterally, the tensile stresses in the web above the damaged strands
would increase and the cracks would propagate, perhaps completely failing the
web and propagating into the top flange. The remaining top flange was then
no longer able to sustain the compressive bending stresses the beam collapsed.
For this beam, damage again had a significant impact on the structural
behavior. The damage caused an asymmetrical cross section, which resulted

A C 1 SP-LSY 95 W O662949 O522636 bT5
in lateral bending. This lateral bending eventually caused failure. It is

probable that, if the beam had been repaired to replace the corroded strands
and restore symmetry, the beam may have served for many more years.
Complete details of the test can be found in the literature (9).
-
CASE STUDY #3 THREE BRIDGES STUDIED UNDER REPAIR
Description of the Bridges
The purpose of this study was to determine bridge response during

repair. The intent was not only to study the effect of existing deterioration,
but also the effect of "intentional deterioration", e.g. removal of deteriorated
shoulder areas and removal of unsound concrete from the deck. In particular,
this study attempted to concentrate on whether removal of concrete over the
pier lines of a continuous concrete slab bridge, which may partially or wholly
debond the negative reinforcing steel, caused a loss of negative moment
continuity. This loss of continuity may cause the spans to behave as simple
rather than continuous spans and redistribute the dead load moment.
Three bridges were selected for this study; one with light damage, one
with moderate damage and one with heavy damage. Each bridge was a
straight (no skew), three-span concrete slab bridge and had one lane and a
shoulder in each direction.
The first bridge, located in Logan County, Ohio, was chosen because
it had very light damage to the edges and only slight damage to the concrete
over the piers (the main repair of this bridge was removal of an asphalt layer
which was replaced with microsilica concrete). It had spans of 9.1 m, 10.7
m and 9.1 m. The second bridge was located in Mercer County, Ohio and had
spans of 6.1 m, 7.6 m and 6.1 m. This bridge had moderate damage to the
shoulder area and some deterioration of the concrete over the pier lines. The
third bridge, located in Clinton County, Ohio, was severely damaged. Large
areas of deteriorated concrete over the piers, some as large as 6 m across, had
been patched with asphalt. The shoulders and edges of the bridge were also
deteriorated. This bridge had spans of 10 m, 12.2 m and 10 m.
Each bridge was repaired one half at a time with the other half being
open to traffic. The repair method for each bridge was roughly the same:
1) The asphalt surface was removed and the deck was scarified to a depth
of 6 mm (bridges #1 and #2 only, bridge #3 had no asphalt surface)

A C 1 S P - I I ~ Y 95 I0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522b37 531
2) For bridges #2 and #3, a 1 m wide area of the shoulder was removed
along the entire length of the bridge (the transverse steel was left to tie
the new shoulder to the old bridge). A new shoulder was then cast.
3) All unsound areas of concrete on the deck were removed and repaired.
4) An overlay of microsilica concrete was placed over the decks.
Testing Program
Testing consisted of truck loading the bridges and measuring the

response, Only one side (the side being repaired) of two spans, one end span
and the middle span, were instrumented on each bridge. Ten deflection
measuring devices (wire potentiometers or DCDTs) were placed in each span
-
(the instrumentation grid is shown at the top of Fig. 6 8). Concrete strains
were measured at midspan and over the piers using strain gages.
The bridges were loaded using dump trucks loaded with gravel. Each
truck weighed approximately 142 kN (each truck was weighed before the test).
Combinations of 3 or 4 trucks were placed on the bridge at any one time.
The trucks were placed in up to 8 different load positions, where the positions
were chosen to create either maximum moment over the piers, maximum
deflection in the end span or maximum deflection in the middle span (See Fig.
-
6 8). Tests were conducted before repair, after the shoulder was removed
(bridges #2 and #3), after the shoulder was replaced and the deteriorated deck
concrete was removed, and after all repairs were complete.
Test Results
Fig. 6 shows a comparison of the deflection profiles for bridge #1 for

the load configuration which created maximum deflection of the center span.
During repair, a large amount of concrete was removed from the area around
the expansion joint between the bridge and the approach slab, thus any
restraint supplied by this joint was removed. As a result, the bridge was more
flexible and deflections increased about 36% compared with the prerepair case.
After repair, deflections decreased about 15% from the prerepair case. This
was largely due to participation of the microsilica concrete overlay. The
maximum deflection measured during the tests was 3.5 mm or span
lengthl3100. These small deflections are an indication that the bridge was
overdesigned.

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0 5 2 2 b 3 8 478
Strain measurements taken during repair indicated that the portion of

the static live load moment resisted by the positive moment areas of the bridge
increased about 58% showing that removal of the concrete at the abutments
and over the piers caused a redistribution of moment. However, after repair
the portion of the static live load moment carried by the negative moment
areas of the bridge increased 14% from the prerepair condition, indicating that
the repair had been effective. It should be noted that the strains measured
were small. Although the percentage increase in moment may be large, the
actual moments redistributed were small because slab bridges tend to be
overdesigned for moment (Note, the applied live load was on the same order
of magnitude as the slab dead load so dead load behavior can be inferred from
live load performance).
Fig. 7 shows the deflection profiles for bridge #2 for the load
configuration which caused maximum deflection of the center span. The
deflection of the bridge after the removal of the shoulder shows an increase
in deflection near the shoulder (grid line 1), but less of a change away from
the shoulder (grid line 2). This shows that the concrete over the piers was still
effective in carrying the load. The data also show deflections near the center
of the bridge hardly changed between prerepair, under repair 1 (removal of
the shoulder) and under repair 2 (replacement of the shoulder accompanied by
removal of the unsound concrete). After the shoulder was repaired, the bridge
stiffness greatly increased. Once the shoulder was replaced, removal of the
unsound concrete over the piers affected the bridge only slightly. As with
bridge 1, the actual measured deflections were small.
Strain measurements indicated that during repair the portion of the live
load -moment resisted by the positive moment areas increased 60%. After
repair, the portion of the moment resisted by the negative moment regions
increased 16% over the prerepair phase. Again, the strains were small
indicating the associated moments were small. The repair was successful in
restoring stiffness and continuity.
Fig. 8 shows the deflection profiles for bridge #3 for the loading
configuration which causes maximum deflection of the center span. As with
bridge #2, removal of the shoulder and unsound deck concrete caused a loss
of stiffness. Unlike bridges #I or #2, after all repairs were complete the final
deflections of bridge #3 were only a few percent less than the prerepair
deflections. Although all three bridges were repaired in the same manner, the
repairs did little to improve the stiffness of bridge #3.
During repair, the portion of the moment resisted by the positive

moment regions increased about 30%. However, after repair, the portion of
the moment resisted by the negative moment regions did not increase as it did
with bridges 1 and 2, but rather it decreased by about 25% from the prerepair

A C 1 SP-154 75 Ob62949 O522639 304
stage. The problem with the repair of this bridge seemed to be the sequence
of the repair. For bridge 2, the worst deterioration (the shoulder) was
removed first and the remainder of the bridge was able to hold the load during
repair without significant degradation. However, for bridge 3 the worst
deterioration was repaired last. Thus, while the shoulder was being repaired
the deteriorated areas over the piers had to resist the load (especially since the
only sound concrete over the piers was on the shoulder, and this was
removed). Had the deterioration over the piers been repaired first, the repair
might have been more effective. A more complete explanation of this study
is found in the literature (IO).
CONCLUSIONS
1) In case study #1, deterioration had a profound effect on the structural

behavior. Deterioration caused the expansion joint at the abutment to
lock and force the bridge into an unnatural load carrying path parallel
to the traffic lanes. Only after the resistance at the abutment was
overcome did the load path shift to a path perpendicular to the skew.
After the steel yielded, the load path again shifted to parallel to the
traffic lanes and this brought the deteriorated shoulder into the load
path. The deteriorated shoulder over the pier could not resist the load
and the bridge failed in punching shear at a load 40% lower than that
predicted by AASHTO or AC1 provisions. Thus the deterioration
clearly affected the structural performance and capacity of the bridge.
2) In case study #2, deterioration caused a prestressed box beam to have

an asymmetrical strand pattern and cross section. The deterioration did
not significantly affect the precracking behavior. However, after
cracking the beam showed significantly less stiffness than could be
accounted for by loss of strands and cross section.
The asymmetry of the beam cause it to deflect laterally under load.

This increased the tension in the damaged web and the associated
cracking weakened the damaged web. When the steel yielded, the
beam became laterally unstable and it is believed that this caused
failure of the damaged web and the top flange of the box beam.
Note that the AASHTO provisions did not give a conservative

prediction of ultimate moment for this beam. However, since the
failure appears to be caused by lateral bending from asymmetry,
repairing the beam and restoring symmetry may have restored at least
part of the structural integrity.

A C 1 S P - 1 5 4 95 Ob62949 0522b40 0 2 6 =
3) The third case study examined the repair of three continuous slab
bridges to determine if continuity is lost between spans during repair
and to see if repairing the bridges was effective. The tests revealed
that during repair, there is some redistribution of moment from the
negative moment regions over the piers to the positive moment regions.
For two of the three bridges, the repairs improved the bridge stiffness
and restored continuity. For the third bridge, the repairs did not
increase stiffness or restore full continuity. It appears the problem with
the third bridge was sequence of repair. The worst deterioration was
repaired last and the badly deteriorated regions had to carry more load
while lesser deterioration was repaired.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was conducted under various contracts from the Ohio
Department of Transportation (ODOT) and the Federal Highway
Administration. The authors wish to thank W.Edwards and V. Dalal of
ODOT R&D, D. Hanhilammi and L. Welker of the ODOT Bridge Bureau,
District Bridge Engineers R. Eltzroth of ODOT District 8 and J. King of
ODOT District 7.
REFERENCES
Heckenmueller, M. Deteriomtion Analysis of a 37-Y ear-Old

Reinforced Concrete Bridge Deck, Thesis submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Cincinnati, June, 1992.
Toksoy, T. and Aktan, A. E., "Bridge-condition Assessment by Modal

Flexibility" Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 34, No. 3, Sept. 1994, pp.
271-278.
Malvar, L., "Punching Shear Failure of a Reinforced Concrete Pier

Deck Model," ACI Símctud Journal, Vol 89, No. 5, Sept-Oct,
1992, pp. 569-576.
Standard Specijicdions for Highway Bridges, 14th Ed., American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, D. C. 1989.

A C 1 SP-154 75 m 0662747 0522641 T62 m
5. Building Code Requirements f o r Reinfotred Concrete Buildings, A CI

318-89, American Concrete Institute International, Detroit, MI, 1989.
6. Azad, A. K.,Baluch, M. H., Al-Mandil, M. Y.,Sharif, A. M., and

Kareem, K., "Loss of Punching Capacity of a Bridge Deck Slab from
Crack Damage," ACI Stmctuml Journal, Vol. 90, No. 1, Jan-Feb,
1993, pp. 37-41.
7. Miller, R. A., Aktan, A. E. and Shahrooz, B. M., "Destructive Testing

of a Decommissioned Concrete Slab Bridge," 1 of Sfmctuml
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 120, no. 7, July, 1994, pp. 2176-2198.
8. Allbright, K., Parekh, K. , Miller, R. and Baseheart, T.M., "Modal

Verification of a Destructive Test of a Damaged Prestressed Concrete
Beam," ExpenmentalMechanics, Vol, 34, No. 4, Dec. 1994, pp. 389-
396.
9. Parekh, K. and Miller, R., "Destructive Testing of a Deteriorated

Prestressed Box Bridge Beam," accepted for publication in the
T m s p o m t i o n R e s e m h Record, to appear in 1995.
10. Shahrooz, B., Miller, R.,Saraf, V. and Godbole, B., "Behavior of RC

Slab Bridges During and After Repair," Tmnspotfation Research
R e c o d , No. 1442, Oct. 1994, pp. 123-135.

454
A C 1 SP-154 95 -
Miller, Shahrooz, and Aktan
Obb2949 0522b42 9T9 M
r APPROX. FAILURE SURFACE

BRIDGE
NORTH
CENTER OF L O A D A P P L I C A T I O N
S I T E PLAN
f.4PPROACH SLAB
/,
APPROX. TOP
F BEDROCK
SITE ELEVATION
Fig. 1-Dimensions of bridge - Case Study #1
Fig. 2-Final failure of bridge - Case Study #1

A C 1 SP-li511 95 W 0662747 O5226113 835 D
Corroded Strands
127 mm
838 m m
76 mm
r 76 mm
J
y O
TL
0 ' 0 o o o o o o o ,
L
-I 203 mm
13 m m dia. strand
Damaged Zone
Missing Strand
+DIRECTION OF L A T E R A L B E N D I N G
Fig. M r o s s section of beam - Case Study #2

A C 1 SP-154 75 m Obb2747 0522644 771 m
Deflection from Modal Flex. Matrix

45 kN per load point
Points of Load Appllcaüon
h
E
Point of Maximum Visible Damage
O 5 10 15 20
Length (rn)
Fig. &Results of model test on beam - Case Study #2
300
250
o 150
a
13 100
50
O
O 1O0 200 300 400 500
DEFLECTION (mm)
Fig. &Load versus deflection results - Case Study #2

A C 1 SP-LSV 95 m 0bb2949 0522645 bOâ m
A 4
4-
-
I’
0 - ----D
-
4
-
I II K’
c
C
Ea
+
7 hl
d
. L
L
.-a
W L
.- 2
n L
._ .-W
2 a 4 a a
Distance ( f t )
. I
Distance (ft)
I I .
(a) GRID LINE 1 (b) GRID LINE 2
-
- BEFORE REPAIR
DURING REPAIR
_ - - AFTER REPAIR
Fig. &Deflection data, Bridge #1 - Case Study #3

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 O522646 544 m
Inrbument Giid
Abutment Pier 1 Pier 2
N I
1
2
-C
e
E L
01
3
.-
0 P,
._
8 a a
Distance ( f t )
-
- BEFORE
._
--..._
___ DURING
REPAIR
DURING REPAIR 1
REPAIR 2
AFTER REPAIR
Fig. 7-Deflection data, Bridge #2 - Case Study #3

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 0522647 480 m
2 I= -
C C
E .... N E c N
L L
3
n ._
0 ._
0
a- a
-- BEFORE REPAIR
DURING REPAIR 1
.-.....- DURING REPAIR 2
- - - AFTER REPAIR
Fig. &Deflection data, Bridge #3 - Case Study #3

SP 154-24
Mechanisms of Strätlingite Formation

in High Alumina Cement-Siliceous
Material Systems
by Y. Fu, J. Ding, and J. J. Beaudoin
SvnoDsis: Mechanisms of strätiingite (C$SH.J formation in high alumina cement

-
(HAC) siliceous material systems were investigated. Different siliceous materials,
ag. silica fume, fly ash, ground granulated blast-fumace slag, and chemical
admixtures, ag. sodium silicate and sodium sulfate, were employed. Reactions
between CAH,, or CfiH, and dissolved silica occur. Acceleration of silica dissolution
by addition of chemical admixtures promotes the formation of strätiingite. The pH
-
value of the HAC siliceous materiais system was also studied. The intrinsic
relationship between the pH value and strätiingite formation is discussed. Mechanisms
of strätlingite formation in preference to hydrogamet (CAHJ in HAC products are
postulated. A method for prevention of strength reduction of HAC products due to the
conversion of thermodynamically unstable hexagonal calcium aluminates to cubic
hydrogamet is described.
Kevwords: Blast furnace slag; C,AH,; fly ash; high alumina cements; pH;
pozzolan cements; silica fume; sodium silicate; sodium sulfate;
strätlingite;
- x-ray diffraction
461
A C 1 SP-159 95 IObb2949 O522649 253
462 Fu, Ding, and Beaudoin
AC1 member Yan Fu is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. His research is carried out at the Institute for Research in
Construction, National Research Council of Canada. His research interests also include high
-
alumina cement based expansive cement, delayed ettringite formation in portland cement
-
concrete and zeolite based lightweight concrete products.
Jian Ding is a graduate research associate in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. Her research is carried out at the Institute for Research in
Construction, National Research Council of Canada. She received her first degree in chemistry
in 1983 from Fudan University in Shanghai. Before entering the MASc program, she was a
materials engineer at the Shanghai Research institute of Building Sciences. Her research
interests are concrete admixtures and additives.
James J. Beaudoin is a Principal Research Officer and Head, Materials Laboratory, Institute for
Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada. He is the author of more than
200 research papers and two books on concrete materials. His current research focuses on
micro-fibre reinforced cement systems and the application of a. c. impedance spectroscopy in
cement and concrete science.
INTRODUCTION
High early strength and good durability in aggressive environments have encouraged
the use of high alumina cement (HAC) concrete in certain engineering applications. However,
retrograde strength associating with conversion of hexagonal phases, CAH,, or CfiH,, to
C,AH, and AH, in hydrated HAC concrete, under certain environmental conditions, has been a
major problem limiting its use. The conversion process can result in significant reduction of
strength during the service life of the concrete. The presence of a minor amount of C&SH,
(strätlingite) in HAC at later ages, was reported by Midgley 21. It was suggested that
strätlingite formation might be responsible for the strength recoveiy after conversion as it has
relatively high strength. Microsilica has been reported to favour the formation of strätlingite l31.
Granulated blast-fumace slag (ggbs) can also react with high alumina cement phases resulting
in the formation of strätlingite [4-81. Although strength reduction was limited in HAC/silica fume
products water-cured at 40 OC, hydrogamet (C,AHJ was still formed 14]. Minimization of
strength reduction in this system was attributed to strätlingite formation in preference to C$H,.
Bentsen et al reported that strätlingite could crystallize as a stable phase in the temperature
range, 20 to 70 "C. Fentiman et al [lo] suggested that in an HAC-based system the optimum
curing temperature for strätlingite formation was about 40 OC. Strätlingite has also been
observed in the form of thin hexagonal plate crystals Ilr].
A new conversion-preventing additive has recently been developed at the National

Research Council, Canada il2]. The one-day compressive strength of HAC mortars containing
10-30% additive, with a water/solid ratio (solid = HAC + additive) of 0.40, was as high as 60
MPa. The improved HAC products exhibited no strength reduction at later ages when water-
cured at 38 "C. A large amount of strätlingite was formed in the products. It was reported that
alkali ions play a significant role in strätlingite formation in the HAC - silica fume system 1.l.
Silica reacts to form silicates in a high pH environment. This reaction is accelerated in
presence of an increased amount of alkali ions. The alkali ions may act as a catalyst activating
surfaces of siliceous materials. Silicate anions then react with hydrated calcium aluminates
(CfiH, or CAH,,,) to produce strätlingite.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0 6 6 2 9 4 7 0522b50 T75
The objective of this study is to elucidate the mechanisms of strätlingite formation in

-
HAC siliceous material systems. Three hydration systems were investigated: (1) HAC -
- - -
sodium silicate system; (2) HAC silica fume sodium sulfate system: (3) HAC silica fume, fly
-
ash or ggbs sodium sulfate system.
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
1. High alumina cement (HAC), Ciment Fondu, produced by Lafarge Calcium Aluminates,
Virginia, USA;
2. Silica fume, supplied by the SKW Co., Montreal, Canada:
3. ASTM Class F Fly ash;
4. Ground granulated blast-fumace slag (ggbs);
5. Sodium silicate, reagent grade;
6. Sodium sulfate, reagent grade.
The oxide compositions of HAC and siliceous materials are listed in following table:
Oxide Compositions (mass %)

s102 4 0 3 Ca0 M@ WO+%' '0,
HAC 4.5 41.2 39.8 11.3 0.60 0.1 o
SilicaFume 95.17 0.21 0.23 0.13 0.15 0.37 0.12
FlyAsh 53.14 25.89 12.30 3.52 1.33 2.39 0.18
gQbS 35.37 10.49 36.66 0.96 13.40 1.50
Sample Preparation
HAC
- -S , ,.
Two cement paste samples, an HAC paste and an HAC paste containing 1% sodium
silicate, having a w/c of 0.60 were made. The cement pastes were cast in plastic bottles (25
mm in diameter) and rotated on rollers for 24 hours at 25 "C. The hardened cement paste
samples were water-cured after demoulding at 23 "C. Samples cut from the cylinders were
ground in acetone and then scanned by XRD at designated ages.
Four cement paste samples, one plain HAC, one HAC containing 4.7% sodium
sulfate, one HAC containing 30% silica fume, and one HAC containing 30% silica fume and
4.7% sodium sulfate, having a w/s (s = HAC + silica fume) of 0.60 were made. The cement
pastes were cast in plastic bottles (25 mm in diameter) and rotated on rollers for 24 hours at 38
"C. The hardened cement paste samples were water-cured at 38 OC after demoulding. The
sample cut from the cylinders was ground in acetone and then scanned by XRD at designated
ages.
HAC
..
-1
Twelve HAC slumes were made. They contained different siliceous materials in
amounts of O, 20, 50 and 100% by mass. Siliceous materials included silica fume, fly ash, and
ground granulated blast-fumace slag (ggbs). In addition O and 4.7% sodium sulfate was added
to each system. The w/s (s = HAC + siliceous material) was 2.75. The cement slurries were
placed in plastic bottles (100 mL) and rotated on rollers (to prevent hardening) at 38 "C. The
pH value and XRD analyses were carried out at designated ages.

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522651 901
Tests
(1) A Rigaku X-ray Diffractometer System Geigerflex DMax -B was used for X-ray
studies. Copper Ka radiation was employed. The peak heights were calculated using Rigaku
Standard Data Processingsoftware. The major peaks associated with the strätlingite (CJSHJ
phase (d=l.258 nm) and the hydrogarnet ( C Y J phase (d=2.04 nm) were monitored for each
sample. The test was designed for comparison betweenparallel samples.
(2) The pH value of the HAC/siliceOus materials slurry system was measured at 23 OC
using an Orion pMSE meter, Model 720A.
(3) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to obtain micrographs of fracture
surfaces using a Cambridge S t e r e m n S250.
RESULTS
-
HAC sodium silicatesysiem
The effect of sodium silicate on the formation of C y , in HAC paste is shown in Fig.
1. It is apparent that CAH, formation in plain HAC paste occurred mainly in the first day of
hydration. The Cfl, formation rate in the HAC paste containing 1% sodium silicate was
greatly retarded. The Cfl, peak intensity gradually increased during the first five days
hydration and then decreased. Corresponding to the decrease of C y , peak intensity, the
CASH, peak intensity increasedcontinuously with hydration time.
The strätlingite phase could be detected in HAC pastes after 1-day hydration. Its peak
intensity in plain HAC paste reached a maximum value at 3 days and then remained nearly
constant. The strlltlingite peak intensities in the HAC pastes containing sodium silicate greatly
increased after 5 days hydration. The intensity reached maximum value at about 10 days age.
- -
HAC silica fume sodium suifate system
The effect of silica fume and sodium sulfate on strãtlingite and hydrogarnet formation
in HAC paste with hydration time is shown in Fig. 2. Hydrogarnet in plain HAC paste, cured at
38 OC, mostly formed during the first day of hydration. Little change was found in hydrogarnet
peak intensities in plain HAC paste at later ages. Silica fume and sodium sulfate delayed
hydrogarnetformation for about 3 days.
Strätlingite was detected in plain HAC paste water-cured at 38 OC at 3 days. The X-

ray peak Intensities for strätlingite increased until 10 days and then remained an essentially
constant. Silica fume addition slightly accelerated strätlingite formation at early ages. A small
increase in intensity of the strWingite peaks was found at later ages in HAC paste containing
silica fume compared to plain HAC paste. Sodium sulfate greatly accelerated strätlingke
formation during the first day of hydration. The final strätlingite peak intensities in HAC paste
containing 4.7% sodium sulfate were the same as that in plain HAC paste since there were no
additional sources of silicate. Addition of silica fume in combination with sodium sulfate
significantly increased strätiingite formation. The first day peak intensity of strätlingite in the
HAC paste containing 30% silica fume and 4.7% sodium sulfate was significantly greater than
the ultimate peak intensities of strätlingke in the other samples. A large increase in strMingite
formation was found from 3 to 10 days. It has been postulated that sodium ions might play an
important role in increasing dissolution of silicate in the HAC system containing silica fume
‘1. This reaction mechanism may be operative in the period of accelerated strittlingite
formation. The ultimate X-ray peak intensity of the strätlingite phase in this paste was about 3
times that of in the other samples.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I
I 0662747 0522652 848
The microstnicture of HAWsilica fume pastes was examined by scanning electron

microscopy (Fig. 3).A large number of silica fume particles still remained in HAC/silika fume
paste water-cured at 38 OC for 120 days (Fig. 3, a). It was found that these non-reacted silica
fume particles resided on the surface of hydration products or were present in space between
the hydration products. The amount of unhydrated silica fume particles appeared to be
relatlvely less in HAC/silica fume paste containing 4.7% sodium sulfate (Fig. 3,b). Strätlingite
plates were commonly found. Addition of sodium sulfate apparently increased the reactivity of
silica fume and promoted the strätlingite formation.
-
HAC silica fume, fly ash or ggbs -sodium sulfate system
The effect of silica fume and sodium sulfate on strätlingite and hydrogarnet formation
in HAC slunies is shown in Fig. 4. Large peaks of hydrogarnet were detected by XRD in the
plain HAC paste, HAC paste containing 4.7% sodium sulfate and HAC paste containing 50%
silica fume. Strätlingite was not found in these samples. The presence of hydrogarnet was
greatly reduced in the HAC paste containing both 20% silica fume and 4.7% sodium sulfate. It
disappeared in this system when the silica fume content increased to 50%. Correspondingly,
strätlingite formed in the samples containing silica fume in combination with sodium sulfate. In
this case, the strätlingite peak intensities in the XRD spectra increased with sillca fume content.
The effect of fly ash on strätlingite and hydrogarnet formation in HAC slunies was
similar to that of silica fume (Fig. 5). The use of 50% fly ash alone appeared to have no effect
-
on the strätlingite and hydrogarnet formation. Addition of sodium sulfate in the HAC fly ash
system made the fly ash more effective in promoting strätlingite formation and preventing
hydrogarnet formation.
Ground granulated blast-fumace slag (ggbs) itself appeared to favor strätlingite

formation to a greater extent than the other siliceous materials (Fig. 6). Large strätlingite peaks
were detected by XRD in the HAC paste containing 50% ggbs. Hydrogamet, however, still
-
formed in this sample. Addition of sodium sulfate to the HAC ggbs system reduced the peak
intensities of the hydrogarnet phase, but it was not as effective as in the HAWsilica fume or fly
ash systems. Correspondingly sodium sulfate had little effect on further strätlingite formation.
The effect of content of ggbs, fly ash or silica fume in HAC slunies on the pH value of
the system is shown in Fig. 7. Addition of ggbs increased the pH value of the HAC slurry from
11-73 (plain HAC) to 12.17. Addition of 20% fly ash increased the pH value of the HAC slurry
from 11.73 to 11.95. This was followed by a slight decrease with the increase of fly ash
content. Silica fume generally reduced the pH value of the HAC slurry. The pH value
decreased with silica fume content. At high content of these siliceous materials, only ggbs can
-
sustain a pH value higher than 12. Correspondingly, for the HAC silica fume, fly ash or ggbs
systems, XRD results indicated that only the samples containing ggbs presented strätlingite
formation (Fig. 6.).
The effect of siliceous materials content of HAC slunies containing 4.7% Sodium
sulfate on the pH value of the system is shown in Fig. 8. The pH value of HAC paste increased
from 11.73 to 12.75 as sodium sulfate was added. The pH value of HAC slurry containing
sodium sulfate increased from 12.75 (HAC + sodium sulfate) to 12.92 with 20% ggbs addition.
This was followed by a slight decrease as ggbs content increases from 20 to 100%. The pH
value of the HAC slurry containing sodium sulfate increased from 12.75 to 12.91 with fly ash
content up to 50%, and then decreased greatly at 100% fly ash content. Silica fume generally
reduced the pH value of the HAC slurry containing sodium sulfate. The pH value decreased
-
with silica fume content in the HAC sodium sulfate system similar to that in plain HAC slurry.
The pH values of all the samples containing sodium sulfate were high than 12. XRD analyses
indicated that strätlingite formed in all these samples.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522653 764 W
DISCUSSION
-
Previous studies on the hydration of the HAC siliceous materials system have
indicated that the reaction between siliceous materiais and HAC results in increased formation
of strätlingite in preference to hydrogarnet. The sodium ion can attack the silica ciystal lattice
and cause the pH value of the reaction system to be elevated. It plays a significant role in the
-
mechanism of strätlingite fornation in the HAC siliceous materiais system. Silica reacts to
form silicates in a high pH environment. This reaction is accelerated in presence of alkali ions.
The alkali ions probably act as a catalyst for reactions involving siliceous materials. Dissolved
silicate anions then react with hydrated calcium aluminates ( C p , or CAH,J to produce
strätlingite. The reaction, in general, may proceed by a through solution mechanism. XRD
analysis of HACisilica fume paste samples shown in Figure 2 appear to confirm this
hypothesis. A large amount of strätlingite formed in the HAC paste only when siliceous material
was added in combination with sodium sulfate. The XRD peak intensities for strätlingite in this
sample were three times as high as in the other samples.
Hexagonal calcium aluminate hydrates in traditional HAC products are

thermodynamically unstable at temperatures above 20°C. They generally convert to stable
cubic hydrogarnet accompanied by strength reduction. The addition of silica fume in
combination with a sodium salt in the HAC system alters the conventional conversion process.
Metastable hydrates react with dissolved silica to form strätlingite rather than convert to
different aluminates. Dissolved silica from siliceous materials promotes strätlingite formation in
-
the HAC siliceous materials system. Sodium ions play an important role in activating silica
fume to form dissolved silica.
Test results indicate that HAC slurries with pH value higher than 12 are conducive to
increased strätlingite formation if siliceous material is added in sufficient amounts. This may be
attributed to the reduction of AH3 in the HAC paste when strätlingite forms in preference to
hydrogarnet. Note that AH3 is also one of the products of conversion reaction:
3CfiH, 4 2C,AH, + AH,+ 9H

or SAH,, C3AH,+2AH,+21H
AH3, ¡.e. alumina gel, is an amorphous compound; it has a high capacity to stabilize the pH of
the system at a relatively low level. Research has shown that the pH value of the HAC H,O -
system will decrease after the conversion reaction take places and more gibbsite is formed.
The pH value of HAC slurry (mainly comprising CAH,J cured at O OC was 12.57. The same
sample was then placed at 38 'C for 24 hours. The pH value of the sample dropped to 11.95. It
-
is postulated that (i)a pH value higher than 12 in the HAC siliceous materials system is a
possible signal of preferential fornation of strätlingite; and (2) strätlingite can stably exist in an
environment with a pH value higher than 12. Once strätlingite forms from the reaction between
hexagonal calcium aluminates and activated siliceous materials, the conversion reaction to
form cubic hydrogarnet is inhibited.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Addition of sodium silicate to HAC paste appears to promote the formation of
strätlingite.
2. Strätlingite nucleation and crystallization appears to be dependent on dissdved silica
-
concentration in the HAC siliceous materials system.
3. Sodium ions appear to play a significant role in strätlingite formation in the HAC -
siliceous materials system. It is postulated that crystallization of strätlingite results
from the reaction between CAH,, or C y , and dissolved silica. Sodium ions promote
increased dissolution of silica required for strätlingite formation.

4. Addition of siliceous materials, such as silica fume, fly ash or ground granulated blast-
fumace slag, in combination with sodium sulfate in HAC paste can prevent conversion
from hexagonal calcium aluminates to cubic hydrogarnet when the paste is water
cured at 38 "C.
5. -
Addition of sodium sulfate increases the pH value of the HAC siliceous materials
hydration system to values above 12.
6. A pH value higher than 12 is a potential indicator of stratlingite formation in the HAC -
siliceous materials system.
ACKNOWLEffiMENTC
Financial support from NSERC and the Nelwork of Centers of Excellence on High
Performance Concrete is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are extended to Mr. E. G. Quinn for
the preparation of SEM micrographs.
REFERENCES
1. Midgley, H. G., 'The mineralogy of set high alumina cement", Trans. üdt. Ceram.
Soc.,Vol. 66, p.161, (1967).
2. Midgley, H. G. and Rao, P.E., "Formation of strätlingite 2Ca0.Si02.A120,.8H,0, in
relation to the hydration of high alumina cementTem. Concr. Res., Vol. 8, p.169
(1978).
3. Bentsen, S.,Seltveit, A. and Sanderg, E, "Effect of microsilica on conversion of high
alumina cement', Calcium Aluminate Cements, Chapman and Hall, London, UK,
p.294, (1990).
4. Edmonds, R. N. and Majumdar, A. J., "The hydration of mixtures of monocalcium
aluminate and blast-fumace slag', Cem. Concr. Res., Vol. 19,779, (1989).
5. Majumdar, A. J., Singh, B. and Edmonds, R. N.,'Hydration of mixture of 'Ciment
Fondu' aluminous cement and granulated blast-fumace slag', Cem. Concr. Res., Vol.
20, 197, (1990).
6. Majumdar, A. J., Edmonds, R. N. and Singh, E., "Hydration of calcium aluminates in
presence of granulated blast-fumace slag', Calcium Aluminate Cements, Chapman
and Hall, London, UK,, p. 259, (1990).
7. Singh, B. and Majumdar, A. J., 'The hydration of calcium dialuminate and its mixtures
containing slag", Cem. Concr. Res., Vol. 22, p.1019, (1992).
a. Majumdar, A. J. and Singh, B., 'Properties of some blended high-alumna cements",
Cem. Concr. Res., Vol. 22, p.1101, (1992).
9. Rayment, D. L. and Majumder, A. J., 'Microanalysis of high-alumina cement clinker
and hydrated HAC/Slag mixtures', Cem. Concr. Res., Vol. 24, p.335, (1994).
1o. Fentiman, C. H., Rashid, S., Bayoux, J. P., Bonin, A. and Testud, M., "The effect of
curing conditions on the hydration and strength development in Fondu : Slag",
Calcium Aluminate Cements, Chapman and Hall, London, UK,, p. 272, (1990).
11. Taylor, H. F. W., 'The Chemistry of Cement', Academic Press, London, Vol. 2, p. 400,
(1964).
12. Fu, Y., Ding, J. and Beaudoin, J. J., 'Conversion-preventing additive for high alumina
cement products", U.S. Patent Application, (1994).
13. Ding, J., Fu, Y. and Beaudoin, J. J., "Study of hydration mechanisms in the high
-
alumina cement silicaisodium silicate system", submitted to Cem. Concr. Res. for
publication, (1994).
14. Ding, J., Fu, Y. and Beaudoin, J. J., 'Strätlingite formation in high alumina cement -
silica fume systems: significance of sodium ions', submitted to Cem. Concr. Res. for
publication, (1994).

A C 1 SP-I54 75 m Ob62747 0522b55 5 5 7 W
Hydration Time (days)

Hydrogarnet Formation
-
Strätiingite Formation
o x
0
Fig. 1-Effect of sodium silicate on GAH, and strätlingite (GASH,) formation in HAC paste
during hydration (wk = 0.6)
O PiaintLîC o HAct30%slicafum:
0 HAC + 4.7%sodium sulphate 0 HAC + 30% silica fume +4.7% sodium sulphaie
--o
o
o
- -
IO
100 100
'
IO
I
Hydrogarnet Formation Strätlingite Formation
Fig. 2-Effect of silica fume and sodium sulfate addition on strätlingite and hydrogarnei
formation in HAC paste water-cured at 38 C for 120 days (w/s = 0.6)

A C 1 SP-154 95 mI 0662949 0 5 2 2 b 5 b 493
Fig. 3-SEM micrographs of HAC/silica fume paste, with or without sodium sulfate, water-cured
at 38 C for 120 days (wls = 0.6)
HAC + 20%Silica Fume + 4.mSodium Sulphate
HAC + 50% Silica Fume + 4.7% Sodium Sulphate
HAC + 5û% Silica Fume
HAC + 4.% Sodium Sulphate
X-ray Diffraction Degree (28)
Fig. &URD patterns for HAC/silica fume slurry, with or without sodium sulfate, cured at 38 C
for 21 days (w/s = 2.75)

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522657 32T
HAC + 20% fly AM + 4 . m Sodium Sulphate
7 HAC + 50% Fly Ash + 4.mSodium Sulphate
HAC + 50% Fly Ash
HAC + 4 7 % Sodium Sulphate
Plain HAC
s . ~ , ~ ~ u . m . ~ . m . a . ~ . m .
X-ray Diffraction Degree (29)
Fig. Z X R D patterns for HAC/fly ash slurry, with or without sodium sulfate, cured ot 38 C for
21 days (w/s = 2.75)
HAC + 20% ggbs + 4.7% Sodium Sulphate
MC + @E + 4.7%Sodium Sulphate
liAC+w%ggbS
HAC + 4.7% Codium Sulphate
Plain HAC
. . . . . . .
m . w . u . æ . a . 3 o . m . a . m . m .
X-ray Diffraction Degrw (a)
Fig. XRD-51 patterns for HAC/ggbs slurry, with or without sodium sulfate, cured at 38 C for 21
days (wls = 2.75)

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 O522658 266 I
O 20 40 60 80 100
Pozzolan Content (% by mass of HAC)
Fig. 7-Effect of pozzolan content on pH value of HAC/pozzolan

slurry cured at 38 C for 21 days (wls = 2.75)
fly ashJ
.Y
NazS04
12.4-1 cilira fume content: 4.7%
I I
O 20 40 60 ao 100
Pozzolan Content (% by mass of HAC)
Fig. L E f f e a of pozzolan content on pH value of HAClpouolon

slurry containing sodium sulfate cured at 38 C for 21 days (wls = 2.75)

SP 154-25
Modeling of the Development of

Heat of Hydration in High-
Performance Concrete
by C. Wang and W. H. Dilger
Svnomis: As a result of the very low water-ceiiient ratio in a high-performance

concrete, the rate of cement hydration at early ages is significantly different
froin that in a norinal strength concrete. The ultimate degree of cement
hydration is lower in a high-performance concrete, and the hydration process
will terininate earlier because of the rapidly diminishing water supply. Another
characteristic of high-perforinance concrete is caused by the relatively high
dosage of superplasticizer which delays the onset of the cement hydration. This
paper presents the extension of the research on temperature and strength
development in hardening concrete froin norinal strength concrete to high
perforinance concrete. It models the development of heat of hydration in high-
performance concrete, taking into account the effects of water-cetnent ratio,
superplasticizers and temperature changes. General formulations of the rate of
heat of hydration as functions of concrete inaturity (hydration stage) and
current temperature are provided. Coinparison with some test results verifies
the theoretical model.
Keywords: Heat of hydration; hieh-performance concretes; high-strength

concretes; hydration; mathematical models; superplasticizer; temperature;
water cement ratio
473
A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0 5 2 2 6 6 0 914 =
474 Wang and Dilger
Chungging Wang is a Post Doctorial Fellow at the Department of Civil

Engineering, University of Calgary, Canada. He completed his PhD in 1994
at the University ofCalgary. His main research interests are the temperature-
and time-dependent effects in hardening and mature concrete, including both
normal strength and high performance concrete.
Walter H . Difger is Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of

Calgary, Canada. His current research interests are in the area of time- and
temperature-dependent effects in concrete and concrete structures of normal
and high-performance concrete, shear resistance of concrete structures, as well
as bridge technology. He is a inember of CSA Coininittee A23.3 and S80.5,
AC1 - ASCE Committee 445 on shear and torsion, and several international
com mi ttees .
INTRODUCTION
The prediction of heat of hydration in concrete at early ages is of great

importance to the design and construction of concrete structures. The I
temperature of hardening concrete, which not only causes thermal stresses but
also affects the rate of cement hydration and the development of concrete
strength, is very much determined by the heat of cement hydration. Attempts
have been made successfully at the University of Calgary, Canada, to simulate
the temperature distribution, strength gain and thermal stress development in
hardening concrete in field conditions for normal-strength concrete (NSC)
(1,2,3). With the availability of highly efficient water reducing agents and
better quality control of concrete production, high-performance concrete (HPC)
has become a practical material for the construction industry. Therefore, it is
of great interest to designers and contractors to model the heat of cement
hydration and strength development in HPC.
Although the ingredients used to produce HPC and NSC are basically
the same, HPC is normally made with a very low water-cement ratio (W/C)
and a high dosage of water reducers and/or superplasticizers. Since the
hydration of portland cement depends on the availability of water, the release
of heat of hydration is affected by the W/C. When the W/C is very low as in
HPC, the maximum possible degree of hydration can not be achieved, resulting
in a lower amount of total heat of hydration per unit mass of cement. Because
of the rapidly diminishing water supply, the hydration of cement will terminate
earlier in a HPC. Also, water reducers and superplasticizers normally have

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662947 0522bbL 850
some retarding effects on the setting of fresh concrete. When a high dosage of
these admixtures is used in HPC, the apparent beginning of cement hydration
after placing is delayed, that is, the so-called dormant period of the cement
hydration process is prolonged. As a result, the release of hydration heat at
early ages could be significantly different from that in NSC.
This paper presents the details of modelling the development of heat of

hydration in HPC, taking into account the effects of W E , superplasticizers,
temperature and concrete age.
GENERAL MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF

CEMENT HYDRATION
The mathematical modelling of cement hydration, which quantitatively

describes the chemical reaction rate (or heat release rate) of cement hydration
as functions of time and temperature, is the first step towards the prediction of
temperature distribution and strength development in hardening concrete.
Portland cement is composed of four inajor compounds, i.e., CIS, C,S, CIA,
and C,AF. Each of these compounds follows a different hydration rate curve
and yields a different amount of total hydration heat (4).Accurate prediction
of heat generation can be obtained if the rate of hydration heat of each
component is considered separately. However, to simplify the problem for
practical engineering applications, a single hydration rate curve, in which the
cement composition is considered, is normally tised to represent a particular
type of cement (3).
The whole process of cement hydration can be divided into four phases:
initial, dormant or induction, acceleration and deceleration ( S ) , as shown i n
Fig. 1. Depending on cement type and temperature, the initial and dormant
periods take one to a few hours, and the acceleration period takes several
hours, followed by a long-lasting deceleration period. I n practical construction
with NSC, the initial and dormant periods of cement hydration normally occur
during the mixing, agitating, transporting and placing of the concrete. That is,
after the casting of concrete into forms, the hydration of cement i n a NSC is
about to start its acceleration stage. In HPC, the dormant period is norinally
extended as a result of the high dosage of superplasticizers.
In a mathematical model for the hydration process, the most coininonly

used method is to start with a niatheiiiatical expression of the total hydration
heat developed (or the adiabatic temperature rise) as a function of time. The
heat rate is derived by differentiating the total heat with respect to time. As
pointed out by Wang (3) and van Breugel (6), the following empirical equation
is employed widely by researchers i n different countries to describe the

A C 1 SP-I154 95 W Ob62949 0522662 7 9 7 W
476 Wang and Dilger
adiabatic heat development of concrete with time:
where, Q(t) = adiabatic heat developed at time t (kJ/kg cement),

Q- = ultimate heat of hydration (kJ/kg cement),
b = constant,
t = time (days).
The ultimate heat of hydration Qm depends on the cement chemical

composition, fineness and W/C. I t should be pointed out that the coefficient b
depends not only on the cement type but also on the placing temperature and
the composition (mixture proportions) of the concrete. This means that the heat
development curve obtained from an adiabatic or seini-adiabatic test can not be
directly applied to another concrete, even with the same cement but different
mixture proportions or temperature history.
When Eq. 1 is used to describe the adiabatic heat development of

concrete, the heat evolution rate for the particular temperature history takes the
following form,
where, q(t) is the heat rate at tiine t (W/kg cement).
It is apparent that Eq. 2 gives the peak heat rate at the beginning of
hydration and is continuoiisly decreasing thereafter, which fails to recognize
the acceleration stage occurring in a real cement hydration (Fig. I). Therefore,
m. 1 is not an accurate description for the real hydration curve ( 3 ) .
In order to represent the typical S-shaped curve of accumulated heat of

hydration, the following function was proposed by Freiesleben-Hansen and
Pedersen (7) to describe the development of heat of hydration with tiine:
where, s and r are empirical constants.
If the heat rate is derived from h.3 , the shape is close to the real rate
of hydration curve after the dormant period (Fig. 1).

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Ob62949 0 5 2 2 6 6 3 623
Based on the fact that the heat liberation rate depends basically only on
the amount of heat that has already been released (the degree of hydration or
the maturity of concrete) and the current temperature. Wang and Dilger (1,3)
proposed a standard curve to represent the rate of hydration heat at Z O T ,
which can be applied to different temperatures by introducing a temperature
function. For normal portland cement concrete, the peak heat rate is assumed
to be 2.2 W/kg and it occurs at the maturity of 10 hours. Therefore, the heat
rate can be described as follows:
q(M) = A +BM0.5 forM 5 10 hours (4a)
q(M) = 2.2exp[-C(M- lO.O)] for M z lohours (4b)
where, q = standard heat rate at 20°C in W/(kg cement),

A,B,C = constants, A = 0.5, B = 0.54, and, C = 0.0286,
M = equivalent age or maturity of concrete in hours, and,
M = )H(lJdt
O
where, H is the temperature function, T the temperature and t the concrete age.
Eq. 4 describes the heat rate after the placing of NSC, and the dormant
period for NSC is assumed to occur before finishing.
With the introduction of a temperature function, such as the Arrhenius

function adopted by the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 (8), the heat rate of
cement hydration at any temperature can be obtained. The advantage of using
Eq. 4 for heat rate is that it is a basic material property depending only on the
cement type, when the effect of W/C on total hydration heat can be practically
ignored, such as in a NSC. It can be directly applied to a concrete with any
cement content and temperature history. Of course, Eq. 4 needs to be modified
to account for the very low W/C and the effects of superplasticizers in HPC.
EFFECT OF W/C ON HEAT OF HYDRATION
Although, theoretically, a W/C of 0.4 can provide enoirgh water for the
complete hydration of cement, in reality cement can never be completely
hydrated even in water, and the ultimate degree of hydration is affected by the
W/C (9,10,11,12). Based on the data of Mills ( I i), the relationship between

A C 1 SP-I154 95 O662949 0522664 5bT
478 Wang and Dilger
ultimate degree of hydration and W/C is modelled as follows:
U = 0.256 + 1.547(~/~)
- 1.071(~/~)~
where, (Y = ultimate degree of cement hydration,

W/C = watedcement ratio.
Eq. 6 is applicable for W/C between 0.2 and 0.6, as shown in Fig. 2.
If the cement is coinpletely hydrated the total amount of heat released

can be calculated according to the Bougue formula, and the intrinsic total heat
of normal portland cement is around 450 kJ/(kg cement) (4). The actual
ultimate amount of heat of hydration released in a concrete with a particular
W/C can be obtained by multiplying the intrinsic heat by the ultiinate degree
of hydration achievable at that W/C.
Of course, the heat of hydration of different types of cements can be

substantially different. Silica fuiiie is often used to make HPC. The heat
contribution by silica fuine is approximately the saine as the norinal portland
cement at relatively high W/C, and the contribution becomes negligible at very
low W/C (12). Fly ashes, especially Type F ashes, contribute less heat than
portland cement. A quantitative determination of heat of hydration generated
by a fly ash is very difficult because of the significant differences among the
chemical coinpositions of tly ashes from various sources. The effects of fly ash
on total heat of hydration is not included in this study.
Fig. 3 presents the results of the computed total heat after 7 days of
hydration for various W/C's. The theoretical model developed here seems to
agree with the experimental results (12) well. I t can be seen froin Fig. 3 that
W/C has a significant effect on the final total heat of hydration per unit mass
of cement. Failing to recognize the effect of very low W/C will lead to a
significant overestimation of total heat of hydration in HPC.
As expected, W/C also affects the rate of cement hydration. In the early
hours of hydration, the water supply is ainple to perinit a full speed reaction
even with a very low W/C. At low W/C, as hydration progresses, the free
water is consuined rapidly and as a result the hydration rate decreases. Test
results by Taplin (9), Danielsson ( I O ) and Jonasson et al. (13) show that the
hydration rate is basically not affected by the W/C up to IO to i2 hours, which
corresponds to the time of peak heat rate on the standard hydration curve.
Thus, the rate of hydration can be treated as the saine for any W/C up to the
peak heat rate, but the hydration rate subsequently decreases faster for lower
W/C, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Therefore, Eq. 4a remains the same, and the
empirical constant C in Q. 4b is obtained by fitting the following function:

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0bb2749 0522bb5 4Tb
where, q = heat rate (W/kg cement) described in Eq. 4,

M = maturity of concrete (hours),
Qm = ultimate heat of hydration (kJ/kg cement), which is a function
of W/C (see Fig. 3).
The result is shown in Fig. 5:
Fig. 6 shows the comparison of predicted and experimental (10, i 8)

development of degree of hydration. Since the degree of hydration is directly
related to the ainount of combined water or accuiniilated heat of hydration,
they are linearly proportional to each other. For example, when the concrete
has reached a degree of hydration of 0.5 the heat of hydration released is
0.5~450= 225 kJ/(kg ceinent).
EFFECT OF SUPERPLASTICIZERS ON HEAT OF HYDRATION
Superplasticizers are an essential ingredient in HPC, and the dosage

generally increases drastically as the W/C decreases in order to attain
workability of the fresh concrete. The effects of superplasticizers on the rate
of ceinent hydration vary widely froin one brand to another because of the
different cheiiiical compositions and inanufactiiring processes. At this stage, a
general modelling of the effects on rate of hydration can not be achieved with
high accuracy because of the lack of systeinatic test inforination. Therefore, the
general inodelling to be presented should be used with great caution. In
practice, a calibration with the test resiilts of the particular concrete mixture
to be used should be perforined to improve the prediction reliability.
Superplasticizers norinally do not affect the total ainount of heat of

hydration, but they can greatly alter the hydration rate at early hours. When
a high dosage is used, superplasticizers have a significant retarding effect on
hydration (14,15,16) and Fig. 7 is a typical illustration (16). For the present
study, the retarding effect of superplasticizers is modelled simply as a delay of
the onset of hydration. The whole rate of hydration curve is shifted to the right
by the retardation tiine caused by superplasticizers. Generally, the dosage of
superplasticizers is inversely proportional to the W/C of the concrete mixture.
Until inore data become available, the following function (Fig. 8) is suggested
as an estimate of retardation tiine:

A C 1 SP-154 75 = Ob62947 0522666 332
480 Wang and Dilger
D = 23.5 -83.8(~/~)
+74.5(~/~)'
where, D = retardation time in hours,

W/C = water-cement ratio.
PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE DEVELOPMENT IN HPC
The temperature distribution in a member of hardening concrete is the

result of the dynamic heat balance between the generated heat of hydration and
the heat loss to, or gain from, the surroundings including solar radiation,
convection and thermal irradiation (and sometimes evaporation and
condensation as well). Because of the time- and temperature-dependent nature
of the boundary heat transfer conditions, a practical solution for the
temperature distribution in a hardening concrete must involve the finite element
discretization of the structure and the step-by-step integration in the time
domain. The computer program FETAB-HYDRA was developed at the
University of Calgary to predict the temperature distribution (as well as the
development of concrete strength and thermal stresses) in hardening concrete.
The details of the theoretical formulation and computer modelling were
presented elsewhere (1,3,17).
The computer simulation of temperature development in hardening HPC

involves the same procedures as for NSC. The only difference is that the
evolution of the heat of cement hydration in HPC is different. As discussed
earlier, the total heat of hydration per unit mass of cement in a HPC is
normally smaller than that in NSC because of the lower W/C. However, the
total heat generated per unit volume of concrete in HPC is not necessarily less
than that in NSC due to the higher cement content in HPC. As a result, the
maximum temperature rise in a HPC and a NSC of the same size is probably
similar. However, for the same structural function the use of HPC instead of
NSC will reduce the size of a member, and the maximum temperature rise with
HPC could be lower due to the faster heat dissipation i n a smaller member.
Test data on temperature development in structures of HPC are scarce.

Some of the published results fail to include the crucial details of the mixture
proportions, forinwork, insulation and environmental conditions, which makes
it impossible to conduct a computer simulation for the purpose of comparison.
Fig. 9 shows the comparison of measured (14) and predicted

temperature rise at the core of 1.Ox 1 .O in HPC concrete column's. The cement
contents are 470 kg/mg (W/C = 0.31) for the 90-MPa concrete and 540 kg/m3
(W/C = 0.25) for the 120-MPa concrete respectively. Blended Type 1 cement

A C I SP-154 95 m o b ~ z q ~ i0q 5 2 2 ~277
~ m
with 7 to 8% silica fume was used. Further details of the tests can be found in
reference 14. Although the cement content for the 120-MPa concrete is 15%
higher than for the 90-MPa concrete, the temperature rise in the former is not
higher than in the latter as a result of the lower W/C. The retardation effect
of high dosage of superplasticizers is also clearly shown by the measured
results.
CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS
1. The development of heat of cement hydration in HPC can be modelled

with reasonable accuracy, by taking into account the effects of W/C,
superplasticizers and the maturity of concrete.
2. The W/C has a significant effect on the total amount of heat of

hydration per unit mass of cement, and the effect is most profound
when the W/C is very low. Failure to take W/C into account will
greatly overestimate the heat of hydration in HPC.
3. Although the cement content in HPC is usually much higher than in a

NSC, the temperature rise caused by the heat of hydration is not
necessarily higher in a HPC because of the very low W/C. If the
reduced member size resulting from the higher strength is considered,
the use of HPC might even reduce the temperature rise and is therefore
beneficial to control thermal stress and cracking in hardening concrete.
4. The effect of superplasticizers on the rate of cement hydration at early

ages varies widely from one product to another. A general formulation
for the effects is not possible at the present time, especially when other
chemical admixtures such as retarders are used at the same time. It is
strongly recommended to establish the properties of the heat of
hydration by tests for important structures to improve the accuracy of
the prediction of temperature and strength development.
5. The rate of cement hydration at early ages and the total amount of heat
of hydration are cement dependent. In order to systematically study the
early-age properties of hardening concrete with various cement types
and mixture proportions, an adiabatic test system is being built at the
University of Calgary to measure the heat of hydration, and the results
will be used to further expand and refine the model presented here.

A C 1 SP-II54 95 = 0bb2949 0 5 2 2 6 6 8 105 =
482 Wang and Dilger
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was financially supported by Concrete Canada, the NSERC

Network of Centres of Excellence on High Performance Concrete. The support
is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Wang, C. and Dilger, W.H., "Prediction of Temperature

Distribution in Hardening Concrete, " Thermul Crucking in Conrwrt ur Eurly
Ages (R. Springenschinid, Editor), Proceedings of the International RILEM
Syinposium, Munich, October, 1994, pp. 21-28.
2. Wang, C. and Dilger, W.H., "Prediction of Concrete Strength

Development during Construction, " Procwdingv of' rhe 1994 Annuul
Confermce of lhc Cunudiun Soci~ry,fi)r Civil En,ginwring, Winnipeg, Vol. 1 ,
pp. 444-454.
3 . Wang, C., "Temperature Effects in Hardening Concrete," PhD

Dissertation, the University of Calgary, Canada, 1994, 2.16 pp.
4. Neville, A.M., "Properties of Concrete," 3rd ed., Pitinan Publishing

Ltd., London, 198I , 779 pp.
5. Mindess, S and Young, J.F., "Concrete," Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1981, 671pp.
6. Breugen, K. van, "Prediction of Temperature Development," General

Reports of the International Symposium on Avoidance of Thermal Cracking in
Concrete at Early Ages, RILEM TC-1 19 TEC, Munich, 1994, pp. 16-30.
7. Freiesleben Hansen, P. and Pedersen, E.J., "Mileinstrument til

kontrol af betons hadning," Nordisk B m n g , 1977, No. i , pp. 21-25. (in
Danish)
8. CEB-FIP, "Model Code for Concrete Structures," CEB Bulletin

213/214, Tomas Telford, London, May 1993, 473 pp. i
9. Taplin, J.H., " A Method for Following the Hydration Reaction in
Portland Cement Paste," Ausrrulian Journul of A p p l i d Scimcx., Vol. 1 O , No.?.
1959.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0 5 2 2 b b 9 O Y L
10. Danielsson, U., "Heat of Hydration of Cement as Affected by

Water-Cement Ratio, " Procecúing~ of 4th Internurionul Symposium on
I
Chemistry qf C?ment.s, Washington, 1960, pp. 519-526.
11. Mills, R.H., "Factors Influencing Cessation of Hydration in Water

Cured Cement Pastes," ACI SP 60, 1966, pp. 406-424.
12. Sineplass, S . and Maage, M., "Heat of Hydration of High-Strength

Concrete," Proceedings of IA BSE Colloquium on Hìgh-Strength Concrete,
Berkeley, 1990, pp. 433-456.
13. Jonasson, J.E., Groth, P. and Hedliind, H., "Modelling of

Temperature and Moisture Field i n Concrete to Study Early Age Movements
as a Basis for Stress Analysis," Thcrinul Crucking in Concrotc ut Eurly Age.\
(R. Springenschinid, Editor), Proceedings of the International RILEM
Symposiuin, Munich, October, 1994, pp. 45-52.
14. Cook, W.D., Miao, B., Akin, P-C, and Mitchell, D., "Therinal
Stresses in Large High-Strength Concrete Coluiiins," AC1 Murcriu6.s Journul,
V01.89, No.1, 1992, pp. 61-68.
15. Iwata, K . , Saito, K . , Ikuta, K. and Kawauchi, T., "Coiinterineasure

for Therinal Cracking for Box Culvert," Thermul Crucking in Concrefe ut
Eurly Ages (R. Springenschiïiid, Editor), Proceedings of the International
RILEM Syinposiuin, Munich, October, 1994, pp. 441-448.
16. Swainy, R.N., Sakai, M. and Nakainiira, N., "Role of

Superplasticizers and Slag for Producing High Perforinance Concrete, "
Superplu.~tici7er.~
und Other Chemirul Admixrurc>&$
in Concrete (V. M. Malhotra,
Editor), AC1 SP-148, 1994, pp. 1-26.
17. Elbadry, M.M. and Ghali, A., "User Manual for Coinputer
Prograin FETAB: Finite Element Thermal Analysis of Bridges," Research
Report, Dept. of Civil Engg., The University of Calgary, Canada, Oct. 1982,
Revised 1984.
18. RILEM, "Properties of Set Concrete at Early Ages, State-of-the-Art

Report." Mureriuls und Structurc.s, Vol. 14, No.84, 1981, pp. 399-450.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0bb2949 0522670 8b3
484 Wang and Dilger
--
I
Minutes Hours Days

c
Time
Fig. 1-Schematic representation of rate of cement hydration
0.20 020 0.40 OSO 0.60

Wder-Cement Rdb
Fig. 2-Relationship between ultimate degree of hydration and w k (11)

A C 1 SP-I154 95 O662949 0522673 7TT =
400
Tests by Smeploss and Maage
Type I cement (with & without 157. silica fume)
Accumulated heat of hydration after 7 days
350
m
Y
‘5.
1
u
-300
8
-
I
O
c
I-O
250
I I I
010 0.30 0.40 0.50 ( IO
Woter-Cement Ratio
Fig. LComparison of measured and computed accumulated heat of hydration
Decrease W/C
A
B
Time
Fig. 4-Schematic representation of effect of w/c on, a) rate of hydration,

and b) total heat of hydration

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522672 636 H
486 Wang and Dilger
0.045
0.025 i I I I
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 O o

Water-Cement Ratio
Fig. 5-Constant C for Eq. 4b
1.00
Data from Danielcson (1960)
and RILEM (1981)
0.80 -
c Type I cement
.-
O
+
0.60 -
I"
L
O
Q>
a
b
0.40 -
2
0.20 1
0.K
100 10' 102 li
Moturity (hours)
Fig. &Comparison of measured (10,18) and computed degree of hydration

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 Ob62949 O522673 572 =
O I I I
O 10 20 30
Time (hours)
Fig. 7-Effect of superplasticizers on rate of cement hydration (16)
O
Water-Cement Ratio
Fig. &Estimate of retardation time of superplasticizers as a function of wlc

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522674 409 m
488 Wang and Dilger
80
I I I 1
O 24 4a 72 96 1
Time (hours)
Fig. 9-Comparison of measured (14) and predicted temperature rise in core

of a 1.0 x 1.0 rn column
I
A C 1 SP-154 75 81 0662749 0522b75 3 4 5 E
SP 154-26
Influence of Exposure of Concrete to

Salt upon Expansion Due to ASR
by D. W. Hobbs
svnonsia: Results are presented of expansion tests carried

out on concretes immersed in 1/10-M and l-M sodium chloride
solutions. The concretes were prepared using two reactive
aggregates -cristobalite and a natural aggregate from the
South West of the UK. Tests were carried out both at
alkali levels which were known to induce expansion due to
alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali levels which would
not normally induce expansion due to ASR. The concretes
were, at ages of one, three and six months, immersed in a
sodium chloride solution. The concretes were stored at
38OC, 2OoC and externally. For the concretes containing
the natural aggregate, it is shown that immersion in a l-M
salt solution had no major adverse effects upon long-term
expansion. This is attributed to the low available
reactive silica content within the concretes. In the case
of concretes containing cristobalite, it is shown that the
immersion in l-M salt solution had an adverse effect upon
long-term expansion. This is attributed to the high
available reactive silica content of the concretes.
Kewords: Aggregates; alkali arnegate reaction; cristobalite; expansion;

fly ash; portland cement; &;slags
489
A C 1 S P - I I 5 4 95 E 0662949 O522676 2öL
490 Hobbs
D. W. Hobbs obtained a B.Sc. degree in Physics from the

University of Southampton and a Ph.D. from the University
of Surrey. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Physics and
Associate Director, Concrete Performance, British Cement
Association. His research interest is the durability of
concretes and mortars.
INTRODUCTION
Although it is generally assumed that alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) is a reaction between disordered silica and
the alkalis released by a portland cement, alkalis from
other sources, such as the aggregate, additions, mixing
water and sources external to the concrete can also
participate in the reaction. Of particular concern is salt
present in the mix water and aggregate, salt ingress from
seawater, airborne salt and the use of deicing salt.
When sodium chloride is present in the aggregate or
mix water, the tricalcium aluminate in portland cement may
react with the chlorides taking some of the chlorides out
of solution into the compound C,AlCaCl,.10H,O (1) and sodium
hydroxide is formed which increases the hydroxyl ion
concentration. Alternatively, the sodium chloride may
simply react with calcium hydroxide forming calcium
chloride, which accelerates the hydration of the portland
cement, and sodium hydroxide(2). Clearly the presence of
sodium in the aggregate or mix water is likely to increase
the expansion due to ASR and several investigators have
shown that this is so for mortars stored at 2OoC and
38OC(3-6).
Several investigators(7-9) have shown that the
immersion, at an early age, of mortar and small concrete
specimens in a salt solution maintained at 20 and 38OC, can
increase the expansion induced by ASR. The effect upon the
risk of expansion due to ASR of exposing mature concrete or
mortar to a sodium chloride solution is less clear. It can
be argued that the effect will depend upon the following:
1. Concentration of sodium chloride. At low
concentrations, hydroxyl ions will diffuse out of the
surface layers of the concrete at a greater rate than
they are produced by ingress of sodium ions into the
concrete. At higher concentrations, the ingress of the
sodium ion into the surface layers of the concrete will
raise the hydroxyl ion concentration and this may
increase both the level of overall expansion induced by
the reaction and the risk of expansion due to ASR.
2. Concrete member size. Since salt ingress is restricted
to the surface layers of the concrete, its effect upon
member expansion, if any, will decrease as the member

A C 1 SP-154 75 m 0662747 0522677 L 1 ô m
size is increased. Also if sodium chloride ingress

affects expansion then this will alter the internal
crack distribution within the concrete as the direct
effects of sodium chloride ingress upon ASR will be
concentrated in the surface layers.
3. Reactive silica content. If the concrete contains a
small quantity of reactive silica, then the concrete
contains an excess of hydroxyl ions and the fact that
ingress of sodium ions from salt into the concrete
increases hydroxyl ion concentration may be of little
consequence. However, if the quantity of reactive
silica is high, then the concrete contains an excess of
reactive silica and here, any increase in the hydroxyl
ion concentration resulting from ingress of sodium ions
into the concrete will be expected to result in
additional expansion. Data reported by Hobbs(l0) on
mortars containing a range of reactive silica contents
supports this hypothesis (see Fig. 1). These mortars
were, at an age of 19 months, immersed in a 2 O o C salt
solution sufficient to raise the equivalent sodium
oxide content of the mortars by 2 kg/m3. Kawamura,
Igarashi and Takeuchi (8) have made a similar
observation on mortars immersed at an age of 28 days in
a 1M and 3M sodium chloride solution and a saturated
sodium chloride solution (-6.4M) maintained at 38OC.
This paper presents the results of a study to
investigate the influence of salt ingress into mature
concrete upon expansion due to ASR in concretes containing
two reactive aggregates, cristobalite and a natural
aggregate from the South West of the UK, stored at 38OC,
2OoC and externally. The concretes were immersed in 1/10-M
and 1-M sodium chloride solutions. The concretes
containing cristobalite contained an excess of reactive
silica (i.e. above the pessimum), whilst the concretes
containing the UK aggregate contained an excess of hydroxyl
ions, i.e. the reactive silica content was low, below the
pessimum(l1).
MATERIALS
Cement
The cement used was a normal portland cement with no

minor additional constituent, with an alkali content
expressed as equivalent sodium oxide of 1.00 per cent by
mass. The sodium and potassium oxide contents of the
cement were 0.44 and 0.85 per cent by mass respectively
(Table 1). This cement has, by European Standards, a high
Na,O/K,O ratio. The cement was selected because limited
evidence exists which indicates that, at a given original
alkali content, the risk of abnormal expansion and cracking
due to ASR is probably enhanced at high Na,O/K,O ratios (12).

A C 1 SP-154 95
492 Hobbc
= Obb2949 0522678 054 m
F l v ash
The fly ash used complied with BS3892: Part l(13)

and had a total alkali content, expressed as equivalent
sodium oxide, of 3.9 per cent by mass (Table 1).
The slag used complied with BS6699(14) and had an

alkali content, expressed as equivalent sodium oxide, of
0.95 per cent by mass (Table 1).
Auarecrates
Two reactive aggregates were selected for the test
programme. These were:
1. Cristobalite in the proportion 5 per cent by mass of
total aggregate(l5). The particle size of the
cristobalite was 1 to 2mm. The coarse aggregate
employed was Mount Sorra1 granite, with a maximum size
of 20mm, and the main fine aggregate was Thames Valley
sand. The coarse aggregate and fine aggregate had
water absorptions of 0.62 and 1 . 1 0 % by mass
respectively.
2. A partially crushed chert/flint sand from Somerset in
the South West of the UK, composed essentially of
quartz, chalcedony and chert (11). In this sand, a high
proportion in the two coarsest sand fractions, 1.18 to
2.36mm and 2.36 to 4.72m, was crushed material. It
was within this crushed material that the reactive
silica was available for attack by hydroxyl ions. This
sand which had a water absorption of 1.10% by mass was
the UK aggregate which proved to be most deleterious in
the M I R O programme(l1). The coarse aggregate employed
was a Mendip limestone (maximum size 20mm) with a low
water absorption, 0.6 per cent by mass, and
consequently, a low porosity.
TEST DETAILS
Specimen arenaration
The aggregates were used in an oven dry condition

and extra water was included in the mixture to allow for
aggregate absorption. The aggregate and all the water were
put into the mixer pan and mixed for 2 minutes. An hour
later, the cement was added and the batch was mixed for 3
minutes. From each batch, 24 prisms 75 x 75 x 250mm in
size, with steel end inserts were cast. The concretes were
compacted on a vibrating table(l6). After casting, the
prisms were stored under a polythene sheet in a fog room
for 24 hours.

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522679 T90
Mixtures emloved
Details relating to the various concrete mixtures
employed are given in Tables 2 and 3. Original portland
cement alkali contents of Bkglm', for cristobalite, and
7kg/m3,for the Somerset aggregate, were known from previous
tests to be sufficiently high to ensure that abnormal
expansion occurred, whilst the lower original alkali
contents of 2 . 7 and 5 . 2 kg/m3 were considered to be
borderline alkali contents for the particular aggregate
combinations employed. Some cristobalite mixtures were
also included in the programme, which contained 2 5 per cent
fly ash by mass of binder and 40 per cent slag by mass of
binder (see Table 2 ) . These mixtures were proportioned to
have alkali contents, for the particular aggregate
combination employed, close to the lower level necessary to
induce abnormal expansion.
Exposure conditions and expansion measurements
At an age of 2 4 *
1 hours, the prisms from each
concrete mixture were wrapped in a moist paper towel or
cotton cloth with the ends of the prisms exposed(l7). The
wrapped prisms were placed into polythene tubing of the
same length as the prisms, the tubing being held secure
with rubber bands(l7). Each wrapped prism was then placed
in a polythene bag(l7). The bagged prisms were placed in
sealed containers(l7) and 8 prisms from each mixture were,
stored at 2 0 f 2"C, 38 k 2°C and externally in the grounds
of the British Cement Association at Wexham Springs,
Slough, UK. Periodically the prisms were measured using a
dial gauge comparator after they had been allowed to
equilibrate overnight within their closed container to
20°C. When necessary, additional water was added to
maintain the towel in a moist state and each wrapped prism
within its sealed container returned to its chosen
temperature environment.
To establish the extent to which exposure to deicing
salts, seawater or airborne salt may effect expansion due
to-ASR, duplicate prisms from each mixture were, at each
'temperature',immersed in a l/lOM salt solution at 1 month
and a 1M salt solution at ages of 1, 3 and 6 months.
(Seawater has a salt concentration of about 0 . 5 M ) .
Periodically the length of the prisms was measured after
they had been allowed to equilibrate overnight in closed
containers to 20°C. The prisms were then returned to their
chosen temperature and salt solution environment. Details
relating to the concretes which were immersed in the salt
solutions are given in Tables 2 and 3.
RESULTS
Cristobalite
The expansion data obtained on concretes
containing cristobalite which have exhibited abnormal
expansion is shown plotted in Fig. 2 to 9 . Results

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m 0662949 0522680 702 m
494 Hobbs
obtained on concretes with an original alkali content of

4 . 0 kg/m3 are shown plotted in Fig. 2 to 4. Those on
concretes with an original alkali content of 2.7 kg/m3 are
shown plotted in Fig. 5 to 7 and those on concretes
containing fly ash or slag, stored at 38OC, are shown
plotted in Fig. 8 and 9 respectively.
The following concretes have not, to date, exhibited
abnormal expansion:
Cristobalite, alkali content 2 . 7 kg/m3 stored externally,
1-M salt solution.
Cristobalite and fly ash, alkali content 3.0 kg/mg, stored
at 2OoC and externally, all storage conditions.
Cristobalite and slag, alkali content 2.4 kg/m3,stored at
20°C and externally, all storage conditions.
Examination of Fig. 2 to 9 leads to the following
observations:
1. Immersion in a 1-M salt solution for the particular
concretes tested can have a marked effect upon expansion
(Fig. 2 to 4) and can increase the risk of expansion
occurring (Fig. 5 to 7).
2. The maximum expansion observed to date for concretes
immersed in a 1-M salt solution at 38OC is 2 . 0 7 % . This
compares with a maximum expansion of comparable moist
concretes of 0.21% (see Fig. 2).
3 . The maximum expansion observed to date for concretes
immersed in a 1-M salt solution at 2OoC is 0.55%. This
compares with a maximum expansion of comparable moist
concretes of 0.14% (see Fig. 3).
4. Immersion in a 1/10-M solution has little effect upon
expansion.
5. A number of concretes of low portland cement alkali
content containing fly ash or slag immersed in a 1-M
solution are exhibiting abnormal expansion (see Fig. 8
and 9).
UK partially crushed chert/flint sand
The expansion data obtained on concretes containing a

UK natural aggregate whichhas exhibited abnormal expansion
are shown in Fig. 10 to 12. Also included in these Figures
are results obtained in a previous study on moist concretes
prepared from the same mixture. Only the concretes with an
original alkali content of 7 . 0 kg/m3 have, to date,
exhibited abnormal expansion. Examination of the data in
Fig. 10 to 1 2 shows that immersion of a concrete containing
a particular UK reactive aggregate in a 1-M or 1/10-M sait
solution has little influence upon expansion due to ASR.

A C 1 SP-II54 95 m ûbb2747 0522681 b y 9 =
DISCUSSION
Portland cement concretes
It has been observed that exposure of mature concrete

prisms, 75 x 75 x 250mm in size, to a 1-M sodium chloride
solution, but not a 1/10-M solution, can result in large
increases in the expansion induced by ASR, and can also
increase the risk of expansion when the aggregate contains
a high reactive silica content ( > 1.0 to 1.5% by mass of
total aggregate). It should not be concluded here that
similar observations will be made on larger concrete
specimens, as the heart concrete within these specimens may
provide sufficient restraint to prevent abnormal expansion
resulting from enhanced alkali-silica reaction in its
surface layers.
In the case of concretes containing low proportions of
reactive silica, it has been observed that the exposure of
mature concrete prisms to a 1-M sodium chloride solution
has little effect upon expansion induced by alkali-silica
reaction.
Similar observations to those above have been made on
mortars by Hobbs(l0) and Kawamura, Igarashi and
Takeuchi(8). The observation that immersion of a mature
concrete containing a particular UK aggregate in a 1-M salt
has little influence upon expansion due to ASR has also
been made on a mature ASR affected concrete stored at 2OoC
containing Thames Valley sand and on a range of UK
concretes, 250 x 200 x 5 0 0 m in size, partially immersed
externally in a '1-M' sodium chloride solution(l1). This
observation should not be taken to be applicable to all
European aggregates, as some may contain high proportions
of reactive silica. Exposure of such concretes to salt may
have adverse effects upon expansion induced by ASR. In
Denmark, for example, the addition of salt to many public
indoor swimming pools is probably a major factor in the
deterioration of a number of -swimming pools due to
ASR(18,19).
Jones, Walters and Kostuch(7) in tests on the UK
aggregate used in this study, have observed that immersion
in a salt solution can increase expansion. In their tests,
concrete prisms were immersed in a saturated sodium
chloride solution (6.4M) maintained at 38OC. It was
observed that the expansion was increased by about 1.0%.
A possible explanation for their observations is that at
these extremely high sodium chloride concentrations,
additional forms of silica present in the aggregate may
become deleteriously reactive.
Portland/flv ash concretes
It has been observed that concretes prepared from a
borderline mixture containing 25% fly ash by mass of cement
exhibit abnormal expansion when immersed in a 1-M salt
solution. This is in conflict with work carried out by

A C 1 SP-154 75 = Obb2747 0 5 2 2 6 8 2 585 =
496 Hobbs
Geiker and Thaulow(20) in which mortars were immersed in a

saturated sodium hydroxide and sodium chloride solution
maintained at 50°C. In their study, 2 and 5% by mass of the
aggregate was cristobalite. The observation is, however,
supported by data reported by Kamura, Takemoto and
Terashima(21); in this work mortars containing up to 30%
fly ash were immersed, at an age of 5 months, in a 1-M
sodium chloride solution maintained at 38OC. It was
observed that additional expansion can be induced when fly
ash is used, which is dependent upon the proportion of
cement replaced and the fly ash employed. Two fly ashes,
with total alkali contents of 0.79 and 0.63% by mass,
prevented additional expansion when used at replacement
levels of 10, 20 and 30%. The other 7 fly ashes employed,
which had total alkali contents ranging from 2.15 to 3.11%
by mass, did not prevent additional expansion. With these
fly ashes, the expansion was greater than the portland
cement control when 10% of the portland cement was replaced
by fly ashes and less than the portland cement control when
30% was replaced by fly ash.
Portland/slas concretes
It has been observed that concretes prepared from a

borderline mixture containing 40% slag by mass of cement
exhibited abnormal expansion when immersed in a 1-M salt
solution. After 15 months storage at 38OC, the expansions
were approximately one third of those obsérved for portland
cement concretes of similar binder content (compare Fig. 2
to 7). A broadly similar observation has been made by
Geiker and Thaulow(20). For mortars containing 35% slag by
mass of cement immersed in a saturated sodium chloride
solution maintained at 5OoC, these investigators observed
a 50% reduction in the 12 week expansion.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are applicable to the
particular concretes, specimen sizes and storage conditions
employed:
1. Exposure of a mature concrete containing a reactive
aggregate of low reactive silica content ( < 1.0 to 1.5%
mass) to a 1-M sodium chloride solution has little
influence upon the expansion induced by the alkali-
silica reaction and the risk of cracking due to the
reaction.
2. Exposure of a mature concrete containing a reactive
aggregate of high reactive silica content ( > 1.0 to 1.5%
by mass) to a 1-M sodium chloride solution can result in
large increases in expansion in a concrete adversely I
affected by ASR and can, in an uncracked concrete,
increase the risk that expansion and cracking will be
induced by the reaction.
3. Replacement of 40 per cent by mass of a portland cement
by the particular slag or 25 per cent of the particular I
A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522683 411
fly ash used in this study did not prevent expansion due
to ASR in a borderline concrete exposed to a 1-M sodium
chloride solution. The effectiveness of fly ash and
slag in preventing expansion possibly depends upon their
alkali content and the percentage of portland cement
replaced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to Mr M Sehmar for his
assistance in carrying out the test programme. The work
described forms part of BRITE EüRAM Project 4 0 6 2 entitled
'The residual service life of reinforced concrete
structures'. The partners involved in the project are:
British Cement Association, Crowthorne, UK; Torroja
Institute, Madrid, Spain; GEOCISA, Madrid, Spain; Lund
Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden; Swedish Cement and
Concrete Research Institute, CBI, Stockholm, Sweden;
Cementa AB, Danderyd, Sweden.
REFERENCES
1. Mehta, P. K. "Effect of cement composition on
corrosion of reinfoxcing steel in concrete", American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Special
Technical Publication 629, 1 9 8 0 , pp 1 2 - 1 9 .
2. Kawamura, M. Private Communication, Kanazawa
University, Japan, March 1 9 8 7 .
3. Hobbs, D. W. "Mix design. Quality of mixing water.
w/c ratio. Homogeneity. Sem Le Beton and L'eau",
International des Sciences de la Construction, Saint-
Remy-les Chevrause, France, 1 8 - 2 0 June 1 9 8 5 , Conseil
Internationale de la Langue Francais, Paris 1 9 8 7 , pp
46-67.
4. Nakono, K., Kobayashi, S. and Arimoto, Y. "Influence

of reactive aggregate and alkali compounds on
expansion of alkali-silica reaction", Review 38th
General Meeting Cement Association of Japan, Tokyo,
May 1984, pp 9 6 - 9 9 .
5. Nixon, P. J., Canham, I., Page, C. L. and
Bollinghause, R. "Sodium chloride and alkali-
aggregate reaction", Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Concrete Alkali-Aggregate
Reactions, 1 9 8 6 , Ottawa, Canada (Editor: Patrick E.
Grattan-Bellew),Noyes Publications, 1 9 8 7 , pp110-114.
6. Okada, K., Agawa, T and Adachi, M. "Alkali-aggregate
reaction: A study on causative effects", Proceedings
of the 7th International Conference on Concrete
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, 1 9 8 6 , Ottawa, (Editor:
Patrick E. Grattan-Bellew),Noyes Publications, 1 9 8 7 ,
pp 3 4 7 - 3 5 0 .

A C 1 SP-3i54 95 m Obb2949 0522b84 358 m
498 Hobbc
7. Jones, T. R., Waiters, G. V. and Kostuch, J. A. "Role

of metakaolin in suppressing ASR in concrete
containing reactive aggregate and exposed to a
saturated NaC1 solution", Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
in Concrete, London, 1992, The Concrete Society,
Volume 1, 1992, pp 485-496.
8. Kawamura, M., Igarashi, M. and Takeuchi, K.
"Relationship between alkali content, expansion and
pore solution chemistry in opal-bearing mortars
immersed in NaC1 solution", Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
in Concrete, London 1992, The Concrete Society, Volume
1, 1992, pp 527-534.
9. Chatterji, S., Thaulow, N., Jensen, A. D. and
Christensen, P. "Mechanisms of accelerating effects
of NaC1 and Ca(OH), on alkali-silica reaction",
Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on
Concrete Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, 1986, Ottawa,
Canada, (Editor: Patrick E. Grattan-Bellew), Noyes
Publications, 1987, pp 115-119.
10. Hobbs, D. W. "Alkali-silica reaction in concrete",
Thomas Telford Publications, UK, 1988.
11. Hobbs, D. W. "Deleteriousalkali-silica reactivity of
a number of üK aggregates and an examination of the
draft BS concrete prism test", British Cement
Association, on behalf of the Mineral Industry
Research Organisation, 1992, pp 88.
12. Hobbs, D. W. "Expansion of concrete due to the
alkali-silica reaction", The Structural Engineer,
Volume 62A, 1984, pp 26-34.
13. British Standards Institution. "Pulverized-fuelash.
Specification for pulverized-fuel ash for use as a
cementitious component in structurai concrete", BSI,
London, 1982, BS 3892: Part 1.
14. British Standards Institution. "Ground granulated
blastfurnace slag for use with Portland cement", BSI,
London, 1986, BS 6699.
15. Lumley, J. S. "Synthetic cristobalite as a reference
reactive aggregate", Proceedings of the 8th
InternationalConference o n A l k a l i - A g g r e g a t e R e a c t i o n ,
Kyoto, Japan, July 1989; (Editors: K Okada,
S Nishibayashi and M Kawamura), Elsevier Science
Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1990, pp 561-566.
16. British Standards Institution. "Testing concrete.
Method for making test cubes from fresh concrete",
BSI, London, 1983, BS1881: Part 108.

A C 1 SP-154 95 II 0662947 0522685 294 II
17. Hobbs, D. W. "Deleterious reactivity of a number of

UK aggregates", Journal of the Concrete Society.
May/June, 1992, pp 64-70.
18. Morup, H. " A swimming pool deteriorated by alkali-
aggregate reactions", Proceedings 6th International
Conference Alkalis in concrete. Copenhagen, June 1983
(Editors: G. M. Idorn and S. Rostam). Danish
Concrete Association. 1983. pp 435-440.
19. Peterson, S. E. "Damages to swimming pools due to
alkali silica reactions", Proceedings 6th
International Conference Alkalis in concrete.
Copenhagen, June 1983 (Editors: G. M. Idorn and S.
Rostam). Danish Concrete Association. 1983. pp 441-
447.
20. Geiker, M. and Thaulow, N. "The mitigating effect of
pozzolans on alkali silica reactions", Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Fly ash, Silica
Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concretes.
Istanbul, 1993, (Editor: V M Malhotra), ACI, Special
Publication SP-132, 1993, pp 533-548.
21. Kawamura, M., Takemoto, K . and Terashima, N. "Effect
of sodium chloride supplied from the surrounding
solution on the alkali-silica reaction", Review 42nd
General Meeting Cement Association of Japan, Tokyo,
May 1988, pp 258-261.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522bôb 120 E
500 Hobbs
TABLE 1 - COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT, FLY ASH, AND SLAG
Portland cement Fly ash

(mass % ) (mass % )
SiO, 21.4 Ca0 1.49
MgO 1.34
A1203 4.5 so3 4.5
2.5
m2°3 0.29 Total Na,O 3.63
Total K,O 1.47
p205 0.08
Tio, 0.24 Density (kg/m3) 2310
Mass % retained on
Ca0 64.0 45pm sieve 7.6
Mg0 2.1 Slag (mass %)
so3 2.6 37.1

10.3
LOI 0.7 40.6
8.45
K20 0.85 0.52
0.68
Na20 0.44
eg Na,O 1.00
Free lime 1.4
Density (kg/m3) 3150 Density ( kg/m3 2920
Specific surface Specific surface
ím2/ kg 1 372 ím2/ka) 300

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A C 1 SP-154 95 E 0bb2949 0522688 T T 3 W
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TABLE 3 - MIXTURE, PROPORTIONS (PERCENT BY MASS)
Mix Coarse Fine Cement Free

desig- aggre- aggre- water
nation gate gate PC Fly ash Slag
35.8 19.2 18.5 - - 8.0
43.6 16.2 30.0 - - 10.2
48.7 25.1 16.7 - - 8.4
50.0 25.0 16.6 - - 8.4
50.3 25.1 12.5 4.1 - 7.8
50.0 25.0 10.0 - 6.6 8.4
Fig. 1-Influence of salt, added at an age of 19 months, on expansion due to ASR:

watedcement and oggregatelcement ratios 0.41 and 2.75, respectively, sodium oxide
- +5 2 (as sodium chloride) kg/m3

A C 1 SP-154 95 E 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522689 93T m
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containing cristobalite. 4 kg/m3, 38 C. Mix 4

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A C 1 SP-154 95 U Ob62949 0 5 2 2 b 9 0 6 5 1
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A C 1 SP-154 75 .31 0bb2747 0 5 2 2 b q L 598
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A C 1 SP-I154 95 m O662949 0522692 4 2 4 m
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containing fly ash. Cristobalite. 3 kg/m3. 38 C. Mix 5
O 5 10 15
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containing slag. Cristobalite. 2.4 kg/m3. 38 C. Mix 6

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containing a UK aggregate. 7 kg/m3. 38 C. Mix 2
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A C 1 SP-154 75 9 0bb2747 O522674 2 T 7
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to immersion
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A C 1 SP-LSY 95 R 0 b b 2 9 Y 9 0522695 3 3 3 9
SP 154-27
Effect of Curing Conditions on

High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete Made
with ASTM Type I and 111 Cements
and Silica Fume
by V. Sivasundaram, A. Bilodeau, and V. M. Malhotra
Svnomis: This paper presents the results of a study on the effect of curing
conditions on the air-entrained, superplasticized high-volume fly ash concrete
made with ASTM Types I and III cements and silica fume. For the four
concrete mixtures made, the total cementitious materials content was about 370
kg/m3, and the water-to-cementitious materials ratio was kept at 0.3 1IO.01, The
proportion of ASTM Class F fly ash in all the mixtures was 58% by weight of
the (cement + fly ash) content. Two mixtures incorporated silica fume at the
dosage rate of 8.5% of the total cementitious materials content.
The properties of fresh concrete including the time-of-set and autogenous

temperature rise were determined. Specimens were cast and moist cured for the
determination of compressive and flexural strengths, resistance to chloride-ion
penetration, and freezing and thawing cycling at various ages. Compressive
strength and chloride-ion penetration measurements were also performed at
various ages on the specimens that were subjected to laboratory air curing after
three days of moist-curing.
The use of ASTM Type III cement instead of Type I increased the early-
age strength significantly without affecting the long-term strength development
under moist curing conditions. Under air-curing conditions, the concretes
incorporating the Type III cement achieved significantly higher strengths at
every test age up to one year. The use of silica fume resulted in only marginal
improvement in the strength properties under the two curing regimes.
The air curing resulted in a significantly lower resistance to chloride-ion

penetration (RCP) of all the concretes, but the drop in RCP was greater for those
made with ASTM Type I cement. The use of silica fume increased the
resistance to chloride-ion penetration of concretes significantly under both curing
conditions.
Kevwords: ASTM Tvpe I cement; ASTM me III cement; chloride ions;
compressive strength; curing; flv ash; freeze thaw durability; silica fume;
superplas ticizer
509
A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 O522696 0 ï T I
510 Sivasundaram, Bilodeau, and Malhotra
V. Sivasundaram was a Research Engineer with Canada Centre for Mineral and
Energy Technology (CANMET), Natural Resources Canada. She received her
B.Sc. in Civil Engineering from the University of Sri Lanka and an MS degree
from MIT. She worked in the area of durability of concrete incorporating
supplementary cementing materials. V. Sivasundaram left CANMET in
November 1993.
AC1 member Alain Bilodeau is a concrete research engineer, Advanced Concrete

Technology Program, CANMET. His current research interests are primarily in
the areas of the use of supplementary cementing materials and durability of
concrete. He has published several papers on concrete technology and is a
member of the CSA Committee on Concrete Materials and Construction.
AC1 honorary member V. Mohan Malhotra is Program Principal, Advanced

Concrete Technology Program, CANMET. He is a former member of the AC1
Board of Direction and has served on numerous AC1 and ASTM committees.
He is a prolific author, editor, and researcher, and has received many awards and
honors from AC1 and other institutions throughout the world.
INTRODUCTION
Since the development of high-volume fly ash concrete at CANMET in

1985, a number of investigations have been performed on the mechanical
properties, durability aspects, and the microstructure of this concrete at
CANMET and other institutions (1 - 14). Typically, in this concrete, the cement
and water contents are kept low, at about 155 and 1 15 kg/m3, respectively, and
the proportion of ASTM Class F fly ash is 55 to 60% by weight of the total
cementitious materials. The water-to-cementitious materials ratio is maintained
at about 0.31, and the flow slumps are achieved by adding large dosages of a
superplasticizer. In spite of its relatively low cement factor and high-fly ash
content, this concrete exhibits excellent mechanical properties and durability
characteristics. The long-term performance of this concrete has been monitored
on massive concrete blocks (9, 12) and this concrete has performed well under
field applications (8). As a part of CANMET’s research on high-volume fly ash
concrete, an engineering data base has been developed on concretes
incorporating a number of fly ashes from the U.S.A. and Canada (10, 15).
In almost all of the investigations performed to date, the curing conditions

used were standard moist-curing at 100% R.H. It is generally known that
strength development for concrete under ambient conditions, is slow in
comparison with concrete under moist-curing conditions; this is more so for

A C 1 SP-I154 95 I0662949 0 5 2 2 b 9 7 Tûb
concretes incorporating supplementary cementing materials. Some limited data

on air-curing of high-volume fly ash concretes had been reported previously (7).
One of the principal objectives of this investigation was to examine the effect
of different curing conditions on the properties of high-volume fly ash concrete.
Again, although the early-age strength development of high-volume fly ash

concrete is adequate for most applications; it could be considered low for some
specific applications such as high-rise buildings. Therefore, ASTM Type I
cement was replaced by ASTM Type III cement in some of the mixtures to
determine its effect on the strength development, particularly at early ages.
Generally, in portland cement concretes, the use of silica fume enhances

the mechanical properties and the durability of the concrete to aggressive
environment by the formation of a dense matrix with very low porosity. Hence,
in this investigation, a small amount of silica fume was used in some of the
concretes, and tests on the mechanical properties and durability aspects were
performed to study its effect on these concretes.
SCOPE
Four high-volume fly ash concrete mixtures involving eight batches were
made in this investigation. ASTM Type I and Type III portland cements were
used in two mixtures each; within each mixture series, one mixture was made
incorporating 8.5% silica fume. The water-to-cementitious materials ratio was
kept at 0.3110.01 for all the concrete mixtures. The concretes were air-
entrained, and the properties of the fresh concretes were determined. The
autogenous-temperature rise was monitored on 152x305-mm concrete cylinders.
A number of specimens were cast, subjected to moist-curing and laboratory air-
curing regimes, and tested at various ages for compressive strength and
resistance to chloride-ion penetration (RCP). Tests for the flexural strength and
resistance to freezing and thawing cycling were also performed on the moist-
cured concrete prisms.
CONCRETE MATERIALS
The concrete mixtures were made at CANMET laboratories in the summer

of 1992 using the following materials.
Cement
ASTM Type I, normal portland cement and ASTM Type III, high-early
strength portland cement were used. The physical properties and chemical
analyses of the cements are given in Table 1.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522b98 942 m
512 Sivacundaram, Bilodeau, and Malhotra
Flv ash
ASTM Class F (low-calcium) fly ash from Atlantic Canada was used. The
physical properties and chemical analyses of the fly ash are given in Table 1.
Silica fume
An uncompacted silica fume from a Canadian source was used. The

physical properties and chemical analyses of the silica fume are also given in
Table 1.
ApgrePates
The coarse aggregate was crushed limestone with nominal maximum size
of 19.0 mm, and the fine aggregate was local natural sand. Both aggregates
were separated into different size fractions, and then recombined to a specified
uniform grading. The grading and physical properties of the coarse and fine
aggregates are given in Tables 2 and 3.
Superplasticizer
A sulphonated, naphthalene-formaldehyde condensate was used in the

concrete mixtures. This superplasticizer is available as a dark brown 40% solids
aqueous solution having a density of 1200 kg/m3.
Air-entraining admixture
A synthetic resin-type air-entraining admixture was used in all the concrete

mixtures.
MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
The proportioning of the concrete mixtures is summarized in Table 4. For

all mixtures, the graded coarse and fine aggregates were weighed in room-dry
condition. The coarse aggregate was then immersed in water for 24 h, the
excess water decanted, and the water retained by the aggregate determined by
the weight difference. A predetermined amount of water was added to the sand
24 h prior to mixing.
Four concrete mixtures involving eight 0.1 m3 batches were made in this
program. Mixture 1 was a high-volume fly ash concrete made with ASTM Type
I cement (155 kg/m3) and ASTM Class F fly ash (215 kg/m3) at 58% by mass
of the total cementitious materials content. In mixture 2, in addition to the
above Type I cement and fly ash, silica fume was incorporated at 8.5% by
weight of the total cementitious material. The proportion of the fly ash in this
concrete mixture was 58% of cement+fly ash. In effect, the total cementitious

A C 1 SP-154 75 m 0662749 0522699 449 m
material in mixture 2 was the same as that in mixture 1. Mixtures 3 and 4 were
repeats of mixtures 1 and 2, respectively, except that ASTM Type III cement
was substituted for the Type I cement. The water-to-cementitious materials ratio
was kept at 0.31k0.01 for all the concretes. The concretes were air-entrained
with a target air content of 5kl%, and the superplasticizer was used to give
increased slumps. The concrete mixtures were made in a laboratory counter
current mixer with fly ash and silica fume added as separate ingredients.
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
The properties of the freshly mixed concrete, Le., temperature, slump, unit
weight, and air content are given in Table 5.
PREPARATION, CASTING, AND CURING OF SPECIMENS
Two 0.1 m3 batches of concrete were made from each mixture in order to
cast the required number of specimens.
Batch A
Fourteen 152x305-mm cylinders and five 75x102x390-mm prisms were

cast from Batch A of each mixture. Two of the cylinders were used to monitor
the autogenous-temperature rise during early hydration, and the rest were used
for the compressive strength testing at various ages under moist-curing
conditions. The prisms were made for determining the freezing and thawing
resistance of concrete.
Twelve i 52x305-mm cylinders, eight 102x203-mm cylinders, and two

75x102x390-mm prisms were cast from Batch B of each mixture. Setting-time
determinations were also made on the concrete from this batch. Of the
152x305-mm cylinders, two each were tested in compression after 3 and 28 days
of moist-curing. The rest were moist cured for three days; following this, they
were left in the laboratory air, and tested in compression at various ages. The
eight 102x203-mm cylinders were tested for resistance to the chloride-ion
penetration (RCP) following both moist-curing and the above mentioned
laboratory air-curing. The two prisms were used for the flexural strength testing
after 28 days of moist-curing.
Compaction and Curinv of Test Specimens
The cylindrical and prismatic specimens were cast in two layers; in the
case of the 152x305-mm cylinders, an internal vibrator was used for compaction;
the rest of the specimens were compacted on a vibrating table.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522700 320
After casting, all the moulded specimens were covered with plastic sheets
and a water- saturated burlap, and were left in the casting room for 24 h.
Afterwards, they were demoulded and transferred to the moist-curing room at
100% relative humidity for curing. After three days of moist-curing, eight
152x305-mm cylinders and four 102x203-mm cylinders from Batch B were
transferred to a room at ambient temperature (22 to 30°C) and at about 40 to
50% R.H. The rest of the specimens were moist-cured until needed for testing.
TESTING OF SPECIMENS
As far as possible, all of the testing was conducted in accordance with

appropriate ASTM standards. The adiabatic-temperature rise in the concretes
was measured by means of thermocouples embedded in the centres of two
152x305-mm cylinders of fresh concrete, placed in an autogenous curing
chamber. This curing box was somewhat similar to that described in Procedure
C of ASTM Standard C 684: Making, Accelerated Curing, and Testing
Concrete Compression Test Specimens. The temperature variations were
recorded at 30 min intervals for 48 h.
From Batch A, two moist-cured 152x305-mm cylinders each were tested

in compression at the ages of 1, 3, 7, 28, 91, and 365 days. From Batch B,
among the air-cured cylinders following three days of moist-curing, two each
were tested in compression at the ages of 7, 28, 91, and 365 days. In addition,
four cylinders from this batch were moist cured and two each were tested in
compression at 3 and 28 days. All specimens for the compression testing were
capped with a sulphur and flint mixture before testing. Moist-cured test
specimens for flexural strength were tested at third point loading at 28 days.
Following 14 days of initial moist-curing, two 76x1 02x390-mm prisms

from Batch A were subjected to the determination of freezing and thawing
resistance of concrete using ASTM C 666 Procedure A, freezing and thawing
in water. The 14-day flexural strength test results on prisms from the same
batch were used as the initial strength for the freezing and thawing prisms.
Prior to freezing and thawing testing, the temperature of the four prisms was
reduced to 4.4k1.7"C by placing them in a cold water tank. The initial and all
subsequent measurements of the freezing and thawing specimens and the
reference specimens were made at this temperature. After the initial I
measurements, two specimens were subjected to freezing and thawing cycling

and the remaining two prisms were placed in the moist-curing room for
reference purposes. After the completion of the freezing and thawing test, the
reference and the freezing and thawing test prisms were tested in flexure.
The specimens for determining the resistance to chloride-ion penetration

of concrete were cut from the 102x203-mm cylinders, and were conditioned as
specified in ASTM C 1202. Following the conditioning, the specimens were

A C 1 SP-I154 95 IObb29Ll9 0522703 267
subjected to the RCP testing according to the standard, and the total electrical
charge passed through the specimens, in coulombs, was used as an indicator of
the resistance of the concrete to the penetration of chloride ions.
TEST RESULTS
The results of time-of-setting and the maximum autogenous-temperature

rise measured in 152x305-mm concrete cylinders are given in Table 6. The
autogenous-temperature rise in the concrete is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
properties of hardened concrete are given in Table 7, and the compressive
strength development of the concretes under both moist curing and air curing are
illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. The chloride-ion penetration results are shown in
Table 8 and a summary of the freezing and thawing test results is given in
Table 9.
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
Concrete Mixtures
As mentioned previously, the water content and the total cementitious

materials content were kept constant in all the concrete mixtures. Because of
the incorporation of the silica fume, the cement and fly ash contents were
slightly reduced in mixtures 2 and 4. When ASTM Type III cement was used
instead of Type I cement there was an increase in both the superplasticizer and
air-entraining admixture requirements. With the incorporation of the silica fume
in both of these concretes (mixtures 2 and 4), the admixture dosages increased
further. Silica fume, because of its extreme fineness, usually causes an increase
in water demand and admixtures demand. Type III cement is much finer than
the Type I used, and this also contributed to its higher demand for water and
admixtures.
Slumr, and Air Content
Because of the increased water demand of the Type III cement as

compared with the Type I cement, the slump of concrete mixture 3 was lower
than that of mixture 1, despite the increased superplasticizer dosage. The same
observation is made for the silica-fume concrete, in that, lower slumps were
obtained, though the superplasticizer dosages were higher. The same trend was
observed in the air-entraining admixture requirements; however, the air content
for all the concretes was maintained at about 5%.
S e t t h Time
For high-volume fly ash concrete made with ASTM Type III cement
(mixture 3), and silica fume high-volume fly ash concrete made with Type I
cement (mixture 2), the setting times were reduced substantially in comparison

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0 5 2 2 7 0 2 I T 3 m
with that of the high-volume fly ash concrete made with Type I cement (mixture
1). The final time-of-set for concrete mixtures 1, 2, and 3 were 10 h:45 min.,
7 h:40 min., and 6 h:40 min., respectively. Because of the high early hydration
of the cement, the final time-of-set of the high-volume fly ash concrete made
with Type III cement was shorter than that of the others. When silica fume was
incorporated in the concrete made with Type III cement (mixture 4), the setting
times were reduced further, resulting in times of initial and final set of 3 h:25
min. and 5 h:25 min.
Autorrenous-TemDerature Rise
The maximum autogenous-temperature rise reached in Batch A specimens

of concretes 1, 2, 3, and 4 were 7.2, 7.5, 11.6, and 10.4"C, respectively (Table
6). As expected, the temperature rise in high-volume fly ash concrete with Type
III cement was higher than that of the concrete with Type I cement, because of
the increased rate of hydration. The rate of temperature rise was also higher for
the Type III cement concrete as shown in Fig. 1. The temperature rise in high-
volume fly ash concrete made with Type III cement is much lower when
compared with an average temperature rise of about 25 to 30"C, measured in the
cylinders of a normal-field concrete with 300 kg/m3 of cement'. This is a
desirable aspect.
The use of silica fume in both high-volume fly ash concretes made with
ASTM Type I and III cements did not contribute to any major changes in the
autogenous-temperature rise. In general, the maximum temperature rise in all
four concretes was found to be much lower than that of a comparable portland
cement concrete without silica fume.
Strenhh Properties
The compressive strength results are shown in Table 7, and are illustrated
in Figs. 2 and 3. The 1-day strengths of the high-volume fly ash concrete made
with ASTM Type I cement with and without silica fume (concretes 1 and 2),
were 6.5 and 6.9 MPa; for the two concretes with Type III cement (concretes
3 and 4), the 1-day strengths were 11.6 and 12.0 MPa, respectively.
At early ages, from 1 to 3 days of moist-curing, the high-volume fly ash

concrete made with ASTM Type III cement showed much higher strength
development than the high-volume fly ash concrete made with ASTM Type I
cement, irrespective of the incorporation of silica fume. The substitution of
Type III for Type I cement in the moist-cured, high-volume fly ash concrete was
'Unpublished CANMET data

A C 1 SP-154 75 0662749 0522703 03T
advantageous in increasing the early-age strengths only. In terms of long-term

strength development under moist-curing conditions, there was no significant
benefits obtained by the use of Type III cement.
Between the ages of 3 and 91 days, the use of silica fume resulted in only
marginal improvement in the strengths of the moist-cured, high-volume fly ash
concrete made with Type I and Type III cements. The incorporation of 8.5%
silica fume in the high-volume fly ash concrete did not yield any significant
benefits in the long-term strength development of the moist-cured, high-volume
fly ash concretes made with both Types I and III cements. Although the
strength development rate was not the same for these concretes, all four
concretes reached about 55 MPa at 365 days under moist-curing conditions.
When subjected to air-curing at room temperature after the first 3 days of

moist-curing, the compressive strength development of all four concretes from
the ages of 7 to 28 days were close to those of their moist-cured counterparts.
However, the strength development of these concretes between the ages of 28
days to one year was found to be lower than that of the corresponding moist-
cured concretes. The one-year strengths reached after air curing for the ASTM
Type I cement concretes 1 and 2, were 29.7 and 32.3 MPa; for ASTM Type III
cement concretes 3 and 4, the values were 39.2 and 41.0 MPa, respectively.
Under the above curing conditions, ASTM Type III cement concretes
showed strengths 7 to 10 MPa higher than that of the corresponding ASTM
Type I cement concretes at each test age. Also, following one year of air
curing, both concretes made with the Type I cement reached only about 55 to
60% of the corresponding strength for the moist-cured concrete; the two
concretes made with the Type III cement reached about 70 to 74% of the
corresponding strength for the moist-cured concrete. Hence, the use of ASTM
Type III cement in high-volume fly ash concrete appears to be beneficial both
for strength development at early ages, and in terms of strength development
when prolonged moist curing cannot be provided.
When high-volume fly ash concrete is made using ASTM Type III cement,
the concrete attains a larger proportion of its potential strength at the early ages.
It is possible that the higher strengths developed in the above concrete after
three days of moist-curing results in a dense pore structure, which prevents
excessive drying with time; this is probably not so in the case of high-volume
fly ash concretes made with the Type I cement. Further research is needed in
this area.
As in the case of moist-cured concretes, the use of silica fume showed only
marginal strength improvement in the air-cured concretes made with ASTM
Type I and III cements. The reason for this could be that the high-volume fly
ash concrete mixtures were lean in cement, with only 140 kg/m3 of portland
cement and this inhibited the pozzolanic reaction of silica fume due to the

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0522704 T7b I
518 Sivacundaram, Bilodeau, and Malhotra
limited availability of Ca(OH),. Further research is needed to establish the

optimum percentage of silica fume in high-volume fly ash concrete for it to be
effective.
Under air-curing conditions, all four concretes appeared to reach the

maximum strength by 91 days, and the strengths remain the same at one year.
Figure 3 illustrates a comparison of strengths obtained at 28 days and one year
under moist-curing (Batch A), and the 28-day reference moist-cured strength and
the one year air-cured strength (Batch B) for each of the four concretes. The
high-strength development of the moist-cured concretes from 28 days to one
year is apparent from Fig. 3. However, for all four concretes, the one-year
strength of air-cured specimens appears almost the same as the 28-day strengths
of the respective moist-cured specimens.
The 28-day flexural strength of the moist-cured prisms are also given in
Table 7. The available data show slight improvement in the flexural strength of
high-volume fly ash concrete when Type III cement was used instead of Type
I cement. The improvement was also noticed when silica fume was incorporated
in the high-volume fly ash concrete.
Resistance to Chloride-Ion Penetration (RCP)
Table 8 shows the RCP results obtained on 102x203-mm cylinders at the

ages of 28 and 91 days for both moist- and air-cured specimens. The
deleterious effect of air-curing is seen clearly in the RCP results. In the Type
I cement concrete without silica fume which had been moist cured, the RCP
values decreased from 956 coulombs at 28 days to 323 coulombs at 91 days;
whereas, the RCP value for air cured specimens at 28 days was 5160 coulombs,
and this did not change significantly after 28 days.
When ASTM Type I cement was replaced by Type III cement in the high-
volume fly ash concrete without silica fume, the resistance to chloride-ion
penetration increased markedly for air-cured specimens as compared with moist-
cured specimens. This pattern was also observed in the strength development.
Under moist-curing conditions, the RCP results for the ASTM Type III cement
concrete (742 coulombs at 28 days and 301 coulombs at 91 days) were about
the same as that of the ASTM Type I cement concrete. The RCP values of the
ASTM Type III cement concrete subjected to air curing (2277 coulombs and
2833 coulombs at 28 and 91 days, respectively) were higher when compared
with that of the moist-cured Type III cement concrete. Nevertheless, the results
obtained for the air-cured Type III cement concrete were about 50% of the
values obtained for the air-cured Type I cement concretes.
Silica fume appears to play a significant role in increasing the resistance

of the high-volume fly ash concrete to chloride-ion penetration; this is true for
both types of cements and for both curing conditions. In ASTM Type I and III

A C I SP-154 75 m o b b z w 0522705 q o z m
cement concretes incorporating silica fume, the RCP results for moist-curing
conditions were 172 and 200 coulombs at 28 days and 103 and 87 coulombs at
91 days, respectively; these low values are associated with negligible chloride-
ion penetration in the concretes. Even with the air curing of Type I and III
cement concrete incorporating silica fume, the RCP results at 28 and 91 days
were significantly lower than those obtained for the high-volume fly ash
concretes without silica fume. The RCP values for the Type I and III cement
concretes with silica fume for air-curing conditions were 843 and 622 coulombs
at 28 days and 1010 and 969 coulombs at 91 days, respectively.
There is some concern, however, that the RCP values obtained for air-
curing conditions are slightly higher at 91 days when compared with that
obtained at 28 days. This may be due to the experimental variances. These
tests were not carried out on one-year old specimens to verify this observation.
Further research is necessary in this area.
Resistance to Freezinp and Thawing
The results of the freezing and thawing tests given in Table 9 indicate that
all four concretes performed well after 300 cycles of freezing and thawing, with
durability factors above 95%. The weight loss due to surface scaling during
testing appeared to be slightly higher in the Type I cement concretes, both with
and without silica fume, when compared with those of the two Type III cement
concretes. Surface scaling during rapid freezing and thawing cycling has also
been observed in previous CANMET investigations on high-volume fly ash
concretes made with Type I cement (5,7,15). The residual flexural strengths of
the test specimens after 300 cycles of freezing and thawing were in the range
of 50 to 80% of the reference moist-cured specimens. The substitution of Type
III cement in the concrete or the use of silica fume did not appear to make any
significant difference in the freezing and thawing durability of high-volume fly
ash concrete.
CONCLUSIONS
1. When ASTM Type III cement was used instead of Type I cement in the
high-volume fly ash concrete, the superplasticizer and air-entraining
admixture dosage requirements increased slightly. These were increased
further by the incorporation of silica fume in the concretes.
2. The setting times of the high-volume fly ash concrete were reduced by the
use of silica fume in the concrete as well as by the replacement of ASTM
Type I cement by Type III.

A C 1 SP-154 95 H 0662949 0522706 849 H
3. Under moist-curing conditions, the substitution of the ASTM Type III

cement for the Type I cement in the high-volume fly ash concrete was
advantageous in increasing the early-age strengths only. In terms of long-
term strength development under moist curing, there were no significant
benefits obtained by the use of Type III cement. The use of 8.5% of silica
fume in the high-volume fly ash concretes made with both types of cement
did not yield any significant benefits in the strength development under
moist-curing conditions.
4. When the concretes were subjected to air curing after three days of moist
curing, those made with the Type III cement achieved higher strengths at
all ages as compared with the concretes made with the Type I cement.
Therefore, the use of ASTM Type III cement in high-volume fly ash
concrete appears to be beneficial when prolonged moist curing is not
available; this is in addition to its high early-age strength development.
The use of silica fume in the air-cured concretes made with ASTM Type
I and III cements showed only marginal strength improvement.
5. When the high-volume fly ash concrete made with the ASTM Type I and
III cements was subjected to air curing after three days of moist curing, a
drop in the resistance to chloride-ion penetration was observed in both
concretes in comparison with those of the respective moist-cured concretes.
Nevertheless, the RCP values obtained for the concretes made with Type
III cement were about half of those obtained for the concrete made with
Type I cement indicating increased resistance to chloride-ion penetration.
6. Silica fume appears to play a significant role in increasing the resistance

to chloride-ion penetration of the high-volume fly ash concretes
incorporating both types of cements and under both curing conditions.
7. When subjected to 300 cycles of freezing and thawing, in accordance with

ASTM C 666 Procedure A, all four high-volume fly ash concretes
performed equally well. The substitution of ASTM Type III cement in the
concrete or the use of the silica fume did not appear to make any
significant difference in the freezing and thawing durability of high-volume
fly ash concrete.
REFERENCES I
1. Sivasundaram, V. "Thermal Crack Control of Mass Concrete"; MSL
Division Report MSL 86-96 (IR), Energy, Mines and Resources Canada,
Ottawa, Canada, 1986, 32 pp.
2. Malhotra, V.M. "Superplasticized Fly Ash Concrete for Structural

Applications"; AC1 Concrete International, Vol. 8, No. 12, December 1986,
pp. 28-3 1.

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 IBssl Ob62949 0522707 785 m
3. Sivasundaram, V., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Superplasticized

High-Volume Fly Ash System to Reduce Temperature Rise in Mass
Concrete"; Proceedings, Eighth International Coal Ash Utilization
Symposium, Washington, D.C., October 1987, Paper No. 34.
4. Giaccio, G.M. and Malhotra, V.M. "Concrete Incorporating High-Volumes

of ASTM Class F Fly Ash"; ASTM Cement, Concrete and Aggregates,
Vol. 10, NO. 12, 1988, pp. 88-95.
5. Malhotra, V.M. and Painter, K.E. "Early-Age Strength Properties and

Freezing and Thawing Resistance of Concrete Incorporating High Volumes
of ASTM Class F Fly Ash"; The International Journal of Cement
Composites and Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1989, pp. 37-46.
6. Langley, W.S., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Structural Concrete

Incorporating High Volumes of ASTM Class F Fly Ash"; AC1 Materials
Journal, Vol. 86, No. 5, 1989, pp. 507-514.
7. Sivasundaram, V., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Properties of

Concrete Incorporating Low Quantity of Cement and High Volumes of
Low Calcium Fly Ash"; AC1 Special Publication SP-114, Vol. 1, 1989, pp.
45-71. Editor: V.M. Malhotra.
8. Sivasundaram, V., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Long-Term

Strength Development of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete"; Cement and
Concrete Composites, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1990, pp. 263-270.
9. Langley, W.S., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Strength Development

and Temperature Rise in Large Concrete Blocks Containing High Volumes
of Low-Calcium (ASTM Class F) Fly Ash"; MSL Division Report MSL
90-24 (OP&J), Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada,
1990, 24 pp.
1O. Sivasundaram, V., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Mechanical

Properties, Creep, and Resistance to Diffusion of Chloride Ions of
Concretes Incorporating High Volumes of ASTM Class F Fly Ashes from
Seven Different Sources"; AC1 Materials Journal, Vol. 88, No. 4, 1991, pp.
407-416.
1 1. Alasali, M.M. and Malhotra, V.M. "Role of Concrete Incorporating High

Volumes of Fly Ash in Controlling Expansion Due to Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction"; AC1 Materials Journal, Vol. 88, No. 2, March-April 1991.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 m Obb2949 O522706 bLL m
12. Bisaillon, A. Rivest, M. and Malhotra, V.M. "Performance of High-

Volume Fly Ash Concrete In Large Experimental Monoliths"; MSL
Division Report MSL 92-24 (OP&J), Energy, Mines and Resources
Canada, Ottawa, 1992, 37 pp.
13. Bilodeau, A., Malhotra, V.M. "Concrete Incorporating High Volumes of

ASTM Class F Fly Ashes: Mechanical Properties and Resistance to De-
Icing Salt Scaling and to Chloride-Ion Penetration"; AC1 Special
Publication SP-132, Vol. 1, 1992, pp. 319-349. Editor: V.M. Malhotra.
14. Sivasundaram, V., and Malhotra, V.M. "Performance of High-Volume Fly

Ash Concrete and Slag Concrete in a Sulphate Environment"; Proceedings
of the Third Canadian Symposium on Cement and Concrete, Ottawa,
Canada, August 1993, pp. 78-104.
15. Bilodeau, A., Carette, G.G. and Malhotra, V.M. "Investigations of High-
Volume Fly Ash Concrete: Final Report"; MSL Division Report MSL 93-
30 (CR), Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, Ottawa, 1993, 95 pp.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper has been edited for consistency by P.R.A. Andrews, Resource
Utilization Laboratory, CANMET.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662949 0522709 5 5 8 M
TABLE 1 - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF CEMENTS, FLY ASH, AND
SILICA FUME
Description of Test ASTM ASTM ASTM Silica

Type I Type III Class F Fume
Cement Cement Fly Ash
Phvsicai Tests
Specific Gravity 3.14 n 2.63 2.20
Fineness - passing 45 pm, % 85.3 O 84.4 96.88
- Surface area, Blaine, 373 t 318 --
m2/kg 0,930
- Nitrogen adsorption, a
mz/kg V
Setting time, min. a
- Initial 65 min. i
- Final :90min. I
a
Soundness, Autoclave expansion, % 0.11 b
I
Compressive strength of 51-mm e
cubes, MPa: - 3-day 18.3
- I-day 24.4
- 28-day 33.3
Pozzolanic Activity Index, % 97 122.9
Chemical Anaivsis. %
Silicon dioxide (Sioz) 21.95 21.21 42.2 93.6
Aluminum oxide (Alzo,) 4.13 5.19 21.6 0.06
Ferric oxide (Feo,) 2.88 2.35 27.6 0.45
Calcium oxide (Cao) 61.73 63.42 1.87 0.50
Free calcium oxide 0.48 __ -- __
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.68 3.03 0.92 0.67
Sodium oxide (Na,O) 0.25 1.50 0.66 O. 16
Potassium oxide &O) 0.44 0.60 2.55 0.85
Phosphorous oxide (P205) 0.07 0.08 -- 0.09
Titanium oxide (Ti03 0.20 0.26 __ 0.01
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 2.81 3.49 1.10 O. 32
Loss on ignition (LOI) 1.41 2.34 1.85 2.26
Borne Potential Comwund. k
Tricalcium silicate C,S 42.8
Dicalcium silicate C$ 30.7
Tricalcium aluminate C,A 6.8
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C,AF 8.8

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 m Obb2949 0 5 2 2 7 1 0 27T m
TABLE 2 - GRADING OF AGGREGATES
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate

Sieve Size Cumulative Sieve Size Cumulative
mm Percentage mm Percentage
Retained Retained
19.0 0.0 4.75 0.0
12.7 40.0 2.36 10.0
9.5 65.0 1.18 32.5
4.75 100.0 0.600 57.5
0.300 80.0
O. 150 94.0
Pan 100.0
TABLE 3 - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
Coarse Aggregate' Fine Aggregate**

Specific Gravity 2.69 2.70
Absorption 0.67 0.81
'Crushed limestone
"Natural sand

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522711 106 m
I I I
in IC
t-
w r
U
CI h
rr) e-
CI CI
c? c?
O O
I -
1

TABLE 5 - PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
Concrete -
W' Temp., Slump, Unit Weight, Ait
TYpe CM "C mm kgim' Content, %
Type I cement 0.31 26 150 2370 5.5
HVFC
without
silica fume 0.31 26 150 2350 5.6
Type I cement 0.31 26 100 2345 5.6
HVFC
with
silica fume 0.31 28 65 2370 5.5
Type III cement 0.31 28 65 2385 5.5
HVFC
without
silica fume 1 0.31 I 28 I 125 I 2410 I, 4.9
Type III cement 0.32 30 115 2360 5.3
4A HVFC
with
4B silica fume 0.32 30 90 2360 5.5
'Water-to-cementitious materials ratio
TABLE 6 - SETTING TIME AND AUTOGENOUS-TEMPERATURE RISE RESULTS
Mix Concrete Type r Tune of Setting Autogenous-

No. CM h: min Temperature Rise
"C
Initial Final
'Qpe I cement
1A HVFC 0.31 7.2
without
1B silica fume 0.31 7:25 10:45
Type I cement
2A HVFC 0.31 7.5
with
2B silica fume 0.31 4:30 7140
Type III cement
3A HVFC 0.31 11.6
without
3B silica fume 0.31 4:20 6:4û
Type III cement
4A HVFC 0.32 10.4
with
4B silica fume 0.32 3:25 5:25

A C 1 SP-154 95 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522733 T89 =
TABLE 7 - COMPRESSIVE- AND FLEXURAL-STRENGTH TEST RESULTS
Mix ConcreteTp Compressive Strength. M h Compressive Strength Flexural

No. (moistcured) (air-cured after 3 days of Siren&
- moist ci
28d 91d 365d 7d ?Ed
cured)
-
30.8 42.8 54.2 -- -- 4.4
-- -- 29.7
-
29.8 18.2 26.5 30.9
37.3 45.4 53.6 - -- 6.0
34.6 -- -- 21.8 30.0 33.2 32.3

-
33.9 44.6 55.5 -- -- 5.8
-- --
-
36.8 26.7 36.7 40.8 392
39.0 52.5 55.1 -- --
41.0 -- -- 28.8 38.7 41.4 41 O

-
Temperature: 22-30°C
R.H.:4&50%
TABLE 8 - CHLORIDE-ION PENETRATION RESULTS
Mix Concrete Type Curing Chioride-Ion Penetration,

No. Conditions Coulombs
28d 91d
Type I cement
1A HVFC Moist-Cured 956 323
without
1B silica fume Air-Cured 5160 5212
'Qpe I cement
with
2B silica fume Air-Cüred 843 1010
Type III cement
without
Type III cement
with

A C 1 SP-354 95 m Obb2949 0522734 935 m

A C 1 SP-354 95 Obb29V9 0522735 853
t
...
...
rn
O
d
...
m
rn v)
m
O
O
O
*O
+o
o
+o
o
+o
m O
m
[I
+o m
+o m
o 0
o m
o m
0
o m v)
N
o m
I
I
o m
o m
o cb
O
m O
N
a I
v)
3
s?
v)

A C 1 SP-354 95 II O662949 O522736 798
60 I
O '
1 10 1O0 1O00
Age, days
Fig. 2-Compressive strength development of moist-cured and air-cured concretes
1 (Type I) 2 (Type I, S.F.) 3 (Type III) 4 (Type III, S.F.)
Type of High-VolumeFly Ash Concrete
Fig. 3-Strength developed under both curing conditions at 28 days and 1 year

A C 1 SP-354 95 Obb2949 0522737 624
SP 154-28
Rice Husk Ash - A Unique

Supplementa ry Cementing Materia I:
Durability Aspects
by P. K. Mehta and K. J. Folliard
Synopsis : A review of recent research focusing on the durability

of concrete and mortar containing rice-husk ash (RHA) is
presented. The purpose of the investigation was to determine the
effects of RHA in cement products exposed to hostile
environments. Included are the results of laboratory research on
hydrochloric-acid attack, sulfate attack, alkali-silica reaction, and
frost action on mortar or concrete mixtures containing RHA. The
results showed that mortar or concrete containing RHA showed a
substantial reduction in mass loss on exposure to a hydrochloric-
acid solution, and considerable reduction in alkali-silica and sulfate
expansions. Also, the frost resistance of non-air-entrained concrete
containing RHA was found to be considerably higher than similar
concrete mixtures containing silica fume.
Kevwords: Alkali aggregate reaction; durabilitv; freeze thaw durability;

freezing; rice husk ash; silica fume; sulfate attack
531
A C 1 Sp-354 95 IOb62949 0522738 5b0
532 Mehta and Folliard
P. Kumar Mehta is Professor Emeritus in the Civil Engineering Department at the

University of California at Berkeley. He is the author or Co-author of numerous
papers on cementing materials and properties of concrete including a textbook on
the subject. A Fellow of the American Concrete Institute, he has received several
awards including the ACI's Wason Medal for materials research, CANMET/ACI
award for outstanding contributions to research on performance of concrete in the
marine environment, and Mohan Malhotra Award for research on supplementary
cementing materials. He was appointed the Roy Carlson Distinguished
Professorship in Civil Engineering at Berkeley, and received the highest campus
honor, the Berkeley Citation, for exceptional contributions to his field and to the
university.
Kevin J. Folliard is a Senior Research Engineer at W.R. Grace & Co., CPD,
Cambridge, Massachusetts. He received his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering at the
University of California at Berkeley, where he performed research on the frost
resistance of high-performance concrete and properties of rice-husk ash concrete.
His research interests include the use of admixtures and the durability of concrete.
INTRODUCTION
In 1992, a state-of-the-art report entitled, "Rice Husk Ash - A Unique
Supplementary Cementing Material," was presented by the first author and
published in the CANMET publication, Advances in Concrete Technology (i).
The report focused on the physical-chemical characteristics of rice-husk ash
(RHA) and reviewed the research findings from several countries on the influence
of burning conditions on strength-contribution potential of RHA. Not much
information was available on the effects of RHA on concrete durability.
In 1990, comprehensive research was undertaken at the University of
California at Berkeley to study durability aspects of concrete and mortar containing
RHA. The results of several of these studies are presented here, including
investigations on the resistance of cement products containing RHA to
hydrochloric-acid attack, sulfate attack, alkali-silica expansion, and frost action.
In addition to the work at UC Berkeley, the results of a study on freezing and
thawing of RHA concrete in saline environment, performed at Lund Institute of
Technology, Sweden, are also reviewed.
The rice-husk ash used in the various research studies reported here
consisted essentially of amorphous silica (90% silica content), with a surface area
of 50-60 m*/g as measured by BET nitrogen adsorption. The average size of
RHA pyticles was 8 pm and the carbon content was 5% as measured by loss on
ignition, unless otherwise noted. Ali of the ash samples were procured from
commercial sources within the United States.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID ATTACK

The influence of RHA in reducing the chemical deterioration of concrete on
exposure to a 1% HCl solution was studied. Table 1 shows the proportions for
the two concrete mixtures used in the investigation. Both mixtures had a water-
binder ratio of 0.33, and the RHA concrete was comprised of a 13% by mass
substitution of portland cement by RHA. The mass of 3-in by 6-in (76.2-mm by

A C 1 SP-154 95 m O662949 0522719 4T7 m
152.4-mm) cylinders from each of the mixtures, after 7 days of moist-curing (20
OC, 100% relative humidity), was determined in the saturated, surface-dry (SSD)
condition, before immersion in the HCl solution. The solutions were kept in
constant motion through the use of magnetic stirrers.
On a weekly basis, the test cylinders were lightly scrubbed with a wire
brush and the mass determined in a SSD condition. The HCl solution was also
changed on a weekly basis before resubmerging the cylinders. Fig. I shows the
mass loss for the cylinders. A review of published literature shows that in this
test, most authors consider a mass loss of 25% as the failure criterion, which is
shown by the horizontal line in Fig. 1
The concrete containing RHA was found to be much more resistant to the
HCl solution than the concrete without RHA, as shown by the reduced mass loss.
The concrete with RHA had not reached the failure limit at the conclusion of the
28-week test program, whereas the concrete without RHA reached the failure limit
in 10 weeks. Fig. 2 shows a photograph of the concrete cylinders after 28 weeks
of immersion in the HCl solution.
The improved acid resistance of the concrete containing RHA can be

attributed in part to the significant reduction in permeability imparted by the use of
RHA, as has been documented in past studies. Also, the pozzolanic reaction
triggered by the use of RHA resulted in the conversion of calcium hydroxide
(which is readily attacked by HC1) to C-S-H*, thus increasing the overall acid
resistance of the concrete. Recent research (2) has found that the use of RHA
drastically lowers the concentration of calcium hydroxide in the interfacial
transition zone between the aggregate and cement paste in concrete. This results in
the densification and strengthening of the transition zone, which most likely
improves its resistance to microcracking and thus reduces the penetration of the
acid solution into the concrete.
SULFATE ATTACK
Rice-husk ash was blended with a moderately high-C3A portland cement
(9% C3A content) in a laboratory ball mill to form a cement containing 10%RHA
by mass. The effectiveness of RHA in reducing the sulfate expansion, according
to ASTM C 1012, was investigated. A standard water-cement ratio of 0.485 was
used for the reference mixture without RHA. For the RHA mortar, the flow was
measured according to ASTM C 109, and sufficient water was used to achieve the
same flow as the reference mixture. The mixture proportions are shown in Table
2. Using the reference and test mortar mixtures, standard bars, 1-in by I-in by
11 x - i n (25.4-mm by 25.4-mm by 285.8-mm), were made for the sulfate
resistance test, and cubes, 2-in by 2-in (50.8-mm x 50.8-mm), were cast for
compression testing. The specimens were exposed to accelerated curing at 38 OC
for 24 hours, which was sufficient to meet the minimum strength specification of
2850 psi (19.6 MPa), as required by the test method.
The bars, 6 specimens for each mixture, were measured for initial length
and submersed in a sodium sulfate solution (50 g Na2S04per litre of water).
Average values of length-change measurements are shown in Fig. 3. At the end of
* Standard cement chemistry abbreviations are used : C=CaO, S=SiO2,
A=Al2O3, F=Fe203, H=H20.

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Ob62949 0522720 119
the 16-week test, there was a 82% reduction in expansion for the mortar
containing RHA, compared to the reference mixture without RHA. Further, the
expansion of the RHA mortar had virtually stabilized by the end of the test,
whereas the mortar without RHA showed a tendency to expand further at the end
of the 16-week test period.
ALKALI-SILICA EXPANSION
A portland-RHA cement was made by blending together RHA with a high-
alkali portland cement (1 .O% alkalies as NaZO) in a laboratory ball mill. The
blended cement contained 90% high-alkali portland cement and 10% RHA. The
effectiveness of RHA in reducing expansion due to alkali-silica reaction was
investigated according to ASTM C 441. Crushed Pyrex glass was used as the
standard reactive aggregate. A standard consistency, characterized by a flow value
of 110 t 5 according to ASTM C 109, was maintained for each of the mixtures.
Table 3 shows the mixture proportions for the two mortars studied.
Standard bars, 1-in by 1-in by 11 %-in (25.4-mm by 25.4-mm by 285.8-mm),
were moist-cured for 24 hours, then sealed in special containers meeting ASTM C
227, according to which the specimens are held at a temperature of 38 OC for 14
days. The results of length change measurements, shown in Fig. 4, are the
average of three beams for each mixture. There was a 95% reduction in expansion
for the mortar containing RHA, which far exceeds the 75% minimum criterion
proposed in ASTM C 441 for assessing the effectiveness of pozzolans in reducing
the alkali-silica expansion.
FREEZING AND THAWING
As part of a comprehensive research program focusing on the frost
resistance of RHA concrete, a series of high-performance concretes were designed
and tested according to ASTM C 666, Procedure A. Only some of the results
from this study are discussed next, with emphasis on non-air-entrained concrete
having water-binder ratios of 0.30 and 0.35. For each water-binder ratio, three
concrete mixtures were tested; one reference concrete (REF30 or REF35), one
concrete containing silica fume (SF30 or SF35), and one concrete containing rice-
husk ash (RHA30 or RHA35).
The silica fume used in the study had a surface area of 22 mVg. The RHA
had a carbon content of 15% and was obtained from a commercial source in the
United States. Among the RHA commercially available in the United States, this
RHA had the highest carbon content. Previous work at UC Berkeley has found
that the mechanical properties of RHA concrete are not adversely affected by RHA
with a high carbon content.
Table 4 shows the mixture proportions used in the study. For the mixtures
containing silica fume or RHA, the admixture was used as a 15% by mass
substitution for portland cement. The coarse aggregate used was a crushed
limestone with 12.5 mm MSA, and the fine aggregate was a natural sand with a
fineness modulus of 3.1. A naphthalene sulfonate formaldehyde high-range
water-reducing admixture was used in each mixture to achieve a slump of 150-200
mm.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522723 0 5 5
Concrete cylinders, 4-in by 8-in (101.6-mmby 203.2-mm), were cast for

compressive strength and chloride permeability testing. AASHTO Test Method T-
277 was used to measure the chloride permeability of cylinders from each concrete
after 28 days of moist curing at 23 OC and 100% relative humidity. The
compressive strength and the chloride permeability values are shown in Table 5,
along with the measured air-void characteristics for each concrete mixture.
Three 3-in by 4-in by 16-in (76.2-mm by 101.6-mm by 406.4-mm) prisms
from each mixture were moist cured for 14 days prior to being subjected to
freezing and thawing cycles in accordance with ASTM C 666, Procedure A. All
prisms were tested for a total of 300 cycles, unless the durability factor dropped
below 60, at which time those prisms were removed from the freezing-and-
thawing chamber.
Fig. 5 shows the durability factor (DF) for each of the mixtures, with the
values shown being the average of three prisms. The two concretes containing
RHA were the only mixtures to endure 300 cycles without reaching the failure
criterion (a durability factor less than 60). However, both the silica-fume
concretes exhibited poor frost resistance, with durability factors less than 10.
Freezing-and-thawing cycles were terminated for SF30 prisms after only 101
cycles, and for SF35 prisms after 67 cycles. The reference concretes also fared
poorly in the testing, although they did perform better than the silica-fume prisms.
REF30 yielded a durability factor of 43 after 214 cycles, and REF35 had a
durability factor of 28 after 144 cycles.
The generally poor performance of the silica fume concretes could possibly
be attributed to essentially an "impermeable cemenvsilica fume matrix with very
small discontinuous pores that, in turn, adversely affects the movement of water,"
as proposed by Malhotra, et. al (3). In their investigation, non-air-entrained silica
fume concrete showed extremely low durability factors, especially for higher
levels of silica-fume replacement. The present study used a 15% (by mass)
substitution of cement by silica fume. The chloride permeability values of the
silica fume mixtures were found to be very low, with less than 400 coulombs
passed for each concrete. It is possible that the impermeability imparted by the use
of silica fume restricted the movement of water within the matrix, thus developing
high hydraulic pressure, even though the amount of freezable water in the two
mixtures was very small.
The frost resistance of RHA concrete has not been documented in past
literature, so the present study is perhaps the first to report the behavior. The
reasons for the superior performance of RHA concrete in freezing-and-thawing
testing are not fully understood. Perhaps, the unique form of RHA particles, with
their highly microporous structure, results in the formation of pozzolanic reaction
products that have a structure similar to RHA particles. This microporous
structure of the reaction products may give rapid chloride permeability values that
are higher than those for the corresponding silica-fume concrete mixtures. On the
other hand, the microporosity may be sufficient to provide escape paths for the
freezing water inside the concrete, thus reducing internal stresses. Any unreacted
RHA particles obviously would have contributed to this effect. It was confirmed
that the chloride permeability values for the RHA concretes were somewhat higher
than those registered by the silica-fume concretes. More research is needed in this
area to fully understand the reasons behind the improved frost durability of
concrete containing RHA.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522722 T9L
In a separate study performed by Sandberg (4) at Lund Institute of

Technology in Sweden, non-air-entrained concrete specimens containing RHA
were also found to be quite resistant to freezing and thawing in saline environment.
The study found that two R H A concrete mixtures, one with a water-binder ratio
of 0.35 with 15% R H A replacement for cement, and the other with a water-binder
ratio of 0.50 with 30% R H A replacement for cement, exhibited minimal salt scaling
in the Swedish standard method. The amount of salt scaling for each mixture was
found to be between 1 and 2 kg/m2 after 56 test cycles, which was far less scaling
than was suffered by reference mixtures without R H A Based on criteria proposed
in Sweden, the author concluded that the non-airentrained R H A concretes would
be resistant to freezing and thawing in saline environments, except for very long-
term exposure in more severe environments than prescribed in the standard test.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
From the results presented in this report, it is concluded that the use of
R H A in cement products greatly improved their durability characteristics. It is
shown that R H A helped to substantially reduce the mass loss of concrete exposed
to a hydrochloric acid solution, and greatly decreased the expansion due to sulfate
attack and alkali-silica reaction. Non-air-entrained concrete containing R H A
exhibited significantly higher frost resistance than similar mixtures containing silica
fume when tested according to ASTM C 666, Procedure A. In addition, the dura-
bility of R H A concretes subjected to freezing and thawing in saline environment
is reported to be considerably higher than control mixtures without RHA.
As the demand for more durable concrete continues to increase, nations

around the world are finally realizing the full potential of supplementary cementing
materials. With the large amount of rice grown in most countries of the world,
R H A should be available in sufficient quantities to satisfy the demand for a high-
quality mineral admixture. It is hoped that with an increase in our knowledge
about the uniqueness of RHA in improving the durability properties of concrete,
the use of this material will soon be extended to concrete field practice.
REFERENCES
1. Mehta, P.K., "Rice Husk Ash - A Unique Supplementary Cementing Material,"
Advances in Concrete Technology, Edited by V.M. Malhotra, CANMET
Publication, 1992, pp. 407-432.
2. Nilsen, U., Sandberg, P., and Folliard, K., "Influence of Mineral Admixtures on
the Transition Zone in Concrete," Interfaces in Cementitious Composites,
Proceedings of the RILEM International Conference, Toulouse, France, 1992,
pp. 65-70.
3. Malhotra, V.M., Painter, K.A., and Bilodeau, A., "Mechanical Properties and
Freezing and Thawing Resistance of High-Strength Concrete Incorporating
Silica Fume," Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, CCAGDP, Vol. 9, No. 2,
Winter 1987, pp. 65-79.
4. Sandberg, P., "Resistance of non-air-entrained RHA concrete to

freezing and thawing in saline environment," Fifth CANMET/ACI
International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural
Pozzolans in Concrete, Milwaukee, WI, 1995.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522723 928
TABLE 1 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS FOR CONCRETE EXPOSED TO 1 PERCENT HCI
* 1 to 2%HRWRA (by weight of cement + RHA) was added to each mixture.
TABLE 2 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS FOR SULFATE EXPANSION STUDY (ASTM C 1012)
TABLE 3 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS FOR ALKALI-SILICA EXPANSION STUDY (ASTM C 441)

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522724 ô b 4
TABLE 4 - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS FOR CONCRETE EXPOSED TO CYCLES OF FREEZING AND

THAWING (ASTM C 666, PROCEDURE A)
TABLE 5 - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY (AASHTO T-277), AND AIR

VOID CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO FREEZING AND THAWING CYCLES
Mixture
#
28-day I 28-day
compressive chloride
I Air Content (%) Specific Spacing
Surface,a Factor,
strength permeability
Fresh Hardened
(ma) (cou'ombs) Concrete Concrete (m-9 (w)
REF30 77.6 2730 1.9 1.4
SF30 96.5 250 0.9 0.8 14.1 1
MA30 81.2 520 1.4 1.1 14.37
REF35 69.6 3680 1.8 2.1 9.76
SF35
-
82.7 370 0.9 1.4 11.21 774
MA35 78.5 900 0.6 1.o 9.53 1152

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522725 7 T 0 =
1O0
90
cw
O 40
i
Y
E
8 30 i ............................................. j
o-*
..........................................
..-e I
i
e.D
.................
*-i,
LI
8 20 -. ....... ....... ....................... i........................ / ...................... 1
10 -. ....... ..............
I ~ I , l , , , l , , , i , , , i , , , ~ , , / -
O
Fig. 1-Mass loss of concrete cylinders immersed in 1 percent HCI solution
Fig. 2-Photograph showing concrete cylinders after 28 weeks immersion i n 1 percent HCI
solution. The cylinder on-the left is concrete without RHA, and the cylinder on the right contains
RHA (13 percent by weight of portland cement)

A C 1 S P - i 1 5 4 95 E 0662949 052272b 637
0.20
- @- -Mortar without RHA
.............................................................................. +................
I
‘i
............................... i
:.............................................
82% Reduction ...............
‘ i in Expansion
i #
Y
8
E
Q)
pc 0.05 .............................. ................
c
0.00
O 4 8 12 16 20
Time (weeks)
Fig. &Reduction in sulfate expansion according to ASTM C 1012
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Mortar without RHA Mortar with RHA
Fig. 4-Reduction of alkali-silica expansion according to ASTM C 441

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62747 0522727 5 7 3 m
100
80 ..........................................................................................................................................
W
g8 60 ............................................... ..................................................
&
.-
,h
a
40 ........................... ..................................................
s
20 ........................... ..........................
fi
O
Fig. 5-Durability factors of concrete subjected to 300 cycles of freezing and thawing according to
ASTM C 666, Procedure A

A C 1 SP-154 95 B 0662949 O522728 4 O T
SP 154-29
The Northumberland Strait

Bridge Project
by W. S. Langley, R. Gilmour, and E. Tromposch
Svnousis: This paper presents an overview of the technical aspects

of concrete for a major bridge project in Eastern Canada. The
bridge is unique in that it is being designed, financed, and
constructed and will be subsequently operated by the private sector.
Private sector partnering with Government is a relatively new
concept in Canada, and this project is an example of the merits of
such agreements.
The design life of this structure being constructed in a marine

environment is 100 years. The length of the bridge will be 12.9
km, constructed in upwards of 35 meters of water. Ice floes
throughout the winter and early spring have a major influence on
the design and resultant configuration of the structure.
Durability of the concrete with respect to chloride ingress,

sulphate attack, freezing and thawing, abrasion resistance and alkali-
aggregate reactivity are addressed in the proportioning of concrete
mixtures and in the structural design.
Extensive use is made of silica fume and fly ash, as a

measure to reduce chloride diffusivity and heat rise in the more
massive sections.
Keywords: Bridges (structures); cements; chlorides; corrosion; diffusivity;

durability; high-performance concretes; mix proportioning; quality
control; silica fume; thermal gradient
543
A C 1 SP-154 95 M 0662949 0522729 346
544 Langley, Gilmour, and Tromposch
Wilbert S . Langley Vice President, Jacques, Whitford and Associates

Limited,
R. Gilmour Director of Design, Strait Crossing Joint Venture,
Design Engineer,
Eric Tromposch J Muller International - Stanley Joint Venture.
INTRODUCTION
Prince Edward Island, Canada's smallest province with a

population of approximately 125,000, and a land area of 565,665
hectares, entered confederation on July 1, 1873. With confederation
came the obligation for the Government of Canada to provide continuous
and efficient transportation between Prince Edward Island and the
mainland, a distance of approximately 14 kilometres across the
Northumberland Strait.
Prince Edward Island was first settled in 1719 as a French colony.
From the time of this first settlement until after confederation the main
transportation mode for people, goods and mail to and from Prince
Edward Island was the "ice boat". The boat was designed for efficient
rowing in open water and light enough to be pushed along the ice surface
as required. This mode of transportation was replaced by a ferry system
prior to the turn of the 20th century for both vehicular and rail traffic.
With the growth of the tourist industry and the increase in agricultural
production in Prince Edward Island, the ferry system became costly and
impractical.
Various schemes have been put forth since confederation to
provide continuous uninterrupted service to and from Prince Edward
island. These schemes ranged from a masonry lined cast iron tunnel in
the early 1890's to a combination causeway, bridge and tunnel in the mid
1960's. All of these previous schemes were expensive, with many
technical problems that challenged the designers and constructors, and
as such none of these previous schemes came to fruition.
The constitutional requirement to provide transportation facilities
between Prince Edward Island and the mainland has become an
increasing burden to the Canadian tax-payer. The ferry subsidies are
expected to be in excess of forty-two million Canadian dollars for the
year ending 1994. With the increasing burden of costs associated with
special services, the capital cost of a fixed structure across the
Northumberland Strait has become excessive for public funding.
In 1987, the Government of Canada issued a proposal call to
solicit private sector interest in designing, constructing and financing a
viable alternative to the existing ferry system. The proposal call placed
a heavy burden on the respondents in that the altemative must be
environmentally acceptable, under stringent conditions and furthermore,
the developer would own, operate and maintain the structure for the first
35 years after which it would revert to Canadian Government ownership,
and the alternative must have a net cash saving to the Government of

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 0522730 068 m
Canada, without any cost risk to the Government. In return, the

developers would receive a subsidy for the initial 35 years, and collect
tolls during this period.
The successful respondent to the proposal call was Strait Crossing

Joint Venture (SCJV), a group of four internationally renowned
contractors. The alternate chosen by SCJV consists of a pre-cast concrete
segmental bridge to connect Prince Edward Island to the mainland (New
Brunswick). The bridge site is shown in Fig. 1 . The public-private
partnering for this enormous undertaking has sparked interest as far away
as Peoples Republic of China, a country which has recently performed a
case study on the project organization.
THE BRIDGE DESIGN
The bridge crossing the Northumberland Strait at its narrowest

point (Port Borden, PEI to Jourimain Island - north of Cape Torminetine,
NB), will be 12.9 km long. The approach section on Prince Edward
Island consists of six approach spans of 93 meters each, while the New
Brunswick approach consists of 14 spans. The approach span pier
foundations, located in shallow water are cast-in-place with shear keys to
resist wind, wave and ice pressures. The pier shafts will be constructed
of match cast segments which are post tensioned vertically in place. The
bridge will have a deck width of 11 metres which will allow for one
traffic lane and one wide shoulder in each direction. The bridge has a
typical clearance of 28 metres above sea level with the exception of a
navigation span which is 49 metres above water. The bridge deck will
be segmentally constructed as well, using the balanced cantilever method.
The approach span girder depth will vary from 5.1 metres at the piers to
3 metres at midspan.
The main bridge will consist of 44 spans of 250 meters each. The
piers for the main span will be cast on land in the Prince Edward Island
staging facility, moved to a jetty by an innovative hydraulic slider
technique, and then transported to the site by a marine crane vessel.
These piers will be founded on bedrock in water depth up to 35 meters.
The main span girders will be match cast and post tensioned at the .
staging facility and then transported to the site. The spans will be
constructed using two types of components; a cantilever unit and a drop
in span. The completed cantilever units weigh upwards of 8000 tonnes.
The main span units will require a total of 183 individual precast
sections.
The main span cantilever girders are 190 meters long that
cantilever 95 meters in each direction over the piers. The cantilever

A C 1 SP-154 95 0 Obb2949 0522733 T T 4
girder depth varies from 14 metres at the piers to 4.5 metres at the
cantilever tip.
A typical pier foundation, pier shaft, main span girder and drop-in
section is shown in Fig. 2 . Some of the design challenges are discussed
next.
The design life of the NoAumberland Strait bridge is 100 years

with a target reliability index, ß, of 4.0. The placid summer waters of
the Northumberland Strait revert to a cold hostile environment in winter
and early spring, as the Gulf ice moves through the Strait. This places
a high demand on the quality of concrete materials, production and
construction. Development of ice in the Strait is of little consequence
compared to the affects of tide and wind driven ridged and rafted ice
from the north. The size and configuration of the bridge pier foundations
are largely dependent on the imposed ice loads. The design utilizes an
ice breaking cone at water level to reduce the imposed loads by causing
the ice to bend upward and break in flexure. This cone or ice shield is
clad in steel for improved abrasion resistance.
The concrete must withstand the waters of the Northumberland

Strait, which varies in temperature from approximately 22°C in summer
to a low of -2°C in winter. The sea water contains about 2.1% chloride
ion and about 0.13% sulphate as SO,. Bridge elements above sea level
will also experience approximately 100 annual freezing and thawing
cycles. High performance tremie concrele, must be placed below the pier
foundations in the above conditions.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
High durability is not an intrinsic property of concrete, but is

achieved by a judicious choice of materials, accurate proportioning,
thorough mixing, proper placing, adequate curing and protection. The
main force of deterioration is seen to be that of chloride ingress and
subsequent corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Other potential
deteriorating forces are, alkali-aggregate reaction, sulphate attack,
freezing and thawing, and ice abrasion. All of these factors have been
addressed in the properties of materials, concrete and work methods
discussed below.
ProDedies of Materiais
The cement used in all components of the structure is a blended

silica fume portland cement (Type 10SF). The silica fume content is
7.5%. The cement was required to have a low alkali content (less than
0.60 percent) and a tricalcium aluminate content between six and ten

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662949 0522732 930
percent. A special cement was manufactured to meet the requirements

for the Northumberland Strait bridge project.
Chemical analysis of the Type 10SF cement is shown in Table 1.

Physical characteristics of the Type 10SF cement and the silica fume
requirements for making the cement are shown in Tables 2 and 3
respectively. Specifications for fly ash as well as properties of the ash
actually used, are listed in Tables 4 and 5 respectively.
Alkali-aggregate reaction is common and widespread in Eastern

Canada. Therefore, even though a low alkali cement was specified and
a pozzolan is to be used in all concrete, it was believed prudent to use the
highest quality aggregates available in view of the design requirements
for a 100 year service life. Extensive petrographic analysis and testing
was conducted on the major aggregate sources (there are no aggregate
sources in Prince Edward Island) and a non-reactive natural fine
aggregate was selected from a source in Quebec, and a quarried granite
coarse aggregate from Nova Scotia. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the test
results for potential alkali-aggregate reactivity of the fine and coarse
aggregate.
Properties of Concrete
Approximately 400,000 cubic meters of concrete will be used in

construction of the Northumberland Strait Bridge. The concrete for the
various construction phases fall into three basic classes as follows:
Class A - Structural concrete for main girders, drop-in spans,

pier shafts, pier bases and abutments.
Class C - Approach pier foundations, and mass concrete
Class F - Tremie structural concrete (antiwashout in moving
water)
Each of the classes of concrete are available with either a 20 mm

or 10 mm nominal aggregate size, depending on congestion of
reinforcement.
Class A Concrete
The requirements of the Class A concrete are shown in Table 6 .

Note that durability requirements such as low water-cementitious
materials ratio and low permeability over-ride the strength requirement.
Table 7 shows the composition and properties of the actual Class A
concrete mixture that is currently being used.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0 5 2 2 7 3 3 877 m
Long-term tests on Class A concrete will include creep testing

with loading ages at 3, 7, 28, 56 and 91 days at 23°C and 75% RH,
drying shrinkage, freezing and thawing (ASTM C666), de-icer scaling
tests (ASTM C672), rapid chloride permeability tests (AASHTO-T277),
chloride penetration by ponding (AASHTO-T259/260), abrasion
resistance test (ASTM C-l138), water permeability test (CANMET) and
chloride diffusion testing (non-steady state and steady state testing).
The results of the creep tests up to January 31, 1995, and drying
shrinkage are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 respectively. The results of
other long-term tests are summarized in Table 12.
Class C Concrete
The requirement to maintain a thermal gradient of less than 20°C

and a maximum temperature less than 70°C in mass concrete, can be
satisfied by the use of Class F fly ash even at relatively high cementitious
materials content. The Class C concrete uses a blend of 30 percent Class
F fly ash with the Type IOSF cement. The fly ash is batched as a
separate ingredient at the central mix plant. The benefits of Class F fly
ash to reduce temperature rise in concrete and to increase the sulphate
resistance in marine environments are well documented. Tertiary cement
blends have been used in marine works in the past.
The requirements of the Class C concrete are shown in Table 8;

Table 9 shows the composition and properties of the actual Class C
concrete mixture. Long-term tests required for the Class C concrete
included creep tests at 3, 28 and 91 days and all other tests that were
listed above for the Class A concrete. The creep data up to January 31,
1995 are shown in Fig. 7, and the shrinkage data are shown in Fig. 8.
The results of other long-term tests are shown in Table 12.
Class F Concrete
Class F concrete is used for tremie placement in shear keys,

tremie seals, and beneath the precast pier foundations. The tremie
concrete will be placed in moving water with a current at times in excess
of one meter per second. Design criteria for the Class F concrete has
been adopted largely from the Japanese standards and codes. The
concrete will be placed in upwards of 35 meters of water, under diver
surveillance.
Table 10 shows the requirements for the Class F (tremie

concrete), and Table 11 shows the composition and characteristics of the
concrete.

A C 1 SP-159 75 0662949 0522734 703 M
CONCRETE CURING
While it is generally agreed that ideal curing conditions exist in

a moist environment and favourable temperature, it is not practical to
attempt to moist cure structures higher than a 10 storey building in sub-
zero temperatures.
Extensive site testing, conducted under various temperatures and

curing regimes, has shown that concrete can be adequately cured using
a high solids (greater than 35 percent by mass) water-based curing
compound. The basis for comparative testing of the different curing
regimes has been the non-steady state chloride diffusion test. The results
of some of the diffusivity tests are shown in Table 13.
In the absence of moist curing, there was a concern that self-

desiccation may occur near the concrete surfaces, particularly since the
water-cementitious materials ratio was relatively low. Examination of the
concrete surfaces showed that the curing compound had penetrated the
concrete surface some one to two millimetres; thus, it appears that there
is sufficient water available in the curing compound to replenish any
water lost due to self-desiccation.
QUALITY CONTROL
To ensure that the commitment to high durability and

constructability of all components are met, the contractor has established
a site laboratory to catalog, assess and record data on all materials used
in construction. The laboratory meets the requirements of Canadian
Standards Association A283, qualification code for concrete testing
laboratories.
Quality assurance and quality control staff are integrated in the

contractor’s workforce which has a net effect of reducing construction
non-conformities. Also, as part of the Contractor Commitment to
Quality, reliance is being placed on trial sections or mock-ups in order
to establish preferred work methods prior to fabricating actual structural
components.
CONTROL OF THERMAL CRACKING
Thermal cracking occurs in concrete when the induced strains

from temperature differentials exceed the tensile strain capacity of the
concrete. Many of the precast segments for the bridge have cross-
sections which vary from 450 mm to in excess of two metres. Extensive
modelling has been performed so as to predict the likelihood for cracking

A C 1 SP-L5Y 95 = 0662749 0522735 b 4 T
to occur, and to set safe limits on the concrete temperature at the time of
placement.
PIacement Temperature
The result of modelling tests have shown that the following

maximum temperatures must not be exceeded.
Maximum 18°C for sections greater than two meters

Other concrete, 25°C when the ambient temperature is less
than 10°C
Other concrete, 20°C when the ambient temperature is
greater than 10°C
The above temperatures are readily obtainable in the field, and

were chosen so as to enable the contractor to achieve the required
concrete compressive strength of 30 MPa in approximately 20 hours
without external heat and at the same time limit the potential for thermal
cracking.
Temuerature in Hardened Concrete
The temperature rise in the hardened concrete is controlled by the

initial concrete placing temperature and by the use of fly ash as a partial
replacement for cement, in some elements.
The following temperature criteria must not be exceeded in the

hardened concrete:
Maximum temperature 70°C

Maximum thermal gradient 20"C/meter
DESIGN FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
It is generally agreed that concrete which contains a high cement

factor and low water-cementitious materials ratio generally provides a
better protection against corrosion of the reinforcing steel than concrete
with low cement factors and high water-cementitious materials ratio. For
elements in the splash zone and superstructure, the concrete design
requirement of 450 kg/m3 of Type 10SF cement and a maximum water-
cementitious materials ratio of 0.34, should ensure a dense impermeable
concrete.
The cement specified has a relatively low C3A and Na,O

requirement. It is believed that the C3A specified between 6 and 10
percent offers an acceptable balance between potential sulphate attack and

A C 1 SP-154 95 S Obb2949 0522736 5 8 b S
protection to maintain steel passivity. Also, low C3A content lowers the
heat of hydration. The low alkali content (maximum of 2.7 kg/m3
contribution of cement) will ensure a greatly reduced potential for alkali
aggregate reaction even though non-reactive aggregates (confirmed by
extensive testing) have been chosen.
The addition of silica fume greatly reduces the permeability of the

concrete, reduces chloride diffusion rates, increases electrical resistivity,
and provides further insurance against potential alkali-aggregate
reactivity. With respect to placing, the silica fume adds a thixotropic
property to the concrete which reduces segregation at high slumps.
Substantially greater concrete cover thicknesses in the splash zone

and superstructure, than normal code requirements, will extend the time
to threshold levels of chlorides at the reinforcement. Controls on curing
temperatures, maximum temperature rise and thermal gradients will
ensure a minimum of thermal cracks and minimize crack widths.
The government restriction of not permitting the use of chloride-

based deicing salts on the bridge surface as well as a 0.0175 percent limit
of chloride ion content in the fine aggregate and 0.0075 percent in the
coarse aggregate will restrict the available chlorides and thus reduce the
potential risk of corrosion.
CONCLUSION
The design challenge of the Northumberland Strait Bridge Project

has been met with the use of high performance concrete, proper design
and innovative construction techniques,
The high quality of construction materials and attention to details

that are known to affect service life, will ensure that the design life of
100 years will be achieved.
REFERENCES
1. Fournier, B., Malhotra, V.M., Langley, W . S . , and Hoff, G.C.

"Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity Potential of Selected Canadian
Aggregates for Use in Offshore Concrete Structures", Third
CANMETIACI International Conference on Durability of
Concrete, Nice, France, 1994, Publication SP 145. American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, Editor, V. Mohan
Malhotra.

A C 1 SP-LSV 95 m Obb2949 0522737 VIS m
2. Langley, W.S. and Pinsonneault, P. "Silica Fume Blended

Cement: Properties and Applications", CANMET/ACI
International Workshop on Silica Fume in Concrete, Washington,
D.C., USA, 1991. Available from CANMET, Ottawa.
3. "Recommendations for Design and Construction of Antiwashout

Underwater Concrete" Concrete Library International of JSCE
No. 19, June 1992.
4. deWind, G . , and Stroven, P., "Chloride Penetration into Offshore

Concrete and Corrosion Risks", Proceedings, Concrete Durability:
Katharine and Bryant Mather International Conference,
Publication SP-100. American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Michigan, 1987 pp 1679-1690. Editor, John Scanlon.
5. Rasheeduzzafar, D.F., and Mukarram, K., "Influence of Cement

Composition and Content on the Corrosion Behaviour of
Reinforcing Steel in Concrete, " Proceedings Concrete Durability:
Katharine and Bryant Mather International Conference,
Publication SP-100, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Michigan, 1987 pp 1477-1502. Editor John M. Scanlon.
6. Wolsiefer, J.T., "Silica Fume Concrete: A Solution to Steel

Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete, y' Proceedings , Durability
of Concrete: Second CANMETIACI International Conference,
Montreal Canada, 1991 Publication SP-126, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1991 pp 1575-1602. Editor, V.
Mohan Malhotra.
7. Berke, N.S, Scali, J.M. Regan, J.C., and Shen, D.F., "Long-
Term Corrosion Resistance of Steel in Silica Fume and/or Fly
Ash Containing Concretes", Proceedings, Durability of Concrete:
Second CANMETIACI International Conference, Montreal,
Canada, 1991, Publication SP-126, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, Michigan, 1991, pp 393-422. Editor V. Mohan
Malhotra.
8. Berke, N.S., Dablaire, M.P., and Hicks, M.C., "Plastic,

Mechanical, Corrosion and Chemical Resistance Properties of
Silica Fume (Microsilica) Concretes", Proceedings, Fly Ash,
Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete:
Proceedings, Fourth CANMET/ACI International Conference,
Istanbul, Turkey, May 1992, Publication SP-132, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1993, pp 1125-1150, V.
Mohan Malhotra.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Ob62949 0522738 359
9. Comite Euro-International du Beton, " CEB-FIP Model CODE

1990", Thomas Telford Services, London, 1993.
10. Norwegian Council for Building Standardization, "NS3473E-

Concrete Structures Design Rules", 4th Edition, 1992.
11. Neville, A.M., "Properties of Concrete", Longman Scientific and

Technical, 3rd Edition, 1981 England.
12. Mehta, P.K., "Concrete in the Marine Environment", Elsevier

Applied Science, 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd.,
England.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb2949 0522739 295
Compound Percent
Si02 27.1
A1*0, 4.7
%O, 3.0
Ca0 59.5
MgO 1.1
so3 2.5
LOI 1.o
Na,O (equivalent) 0.45
GA 7.4
TABLE 2 - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPE 1OSF CEMENT
Property Results
, Fineness 45pm 89.5% Passing
Specific Surface 443 m2/kg
Setting Time (initial) 118 minutes
Autoclave Expansion 0%
Compressive Strength

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662749 0522740 T O 7
TABLE 3 - SILICA FUME REQUIREMENTS
Minimum SiO, 185%

Minimum Surface Area 15000 m’kg
Maximum Loss on Ignition 6%
Maximum SO, 1%
Maximum Retained on 45pm 1O %
TABLE 4 - FLY ASH REQUIREMENTS
Minimum SiOz + Alzo, + Fe,O, 70 %

Maximum Retained on 4 5 ~ m 20 %
Il-Maximum Loss on Ignition 4% I
Maximum Na,O (equivalent ) 3%
Maximum Ca0 8%
TABLE 5 - PROPERTIES OF CLASS F FLY ASH

Il I
SiO, + Alzo, + Fe,03 85.6%
1.2%
Strength Activity Index
7 days 87.3%
85.1%
Percent Retained on 45bm 13.1%
Autoclave Expansion 0.003 %
Water Requirement 95 %
Loss on Ignition , 2.32%

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0662947 0522743 9 4 3
TABLE 6 - REQUIREMENTS OF CLASS A CONCRETE
Minimum Cement Content (Blended 450 kg/m3

SF)
Maximum Water-Cementitious 0.34
Materials Ratio
Maximum Chloride Permeability 1000 coulombs at 28 days
Maximum Water Permeability m/s at 28 days
Air Content 5-8 %
-
Spacing Factor, maximum L 260 ,um
Specific Surface, minimum, a 23.6 mm-'
Slump 180 40 mm
Strength
16 hrs* 30 MPa
28 days 55 MPa
91 days 60 MPa
* only concrete to be post tensioned

A C 1 SP-154 'i5 Obb2949 0522742 BBT H
TABLE 7 - CHARACTERS
I TC
I S OF CLASS A CONCRETE
Cement Content (Blended SF) 450 kg/m3

Classified Sand 737 kg/m3
Coarse Aggregate
2 0 m m - 1omm 570 kg/m3
460 kg/m3
Water 153 L/m3
Air Entrainment 160 mWm3
Water Reducing Agent 1.71 Wm3
~
Superplasticizer 3.0 L/m3

Slump prior to addition of superplasticizer 40 mm
Slump after addition of Superplasticizer 200 mm
Slump loss in one hour 40 mm
Air Content 6.1% (range 5.5% -
7.8%)
-
Spacing Factor, L 153 pm
Specific Surface, a 25.8 m-'
Linear Coeff. Expansion 8.3 x 10-6/oC
Compressive Strength (100 mm x 200 mm
cylinders)
24 hours 34.9 MPa
3 days 52.2 MPa
7 days 62.6 MPa
28 days 81.9 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity, E (150 mm x 300
mm cylinders)
28 days 40.0 GPa
91 days 41.0 GPa

A C 1 SP-154 95 9 0662949 O522743 716
TABLE 8 - CLASS C CONCRETE REQUIREMENTS
TABLE 9 - CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS C CONCRETE
Air Entrainment 88 mL/m3

Retarder 260 mL/m3
Superplasticizer 1.O5 L/m3
Slump 185 mm
Air Content - 7.0% (range
Spacing Factor, L 6.2% -7.7 %)
111 ,um
Compressive Strength (100 mm x 200 mm
cylidners)
24 hours 9.7 MPa
3 days 19.7 MPa
7 days 27.4 MPa
28 days 50.1 MPa
91 days 76.0 MPa ~
Modulus of Elasticity, E (150 mm x 300 mm

cylinders)
28 days 30.9 GPa
91 days 34.5 GPa

A C 1 SP-154 95 S Obb2949 0522744 6.52 M
TABLE 10 - REQUIREMENTS FOR CLASS F CONCRETE
Minimum Low Alkali Cement

or Type IOSF 400 kg/m3
Maximum Water-Cementitious Material Ratio 0.40
Air Content I 3-5%
Slump (no antiwashout) 200 40 mm
Slump flow (antiwashout) 500-600 mm
Compressive Strength
28 days (air) 35 MPa
28 days (underwater) 28 MPa
TABLE 11 - CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS F CONCRETE
Cement Content Type 10SF 400 kg/m3

Classified Sand 9 16 kg/m3
Coarse Aggregate
20 mm - 10 mm 564 kg/m3
10mm-5mm 376 kg/m3
Water 160 Lm3
Water Reducing Agent 1.12 L/m3
Retarder 260 mL/m3
Antiwashout Admixture 2.5 L/m3
Superplasticizer 6 L/m3
Slump 175 m m
Air Content 2.9%
Compressive Strength (100 mm x 200
mm cylinders)
3 days , 19.4 MPa
7 days 34.4 MPa
28 days 51.7 MPa

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2747 0522745 579 E
TABLE 12 - SUMMARY OF LONG-TERM TEST RESULTS
Concrete Test Value

Test Class A Class c
Freezing and Thawing RDF = 99 (500 cycles) RDF = 100
(ASTM C-666 Procedure A) (500 cycles)
Deicer Scaling Tests i i 2 g/m2 (i00 cycles) 60 g/m2 (60

(ASTM C672) cycles)
Rapid Chloride Permeability 300 coulombs Q 28 420 coulombs

(AASHTO T277) days Q 90 days
Chloride Penetration By 0-13 miïi; 0.062% C1- 0-13 iïìiìï;

Ponding 13-25 iïìiìï; 0.002% C1- 0.139% C1-
AASHTO T259/260 13-25
0.003% C1-
Abrasion Resistance Vol. loss 36 x m3

(ASTM C-1138)
Water Permeability Test No measurable flow No measurable

(CANMET) inferred k < d s flow
inferred k <
10-l~m/s
TABLE 13 - CHLORIDE DIFFUSIVITY TESTS
Curing Condition Chloride Diffusivity

x lo-" m2/s

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0bb2949 0522746 425 E
NEW BRUNSWICK
NOVA SCOTIA
Fig. 1-Northumberland Strait bridge site
CONCRETE GIRDER
C W S 'F CONCRETE
Fig. 2-Typical foundation, pier shaft and span

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522747 361 m
A WE AGCREGX,~E
o COARSE AGGREGATE
Maximum Permissible Limit
Fig. &Accelerated mortar bar test for coarse and fine aggregate (CSA A 23.2-25A)
q
-
x
. 0.03
Maximum Permissible Limit
1:iiE. o*-i
Fig. A o n c r e t e prism test for coarse and fine aggregate ((SA A23.2-14A)

A C 1 SP-154 95 S 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0522748 2 T 8 I
28 day loading age
o
Age Under Load (days)
Fig. L Sp e cific creep of Class A concrete
600 7 A 4
MOIST CURED FOR 28 DAYS @ 2 3 C
a THEN AT 5 0 % RH Q 2 3 C
b 500
e
x MOIST CURED FOR 28 DAYS O 23’C
THEN AT 75% RH O 23C
.-
E 400
O i i i i i i i r
O 1 O0 200 300
Duration of Drying, (days)
Fig. &Drying shrinkage oí Class A concrete

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 IObb2949 0522749 134
Langley, Gilmour, and Tromposch
Age Under Load (days)

Fig. 7-Specific creep of Class C contrete
600 -s
MOIST CURED FOR 28 DAYS Q 23’C

THEN AT 50% RH 8 23’C
X
MOIST CURED FOR 28 DAYS O 23’C

THEN AT 75% RH Q 23’C
Q
o , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
O 1w 200 300
Duration of Drying, (days)
Fig. &Drying shrinkage of Class C concrete

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2949 0522750 956
SP 154-30
Corrosion- Inhibiting Ad mixtures:

Passive, Passive-Active versus
Active Systems
by C. K. Nmai
Svnopsis: In this paper, corrosion-inhibitingadmixture systems are classified as

active, passive or passive-active depending on the mechanism(s) by which
corrosion inhibition is achieved. Also, a simple analytical equation that relates
chloride ion contents in treated concretes to that in companion untreated concrete
is presented. Using this equation, chloride ion content versus screening
efficiency curves have been developed for passive and passive-active inhibitor
systems. If chloride ion threshold and chloride screening efficiency data are
available, these curves can be used to i) determine an “equivalent chloride ion
threshold” for passive and passive-active inhibitor systems, and ii) directly
compare the effectiveness of passive and passive-active inhibitor systems on
time-to-corrosion relative to active inhibitor systems.
Corrosion test data have been used to show the validity of this analytical
procedure. The data show that the procedure can be used to rank the effectiveness
of corrosion-inhibiting admixtures in delaying the time-to-corrosion of steel in
concrete, and that passive and passive-active inhibitor systems can delay the
onset of corrosion longer than active inhibitor systems. In combination with
corrosion rate data, the relative overall effectiveness of corrosion-inhibiting
admixtures can be determined.
Keywords: Admixtures; chloride ions; corrosion; reinforced concretes;

size screening
565
A C 1 SP-154 95 0662947 0 5 2 2 7 5 1 872 =
566 Nmai
AC1 member Charles K. Nmai is currently Technical Manager in the Admixture

Marketing Department at Master Builders, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, where his
responsibilities include providing technical support in the areas of durability and
high-performance concrete. He has a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana, and is a registered professional engineer in
Ohio. He is a member of AC1 Committees 201, Durability; and 222, Corrosion.
INTRODUCTION
AC1 Committee 1 16 on Cement and Concrete Terminology defines a corrosion-

inhibiting admixture as "a chemical compound, either liquid or powder, that
effectively decreases corrosion of steel reinforcement before being embedded in
concrete, or in hardened concrete if introduced, usually in very small
concentrations, as an admixture" [I]. This definition is fairly broad and
encompasses a wide range of materials that, when added to concrete, can reduce
the onset of corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel and/or reduce the rate of
subsequent corrosion.
Currently, several corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are commercially-available

within the concrete industry. These include a calcium nitrite-based inorganic
admixture, a water-based organic admixture consisting of amines and esters, an
admixture containing amines and proprietary alkanoamines, and a powder
containing a complex inorganic alkaline earth silicate copolymer. Mineral
admixtures, such as silica fume, fly ash and ground-granulated blast- furnace
slag, have also been used for corrosion protectionpurposes. All of these products
vary significantly in chemical composition, mechanism of protection,
recommended dosage rates, and effectiveness. Comparison of the relative
effectiveness of these products has not been easy due in part to a lack of
understanding of the fundamental mechanisms by which these products function,
a lack of universally-accepted testing procedures, and the long duration of field
exposure tests.
Despite the differences in chemical composition, chemical and mineral

admixtures that are being used for corrosion protection of steel in concrete can be
divided into three main classifications based on the mechanicm(s) by which
corrosion inhibition is achieved. The classifications are: a) active systems; b)
passive systems; and c) passive-active (or active-passive) systems. Active
systems are defined as admixtures that provide corrosion inhibition through a
chemical reaction between the active ingredients of the admixture and reinforcing

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0522752 7 2 9 m
steel, resulting in the formation of a protective film, typically an oxide layer, at

the steel surface. An example of an active system is the calcium nitrite-based
corrosion-inhibiting admixture [2]. Passive systems are defined as those in
which inhibition is obtained through a reduction in chloride ion ingress into
concrete, commonly referred to in the concrete industry as “chloride screening“.
Silica fume concrete is a passive system.
Admixtures that function by a combination of the two systems defined above,

that is. the formation of a protective film and a reduction in chloride ion ingress,
can be termed passive-active or active-passive systems depending on which
mechanism is dominant. For example, if the dominant mechanism is chloride
screening, the system would be considered passive-active and vice-versa. For
simplicity, these admixtures will only be referred to as passive-active systems in
this paper. A water-based organic corrosion-inhibiting admixture consisting of
amines and fatty acid esters has been reported to function by a mechanism that
can be described as passive-active [ 3 ] .
Because of differences in the mechanisms by which inhibition is achieved with

the different corrosion-inhibiting admixtures, caution has to be taken when
making comparisons on their effectiveness relative to one another. Techniques
such as accelerated time-to-corrosion, long-term field exposure studies, anodic
polarization and a.c. impedance spectroscopy have been used to evaluate the
effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors for reinforced concrete [2-81. Active
inhibitors can be evaluated using nearly all of the available techniques, however,
not all of these methods may be directly applicable to passive or passive-active
inhibitors. For example, a passive inhibitor cannot be evaluated in solution
because its chloride screening capability will be nonexistent. For passive-active
inhibitors, solution testing will not give an accurate assessment of their total
corrosion inhibition potential. Likewise, evaluations that utilize concretes of
quality that is not representative of that used in the field may be biased towards
systems that reduce the chloride permeability of concrete.
The effectiveness of corrosion-inhibiting admixtures can be based on two

criteria. The first criterion is the delay in corrosion initiation or the “time-to-
corrosion” obtained with the admixture. The second criterion is the effect of the
admixture on the rate of corrosion after initiation. One of the factors that
influences corrosion initiation is the chloride ion threshold for steel; that is, the
chloride ion content at the steel surface when corrosion is initiated. For mild
steel in untreated concrete, it is generally accepted that the chloride ion threshold
for corrosion initiation is in the range of 0.7 to 0.9 kglm3 (1.2 to 1.5 lb/yd3).
Although this range is often assumed to be applicable to prestressing strands,

time-to-corrosion studies have shown that the chloride ion threshold for
unstressed prestressing strands may be as much as six times that for mild steel
(61. This may be due to a couple of factors. First, prestressing strands have a

A C 1 SP-It54 95 = Obb2949 0522753 bb5
568 Nmai
smooth drawn surface that is less susceptible to corrosion. Second, prestressing

strands may possess an unintentional corrosion protection system imparted by
lubricants that are commonly used to coat them during the manufacturing
process. The lubricants are typically zinc phosphate or calcium stearate
materials.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures that function, either completely or partially,

through the formation of a protective film at the steel surface will increase the
chloride ion threshold [2,7]. The increase, however, will be dependent on the
type and amount of inhibitor used. Because of differences in corrosion-inhibiting
mechanisms, comparison of the relative effectiveness of corrosion-inhibiting
admixtures should not be based solely on chloride ion threshold.
In this paper, a simple analytical procedure that utilizes an "equivalent chloride

ion threshold" concept is presented. The "equivalent chloride ion threshold" is
defined as the chloride ion concentration in companion untreated concrete of
similar mixture proportions when corrosion is initiated in the inhibitor-treated
concrete. The analytical procedure described in this paper permits direct
comparisons between active and passive and passive-active corrosion inhibitors,
if the effects of each inhibitor on chloride ion threshold and chloride ion ingress
into concrete are known.
ACTIVE SYSTEMS
As mentioned earlier, active systems function by providing a protective layer at

the steel surface, thereby increasing the chloride ion threshold of the steel. The
protective layer may or may not be oxide in nature. For example, nitrite ions
have been reported to react with ferrous ions to form an oxide film as follows
2Fe++ + 20H- + 2N02' ------->2 N 0 + Fe203 + H 2 0 (Eq. 1)
Other active systems would be expected to engage in a similar oxidation/

reduction-type chemical reaction with ferrous ions. The composition of the
protective film formed could, however, be different from that shown in Eq. 1.
It is generally accepted that chloride ions react with ferrous ions to form a soluble
complex which upon reaction with hydroxyl ions lead to the formation of ferrous
hydroxide, Fe(OH)2, a form of rust. The chloride ions are then released back
into solution and become available for further reaction with ferrous ions. A
typical reaction between ferrous and chloride ions in concrete is as given in Eq. 2
c101.

A C 1 SP-154 95 a 0662949 0522754 5 T 1
Invariably, active systems end up in competition with chloride ions as illustrated

by Eq. 1 and 2. The relative amounts of chloride ions and the active ingredient of
the inhibitor present in the concrete determines which reaction takes place. For
example, it has been reported in the literature that the calcium nitrite inhibitor
provides protection at chloride-to-nitriteratios exceeding 1.5 to 1 by weight [3,9]
but less than 2.5 to 1 by weight [9].
However, half-cell potential and chloride content åata from concrete deck
specimens subjected to daily salting indicated that chloride-to-nitrite ratios
greater than 1.6 to 1 by weight will result in corrosion [9]. Nondestructive data
collected over 7 years and visual survey of test slabs in a study conducted by the
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) indicated effective performance of the
calcium nitrite inhibitor up to a chloride-to-nitrite ratio of 0.9 to 1 by weight [5].
Admixed chlorides were used in this study.
Because of the competing reaction with chloride ions, the level of protection
provided by active systems is usually a function of the amount of chloride ions
expected at the level of the reinforcing steel over the period for which protection
is required. Therefore, increasing amounts of an active system will typically be
required to protect against higher levels of chloride ions. Published chloride
protection levels for a 30 percent by mass solution of calcium nitrite [i i] are as
shown in Table 1. The data show that the higher the dosage of calcium nitrite ,
used, the higher the chloride ion threshold for the protected steel, and
conceivably the longer the delay in time-to-corrosion of the treated concrete.
PASSIVE AND PASSIVE-ACTIVE SYSTEMS
Passive systems function by reducing chloride ion ingress into concrete, or

simply stated, by "chloride screening". This is usually achieved through a variety
of ways including a reduction in pore size of concrete as is obtained with
pozzolanic materials such as silica fume, fly ash and ground-granulated blast-
furnace slag [12,13], bridging of the pores with an interpenetrating film as in the
case of latex-modified concrete [4,14], or by lining of the pores with chemical
compounds that impart hydrophobic properties to the concrete [ 151. The water-
based organic corrosion inhibitor and some dampproofing admixtures reduce
chloride ion ingress by the latter method.
The effective chloride diffusion coefficient for concrete treated with a passive
system inhibitor will often be considerably lower than that for its companion

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522755 438
570 Nmai
untreated concrete. For example, after two years of cyclic ponding with chloride
solution, concrete containing 350 kg/m3 (590 lb/yd3) of cement and a 15 percent
silica fume addition by mass of cement was reported to have an effective chloride
diffusion coefficient of 0.7 x 10-8 cm2/s, compared to 11.0 x 10-8 cm2/s for the
companion plain portland cement concrete [16]. The concretes had a water-
cement ratio of 0.48. At a water-cement ratio of 0.38, effective chloride
diffusion coefficients of 0.2 x crn% and 2.0 x 10-8 crn% were reported for
the 15 percent silica fume concrete and its companion plain portland cement
concrete, respectively [ 161.
Depending on its composition, the effects of a passive system will not be

confined to only the concrete matrix but also to the surface of the reinforcing
steel in the form of a coating or film. For example, the water-based organic
corrosion inhibitor has been reported to form a protective film at the steel surface
[7,17]. The author is of the opinion that latexes and dampproofing admixtures
may have a similar effect at the steel surface. Such protective coatings or films
can lead to an increase in the chloride ion threshold of the reinforcing steel and/or
minimize access of oxygen and moisture to the steel surface. The overall effect
is that these admixtures function as passive-active systems. A totally passive
system such as silica fume concrete will have little effect, if any, on the chloride
ion threshold of reinforcing steel.
The effectiveness of a passive system is dependent on the degree of chloride

screening obtained with that system, which in turn may be dependent on the
quantity of product used. For passive-active systems, effectiveness is dependent
on both the degree of chloride screening and the increase in chloride ion
threshold at the steel surface. The latter can account for a significant portion of
their effectiveness.
COMPARISON OF EFFECTIVENESS OF CORROSION PROTECTION

PRIOR TO CORROSION INITIATION
Prior to the initiation of corrosion, comparisons between two active systems can
be based solely on their effect on the chloride ion threshold at the steel surface,
which can be determined relatively quickly from solution testing. However,
comparisons between active and passive or passive-active systems are not as
straightforward and cannot be based solely on chloride ion threshold because of
the inherent differences in protection mechanisms described earlier.
This means that an active system with a significantly higher chloride ion
threshold may not necessarily delay corrosion initiation longer than a passive or
passive-active system with a lower chloride ion threshold. Likewise,
comparisons cannot be based solely on degree of chloride screening because of

A C 1 SP-154 95 111 0662749 0522756 374 =
differences in the effect of these systems on concrete permeability andor

hydrophobic properties of concrete. In other words, a passive or passive-active
inhibitor system which significantly reduces chloride ingress may not necessarily
delay the onset of corrosion longer than an active inhibitor system.
Therefore, a common basis for comparison of corrosion inhibitors which function

by different mechanisms is needed. If comparative corrosion test data are
available, a valid comparison between active and passive or passive-active
inhibitor systems can be based on time-to-corrosion. In the absence of such data,
the analytical procedure described below, which is based on an "equivalent
chloride ion threshold" concept, can be used. Comparison of relative
effectiveness after initiation of corrosion can be made from corrosion rate
measurements.
Eauivalent Chloride Ion Threshold Concept
As mentioned above, direct comparisons on the effectiveness of corrosion-

inhibiting admixtures can be made if time-to-corrosion data are available. Time-
to-corrosion can be determined directly from corrosion tests utilizing either
ponded reinforced concrete or partially submerged reinforced concrete
specimens. Irrespective of the mechanism(s) by which inhibition is obtained, at
the onset of corrosion the performance of a corrosion-inhibiting admixture can be
expressed in terms of two measurable parameters: its effect on chloride ion
threshold, [Cl'lth; and its effect on chloride ion ingress at the level of the
reinforcing steel, which can be expressed as a screening efficiency. That is:
Time-to-Corrosion = f ([Cl-lth ,Screening Efficiency) (Eq. 3)
Therefore, if the effects of each corrosion-inhibiting admixture on both chloride

ion threshold and chloride screening are known, direct comparisons can be made
between them using the analytical procedure described below.
Let [Cl'],i@t be the chloride ion content in the corrosion-inhibiting admixture-

treated concrete at time t and let [Cl'],f@t be the chloride ion content in
companion untreated concrete at the same time t. Then,

A C 1 SP-It54 95 O 0662749 0522757 200 O
572 Nmai
Note that if [Cl'],i@t is greater than [Cl']ref@t, as can occur in calcium nitrite-
treated concretes because of the accelerating effect of this admixture, the
screening efficiency will be negative.
At the onset of corrosion, t is equal to the time-to-corrosion, ttc, and [Cl-],.@t

becomes equal to the chloride ion threshold, [Cl'lth, for the corrosion-inhibiting
admixture under consideration. From Eq. 4, the chloride ion content in the
untreated concrete at the time-to-corrosion, [Cl']ref@t=ttc, can be expressed as:
Using Eq. 5 , a family of curves that relate screening efficiency and chloride ion
threshold to the chloride ion content in untreated concrete can be generated for
each corrosion-inhibiting admixture. This implies that for a given level of
screening efficiency and chloride ion threshold, an "equivalent chloride ion
threshold" in the untreated concrete can be determined. This provides a common
basis for direct comparison of corrosion-inhibiting admixtures. The following
examples will be used to illustrate the use of curves that can be developed by
using Eq. 5.
Example 1: Active vs. Passive System

(e.g., Calcium Nitrite vs. Silica Fume or Dampproofing
Admixtures}
Fig. 1 shows a chloride ion content versus screening efficiency curve which was
generated assuming a chloride ion threshold of 0.9 kg/m3 (1.5 lb/yd3). This
curve is applicable to passive systems such as silica fume concrete, because it has
a chloride ion threshold similar to that for untreated concrete, that is, in the range
of 0.7 to 0.9 k@m3 (1.2 to 1.5 ib/yd3). The curve is also applicable to
dampproofing admixtures that do not increase the chloride ion threshold of
reinforcing steel.
vertical axis directly against the chloride protection levels reported in the
literature by the manufacturer. As will be shown later, these chloride protection
levels may not be completely accurate.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522758 I147 =
Fig. 1 indicates that a screening efficiency of 75 percent would be required for

silica fume concrete in order to get a time-to-corrosion similar to that which
would be obtained with concrete containing 10 Um3 (2 gaVyd3) of the calcium
nitrite inhibitor. Screening efficiencies of approximately 87 and 9 1 percent
would be required to obtained time-to-corrosions equivalent to those obtained
with 20 and 30 Um3 (4 and 6 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor,
respectively. The screening efficiency of silica fume concrete can be varied by
varying the silica fume content of the concrete mixture as indicated by the data
shown in Fig. 2.
Example 2: Active vs. Passive-Active System

(e.g., Calcium Nitrite vs. Water-Bused Organic Corrosion-
Inhibiting Admixture)
A pair of chloride ion content versus screening efficiency curves for a passive-
active system such as the water-based organic corrosion-inhibiting admixture are
shown in Fig. 3. The curves were generated using chloride ion threshold values
of 2.4 and 3.0 kg/m3 (4 and 5 lb/yd3), respectively. Limited time-to-corrosion
test data indicate that the chloride ion threshold for reinforcing steel in concrete
treated with 5 Um3 (1 gal/yd3) of the water-based organic corrosion inhibitor is
probably between these two values [7].
The curves indicate that at a screening efficiency of about 70 percent, concrete

treated with the water-based organic corrosion-inhibiting admixture at a dosage
of 5 Um3 (1 gaVyd3) would give a time-to-corrosion similar to that obtained
with concretes treated with 20 to 30 L/m3 (4to 6 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite
inhibitor. Performance equivalent to that obtained with 10 Um3 (2 gaVyd3) of
the calcium nitrite inhibitor may be obtained with a screening efficiency of about
35 percent, assuming a chloride ion threshold of 2.4 kg/m3 (4 ib/yd3); or a
screening efficiency of about 15 percent if the curve for a chloride ion threshold
of 3.0 kg/m3 (5 ib/yd3) is used.
Predicted Performance versus Accelerated Corrosion Test Data
The validity of the analytical procedure presented in the sections above was
verified by comparing the predicted time-to-corrosion performance with that
obtained from accelerated corrosion evaluations. Two comparisons are
presented. The first is between a passive system (silica fume concrete) and an
active system. The second is between a passive-active system (water-based
organic corrosion inhibitor) and an active system. In both cases, the active
system was a calcium nitrite-based corrosion inhibitor.

A C 1 SP-154 95 S 0662949 0522759 083
574 Nmai
Test Data 1: Active vs. Passive System

(e.g., Calcium Nitrite vs. Silica Fume)
The data shown in Table 2 were extracted from Reference 18 and will be used for ’
the comparison between concrete containing calcium nitrite (active system) and
silica fume concrete (passive system). The data were obtained after 5 years of
corrosion testing of lollipop and minideck specimens. At a water-cement ratio of
0.48, corrosion data for minideck specimens with 35 mm (1.38 in.) of cover
indicated that the silica fume concretes were performing better than concretes
containing 10 and 20 Um3 (2 and 4 gaVyd3) of calcium nitrite.
Limited chloride data provided in Reference 18 indicates that, after 5 years of

ponding, the chloride ion content in the vicinity of the top steel in the minideck
specimens containing 3.75 percent silica fume was 0.6 kg/m3 (1.0 lb/yd3). The
corresponding value for the companion plain concrete specimens was reported to
be 9.8 kg/m3 (16.5 lb/yd3), indicating that a screening efficiency of 94 percent
was achieved. This also indicates that the “equivalent chloride ion threshold” for
the 3.75% silica fume concrete would be higher than 9.8 kglm3 (16.5 lb/yd3).
It is reasonable to assume that the companion concretes containing 7.5 and 15

percent silica fume had higher screening efficiencies and, therefore, higher
‘‘equivalent chloride ion thresholds”. As predicted earlier from Fig. 1, a passive
system with a screenin efficiency of 87 would give performance similar to that
f
obtained with 20 U m (4 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor. Thus, the
corrosion data are not surprising.
The corrosion rate data for the lollipop specimens are also shown in Fig. 4-6.
These figures show that at the lower water-cement ratios of 0.38 and 0.43, the
concretes containing 3.75 percent silica fume were performing better than those
containing 10 Um3 (2 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor. The data also
suggest that, at a water-cement ratio of 0.43, the concrete containing 7.5 percent
silica fume were performing better than that containing 20 Um3 (4 gaVyd3) of
the calcium nitrite inhibitor. Note that 1/Rp values greater than 25 pS/cm2 have
been reported to be an indication of severe corrosion, whereas values less than 15
pS/cm2indicate passive corrosion conditions [ 181.
Fig. 6 shows that at a water-cement ratio of 0.48, concrete containing a 15

percent silica fume addition was performing better than that containing 20 Um3
(4 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor. The data also indicate that concretes
containing 3.75 and 7.5 percent silica fume were performing, at least, as well as
the concretes containing 10 Um3 (2 gaVyd3) and 20 Um3 (4 gaVyd3) of the
calcium nitrite inhibitor, respectively.
After 5 years of ponding, chloride ion contents of 19.9, 11.1 and 6.7 kg/m3 (33.5,
18.7 and 11.3 lb/yd3) in the vicinity of the steel were reported for lollipop

A C 1 SP-I154 95 W 0662947 O522760 B T 5 W
specimens containing O, 3.75 and 7.5 percent silica fume, respectively [18].
These concretes had a water-cement ratio of 0.48. The data indicate that, at the
time of sampling, screening efficiencies of 44 and 66 percent were obtained with
the concretes containing 3.75 and 7.5 percent silica fume, respectively.
These screening efficiencies are lower than those predicted by Fig. 1. The
“apparent” discrepancy can be attributed to several factors including the fact that
the reported chloride ion contents were obtained from 19 mm (0.75 in.) thick
concrete rings in the vicinity of the reinforcing steel, and therefore, may not be
representative of those at the steel surface at the time of corrosion initiation in the
silica fume concretes.
Because the chloride ion contents reported for the lollipop specimens containing
silica fume are well above the chloride ion threshold for reinforcing steel
embedded in silica fume concrete, “equivalent chloride ion threshold” values
cannot be determined.
Test Data 2 Active vs. Passive-Active System

(e.g., Calcium Nitrite vs. Water-Based Organic Corrosion-
Inhibiting Admixture)
Data from independent macrocell corrosion evaluations of uncracked slabs and

precracked beams indicate that concrete containing 5 Um3 (1 gaYyd3) of the
water-based organic inhibitor performed as well as concrete containing 30 Um3
(6 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor [8]. Chloride data obtained after 38
weeks of ponding of the uncracked slabs indicated an average chloride ion
content of 8.2 kg/m3 (13.9 lb/yd3) in the untreated slabs and about 2.7 kg/m3
(4.5 lb/yd3) in one treated with the water-based organic corrosion inhibitor [8].
Powder samples for the chloride analyses were obtained at the level of the
reinforcing steel, several weeks after the onset of corrosion in the treated concrete
slab. Therefore in this evaluation, the “equivalent chloride threshold” for the
treated concrete may have been slightly less than 8.2 kg/m3 (13.9 lb/yd3), which
would be consistent with the value of 7.1 kg/m3 (12.0 lb/yd3) reported in
Reference 7.
The chloride data indicates that a screening efficiency of about 67 percent was
obtained with the water-based organic corrosion inhibitor treated-concrete at the
level of the top reinforcing steel at the time of sampling [8]. Chloride data from
a companion evaluation of precracked beams also indicated that, at a distance of
about 1.5 in. (38 mm) away from the crack at the level of the top reinforcing
steel, an average screening efficiency of 68 percent was obtained with the water-
based organic corrosion inhibitor-treated concrete.

A C 1 SP-354 95 = 0662947 0522763 73L
576 Nmai
Assuming a chloride ion threshold of 2.4 kg/m3 (4 lb/yd3) for the water-based
organic corrosion inhibitor-treated concrete and a screening efficiency of about
67 percent, from Fig. 3 performance similar to that obtained with concrete treated
with 20 Um3 (4 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor would be expected.
However, as stated earlier, concrete treated with 5 Um3 (1 gal/yd3) of the water-
based organic corrosion inhibitor performeå as well as concrete treated with 30
Um3 (6 gaVyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor in the accelerated macrocell
corrosion evaluations.
The apparent difference in predicted and actual performance can be explained by

the fact that critical chloride-to-nitrite ratios and chloride protection levels for the
calcium nitrite inhibitor may have been established using a half-cell potential of -
350 mV CSE to indicate the onset of active corrosion [9]. By industry standards
at the time [ 191, half-cell potentials more negative than -350 mV CSE indicated a
greater than 90 percent probability of corrosion activity. However, studies have
shown that the onset of active macrocell corrosion occurs at half-cell potentials
of about -240 mV CSE [6].
Analyzing the half-cell potential versus chloride data provided in Reference 9

using -240 instead of -350 mV CSE indicates that corrosion will occur at
chloride-to-nitrite ratios exceeding 0.92 and not 1.61 as stated [9]. This critical
chloride-to-nitrite ratio of 0.92 is consistent with the findings of the long-term
FHWA evaluation of the calcium nitrite inhibitor [5].
Published literature indicates that 5 Um3 (1 gal/yd3) of the calcium nitrite

inhibitor contains approximately 1 kg (2.2 lb) of nitrite ions [ 1 i]. Therefore,
chloride-to-nitrite ratios at current recommended dosage rates of this inhibitor
range from 1.2-1.5. Using a critical chloride-to-nitrite ratio of 0.92, the current
recommended dosage rates of the calcium nitrite inhibitor will offer protection
against smaller amounts of chloride ions than those published. The recalculated
chloride protection levels, also shown in Table 1, indicate that at the maximum
recommended dosage of 30 Um3 (6 gal/yd3), the calcium nitrite inhibitor will
offer protection against approximately 5.5 kg (12 lb) of chloride ions at the steel
surface and not 7.3 kg (16 lb) as published.
The recalculated chloride protection levels for the calcium nitrite inhibitor are
also shown in Fig. 3 to the right of the manufacturer's recommended levels.
Using a screening efficiency of 67 ercent and the curve representing a chloride
!i
ion threshold of 2.4 kg/m3 (4 Ib/yd ) as before, Fig. 3 now predicts that concrete
treated with 5 Um3 (1 gaYyd3) of the water-based organic corrosion inhibitor
would give a level of performance similar to that obtained with concrete treated
with 30 L/m3 (6 gaYyd3) of the calcium nitrite inhibitor. This is consistent with
the results of the accelerated time-to-corrosion evaluations.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0522762 b78
As mentioned earlier in the previous section (comparison between active versus

passive system), there was an “apparent” discrepancy between the predicted and
actual screening efficiencies obtained for the silica fume concretes. A portion of
the “apparent” discrepancy may be accounted for by using the recalculated
chloride protection levels for the calcium nitrite inhibitor, which are also shown
in Fig. 1 to the right of the manufacturer’s recommended levels. It can be seen
from this figure that silica fume concretes with screening efficiencies of 63, 81
and 88 percent, respectively, would give protection similar to that which can be
obtained with concretes containing 10,20 and 30 L/m3 (2,4 and 6 gallyd3) of the
calcium nitrite inhibitor. These levels of screening efficiency are about 3 to 12’
percent lower than those predicted earlier using the chloride protection levels
published by the manufacturer.
COMPARISON OF EFFECTIVENESS OF CORROSION PROTECTION

AFTER CORROSION INITIATION
Ignoring other forms of concrete degradation, the extent of deterioration within a

reinforced concrete structure undergoing chloride-induced corrosion will be
dependent on the rate of corrosion. The rate of corrosion is in turn dependent on
many factors including the availability of chloride ions, oxygen, moisture,
prevailing ambient conditions, and for corrosion inhibitor-treated concretes, the
type of inhibitor used. In a corroding structure, the corrosion rate is influenced
mainly by the cathodic reaction, which is controlled by the availability of oxygen
and moisture. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that the corrosion rate will be
lower in systems that restrict access of oxygen and moisture to the steel surface
compared to those that do not.
From the above, it can be deduced that for concretes treated with passive-active
systems such as the water-based organic corrosion inhibitor, continued screening
effectiveness and/or the ability of the protective film to reduce the availability of
oxygen and moisture at the steel surface can reduce the corrosion rate. For
concretes treated with an active system such as the calcium nitrite inhibitor,
possible migration of the active ingredient(s) to the steel surface may influence
the corrosion rate for a period of time. However, if the active ingredients of the
inhibitor gets completely overwhelmed by chloride ions, corrosion would most
likely proceed at a rate equal to, if not greater, than that in untreated concrete.
The corrosion rate of concretes treated with corrosion-inhibiting admixture

systems can be determined by using electrochemical techniques such as
polarization resistance and a.c. impedance [3,20-231. Corrosion rates can also be
inferred from accelerated macrocell corrosion tests. However, Berke [ 161 and
Andrade et al. [24] have reported that microcell activity, which can represent a
significant portion of the corrosion activity in such tests, are not accounted for in

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522763 504
578 Nmai
macrocell corrosion measurements. Therefore, macrocell current data should

only be used as a qualitative indication of corrosion rate. In general, the higher
the corrosion rate, the faster the time to severe deterioration will be for a
corroding structure. Therefore, direct comparisons on the effectiveness of
corrosion-inhibiting admixtures after the onset of corrosion can be made if their
effect on the rate of corrosion is known.
COMPARISON OF OVERALL EFFECTIVENESS
Having determined the relative effectiveness of corrosion-inhibiting systems

prior to and after the initiation of corrosion, a relative comparison of their overall
effectiveness can be made to determine which system will provide better
protection. This, however, requires careful consideration of the comparative data
as will be illustrated by the following scenarios for two inhibitors, X and Y.
Scenario No. 1: assume that Inhibitor Y delays the onset of corrosion longer and
also corrodes at a lower rate than Inhibitor X. Without any computation, it is
clearly obvious that inhibitor Y will provide better corrosion protection
compared to Inhibitor X.
Scenario No. 2: assume in this case that Inhibitor Y delays the onset of corrosion
longer, but corrodes at a faster rate compared to Inhibitor X. In this situation, a
comparison of total effectiveness cannot be made without some amount of
computation. Analytical models for chloride ion diffusion into concrete and life
prediction for corroding structures will be required for such computations, taking
into account factors such as the expected service life of the structure and the level
of damage that would be considered unacceptable.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the information presented in this
Paper.
1. Prior to the onset of corrosion, direct comparisons on the relative

effectiveness of active and passive or passive-active corrosion-inhibiting
system can be made by using chloride ion content versus screening efficiency
curves, if chloride ion threshold and screening efficiency data are available.
2. Passive and passive-active inhibitor systems can delay the onset of corrosion
longer than active inhibitor systems, depending on the level of screening
efficiency that can be obtained.

A C 1 SP-1.54 95 W 0662949 0522764 4 4 0
3. An “equivalent chloride ion threshold”, defined as the chloride ion content in

untreated concrete at the onset of corrosion in companion treated concrete,
should be used to account for chloride screening obtained with passive and
passive-active inhibitor systems.
4. Comparisons on the overall effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors that function

by different mechanisms should take into account their effects on both time-
to-corrosion and rate of corrosion.
REFERENCES
1. AC1 116R-90, Cement and Concrete Terminology, Reported by AC1 Committee

116, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, June 1990,68 pp.
2. Rosenberg, A.M., Gaidis, J.M., Kossivas, T.G., and Previte, R.W., “A Corrosion
Inhibitor Formulated with Calcium Nitrite for Use in Reinforced Concrete,”
Chloride Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, ASTM STP 629, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1977, pp. 89-99.
3. Berke, N.S., “The Effects of Calcium Nitrite and Mix Design on the Corrosion
Resistance of Steel in Concrete (Part 2, Long-Term),’’CORROSION OF METALS
IN CONCRETE, Proceedings of the CORROSION/87 Symposium on Corrosion of
Metals in Concrete, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1987, pp. 134-
144.
4. TIME-TO-CORROSION OF REINFORCING STEEL IN CONCRETE SLABS,

Vol. 3: Performance After 830 Daily Salt Applications, Report No. FHWA-RD-76-
70, Federal Highway Administration - Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., April 1976,59 pp.
5 . TIME-TO-CORROSION OF REINFORCING STEEL IN CONCRETE SLABS -

Volume V, Calcium Nitrite Admixture or Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Bars as
Corrosion Protection Systems, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, Publication No. FHWA/RD-83/012, Sept. 1983,71 pp.
6. PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS FOR NEW PRESTRESSED AND SUBSTRUCTURE

CONCREE, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Report No. FWWA/RD-86/193, April 1987,126 pp.
7. Nmai, C.K., Farrington, S.A., and Bobrowski, G.S., “Organic-Based Corrosion-

Inhibiting Admixture for Reinforced Concrete,” Concrete International, American
Concrete Institute, Vol. 14, No. 4, April 1992, pp. 45-51.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522765 387 m
580 Nmai
8. Nmai, C.K., Krauss, P.D., ”Comparative Evaluation of Corrosion-Inhibiting

Chemical Admixtures for Reinforced Concrete,” SP-145, Proceedings of the Third
CANMET/ACI International Conference on Durability of Concrete, American
Concrete Institute, May 1994, pp. 245-262.
9. Gaidis, J.M., and Rosenberg, A.M., “The Inhibition of Chloride-Induced Corrosion

in Reinforced Concrete by Calcium Nitrite,” Cemént, Concrete, and Aggregates,
CCAGDP, Vol. 9, No. 1, Summer 1987, pp. 30-33.
10. Hime, W. and Erlin, B., ”Some Chemical and Physical Aspects of Phenomena
Associated with Chloride-Induced Corrosion,“ CORROSION, CONCRETE, AND
CHLORIDES - Steel Corrosion in Concrete: Causes and Restraints, SP-102,
American Concrete Institute, 1987, pp. 1-9.
11. Berke, N.S., and Rosenberg, A., “Technical Review of Calcium Nitrite Corrosion
Inhibitor in Concrete,” Concrete Bridge Design and Maintenance: Steel Corrosion
in Concrete, Transportation Research Record 1211, 1989, pp. 18-27.
12. Metha, P.K., “Pozzolanic and Cementitious Byproducts as Mineral Admixtures for
Concrete - A Critical Review,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag & Other Mineral By-
Products in Concrete, Malhotra V.M. ed., SP-79, Vol. I, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1983, pp. 1-46.
13. Rose, J., “The Effect of Cementitious Blast-Fumace Slag on Chloride Permeability
of Concrete,”CORROSION, CONCRETE, AND CHLORIDES - Steel Corrosion in
Concrete: Causes and Restraints, SP-102, American Concrete Institute, 1987, pp.
107-125.
14. Ohama, Y., “Principleof Latex Modification and Some Typical Properties of Latex-
Modified Mortars and Concretes,”AC1 Materials Journal, Nov.-Dec. 1987, pp. 511-
518.
15. Rixom, M.R., and Mailvaganam, N.P., Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, Second
Edition, E. & F.N. Spon Ltd, London,l986,306 pp.
16. Berke, N.S., “Resistance of Microsilica Concrete to Steel Corrosion, Erosion, and
Chemical Attack,” SP-114, Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in
Concrete, Vol. 2, V.M. Malhotra ed., American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989,
pp. 861-886.
17. Bobrowski, G. and Youn, D.J., “Corrosion Inhibition in Cracked Concrete: An

Admixture Solution,” CONCRETE 2000 - Economic and Durable Construction
Through Excellence, Vol. Two - Infrastructure, Research, New Applications, Dhir
R.K. and Jones R.M. eds., Sept. 1993, pp. 139-1261,
18. Berke, N.S., Dallaire, M.P., and Hicks, M.C., “Plastic, Mechanical, Corrosion, and
Chemical Resistance Properties of Silica Fume (Microsilica) Concretes,” SP-132,
Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Vol. II, V.M.
Malhotra ed., American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1993, pp. 1125-1149.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 05227bb 213 H
19. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.02 - Concrete and Aggregates,
American Society for Testing and Materiais, Philadelphia, PA, 1990, 804 pp.
20. Clear, K.C., “Measuring Rate of Corrosion of Steel in Field Concrete Structures,”
Concrete Bridge Design and Maintenance: Steel Corrosion in Concrete,
Transportation Research Record 121 1, pp. 28-37.
21. Andrade, C., Castelo, V., Alonso, C., and Gonzalez, J.A., “The Determination of the
Corrosion Rate of Steel Embedded in Concrete by the Polarization Resistance and
AC Impedance Methods,” Corrosion Effect of Stray Currents and the Techniques
for Evaluating Corrosion of Rebars in Concrete, ASTM STP 906, V. Chaker, Ed.,
American Society for Testing and Materiais, Philadelphia, 1986, pp. 43-63.
22. F e h , S., Gonzalez, J.A., Feliu, S., Jr., and Andrade, M.C., “Polarization Resistance
in Reinforced Concrete,” AC1 Materials Journal, Vol. 87, No. 5, Sep./Oct. 1990, pp.
457-460.
23. Matsuoka, K., Kihira, H., Ito, S.. and Murata, T., Paper No. 121, Presented at
NACE Corrosion87, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston. TX,
1987.
24. Andrade, C., Rz-Maribona, I., F e h , S., and Gonzalez, J.A., “Macrocell versus
Microcell Corrosion of Reinforcements Placed in Parallel,” Paper No. 194, NACE
Corrosion92, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX., 16 pp.
TABLE 1 - CHLORIDE PROTECTION LEVELS FOR CALCIUM NITRITE INHIBITOR

(30 PERCENT BY MASS CALCIUM NITRITE SOLUTION)
Dosage of Calcium Chloride Current Revised Chloride

Nitrite Inhibitor Limit* Chloride-Nitrite Limit @ 0.92 Ratio
10 3.6 1.36 2.4

15 5.9 1S O 3.6
20 7.7 1.48 4.8
25 8.9 1.36 6.0
30 9.5 1.21 7.2
1 gal/yd = 5 Um3; I lb/yd = 0.5933 kg/rn3

* (Source: Reference 11)

A C 1 SP-LS4 75 0662947 0522767 L 5 T
582 Nmai
TABLE 2 - CORROSION DATA FOR SILICA FUME AND CALCIUM NITRITE-TREATED CONCRETES
(SOURCE: EXTRACTED FROM TABLE 1 IN REF. 18)
5-year Total
Corrosion Corrosion
Trial Cement Water- Silica Fume Calcium Rate for for Minidecks
No. Factor Cement Content Nitrite Lollipops with 35 mm
(kg/m3) Ratio (%by mass Dosafe YRp Cover
ofcement) (Um) gLs/cmz) (months*pA)
1 338 0.38 O O 53 10.0

2 346 0.38 3.75 O 2 5.6
3 350 0.38 7.5 O 0.8 12.5
4 354 0.38 15 O 1.9 8.1
13 362 0.38 O 10 21 10.6
25 352 0.38 O 20 1.5 7.7
5 329 0.43 O O 41 28.1

6 35 1 0.43 3.75 O 17 10.0
7 340 0.43 7.5 O 0.9 --
8 354 0.43 15 O 0.9 6.3
17 356 0.43 O 10 31 --
29 359 0.43 O 20 8 21.9
9 347 0.48 O O 156 477

10 348 0.48 3.75 O 76 10.5
11 346 0.48 7.5 O 30 13.7
12 350 0.48 15 O 1.4 12.9
21 364 0.48 O 10 66 143
I 33 343 0.48 O 20 36 152
Note: l?p values > 25 pS/cm2 are indicative of severe corrosion.

1/Rp values < 15 pS/cm2 are found under passive conditions.

A C 1 SP-154 75 I0662947 0522768 O96
i2
-Chioride Threshold
10 30
25
BsY%
2o 30
15 25
20
10 15
10
2
Screening Efflciency (%)

.
(CNi. Calcium mmte iohibiior; IVLR. Mmdacnir~~’~
numunnided &sage: RN. .Recalmhied dosage)
Fig. 1-Chloride ion content versus screening efficiency curve for silica fume concrete
70
O
O 3.75 7.5
Silica Fume Percentage
Fig. 2-Effect of silica fume on chloride ion ingress after 5 years of ponding (18)

A C 1 SP-154 95 W O662949 0522769 T22 W
584 Nmai
CNI
12
Dosage
(LW)
M.5
10
30
25
15 25
20
10 15
10
2
0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Screening Efficiency (%)
(CM - Calam rumte inhibitor; MR - Mandacrura's recammended dosage; Rev - R-alculaid dmagc)
Fig. 3-Chloride ion content versus screening efficiency curves for water-based organic corrosion
inhibitor-treated concrete
Plain 3.75% 7.5 % 15% CNI CNI

SF SF SF @ 10 @ 20
Llm3 Llm3
Fig. 4-5-year corrosion rate data for 0.38 water-cement ratio concretes (18)

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662947 0522770 744 m
45 r 41
40
35
E 30
$ i
-
a
25
20
g l5
10
5
O
Plain 3.75% 7.5% 15% CNI CNI
SF SF SF @ 10 @ 20
LIm3 Llm3
Fig. 5-5-year corrosion rate data for 0.43 water-cement ratio concretes (18)
Plain 3.75% 7.5% 15% CNI CNI

SF SF SF @ 10 @ 20
Llm3 LIm3
Fig. 6 5 - y e a r corrosion rate data for 0.48 water-cement ratio concretes (18)

A C 1 SP-154 95 E Obb2749 0522773 680 E
SP 154-31
Long-Term Durability of Silica Fume

Structural Concrete, Shotcrete,
Grout, and Slab Overlays
by J. Wolsiefer and K. Clear
Synopsis:
This paper presents the results of laboratory and
field tests conducted, by the authors over a twelve year
period, on the long-term durability performance of silica
fume based concretes, shotcretes, grouts, and concrete
slab overlays. The silica fume mixture proportions
varied, from 2 to 2 2 % of silica fume (by weight of
cement) and included normal portland cement, shrinkage
compensating cement, normal weight and light weight
aggregates. Laboratory and field specimens were tested
for compressive strength, bonding strength, chloride
permeability, electrical resistivity, and freezing and
thawing durability. The exhibited long-term performance
characteristics indicate that silica fume based
concretes, shotcretes and grouts provide excellent
protection to embedded reinforcing steel in chloride
environments. A s the materials age, they become
stronger, lower in permeability and higher in
resistivity. Silica fume modified materials produce one
of the best cementitious products available for adverse
concrete environments.
Kewords: Bonding; chlorides; compressive strength; durability; electrical

resistance; field tests; freeze thaw durability; grout; high-strength
concretes; lightweight concretes; mix proportioning; permeability;
resurfacing; shotcrete; shrinkage compensating cements; silica fume; slabs
587
A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522772 517
588 Wolsiefer and Clear
John Wolsiefer, Sr. is President of NorchemConcrete

Products, a silica fume manufacturer. He has a B.S.
Applied Physics, an M.S. Engineering and is serving on
many AC1 and ASTM committees. He has given numerous
presentations, authored papers and received and
international award in the field of silica fume concrete
technology.
AC1 Fellow Ken Clear, with B.S. and M.S. degrees in
Civil Engineering from Penn State, has over 25 years
experience in the areas of concrete durability and rebar
corrosion. He has been involved in the development and
improvement of virtually all protective and
rehabilitation systems in use today.
INTRODUCTION
Since the mid ~O'S, silica fume has been used in the
United States as a means of enhancing the durability of
concretes and grouts. The initial uses were in the
chemical industry, where increased resistance to acid was
required. Beginning in about 1980, the authors began to
consider silica fume (dry, uncompacted, in concert with
a superplasticizer) as a means of significantly
decreasing the chloride permeability of concrete and
increasing its electrical resistivity. The need for
improved concrete properties, is related to corrosion of
the reinforcement, as a result of exposure to deicing
salt or marine environments. Conventional concretes and
grouts exhibit relatively high permeability and low
resistivity. The chlorides, once present at the
reinforcing level at a concentration of about (0.77
kg/m3) 1.3 lbs/cy or 0.035% by weight of concrete,
destroy the passive film on the steel and act as a
catalyst, resulting in concrete cracking, delaminating
(undersurface fractures at the level of the steel) and
spalling. In some structures, the metal loss caused by
the corrosion can be significant and lead to structural
performance problems. Millions of dollars have been
spent in the last two decades to rehabilitate existing
bridge and parking decks and to provide protective
systems for new structures. This paper summarizes our
findings in laboratory, outdoor exposure and field
efforts during the last 15 years.
INITIAL LABORATORY TEST PROGRAMS
In the early 1 9 8 0 ' ~ ~the authors initiated
laboratory test programs to evaluate the potential of

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Ob62747 0522773 453
silica fume concrete to prevent chloride induced

reinforcing steel corrosion in concrete. One of the
first tests performed was that of the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) 90 day chloride ponding test, which
measured chloride ion penetration by ponding 3% NaC1 onto
concrete. This work showed that concrete mixtures
incorporating 20% silica fume by weight of cement, could
reduce chloride penetration, by 98% compared to the
control (1). Another early test was the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) cube test,
which measured water absorption and chloride penetration,
under air dry, chloride soak cycles. The test data
showed that concrete mixtures incorporating 20% silica
fume by weight of cement, reduced the percent absorbed
chloride to 16% of the control (1). The time period to
conduct these test procedures proved too long and AASHTO
T277-83, "The Standard Method of Test for Rapid
Determination of Chloride Permeability of Concrete" was
then adopted to measure the performance potential, of
silica fume concrete. Briefly, the test involves (1)
trimming a 204mm (4-inch) diameter core or cylinder to a
102 mm (2-inch) length, (2) vacuum saturation and
overnight soak, (3) the sealing of the core in a
permeability cell, with electrodes and specific solutions
on each side, and ( 4 ) the application of 60 volts DC for
6 hours. The coulombs (amp-sec) of total charge passed
is determined and has been correlated with chloride
permeability. The lower the charge passed, the lower the
permeability. Resistivity, another important material
property, which affects corrosion rate, can also be
estimated, in this test, by measuring the AC resistance
between the two electrodes prior to test start and
converting to resistivity, using an experimentally
defined cell constant. The resistivity, when measured in
this way at 70°F is referred to as the wet resistivity
because of the vacuum saturation and soak. Conventional
concrete typically yields a charge passed in excess of
2000 coulombs and a wet resistivity less than 10,000 ohm-
cm. The relatively high permeability allows chloride,
from the environment, to readily penetrate, and the
relatively low resistivity allows corrosion to continue
(in the presence of oxygen) at a high rate. Thus, for
maximum corrosion control, a concrete should exhibit very
low permeability, but very high resistivity (typically
over 50,000 ohms-cm).
INITIAL FIELD TEST PROGRAM
During the time period 1975 to 1983, the primary use
of silica fume in the United States, was the protection
of concrete from chemical attack. The concrete
deterioration was two fold, (1) cement paste failure due
to acid and (2) reinforcing steel corrosion and concrete

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0bb2949 0522774 39T =
delamination due to salt penetration. As a silica fume

admixture (dry silica fume and superplasticizer at 20% by
weight of cement) was performing well, in the chemical
environment, an existing project with four years of
service, was chosen for concrete field evaluation. Cores
were extracted from a bulk storage fertilizer warehouse
floor, (prilled ammonium nitrate fertilizer with a pH of
5.8 and a concentration of about 98 percent). The
warehouse silica fume field concrete had a water/cement
+silica fume (W/C+S) ratio of 0.35, 325 kg/m3 (550
lbs/yd3) of portland cement and 0.65 kg/m3 (110 lbs/yd3)
of silica fume. The concrete was air-entrained and had
a placement slump of 127 to 178 mm (5 to 7 inches). The
RPT tests, performed in 1983, yielded results varying
from 154 to 333 coulombs and averaging 226 coulombs. The
wet concrete resistivities ranged from 52 ,O00 to 107,000
ohm-cm. This resistivity range is the area, in which,
most agree that corrosion problems will be minimal.
Thus, this and other field testing confirmed that the dry
silica fume/superplasticizer combination, that was
performing well in the chemical environment, had the
potential to provide a field concrete of very low
permeability and high resistivity, suitable for
concrete in chloride environments.
LONG-TERM STRUCTURAL CONCRETE TEST PROGRAM
A laboratory and outdoor exposure test program was

initiated in 1982 to study the characteristics of silica
fume concrete and continues today. Task 1 of the program
involved the fabrication and testing of specimens using
the two very high strength silica fume concrete mixture
proportions shown below:
SF Mixture 1: W/C+S = 0.28
441 kg/m3 (750 lbs cement/cy)
88.5 kg/m3 (150 lbs) silica fume admixture
SF Mixture 2: W/C+S = 0.22
590 kg/m3 (1,000 lbs cement/cy)
118 kg/m3 (200 lbs.) silica fume admixture
Normal weight aggregates were used in this part of
the program. A conventional high strength mixture
concrete (W/C = 0.45 and 363 kg/m3 [615 lbs cement/cy])
was included for comparison. The average moist cured
concrete compressive strengths were:
Concrete Compressive Strength, (Mpa) psi
7 Day 28 Day 90 Day
Conventional . 20.3 (2,944) 29.4 (4,257) 40.7 (5,911)

SF Mixture 1 40.4 (7,162) 76.6 (11,110) 85.9 (12,449)
SF Mixture 2 61.5 (8,912) 91.3 (13,240) 98.5 (14,282)

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 0522775 226 m
Concrete slabs were cast from each mixture and cured

in a fog room. Rapid permeability (RCP) tests were run
on portions of the cores from two slabs representing each
mix (6 cores per variable) between 60 and 90-days of age.
Average results were as follows:
Concrete Charged Passed Wet Resistivity
coulombs ohm-cm
Conventional 6,480 6,850
SF Mixture 1 55 372,000
SF Mixture 2 43 417,000
The silica fume structural concretes exhibited
negligible permeabilities and extremely high
resistivities, even when water saturated. At these
levels of permeability and resistivity, it is doubtful
that corrosion could be a problem in the long term. To
confirm this, concrete slabs with two mats of reinforcing
steel 25.4 mm (1 inch) cover and the above concrete
mixture proportions were cast, cured and subjected to 24
weeks of NCHRP 244 southern exposure testing (Fig. 1).
Each weekly cycle consists of 4 days of ponding with 15
percent sodium chloride solution at 70"F, and three days
unponded at 100°F. Fig. 2 shows the macrocell corrosion
current densities measured during this test series.
Corrosion of the reinforcing steel in the conventional
concrete was initiated after only 4 weekly cycles, but no
corrosion occurred on the steel in any of the slabs
containing silica fume. After the 23 weekly cycles, the
resistivity (70°F) of the concrete between the two rebar
mats in each slab was determined. The average values for
each variable were:
Concrete Mat to Mat Resistivity, ohm-cm
Conventional 19,500
SF Mixture 1 440,000
SF Mixture 2 673,000
These data show that the silica fume concretes
exhibited resistivities which were much more higher (22
to 34 times higher), than that of the conventional
concrete. All these resistivities are higher than those
given above in the case of the rapid permeability tests
(RPTs). Such occurs because the RPT test resistivity is
a wet resistivity, whereas, the concrete in the test
slabs is not saturated with water. Chloride analyses
results after the 24 southern exposure cycles are shown
in Fig. 3. The conventional concrete underwent
significant chloride ion penetration, whereas, the silica
fume concretes did not. The conventional concrete slab
testing was discontinued because rust staining and

A C 1 SP-L54 95 m Obb2949 0 5 2 2 7 7 b L b 2 m
concrete cracking had begun. Autopsy showed severe

corrosion of the top mat reinforcing. No rust staining,
cracking, corrosive half cell potentials or macrocell
current was present on any of the silica fume concrete
specimens. Because of the good performance, the silica
fume concrete slabs were subjected to another 24 weekly
cycles of southern exposure. During these additional
cycles, no corrosion occurred on any o f the silica fume
concrete slabs (Fig. 2). The slabs were then transferred
to above ground racks at an outdoor exposure facility, in
Virginia, where they have been subject to natural
weathering, including freezing and thawing for about 8
years. No surface scaling, cracking, rust staining or
other deterioration has occurred. Corrosion performance
has been monitored using half cell potentials (ASTM
C876), macrocell corrosion measurements and mat to mat
resistance measurements. Also, in 1992, cores were
extracted from one slab representing each variable and
analyzed for chloride, permeability and resistivity. The
resistivity of the SF Mixture 1 concrete slabs has
averaged 613,000 ohm-cm during outdoor exposure, and that
for the SF Mixture 2 slabs has averaged 1,050,000 ohm-cm.
No significant decreases in resistivity with time have
occurred on any of the silica fume concrete slabs;
indicating that no deterioration of the corrosion
resisting properties has occurred during the 8+ years of
exposure. All half cell potentials have been more
positive than -200 mV CSE, indicating a very high
probability of no steel corrosion. Mat to mat macrocell
corrosion currents have been zero on all slabs throughout
the eight years of outdoor exposure. Examination of the
reinforcing steel extracted from the cores and the
concrete traces showed conclusively that no corrosion had
occurred. Chloride analyses in March 1992, indicated
that very little chloride had penetrated the concretes
(about 0.77 kg/m3 [1.3 lbs/cy] or 0.035% by weight of
concrete, is required to induce corrosion), as follows:
Sampling Chloride, % by Weight of Concrete
Depth, mm (inches) SF Mixture 1 SF Mixture 2
1.6 (1/16) to 12.7 (0.5) 0.0051 O. 0032
12.7 (0.5) to 25.4 (1) 0.0017 0.0013
25.4 (1) to 38.1 (1.5) O. 0005 O. 0008
Obviously, very, very little chloride penetrated
these silica fume concretes during the 48 weeks of
southern exposure (ponding 4 days of each week with 15
percent NaC1 solution); and what little did penetrate,
did not migrate deeply into the concrete during the
subsequent 8 years of outdoor exposure. Carbonation
depths are less than 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) and the material
remains high pH throughout its thickness. Comparing

A C 1 SP-154 95 M 0662949 0522777 O T 9 M
these results to those in Fig. 2 for the conventional

concrete, after only 24 weeks of southern exposure,
highlights the great superiority of the silica fume
concretes. The results of the rapid permeability tests
on cores from the slabs (9 years of age) were as follows:
Concrete Charge Passed Wet Resistivity
coulombs ohm-cm
SF Mixture 1 48 374 ,O00
SF Mixture 2 3 1,539 ,O00
These values represent the lowest permeabilities and
the highest wet resistivities of any concrete containing
portland cement, tested and studied in the Co-author's
laboratory in 10 years. Obviously, there has been no
deterioration of these concretes, as a result of this
test program. The slab surfaces show no signs of
freezing and thawing deterioration or cracking. The
reinforcing steel extracted from cores showed no
corrosion.
In 1986, silica fume concrete test specimens were
prepared with a varying silica fume admixture dosage that
was increased in discrete steps (zero to 22% by weight of
cement). After 42-days of moist laboratory cure, rapid
chloride permeability and wet resistivity measurements
were conducted. The resultant data showed that the rapid
chloride permeability decreased, while the wet electrical
resistivity increased, when the silica fume admixture
dosage was increased. These tests were rerun April 1992,
on previously untested 2-inch (50.8 mm) slices from the
same specimens, after 7 years outdoor exposure, in the
outdoor exposure test yard. The specimens had been
exposed to hundreds of freezing and thawing, wetting and
drying, and heating and cooling cycles during their
outdoor exposure. The rapid chloride permeabilities
(RCP) and wet resistivities are presented below.
Wet Wet Wet
Silica Fume RCP RCP Resistivity Resistivity
dosage % coulombs coulombs ohm-cm ohm-cm
1986 1992 1986 1992
12 100 40 197 ,400 449 ,400
15 97 36 205 ,800 483,000
22 50 13 352 ,800 1 ,554 ,O00
The specimens showed no evidence of cracking or
freezing and thawing damage. The data presented shows
that the rapid chloride permeability has decreased in the
range of 26 to 40%, while the resistivity has increased
2.3 to 4.4 times. This improvement in concrete quality

A C 1 SP-154 95 Obb2949 0522778 T35
is dramatic, considering the small specimen size and the

large number of freezing and thawing cycles experienced
yearly, in this Virginia test yard location. The field
data certainly reinforces previous test results reported
for freezing and thawing durability (according to ASTM
C666, procedure A), at higher silica fume admixture
dosages (20%) (3).
Task 2 of the program involved the use of silica
fume in lightweight concrete. In 1983, three lightweight
(LW) concrete mixtures were studied, each with 590 kg/m3
(1000 lbs/yd3) of portland cement and a superplasticizer.
Slump was maintained in the range of 102 to 152 mm (4 to
6 inches) and the maximum lightweight aggregate size was
19 mm (3/4 inch). LW Mixture 1 was the non-air entrained
lightweight structural concrete control. SF LW Mixture
2 had 20 percent silica fume admixture (by weight of
cement), and SF LW Mixture 3 had 20 percent silica fume
admixture (by weight of cement) and air-entrainment. The
90-day compressive strengths, rapid permeabilities and
resistivities are presented below:
Concrete Comp. Str, Charge Passed, Resistivity,
MPa (Psi) cou1ombs ohm-cm
LW1, non-AE 63.7 (9,230) 3,667 5 ,850
SF LW2, AE 62.6 (9,071) 357 54 ,100
SF LW3, non-AE 75.0 (10,880) 277 41,400
These data indicate that the addition of 20 percent
dry'silica fume by weight of cement will result in a
lightweight structural concrete of much lower
permeability and much higher resistivity. Another
lightweight aggregate concrete study was performed in
1986 using a shrinkage compensating cement and dry silica
fUme. Trial mixtures were made with lightweight
aggregate, superplasticizer and O, 10 and 20 percent
silica fume by weight of cement (388 kg/m3 [658 lbs/yd3]
of shrinkage compensating cement). Slumps ranged from
127 to 203 mm (5 to 8 inches) and all concretes were air
entrained. The properties of these concretes (strengths
at 60-days, other properties are 42-days of age) are
summarized below:
Comp. Str, Charge Passed, Wet Resistivity
Concrete MPa (Psi) cou1ombs ohm-cm
LW, AE 37.8 (5,490) 3,780 7,500
10% SF LW, AE 51.6 (7,480) 542 33,600
20% SF LW, AE 54.5 (7,878) 364 58 ,800
These data show that both 10 and 20 percent silica
fume additions by weight of cement greatly improve both

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522779 971 m
the permeability and the resistivity properties of a

shrinkage compensating cement and lightweight aggregate
concrete.
PROJECT FIELD TESTING
Task 3 of the structural concrete test program

involved quality control monitoring and outdoor exposure
of concrete cylinders cast on field projects in which dry
silica fume and a superplasticizer were incorporated in
parking deck concretes and marine loading docks
throughout the United States. Approximately 15 projects
were monitored for permeability and resistivity, over a
five-year period. Select examples are presented below.
Marine Terminal, New York
A marine transfer terminal in New York was
reconstructed in late 1986, using silica fume concrete.
This project encompassed the encapsulation and repair of
pile caps underwater, by tremie method, overlay of a ramp
roadway and tipping platform, subjected to truck traffic
and the construction of a new ramp bridge with piles,
beams and full depth roadway. The silica fume concrete
mixture proportion had a 445 kg/m3 (750 lb/yd3) cement
factor with a silica fume admixture dosage of 90 kg/m3
(165 lbs/yd3). The compressive strength averaged 78.8
Mpa (11,430 psi) at 56-days with 6% air entrainment. The
42-day charge passed on field cylinders cast in February
1988 (laboratory moist cure) averaged 183 coulombs and
the wet resistivity averaged 77,175 ohm-cm. Other
portions of these specimens were boil cured (ASTM C684)
to provide an indication of the long term permeability,
of this concrete, after additional curing time (greater
than 42-days). The average charge passed was 56 coulombs
and the average wet resistivity was 358,000 ohm-cm.
Examination of this structure in 1990 showed that both
the rehabilitated and new silica fume concretes were
performing well.
Parkinq Garase, New Jersey
A prestressed parking deck was constructed in New
Jersey in 1988. Eleven percent silica fume was utilized,
with a cement content of 388 kg/m3 (658 lb/yd3) and the
W/C+S was 0.34. The charge passed, on boil cured field
cylinders, averaged 517 coulombs and the wet resistivity
averaged 46,700 ohm-cm.
Parkinq Garaqe, Kansas Citv
A prestressed Missouri airport terminal parking

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0 5 2 2 7 8 0 693 m
garage, constructed in 1988, utilized 10.5 percent dry,

compacted silica fume. Superplasticizer was used and the
W/C+S was 0.32. The average charge passed for 32 ninety-
day field cores was 301 coulombs. The wet resistivities
were in excess of 45,000 ohm-cm.
Chemical Run-Off Channel, New York
Silica fume admixture in concrete was used in 1983
in construction of a one mile long channel at a New York
State power station. The 4.3m (14 foot) wide channel
encircled a coal storage pile (on plastic liner), and was
utilized to channel sulfuric acid run-off to a
neutralization pond. The silica fume concrete mixture
had a 441 kg/m3 (750 lb/yd3) cement factor, and a 97.4
kg/m’ (165/yd3)silica fume admixture (SF 20% by weight
of cement). Cores were extracted from the completed
structure and tested in RPT. The average charge
passed for two cores was 252 coulombs and the average wet
resistivity was 72,000 ohm-cm. Conversations with a
plant supervisor, in 1994, indicated the channel was in
good condition.
SILICA FUME GROUT
Silica fume was first considered, by the authors as
a means of decreasing the permeability and increasing the
resistivity of portland cement grouts in 1982. A
Maryland parking deck rehabilitation required the
installation and grouting of steel collars, on select
beam/column connections, because stirrup steel had not
been properly used during construction. Through the
garage‘s 10 years of service life, the prestressed beams
had shortened and were becoming separated from the
columns. Severe chloride contamination had occurred at
the beam/column connections, as a result of unauthorized
calcium chloride additions during winter construction,
and/or deicing salt leakage. The structural detail
desired was a steel collar, surrounding both the beam end
and the top portion of the column, which was bolted in
place to the existing concrete. Because of the high
concentration of steel in the concrete, preventing
electrical contact between the collar and the reinforcing
was impractical. Thus, once the grout was placed, it was
feared that the inside steel surface of the collar would
be cathodic to the reinforcing and prestressing steels,
in the structure and greatly increase their corrosion
rates. The only viable means of avoiding this was to
increase the grout resistivity to an extremely high
value. The cost of doing so with polymer mortar was
prohibitive. A commercially available non-shrink grout
(sand/cement grout) was tested and found to exhibit
low wet resistivity. Therefore, a program of modifying

A C 1 SP-It54 95 ûbb2949 0522783 52T
the grout with dry, uncompacted silica fume was

undertaken. A twenty percent dry silica fume admixture
(silica fume and a superplasticizer) was added by weight
of cement to the grout. The water content of the mixture
was adjusted for equal grout flow and tests were
conducted to determine placement time (workability l o s s
with time), strength, permeability and resistivity. A
mini-slump cone with measurements of slump and spread was
used to define workability with time. The mixture water
for equal flow and pumpability was reduced by 25 percent,
when the silica fume admixture was added. The working
time (considered as the time until 50% loss in slump or
spread) was increased, from 30 minutes for the commercial
grout, to 45 minutes for the silica fume modified grout.
The 28-day moist cured cylinder strength was 42.7 Mpa
(6,197 psi) for the commercial grout and 57.2 Mpa (8,300
psi), for the silica fume modified grout. The
permeability and resistivity findings (averages, 60-day
water cure) were as follows:
Grout Charge Passed Wet Resistivity
coulombs ohm-cm
Commercia1 14,390 3 ,400
SF Modified 116 195,000
Obviously, the silica fume admixture greatly
improved the corrosion resisting properties of the grout.
The permeability was reduced by 99 percent and the
resistivity was increased 5,700 percent (i.e. 57 times).
The modified grout was successfully used to grout all the
collars on the parking garage in 1983. The material was
prepackaged aged such that one bag of commercial sand-
cement grout, one bag of silica fume admixture and 3.8 L
(1 gallon) of water was mixed in a mortar mixer. The
mixed grout was placed in the pump hopper and pumped with
normal grouting equipment. Quality control in the field
was accomplished using "resistivity cups" ( 100ml plastic
beakers fitted with four platinum coated wires). A grout
sample was made from each batch, covered with plastic for
one day and then placed in limewater. By monitoring the
AC resistance with time and converting this to
resistivity using the experimentally determined cell
constant, it was determined that the modified grout
provided a water-cured resistivity in excess of 75,000
ohm-cm in all cases. The beam/column connections were
inspected in 1990, seven years after installation. All
collars remained in place with no signs of grout or
surrounding concrete deterioration.
A second silica fume grout project was undertaken in
1986 for the purpose of grouting prestressed tieback
anchors (in acid soil), for a highway retaining wall,

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Obb2949 0522782 4bb m
located in Virginia. Both portland cement and cement-

sand grout were studied and modified with 20 percent
silica fume and powdered superplasticizer. Approximately
87 tieback anchors, 22.9 cm (9 inches) in diameter and
15m (50 feet) long were involved in this project. Grout
consistency was defined using a flow cone time (ASTM
C939) in the range of 15 to 30 seconds. Because of the
short time span for project implementation, it was
necessary to use autogenous curing to accelerate all
tests. This was accomplished in accordance with ASTM
C684. The silica fume grout utilized superplasticizer
and had a W/C+S of 0 . 3 3 , while the control portland
cement grout had a W/C of 0.40. The average
permeabilities and resistivities of the various grouts
are given below:
Grout Charge Passed Wet Resistivity
cou1ombs ohm-cm
Portland Cement 32,097 960
20% SF + Cement 260 58,000
20% SF, Sand/Cement 134 147,000
The portland cement grout had very high permeability
and very low resistivity. A limewater cured sample at
21-days of age exhibited a charge passed of 20,600
coulombs and a resistivity of 2,900 ohm-cm. Although
slightly better, these values will provide little
protection against ingress of adverse ions and corrosion.
The high shrinkage of the portland cement grout is one
cause of the high permeability. The best grout was
obviously the 20% silica fume, sand/cement grout (2.9
sand/cement ratio by weight); probably because of reduced
shrinkage. Seven-day compressive strengths of the silica
fume grouts ranged from 44.9 (6,500) to 69 Mpa (10,000
psi). A 20% silica fume + cement grout (with
superplasticizer) was used on the field project. The 3-
day accelerated cure compressive strength of a sample
obtained from the first trial field batch was 70.7 Mpa
(10,250 psi); and the 21-day limewater cured permeability
averaged 121 coulombs. The estimated resistivity
averaged 163,000 ohm-cm at 21-days. The water for use in
this trial batch was determined manually. Quality
control on this project also involved the use of
accelerated cured resistivity specimens which gave an
early indication that a high quality grout material was
not being made. The problem was traced to a faulty water
meter, which was inputting 24 L (6.2 gallons) of water
but only registering 11.5 L ( 3 gallons) which was then
corrected. This experience emphasizes the value of using
resistivity and accelerated curing in quality control
programs.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2947 0 5 2 2 7 8 3 3T2
S I L I C A FUME SHOTCRETE
Shotcrete modified silica fume admixture (20 percent

by weight of cement) was used to repair beam and column
damage as a result of corrosion, induced by magnesium
chloride manufacturing, in a Texas chemical plant. In
1983, cores were obtained from the completed project and
the permeability and resistivity were defined. The
average charge passed (3 specimens) was 128 coulombs , and
the average wet resistivity was 184,000 ohm-cm.
Conventional shotcrete tested in another program
exhibited an average charge passed of 6,800 coulombs and
an average wet resistivity of 2,750 ohm-cm (2).
Obviously, shotcrete durability properties, in adverse
chloride environments, are improved greatly when 20%
silica fume is used. A check with the company engineer
in 1993, showed that the column and beam members,
repaired with silica fume shotcrete, have performed well
(over 10 years), with no additional repair required. A
large shotcrete test program was completed in April 1991,
which evaluated different silica fume product forms, for
both wet and dry shotcrete (2). Parameters measured
were; shooting characteristics, plastic properties,
strength, shrinkage, absorption, permeability and
resistivity.
FHWA SILICA FUME CONCRETE TEST PROGRAM
Silica fume concrete overlays were included in the

United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)Time-
to-Corrosion Rehabilitation studies in 1984 (4,5,6). The
original 1.86 m2 (20 sq. ft.) Time-to-Corrosion slabs
were cast, in 1971, as part of the FHWA research program
to combat premature bridge deck deterioration. The slabs
were salted daily, with 3 percent sodium chloride
solution, for several years and then monitored throughout
the 1 9 7 0 ' s . At nine years of age, the 0.50 water-cement
ratio slabs, with 25.4 mm (one inch) cover, all exhibited
corrosion damage in the form of rust staining, cracking,
delamination and spalling. The slabs originally
contained only a top mat of reinforcing steel. To
facilitate use in rehabilitation studies, a bottom mat of
steel in salt free concrete (W/C = 0.50) was added, as
weil as, select instrumentation (resistivity monitoring
and rate of corrosion probes). All delaminations and
spalls were patched with 0.50 W/C concrete or mortar and
then, various rehabilitation overlays, membranes and
sealers were placed on all slabs, except for select
controls. The effect of the rehabilitations, on
continued corrosion in the originally sound, but salt
laden concrete, has been monitored. The measurements
include macrocell corrosion current, half cell potential
and resistance and temperature, as well as visual and

A C 1 SP-154 95 W 0bb2949 0522784 239 M
delamination surveys. In 1980, the original

rehabilitation series was initiated. This included latex
modified concrete (cracked and uncracked), lowW/C (0.32)
conventional concrete, 0.45 W/C conventional concrete and
internally sealed concrete overlays. Silica fume
concrete overlays were added in 1984.
The silica fume (twenty percent by weight of cement)
concrete was made using dry, uncompacted silica fume and
superplasticizer. The cement content was 441 kg/m (750
lbs/cy) and a vinsol resin air entraining agent was used
to provide a six percent entrained air. The coarse
aggregate was Riverton limestone, 12.7 mm (1/2 inch)
maximum size meeting AASHTO M43 size no. 7. The overlays
were 50.8 mm (two inches) thick and were placed, onto the
damp concrete surface, after placement of a cement slurry
bonding agent. The overlay concrete was consolidated
using a vibrating screed, wood floated, broomed and cured
for 3-days, using wet burlap and plastic. Two Time-to-
Corrosion slabs were overlaid. Rapid permeability tests,
at 35-days of age on cores (four total) , from field cured
companion slabs, averaged 520 coulombs and the
resistivity averaged 41,000 ohm-cm. After 2.5 years of
exposure at the FHWA outdoor test facility, in McLean,
Virginia, the overlays were evaluated for soundness,
permeability, resistivity and bond strength. Three cores
containing overlay and base concrete were obtained from
each slab. No delaminations, or overlay debonding had
occurred, on either of the silica fume concrete slabs.
No freezing and thawing or other damage was seen, except
for very small, short shrinkage cracks which had formed
during curing. The cracks had not increased in size or
severity since the curing was removed 2.5 years earlier.
The charge passed, averaged 92 coulombs with 5 of the 6
specimens yielding values of less than 100 coulombs. The
average wet resistivity was 22,000 ohm-cm. The overlay
bond was evaluated in shear. Shear breaks were preformed
at the bond line, in the original base concrete, and in
the silica fume concrete. The findings are summarized
below.
Shear Plane Shear Strength, Mpa (psi)
Average Range
Base concrete 7.4 (1,075) 6.5-8.6 (942 to 1,250)
Bond line 8.5 (1,238) 8.0-9.5 (1,159 to 1,377)
SF concrete 8.4 (1,214) 6.4-10.6 (942 to 1,540) I
These data indicate that the overlay bond strength

was excellent and greater than the shear strength of the
underlying concrete.
Visual examinations , at 3.5 and 7.5 years , indicated

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0522785 175 I
that the overlays were in excellent condition. The small

shrinkage cracks had not extended or enlarged and no
freezing and thawing damage was present. Interestingly,
during both surveys, the overlays on many of the other
slabs (latex and conventional concrete) showed full
length cracks over the top mat rebars in the original
salty concrete, probably the result of continued
corrosion; while the silica fume overlay slabs did not.
Thus, although the silica fume concrete overlay does not
halt corrosion of the steel in the underlying concrete,
it does seem to physically resist the forces of continued
corrosion for a longer time than that provided by the
other overlay concretes which were tested.
Conclusions:
1. Concretes made with 10 to 22 percent silica fume by

weight of portland cement exhibit:
Very high strength
Negligible or very low permeability
Very high electrical resistivity
Excellent bond strength
Excellent freezing and thawing durability, and
provide excellent protection to embedded reinforcing
steel in adverse salt environments. As these materials
age they become even stronger, lower in permeability and
higher in resistivity.
2. Concretes (normal and lightweight), grouts, and.
shotcrete, which contain from 10 to 22 percent silica
fume (by weight of cement) have been successfully used in
both new construction and in rehabilitation efforts, for
over 10 years in the United States. The resultant
materials provide the best cementitious product available
for adverse environments. Although some special
construction precautions are required because of the very
small amount of bleed water and the overall cohesiveness
of the mix, these have not prevented implementations,
from either technological or cost standpoints.
References:
1. Wolsiefer, J.T., Sr., SP 126-28, "Silica Fume
Concrete: A Solution to Steel Reinforcement
Corrosion in Concrete" Second CANMET/ACI
International Conference on Durability of Concrete,
August 1991.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0bb2949 052278b 001
2. Wolsiefer, J.T., Sr., and Morgan, D.R., llSilica

Fume in Shotcrete", Second CANMET/ACI International
Workshop on The Use of Silica Fume in Concrete,
Washington, D.C. April 1991.
3. Wolsiefer, J.T., Sr., "Ultra High Strength Field
Placeable Concrete With Silica Fume Admixture11,
Concrete International, April 1984.
4. Clear, K.C. and Hay, R.E., FHWA Report No. FHWA-RD-
73-32, Time-To-Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete Slabsr1,Vol. 1. "Effect of Mix Design and
Construction Parameters1!, April 1973 Interim
Report.
5. Clear, K.C., FHWA Report No. FHWA-RD-76-70,Time-
To-Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
Slabs, Vol. 3. "Performance After 830 Daily Salt
Applications", April 1976 Interim Report.
6. Hay, R.E. and Virmani, Y.P., IlNorth American
Experience in Concrete Bridge Deterioration and
Maintenance". Published as Proceedings of the
British Concrete Society 1985.

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A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522790 5 3 2 9
SP 154-32
Specification for Silica Fume

for Use in Concrete
by T. C. Holland
Synopsis: Silica fume has been available commercially

in the United States for over ten years. Until
recently, there has not been a well-accepted consensus
specification for it. This paper deals with the
question of a specification for silica fume for use in
concrete by reviewing the following areas:
a. ASTM and AASHTO efforts to develop a
specification for silica fume are described. The
author's comments on these documents are presented.
b. The status of international efforts to develop
silica-fume specifications i s reviewed. Work from
Australia, Canada, Norway, R I L E M , South Africa, and
other European countries is reviewed to indicate the
direction that is being taken outside the United
States.
c. Recommendations, based upon the author's
experience with silica fume since its introduction to
the United States, for what a specification for silica
fume for use in concrete should include are presented.
The use o f silica fume is increasing every year.
Some engineers, particularly those in public agencies,
have been hesitant to use the material because o f the
lack of a standard specification. Most engineers
wanting to use silica fume have developed their own
specification for silica fume with provisions that may
have little or no relationship to the performance of
the material in concrete. A consensus needs to be
established in order to increase the confidence of
specifiers wanting to use silica fume.
Keywords: Concretes; silica fume; specifications
607
AC1 SP-I54 95 m 0662949 0522791 479 m
608 Holland
Dr. Terence C. Holland, FACI, is Director of

Engineering, Admixture Division, Master Builders,
Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. He is past chairman of AC1
Committee 234. Silica Fume in Concrete.
INTRODUCTION
Silica fume has been commercially available in the

United States for over ten years. During most of that
time, there has not been a widely-accepted consensus
specification for silica fume for use in concrete.
ASTM has worked on a specification for nearly the
entire time the product has been available resulting
in the publication in 1993 of ASTM C 1240, "Standard
Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-
Cement Concrete and Mortar" C i l . AASHTO has also
published a specification, but it has not been widely
used. While the lack of a specification has not
significantly limited the use of the material, it has
led to a wide range of individual project
specifications, with different requirements.
Specifiers have general ly addressed the lack o f a
specification by citing their perceived requirements
for silica fume on a project-by-project basis. This
practice has led to some very strange requirements,
most of which have little or nothing to do with the
performance of the silica fume in concrete. The most
frequently specified property has been a minimum
silicon dioxide (Si0 ) content, with values ranging
from 85 to 94 percenf being typical. Values toward
the upper end of this range have been driven by
silica-fume producers who have been attempting to
secure an exclusive specification for a given project
babed upon the SiOz content of their material.
The following requirements are from a
specification that was bid not long before this paper
was written (note the lack of criteria for any of the
parameters to be measured):
For dry silica fume: Chemical analysis in
percent by weight, specific surface and pH
for each lot of silica fume used in any part
of this project. ... ...
slurried silica fume)
(Approved products are
Dry silica fume is
not considered equal unless verification of
uniform mixing, water demand in hot weather,

A C 1 SP-I154 95 O662949 0522792 305
and compatibility of silica fume and

proposed admixtures and cement demonstrate
no adverse cracking potential or accelerated
set or adverse heat gain.
For silica fume supplied in a slurry: Lot
number, percent of solids in slurry,
shipping date, and destination. (There are
further provisions regarding agitating
slurried silica fume.)
In another case, the specifier required that a
complete chemical analysis of the silica fume
accompany each shipment. Since there are no limits
given in either case for any of the properties that
were specified, what constitutes a failure according
to these specifications? There is no reason to
believe that concrete performance will be enhanced or
that possible problems will be alleviated by
specifications such as those cited.
To preclude further instances of this type of
specification and to allow for future growth in the
use of silica fume, the time has come for the
development of a meaningful specification. The
question becomes what should be included in a
specification for silica fume for use in concrete?
Such a specification can essentially take one of t w o
approaches: the first approach is to measure physical
or chemical characteristics of the material, which may
or may not relate directly to performance in concrete,
but which are easily measured and which will serve to
legitimize the material in the commercial market
place. The second approach is to identify only
factors which have a direct impact on performance. A
recent R I L E M committee report [i?] on specifying
siliceous by-products for use in concrete noted:
Since there is little correlation
between the oxide analysis of a mineral
admixture and its performance in concrete,
it was decided that no useful purpose would
be served by inclusion o f such data in this
report. ...
Current standards contain
numerous physical and chemical requirements
that do not serve a useful purpose. Whereas
some requirements are needed for ensuring a
batch-to-batch uniformity, many are
unnecessary. They pretend to, but in
reality do not, provide a basis for
predicting the performance of concrete
containing the material.

A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522793 241
610 Holland
Unfortunately, most efforts to date toward

developing a specification for silica fume have been
of the nature described by the RILEM report.
An added complication to preparing a specification
for silica fume stems from the process by which the
material is produced and collected. The production of
silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys i5 a continuous
process -- the furnaces are operated 24 hours a day,
356 days a year. except for necessary furnace
maintenance. Additionally, in many smelters. the
silica-fume collection system may serve more than one
furnace. Because of these considerations, it is
difficult or impossible to assign traceable lot
designations to the silica fume during production.
A second complication arises from the fact that
as-produced silica fume is rarely used in concrete.
Instead, the material is used in the dry compacted or
slurried form. During the production of these end-
user forms of silica fume, it is also difficult or
impossible to track, with any certainty, the location
of a given quantity of silica fume. F o r example, a
supplier of dry compacted silica fume may sample the
as-produced material as it is being transported to the
compaction silo. Operation of an air-compaction silo
is a semi-continuous process in that the silo is
filled, the material inside is compacted, and a
portion of the compacted material is removed.
However, a significant amount of material remains in
the silo as a seed for the next batch. Thus, it 5
very difficult to say when the silica fume coming out
of the silo was actually produced. A similar
situation exists for slurried silica fume.
A final complication may arise if the smelter
operator changes the product being produced in a
particular furnace. While such changes are usual Y
infrequent, efforts to prepare
. . a standard
specification for silica fume must take the potential
for such changes into account.
Initial planning by the ASTM task group working on
the standard specification for silica fume was to
overcome the product form complications by first
developing a specification for as-produced silica fume
and then developing specifications for the various
product forms. Unfortunately, the first part of the
process has taken a very long time to complete and
there doesn't seem to be any activity toward
developing the individual product form specifications.
As a result. some specifiers are applying the
specification that was developed for as-produced

A C 1 SP-II54 95 IOb62949 0522794 188
silica fume to as-delivered silica-fume products.

This paper first reviews what is believed to have
been the first specification for silica fume in the
United States. Next, the ASTM and AASHTO standards
for silica fume are discussed. Then, specifications
and recommendations from outside the United States are
reviewed. Finally, the author’s recommendations for
the content o f a silica-fume specification are given.
FIRST SPECIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES
The first major, publicly-bid, silica-fume

concrete project in the United States for which a
specification was prepared was the rehabilitation of
the stilling basin of Kinzua Dam by the U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers in 1983 [3]. Based upon research
conducted at the Waterways Experiment Station (WES),
the Corps decided to use high-strength silica-fume
concrete to repair abrasion-erosion damage at this
structure [4]. The concrete itself was specified with
a minimum and maximum cement content, a minimum
silica-fume content, a maximum water-cement ratio, and
a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 12,500 psi
(86 MPa). These provisions were intended to require
the production of a concrete that would have similar
abrasion resistance as concretes that had been
developed and tested in the laboratory.
Development of this project specification also
required that the silica fume itself be specified CS].
Because of the possibility that the silica fume for
the project would be delivered as part of a
proprietary product that also contained chemical
admixtures, the Corps decided to specify the elements
o f such a product separately. Chemical admixtures,
whether they were delivered separately or as part of a
proprietary combination product, were required to meet
ASTM C 494 [6]. The silica fume was cited as a
mineral admixture with the requirements as given
below:
Moisture content: Maximum of 3.0 percent
Loss on Ignition: Maximum of 6.0 percent
SiO2 content: Minimum of 85 percent
Fineness: Minimum o f 2 0 . 0 0 0 m2/kg at
a bed porosity o f 0 . 5 0 .

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0bb2949 0522’795 014
612 Holland
The f i r s t t h r e e items were t o be t e s t e d i n

accordance w i t h t h e methods found i n ASTM C 3 1 1 [ 7 ]
w h i l e t h e f i n e n e s s was t o be t e s t e d i n accordance w i t h
ASTM C 204 [ S I . The values f o r m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t and
f o r l o s s on i g n i t i o n were t a k e n d i r e c t l y from those
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r o t h e r t y p e s o f m i n e r a l admixtures i n
ASTM C 618 CS].
The values f o r Si02 c o n t e n t and s u r f a c e area were

a r r i v e d a t i n a somewhat a r b i t r a r y manner. An ongoing
research program a t WES a t t h e t i m e i n v o l v e d t h e
review o f a number o f d i f f e r e n t s i l i c a fumes from
d i f f e r e n t sources i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Based upon
t h e m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e fumes from t h e
d i f f e r e n t sources, t h e value o f 8 5 percent was
accepted as b e i n g a reasonable lower l e v e l f o r t h e
specification. T h i s d e c i s i o n was made p r i m a r i l y on
a v a i l a b i l i t y concerns r a t h e r t h a n performance data.
The same approach was taken f o r t h e s u r f a c e area o f
t h e s i l i c a fume. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e
o r i g i n a l recommen a t i o n f o r s i l i c a - f u m e s u r f a c e area
9
was o n l y 10.000 m /kg, b u t t h a t number was changed
s i n c e it was thought t o b e t o o low when compared t o
p u b l i s h e d values. It must be understood t h a t these
values f o r s u r f a c e area were based upon a i r -
permeability testing. F u r t h e r work i n t h i s area has
shown t h a t s u r f a c e area o f s i l i c a fume must be
determined u s i n g a s u r f a c e a d s o r p t i o n technique.
These o r i g i n a l l i m i t s were chosen i n an a r b i t r a r y

manner w i t h o u t any p a r t i c u l a r data t o suggest t h a t t h e
values would be s i g n i f i c a n t . The i n t e n t was s i m p l y t o
o b t a i n a s i l i c a fume w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same
parameters as t h a t used i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g t o
develop t h e concrete m i x t u r e s t h a t showed s i g n i f i c a n t
abrasion resistance. These same values have c o n t i n u e d
t o show up i n many o t h e r p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e
years since.
ASTM EFFORTS
A t about t h e same t i m e t h a t t h e p r o j e c t a t Kinzua

Dam was b e i n g completed, a Task Group was s e t up
w i t h i n Subcommittee C-9.03.10 o f Committee C-9 o f
ASTM. T h i s i s t h e subcommittee w i t h j u r i s d i c t i o n over
ASTM C 618 [SI, which i s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r mineral
admixtures and which i s t h e l o g i c a l p l a c e f o r s i l i c a
fume t o be considered. A t an e a r l y stage i n t h e
e f f o r t , t h e i n t e n t was t o i n c l u d e s i l i c a fume i n t h e
C 618 [ 9 ] document as a separate c l a s s o f p o z z o l a n i c
material. T h i s approach was defeated and t h e d e c i s i o n

A C 1 SP-154 95 = ObbLl949 0522776 T50 W
was made to prepare a stand-alone specification.

After sixteen drafts, the silica-fume standard,
C was adopted with the major provisions shown
1240 [ i ]
in Table i . Discussion of the elements in the table
fol lows:
a. Chemical requirements: The limits given for
moisture content and loss on ignition come directly
from C 618 CS]. The minimum limit for SiO2 content is
the traditional 85 percent, which, as stated earlier,
has little technical basis as a performance-related
criterion.
b. Optional chemical requirements: The
requirement for available alkalies also comes from
C 618 [ 9 ] . There is little information available in
the literature regarding alkali content of silica
fume. There is ample data [ l o , i l ] available to
support the use of silica fume as an approach to
controlling expansion due to reactive silica
aggregates. I f silica fume is being used in a
situation in which alkali-silica reactivity is a
concern, it may be appropriate to require that the
alkali content be reported.
c. Physical requirements: The requirement for
oversize i s appropriate; however, the limit i s too
high. This test is simply a check to insure that the
silica fume is not contaminated by extraneous
materials such as unburned coal, quartz particles,
wood chip remnants, or rust from the dust-collection
system itself.
The accelerated-activity test is not particularly
helpful since it. is well established that silica fume
i5 a very reactive pozzolan. Repeating this test is
not going to provide any new information or protection
for the buyer.
The uniformity requirements may be o f assistance
in noting batch-to-batch variations. However, minor
changes in density of silica fume, given the typically
small quantity used in a given volume o f concrete,
will not have any particularly noticeable effect on
concrete yield. F o r example, variations in density o f
silica fume by plus or minus 25 percent would yield a
difference in yield of less than 0.5 percent. The
requirement limiting variations in oversize may be
beneficial; the allowable variation must be in proper
proportion to the maximum allowable amount of
overs i ze.

A C 1 SP-154 95 W Obb2949 0522797 9 9 7 W
614 Holland
d. Optional physical requirements: The

requirement for drying shrinkage seems to be
meaningless. The test is to be performed without any
water-reducing admixture, which is not representative
of any actual use of the material. There is no
information that will be gained that has any known
relationship to performance in concrete.
The requirements for specific surface were added
to the draft specification only in later drafts.
During the development of this specification, there
was considerable discussion regarding inclusion of
requirements that were thought to be meaningful but
that were not readily measurable by the user of the
material. Surface area is a prime example. Since the
accepted technique for surface area measurement is
nitrogen adsorption (ASTM C 1069 C123). and since that
is not a teit method that many consumers of silica
fume have readily available, the question of surface
area has been moved to a level of lesser importance.
The author is at a loss to expl in the significance of
an upper limit on surface area.f
Reactivity with alkalies has been discussed above.
If silica fume is being considered for use to mitigate
alkali-silica reactivity, testing with project
materials is mandatory to define performance.
The use of silica fume to reduce expansion caused
by sulfate attack has been documented in the
literature. There remains some controversy regarding
the effectiveness of silica fume in this role for all
types o f sulfates [13, 141. Meaningful information
will only be obtained if testing Ss conducted using
concrete made from project materials and exposed to
project sulfate conditions.
An unusual aspect of the ASTM standard appears in
a paragraph on packaging and package marking. This
section requires that the "specific source
(metallurgical process and furnace)" be marked on bags
and invoices. This requirement is being widely
ignored in practice.
1. One reviewer of this paper suggested that a

possible purpose for the upper limit on surface area
was to limit the amount o f high-range water-reducing
admixture needed to compensate for the water that
would otherwise be needed to wet an excessively fine
powder.

A C 1 SP-154 95 = Obb29LI7 0522778 823
AASHTO EFFORTS
AASHTO got a little ahead of ASTM and actually

published a standard specification for silica fume, M
307 [ 1 5 ] , in 1990. The provisions of this
specification are given in Table 2. Discussion of the
elements in the table follows:
a. Chemical requirements: The same comments
apply for SiO2 content as stated earlier for the ASTM
specification. The limit on sulfur trioxide (SO ) is
a new twist. As Mehta [161 pointed out, silica ?Ume
is not known to contain sulfates, so the inclusion of
this requirement is not necessary. AASHTO is slightly
more liberal than ASTM in its allowance for loss on
i gni t ion.
b. Optional chemical requirements: Moisture

content and available alkalies have been discussed
earlier for the ASTM specification.
c. Physical requirements: The requirement here
for fineness is based on the use of a 25-pm sieve. if
the average size of a silica-fume particle is 0.1 $m,
then the openings in this sieve are 250 times larger
than an average silica-fume particle. This test is
actually a measure of oversize and not fineness.
Unlike the ASTM specification, AASHTO allows O percent
retained, although the footnote seems to allow for 0.5
percent oversize.
The AASHTO pozzolanic activity requirement is 100
percent at 7 and 28 days. The same comments from the
ASTM discussion above apply.
A requirement for soundness is also included.
There are no constituents in silica fume to cause
expansion, so the reason for inclusion of this
requirement is unclear.
The same comments regarding uniformity as
determined for specific gravity and fineness also
apply here.
d. Optional physical requirements: The numbers
vary a little from those in the ASTM specification.
The doubtful value of the information provided
rema i ns.
e. Other: In addition to the provisions in the
table this specification attempts to make a
distinction between silica fume and "microsilica".

A C 1 SP-154 95 W O662949 0522799 76T
616 Holland
ASTM and AC1 have decided to accept silica fume as the

term for this material. "Microsilica" was originally
a marketing term which is now also widely accepted as
a generic name. The author is not aware o f any
difference in these materials. For example, one of
the major admixture suppliers in the United States
markets silica fume from a given smelter. The other
major admixture supplier markets "microsilica" which
comes from exactly the same furnaces at the same
smelter. AASHTO's attempts to differentiate between
the two materials is simply a confusing element.
The AASHTO specification is also somewhat outdated
and confused in its attempt to address product form:
"This specification details requirements and tests to
be performed on the dry material, including the dry
compacted form, before being processed into slurry
form." Dry compacted silica fume is not processed
into slurry. Dry compacted silica fume has been
rejected on projects because it will not pass the 25-
ym sieve requirement of this specification.
SPECIFICATIONS OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES
Silica fume use is expanding rapidly outside the

United States and specifications have been developed
in a number of countries. Table 3 is a compilation of
the physical and chemical requirements from these
specifications. Table 4 is a compilation of sampling
frequency requirements from these specifications.
Austral ia
The Australian standard [ i 7 1 is the newest of the
standards reviewed for this paper. The Australian
authors have obviously taken advantage o f the work
that predated their efforts.
The requirements for Si02 content, moisture
content, and loss on ignition are typical. Both the
Cio2 content and the loss on ignition can be violated
"providing the supplier o f that silica fume
demonstrates that the silica fume behaves
satisfactorily as a supplementary cementitious
material with regard to water demand and compressive
strength as appropriate."
This standard does include a mandatory maximum
limit on SO3 of 3 percent. Alkalies are to be
reported if "alkali-aggregate" reaction is considered

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522800 201 m
likely. Reporting chloride-ion content is a mandatory

r-equirenient while reporting surface area (gas
adsorpt.ion) is optional. This standard also requires
that the relative water requirement and the relative
strength be determined and be reported. Both of these
tests at-e based upon comparisons made with standard
portland-cement mortars with and without silica fume.
There are several interesting aspects of the
Australian standard dealing with the product form of
the silica fume.
-- The differences among undensified (as-
produced), slurried, and densified (dry compacted)
silica fume are recognized with respect to the
relative water demand.and relative strength
requirement s .
-- Definitions are given for the various product
forms of si 1 cd fume. Densified i3 defined as having
a density o f greater than 400 kg/m .
Pelletized
silica fume s defined as well. A note warns against
using pellet zed material unless it is treated by a
"spec i a 1 i zed de-pel letizing process."
-- A wari ins is siven in a note that "Treated
forms o f si 1 ica-fume-general ly behave less effectively
than the parent untreated si 1 ica fume." Treated forms
apparently refer to dry compacted or slurried
material.
Canada
The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) issued a
standard, "Supplementary Cementing Materials" [18], in
1986 that includes silica fume. CSA elected t o cover
all supplementary cementing materials in one document,
with silica fume being included as "Type U." This
document defines silica fume as material coming from
the production of silicon or a ferrosilicon alloy
containing at least 75 percent silicon. However,
there is a provision that allows for the use of silica
fume from furnaces producing alloys with a lower
silicon content if the performance of that silica fume
is shown to be acceptable ttirough appropriate testing.
A s can be seen in Table 3 , there is little in this
document that is unusual. Much of what originally
appeared in this Canadian standard later was adopted
by AASHTO dnd ASTM.

A C 1 SP-II54 95 I0662747 0522803 1 4 8 =
618 Holland
Norway
At least two standards covering the use of silica
fume in concrete have been developed in Norway. The
first covers the requirements for silica fume itself
while the second covers the actual use in concrete.
Values from the first standard [i91 are included in
Table 3.
This standard does address the product form by
stating that three forms are available: natural state,
densified, and slurry. Unlike the Australian
standard, no minimum bulk density for the densified
form i s given.
The properties and limits in the Norwegian
standard are similar to those seen in other documents.
One interesting new wrinkle is the limit on the amount
of chloride which is handled as follows: if the silica
fume has a chloride content by mass of less than 0 . 1
percent, the material may be termed "chloride free."
If the chloride content is greater than this limit,
the actual value must be declared.
The Norwegian standard does recognize the
importance of surface area and require the use of a
surface adsorption techn'que to make the measurement.
The value selected, 12 m 5 /g is somewhat lower than
other values that have been cited.
The most significant aspect of the Norwegian
specification is the way in which the various physical
and chemical limits (termed "characteristic values")
are handled. "Compliance with a characteristic value
is assessed by means of a statistical control
procedure." It further states statistical parameters
foi- cornpl iance:
a. "The characteristic values specified shall
correspond to the 10 percent fractile."
b. "The confidence level shall be 95 percent for
all of the properties dealt with in this standard."
RILEM
R I L E M Technical Committee 73-SEC prepared a

document, "Siliceous By-products for Use in Concrete"
[ Z ] . which covers all types of siliceous materials
including silica fume. These materiais are classified
by degree of reactivity or cernentitious behavior:
cementitious, cementitious and pozzolanic, highly ,

A C 1 SP-I154 95 Obb2949 0522802 084 =
pozzolanic (includes silica fume), normal pozzolanic,

and others.
As is shown in Table 3 , the RILEM committee listed
the properties or characteristics thought important
for each material. Values were not assigned for these
properties. For silica fume, the following properties
were recommended as being critical: loss on ignition,
moisture content, fineness (using a gas adsorption
technique), water required for standard consistency,
and activity index. The RILEM committee noted that
test methods for the standard consistency and activity
index need to be developed.
~-
South Africa
The South African Standard [ 2 0 ] also contains no
surprises. The properties specified and the limits
shown are fairly typical, as can be seen in Table 3.
There i s no mention of surface area in this standard.
This standard does include ari interesting
reference to product form: “This part of the
specification covers, in addition to the material in
powder form, only densified material which will, when
tested in accordance with the relevant test methods
given in this part of the specification, so readily
disperse in water or in an aqueous solution that it
deconglomerates to a powder form.“ Dry compacted
silica fume will not typically disperse simply by
putting it in water.
A limit is established for equivalent sodium oxide
content when the silica fume is to be used to reduce
alkali-silica reaction. A discussion in an appendix
t o the standard outlines additional testing and
recommendations for this application.
The South African Standard does include a
requirement t o test for pozzolanicity using a lime-
reactivity test method. An absolute requirement for
compressive strength of 5 MPa is used rather than a
comparison with a control. Apparently, “relatively
little use is made o f the test by the local supplier
of silica furne, having established that their source
meets the specified requirements.” 1
1. Private communication, Graham Grieve, Portland

Cement Institute, South Africa.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662947 0522803 T 1 O
620 Holland
Other European Countries

In 1992 Fidjestol published [ Z l ] a summary of
European standards for silica fume. A copy of one of
the tables from that paper is provided as Table 5. As
has been seen so far, there is certainly no agreement
on significant properties or on limits for properties
by the standards bodies represented in the table.
However, two interesting items may be found in this
table. First, France has apparently established two
classes of silica fume that differ from one another in
Sioz content, calcium oxide content, and surface area.
Second, France and Germany have established upper
i imits on specific surface for sil ica fume of 3 5 m'/y
and 2 5 m'/g, respectively.
DISCUSSION
As can be seen from the information presented so

far, there i s a wide range of properties that have
been determined by one group or another as being
important for the use of silica fume in concrete.
Unfortunately, there does not appear to be i3 consensus
on either the properties or the limits for these
properties. There is also strong disagreement on the
part of the RILEM Committee regarding whether some of
the recommended testing has any meaning for silica
fume at all.
Mehta [is] recommended that either a minimum S i o z
content limit or an activity index should be included
in a specification for silica fume. He contends that
specifying both is redundant. However, he does not
provide any guidance for limits for either of these
properties.
Pistilli and Co-workers [ 2 2 , 233 have shown that
silica fume varies little from a given source. They
recommended that testing of Si0 content and surface
I
area be used to qualify silica Fume for use in
concrete. Their work implies that extensive testing ,!
of chemical properties is neither justified nor
necessary.
Nebesar and Carette [ 2 4 ] , testing silica fume from
a Canadian source, also found minimal within-source
variations for fume from a silicon furnace and from a
ferrosilicon furnace.
The question of fineness or surface area seems to
be confused in some of these specifications. A

A C 1 SP-154 95 IObb2949 0522804 957 W
meaningful determination of surface area for silica

fume can only be obtained by a surface adsorption
technique and any attempt to do so using a sieve is
meaningless. However, the use of a 45-ym sieve to
determine oversize is beneficial. The use o f a 25-pm
sieve, which is not typically found in most
laboratories, provides no additional information.
Testing for performance characteristics of silica
fume that are documented in the literature such as
reduction of alkali-silica expansion or protection
against sulfate attack or pozzolanic activity is
redundant. The general nature of the performance of
silica fume in these areas has been established. For
a specific application, the pozzolanic contribution of
silica fume or the degree of protection afforded can
only be meaningfully measured by testing using
concrete made from project materials and tested under
project conditions.
Similarly, testing for problems potentially
present in portland cement or fly ash, but unreported
for silica fume, appears to unnecessary.
As can be seen in Table 4, there is essentially as
much variation regarding sampling and testing
frequency as there is for physical and chemical
properties. Sampling frequency ranges from 100 Mg to
3,000 Mg, depending upon the property being tested.
Given the relatively small quantities of silica fume
that are actually used on a particular project, the
tendency to date has been to "over sample" leading to
truck-by-truck sampling in some cases. The approach
currently used by one supplier of silica fume in the
United States i s to provide a "mi11 certificate" on a
shipment-by-shipment basis for bulk as-produced or
bulk dry compacted silica fume and on a specified lot
size for bagged materials.
Given the level of experience that has been
developed using silica fume and the lack of failures
or rejections based upon silica fume variability, it
seems appropriate to adopt a more liberal sampling
policy in future standards. Establishing an
appropriate sampling frequency is not an easy task
given the complications of furnace operations and
collection systerns. Sampling frequency established
for one silica fume source may not be appropriate for
another source.

A C 1 SP-154 95 0662949 0522805 893
622 Holland
RECOMMENDATION5 FOR A SPECIFICATION
It is important at this point to take a step back

and look at the bigger picture -- what exactly should
a specification for silica fume provide? The answer
tias three parts (note that a complete silica fume
specification must address all three portions):
1. Assurance that the material being supplied as
silica fume is in fact similar to the silica fume that
has been tested extensively, used on other projects,
and described at length in the literature. This
assurance primarily addresses the as-produced silica
fume. This assurance may also be thought of in terms
of qualifying a specific source of silica fume.
2. Assurance that the silica fume is consistent

from delivery to delivery t o the user. This assurance
primarily addresses silica-fume products. Testing to
meet this portion of the specification should, if
possible, be such that it can be repeated at the
consumer site.
3. Any specification for silica fume must include

the option to invoke an "escape clause" to allow
material not meeting a particular limit to be used
given satisfactory performance in the desired
application.
Frequency of sampling will remain a trade-off
regarding the uncertainty of dealing with a relatively
new material versus its being the by-product of a very
tightly controlled metallurgical process. The nature
of the testing proposed addresses this concern.
It is now appropriate to make recommendations for
a silica-fume specification meeting the requirements
described above. Note that explanatory notes are
included in brackets for all specified items. The
idea that all testing must be o f a nature that it may
be done by the consumer has been rejected. Therefore,
much of the following is o f such a nature that the
qualities must be shown as appropriate on a
certification sheet. A specification for silica fume
for use in concrete should address the following
i tems :
As-produced silica fume
A specification for'as-produced silica fume must

be based upon a statistical sampling program along the

A C 1 SP-154 95 = 0662947 0522806 72T
lines of that presented in the Norwegian standard.

The sampl irig frequency wi 1 1 have to be determined for
each source of silica fume to be meaningful for the
production at that source. Data should be based upon
a rolling 12 month testing program. Not al1 items
listed below need be tested with the same frequency.
Testing should allow answering the following questions
with the desired degree of certainty. I f the answer
to all of ttiese questions is yes, then the material is
in fact silica fume as has been marketed to date in
the United States and elsewhere. It is doubtful that
a material that meets these requirements will not
perform as anticipated.
1. Is the material a by-product from the
production of silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys?
[There have been attempts to market materials other
than by-products of electric-arc furnaces as silica
fume. There have also been attempts to market fumes
collected from alloys of silicon containing elements
ott,er than i ron and si I icon. 3
2. Is the SiO2 content greater than 79 percent?

[Recent testing done at CANMETl has shown no
siynificarit difference in mechanical properties or
durability characteristics for concretes made with
silica fume with SiO2 content within the range of 79
to 9 5 percent. Silica fume with a SiO2 content lower
than 79 percent must be allowed given appropriate test
data. ]
3. Is the surface area greater than 15,000 m 2 /kg?

[Surface area is a key determinant of performance.
Again, there is no “magic numQer” that guarantees
performance. Again, 15.000 mL/kg seems to be a
reasonable minimum. Silica fume with a surface area
content lower than 15,000 m2/kg should be al lowed
given appropriate test data.]
4. Is the material non-crystalline within the
limits of X-ray diffraction detection? [The material
must be non-crystalline to react in concrete. The
non-crystallinity is usually cited as the reason why
there is no serious health threat from silica fume.
1. Wolsiefer, Sivasundaram, Carrett. and Malhotra,

“Performance of Concretes Incorporating Various Forms
of Silica Fume,” Presented at the Third CANMET/ACI
International Conference on Durability o f Concrete,
Nice, 1994. This paper is included in the proceedings
of the current conference.

A C 1 SP-154 95 m Ob62949 O522807 bbb m
624 Holland
Very fine silica materials which are derived from

sources other than electric-arc furnaces often are
cryst.al1 irle.]
5. Does the material contain less than 5 percent
oversize when tested on the 45-pm sieve? [The
oversize consists of materials such as wood, quartz,
and coal particles which are not consumed in the
furnace and which are carried through the dust
collection systems along with the silica fume. The
limit is only to insure that there is not an excessive
amount of this material .I
6. Does the material have an loss on ignition of
less than 6 percent? [Loss on ignition is important
for determining air-entraining admixture demand and
consistency of such demand. The limit is taken
directly from that for fly ash.]
7. What are the values for the following: density,
chloride content. equivalent alkali content? [These
values should be reported for the user who may have a
requirement, but no limits need be set.]
Compliance with these requirements can be verified
by certification. Variability of all parameters will
be addressed by the statistical nature of the testing
program. Standard deviations or other measures of
uniformity can be reported.
Silica-fume products
Frequency of testing for properties of silica fume
products remains a concern given the small amounts of
silica fume used on most projects. However, given the
relatively straight-forward nature of the testing
proposed, it would not be impractical to test on a
shipment-by-shipment basis for bulk materials. Bagged
or drummed materials should be sampled on a reasonable
frequency to represent a designated lot.
The following items may be included, as necessary
(note that these properties may be tested for by the
consumer):
1. Is the moisture content uniform? [This
requirement will only apply for silica fume which is
delivered in a dry state.] I
2. Is the solids content of a slurried material

uniform? [This testing may be confused if the
slurried silica fume contains chemical admixtures. A
drying test to determine solids content will only

A C 1 SP-I154 95 0662949 0522808 5 T 2 =
determine total solids and will not differentiate

between silica fume and dried chemical admixture.]
3. Is the bulk density of the material uniform?
[This requirement may be applied to both dry and
slurried material. Appr priate values would be in the
range o f 450 to 650 kg/mg for dry compacted si 1 ica
fume. The upper limit is appropriate to prevent
problems with silica fume that i s over-compacted.]
There should not be a requirement to conduct any
additional testing unless there is evidence that the
testing has some relevance to the performance of
silica fume in concrete.
If there are concerns regarding the performance of
silica-fume concrete with respect to a certain level
of strength or durability, then prepare concrete
containing project materials and perform suitable and
appropriate testing.
For the specification requirements that require a
specific number, there may be a need for additional
research to determine what the acceptance level ought
to be.
REFERENCES
1. ASTM C 1240-93, Standard Specification for Silica

Fume for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete and
Mortar.
2. RILEM Technical Committee 73-SBC, 1988, "Final
Report: Siliceous By-Products for Use in
Concrete," Materials Structures: Research and
Test.inq, V. 21, No. 121, pp. 69-80.
3. Holland, T. C., Krysa, A., Luther, M., and Liu,
T., 1986, "Use o f Silica-Fume Concrete to Repair
Abrasion-Erosion Damage in the Kinzua Dam
Stilling Basin," Proceedinss, CANMET/ACI Second
International Conference on the Use of F y Ash.
Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in
Concrete, Madrid, ed. V. M. Malhotra, SP 91, V.
2, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. 841-
864.

A C 1 SP-154 75 m Ob62949 O522807 437 m
626 Holland
4. Holland, T. C., 1983, "Abrasion-Erosion

Evaluation of Concrete Mixtures for Stilling
Basin Repairs, Kinzua Dam, Pennsylvania,"
Miscellaneous Paper SL-83-16, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, 64 pp.
5. Holland, T. C., 1986, "Abrasion-Erosion
Evaluation o f Concrete Mixtures for Stilling
Basin Repairs, Kinzua Dam. PennsylvaniarR
Miscellaneous Paper SL-86-14, U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 106
PP .
6. ASTM C 494, Standard Specification for Chemical
Admixtures for Concrete.
7. ASTM C 311, Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly
Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland-Cement Concrete.
8. ASTM C 2 0 4 . Test Method for Fineness of Portland
Cement by Air Permeability Apparatus.
9. ASTM C 618. Standard Specifications for Fly Ash
and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for use as a
Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete.
10. Diamond, S . , 1983, "Effects of Microsilica

(Si 1 ica Fume) on Pore-Solution Chemistry of
Cement Pastes", Journal of the American Ceramic
Society, V. 66, No. 5, pp. C 8 2 - C 8 4 .
11. Hooton, R. D., 1987, "Some Aspects of Durability
with Condensed Silica Fume in Pastes, Mortars and
Concretes," Presented at the CANMET International
Workshop on Silica Fume in Concrete, Montreal,
Canada.
12. ASTM C 1069, Test Method for Specific Surface

Area o f Alumina or Quartz by Nitrogen Adsorption.
13. Sellevold, E. J.. and Niisen, T., 1987,
"Condensed Silica Fume in Concrete: A World
Review," Supplementary Cementinq Materials for
Concrete, ed. V. M. Malhotra, CANMET. Ottawa,
Canada, pp- 165-243.
14. Cohen, M. O., and Bentur, A., 1988, "Durability
j
o f Portland Cement-Silica Fume Pastes in
Magnesium Sulfate and Sodium Sulfate Solutions,"

A C 1 S P - I 1 5 4 95 E 0bb2949 0522ô10 150
15. AASHTO M 307-90, Standard Specification for

Microsilica for Use in Concrete and Mortar.
16. Mehta, P. K., 1986, "Standard Specifications for

Mineral Admixtures -- An Overview," Proceedinss,
CANMET/ACI Second International Conference on the
Use of Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural
Pozzolans in Concrete, Madrid, ed. V. M.
Malhotra, SP-91, V. 1 , American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, pp. 637-658.
17. Standards Association of Australia, AS 3582.3-

1994, "Supplemantary Cementitious Materials for
Use with Portland Cement, Part 3: Silica Fume,"
Standards Australia, Homebush, NSW, 1 1 pp.
18. Canadian Standards Association, 1986,

"Supplementary Cementing Materials," CAN/CSA-
A23.5-M86, Toronto, Canada, 27 pp.
Ici. NBR (Norwegian Council for Building

Standardization), 1991, "Silica Fume for
Concrete," NBR F 44/91, Oslo, 1 1 pp.
20. South African Bureau of Standards, 1989,

"Portland Cement Extenders, Part I I I : Condensed
Silica Fume," SABS 1491, Pretoria, 12 pp.
21. Fidjestol, Per, "Standards for Silica Fume --

Developments in European Standardization,"
Proceedings, Symposium on Use of Fly Ash, Silica
Fume, Slag, and Other By-products in Concrete and
Construction Materials, Milwaukee, November,
1992*
22. Pistilli, M., Rau, G . , and Cechner, R., 1984,

"The Variability of Condensed Silica Fume from a
Canadian Source and Its Influence on the
Properties of Portland Cement Concrete," Cement,
Concrete, Aqqreqates, V. 6 , No. 1 , pp. 33-37.
23. Pistilli, M., Wintersteen, R., and Cechner, R.,

1984, "The Uniformity and Influence of Silica
Fume from a U. S . Source on the Properties o f
Portland Cement Concrete," Cement, Concrete,
Aqqreqates, V. 6, No. 2, pp. 120-124.
24. Nebesar, B., and Carette, G. G., 1986,

"Variations in the Chemical Composition. Specific
Surface Area, Fineness, and Pozzolanic Activity
o f Condensed Silica Fume," Cement, Concrete,
Aqqreqates, V. 8, No. 1, pp. 4 2 - 4 5 .

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522ö11 097
628 Holland
TABLE 1 - EXCERPTS FROM ASTM C 1240-93, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR SILICA FUME
FOR USE IN HYDRAULIC-CEMENT CONCRETE AND MORTAR (i)
Chemical Requ i rements

Silicon Dioxide (Si02), minimum 8 5 . 0 percent
Moisture content, maximum 3.0 percent
Loss on ignition, maximum 6 . 0 percent
Optional Chemical Requirementa

Available alkalies, as Na20, maximum 1.50 percentb
' a Applicable only when specifically required by the

purchaser.
Applicable for silica fume to be used in concrete
containing reactive aggregate with cement required to
meet a limitation on alkali content.
Physical Requirements
Oversize:
Amount retained on 45-prn (No. 325) sieve,
maximum o f 1 0 percenta
Acce 1 erated pozzo 1 an i c act i v i t y i ndex :
With portland cement at 7 days, minimum 85
percent o f control

A C 1 SP-I154 95 B 0662949 0522832 T23 W
TABLE 1 (coont.) - EXCERPTS FROM ASTM C 1240-93, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR SILICA
FUME FOR USE IN HYDRAULIC-CEMENT CONCRETE AND MORTAR (i)
Uniformity requirements:
The density and oversize of individual
samples shall not vary from the average established by
t t w ten preceding tests or by all preceding tests if
the number is less than ten, by more than:
density, maximum variation from average. 5
percent
oversize, percent retained on 45-ym ( N o . 325)
sieve, maximum of 5 percentage points from average
a Care should be taken to avoid retaining

agglomerations of extremely fine material.
Accelerated pozzolanic activity index is not to be
considered a measure of the compressive strength of
concrete containing the silica fume. This is a
measure o f the reactivity of a given silica fume with
a given cement and may vary with the source o f both
the silica fume and the cement.
Opt i ona 1 Phys i ca 1 Requ i rementsa
Increase over control of drying shrinkage of

mortar bars at 28 days, maximum of 0.10 percent
Specific surface area, 15-30 mL/g
When air-entraining concrete is specified,
the quantity o f air-entraining agent required to
produce air content of 18 volume percent of mortar
s h a l l not vary from the average established by the ten
preceding tests or by al1 preceding tests if less than
ten, by more than 20 percent.
Reactivity with cement alkal ies:b
Reduction of mortar expansion at 14 days,
miniinurn of 80 percent

A C 1 SP-354 I 0662949 0522833 7bT
9C I
630 Holland
TABLE 1 (tont.) - EXCERPTS FROM ASTM C 1240-93, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR SILICA
FUME FOR USE IN HYDRAULIC-CEMENT CONCRETE AND MORTAR (1)
Suifate resistance expansion,c
(moderate resistance) 6 months, maximum o f

0.10 percent
(high resistance) 6 months, maximum of 0.05

per cent
(very high resistance) 1 year, maximum of
0.05 percent
a Wi I I be made only at the request of the purchaser.

The indicated tests for reactivity with cement
alkalies shall not be requested unless the material i s
to be used with an aggregate that is regarded as
deleteriously reactive with alkalies in hydraulic
cement. The test for reduction of mortar expansion
may be made using any high-alkali cement in accordance
with ASTM C 3 1 1 , if the cement to be used in the work
i s not known or is not available at t h e time of the
test. The test f o r mortar expansion should be
performed by each o f the high-alkali cements to be
used in the work.
Only one limit shall be specified.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I
I 0662949 0522834 ôTb H
TABLE 2- EXCERPTS FROM AASHTO M 307-90,STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR MICROSILICA

FOR USE IN CONCRETE AND MORTAR (15)
Chemical Requirements.
Silicon Dioxide (Sioz), minimum 8 5 percent
Sulfur trioxide ( S O 3 ) , maximum 3.0 percent
Loss on ignition, maximum 7.0 percent
Optional Chemical Requirements

Moisture content of dry silica fume, maximum 3.0
percent
Available alkalies, as Na20, maximum 1.5 percent
NOTE: Applicable only when specifically required for
mineral admixture to be used in concrete containing
reactive aggregate and cement to meet a limitation on
content of alkalies.
Physical Requirements
Fineness: Amount retained when wet sieved on NO.
5 0 0 sieve, O percent
NOTE: There is no fineness determination procedure for

microsilica with established performance history.
Microsilica is expected to meet this requirement.
however. negligible amounts of impurities (up to 0.5
percent) are permitted under this requirement.
Pozzolanic activity index: With portland cement,
determine at 7 and 28 days, minimum 100 percent o f
control
Soundness: Autoclave expansion or contraction,
maximum o f 0 . 8 percent

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0662949 0522835 732 M
632 Holland
TABLE 2 (cont.) - EXCERPTS FROM AASHTO M 307-90, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR

MICROSILICA FOR USE IN CONCRETE AND MORTAR (15)
The specific gravity and fineness o f
individual samples from a given source shall not vary
from the average established by the ten preceding
tests, or by all preceding tests if the number is less
than ten, by more than 5 percent
Optional Physical Requirements

Increase of drying shrinkage o f mortar bars at 28
days, maximum of 0.03 Percent
In addition, when air-entrained concrete is
specified, the quantity of air-entraining admixture
required to produce an air content volume o f 18
percent of the mortar shall not vary by the average
established by the ten preceding tests, or by all
preceding tests i f less than ten, by more than 20
percent.
Reactivity with cement alkalies: Reduction o f
mortar expansion at 14 days, minimum of 80 percent
NOTE: The indicated tests for reactivity with cement
alkalies should not be requested unless the material
is to be used with an aggregate that is regarded as
deleteriously reactive with alkalies in cement. The
test for reduction of mortar expansion may be made
using any high-alkali cement in accordance with ASIM C
3 1 1 if the Portland Cement to be used in the mix is
not known or not available at the time o f the test.
Sulfate expansion, 14 days, maximum o f 0.045
percent

A C 1 SP-154 75 I0662747 052281b 679
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A C 1 SP-154 95 Ob62949 0522820 O T T
TABLE 4 - COMPARISON OF SAMPLING FREQUENCY REQUIREMENTS FOR SILICA FUME
Australia -- Test certification requires a "Date o f

Manufacture", implying a traceable lot.
An appendix discusses statistical sampling as one
option. Other options are product certification or an
audited and registered quality management system.
ACTM -- For each 100 Mg: Moisture content, Loss on

ignition, Retained on 45-ym sieve.
F o r each 400 Mg: All other physical and
chem cal tests. Sample is composite of 100 Mg
samp es.
-O -- No guidance provided.
RILEM -- No guidance provided.
3 -- Samples are to be representative of source

during each o f six consecutive months. Specific
testing frequency varies with parameter being tested:
Lot or 100 Mg to lot or 500 Mg to lot or 1,000 Mg.
Norway -- For each 1,000 Mg or once/week: SiO2, Loss

on ignition, Chloride content, Cao, and alkalies.
For each 3 , 0 0 0 Mg or at least every other
month: Specific surface and activity index.
--
South Africa -- No guidance provided.

A C 1 SP-354 95 Obb2949 0522823 T3b
638 Holland
TABLE 5 - COMPARISON OF VARIOUS EUROPEAN STANDARDS FOR SILICA FUME

[FROM FIDJESTOL (21)]
Sto, SO, Ca0 MgO CI Na- LOI H,O Acíivny Spec /

ev ind. area ,I
Norway (1) A 5 12
Characteristic limit Yo
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m'lg
>12
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a) Chloride free if ~ 0 . 1 0Yo,value to be declared if >0.10 %. b) Val-

ue to be supplied upon request,. c) 4% of Na,O+K,O
d) 4% free carbon, e) Optional, X) Critical error

A C 1 SP-154 95 m 0bb2949 0 5 2 2 8 2 2 972 m
SI (Metric) Tables 639
CONVERSION FACTOR-INCH-POUND TO SI (METRIC)*
To convert from lo multiply by
Length
inch ............................... miilimeter(mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2S.4Et

foot ................................. meter(m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3048E
yard ................................. meter(m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 0.9144E
mile (statute) ........................ kilometer (km) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609
Area
square inch ..................... square millimeter (mm’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645.1

square foot ........................ square meter (m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0929
square. yard ........................ square meter (m’) ................. . . . . 0.8361
Volume (capacity)
ounce ............................. milliliters (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.57

gallon ............................ cubic meter (m3)$. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.003785
cubic inch ....................... cubic millimeter (mm3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16390
cubic foot ......................... cubic meter (m3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02832
cubic yard ......................... cubic meter (m3)$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7646
Force
kilogram-force ........................ newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.807

kip-force .......................... kilonewton(kN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.448
pound-force .......................... newton(% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.448
Pressure or stress (force per area)
kilogram-force/square meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.807

kip-forcehquare inch (ksi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . megapascal ( m a ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.895
newton/square meter (N/m*)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000E
pound-forcehquare foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) ....................... 47.88
pound-force/square inch (psi) . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal ( E a ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.895
Bending moment or torque
inch-pound-force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton-meter (N=m) ..................... 0.1130

foot-pound-force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton-meter (Nem) ..................... 1.356
meter-kilogram-force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton-meter (Nem) ..................... 9.807

A C 1 SP-I154 75 m 0662747 0522823 8 0 7 W
640 SI (Metric) Tables
To convert from to multiply by
Mass
ounce-mass(avoirdupois) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram ( 9 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.34

pound-mass (avoirdupois) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4536
ton (metric) ......................... megagram (mg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . * < ... 1.000E
ton (short, U X H ) lbm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram (kg). . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 907.2
Mass per volume
pound-masdcubic foot ............kiiogram/cubicmeter (kg/m3) .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.02

I
pound-mass/cubicyard ............ kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.5933

pound-mass/gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119.8
Temperatures
degrees Fahrenheit (F) .............. degrees Celsius (C) . . . . . . . . tC = (tF .32)/1.8

degrees Celsius (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degrees Fahrenheit (F). . . . . . . . tF = 1.8tC + 32
This selected list gives practical wnvenion facton ofunits found in wncrete technology. The reference sourDesfor information
on SI units and more a c t wnversion facton are ASIU E 380 and E 621. Symbols of metric units are given in parenthesis.
t E Indicates that lhe factor given is exact.
+ One liter (cubic decimeter) equals 0.001m3or loo0 cm3.
f These equations wnvert one temperature reading to another and include the necessary scale corrections. To convert a
differen- in temperahwe from Fahrenheit degrees lo Celsius degrees, divide by 1.8 oniy, i.e, a change from 70 to 88 F represents
e change of 18 For 18fl.û = 10 C deg.

A C 1 SP-154 95 I0662749 0522824 745
Index 641
INDEX
Abrasion resistance, 103 Coarse aggregates, 301

Abrasion tests, 103 Columns (supports), 381
Admixtures, 55, 301, 335, 381, 565 Compaction, 301
Aggregates, 1, 73, 95, 245, 263, 489 Composite materials, 169, 211, 315
Air entrained concretes, 335 Compression, 21 1
Air entrainment, 279 Compressive strength, 263, 315, 399, 509, 587
Aïtcin, P., 145 Concretes, 55, 127, 263, 357, 399, 607
Aktan, A., 439 Conductivity, 399
Alkali aggregate reactions, 229, 489, 531 Corrosion, 543, 565
Alkalies, 229 Cracking (fracturing), 21, 55, 315, 419
ASTM Type I cement, 509 Crack width and spacing, 21
ASTM Type 111 cement, 509 Crammond, N., 357
Creep properties, 73, 419
Banthia, N., 315 Cristobalite, 489
Basheer, P., 41 Curing, 41, 509
Beams (supports), 21, 439 CA, H, 461
Beaudoin, J., 399, 461
Bending, 21 1 Dalhuisen, D., 263
Bilodeau, A., 509 Deicing, 399
Blois, F., 145 Density (masslvolume), 1
Blast furnace slag, 229, 461 Deterioration, 439
Bonding, 587 Diffusion, 41, 169
Bremner, T., 1 Diffusivity, 543
Bridges (structures), 439, 543 Dilger, W., 473
Bu¡, D., 263 Ding, J., 461
Dolomite, 357
Calcite, 357 Dong, A., 263
Calcium aluminates, 145 Drying shrinkage, 55, 103, 335
Carbon, 315, 399 Dumitru, I., 103
Carbonates, 357 Durability, 41, 145, 245, 279, 315, 335, 531,
Carbonation, 41, 279 543, 587
Cement additives, 55
Cements, 169, 263, 543 Electrical resistance, 587
Chatveera, B., 21 1 Expansion, 229, 489
Chen, B., 21 Expansive cements, 55
Chloride ions, 279, 509, 565
Chlorides, 41, 127, 543, 587 Failure, 419
Clear, K., 587 Fatigue (materials), 315

A C 1 SP-154 95 O662949 0522825 681
642 Index
Fiber optic sensor, 21 Langley, W., 543

Fiber reinforced concretes, 315, 399 Lightweight concretes, 1, 399, 587
Fibers, 315, 399 Limestone, 55
Field tests, 587 Loads (forces), 21
Fire resistance, 1 Long, A., 41
Flexural strength, 103, 315, 399
Floors, 103 Malhotra, V., 509
Flowability, 55, 301 Manufacturing, 1
Fluidizing, 301 Marchand, J., 169
Fly ash, 461, 489, 509 Mathematical models, 473
Folliard, K., 531 Matsuoka, Y., 381
Formwork, 41, 381 Mechanical properties, 145, 21 1
Foundations, 357 Mehta, P., 531
Freeze thaw durability, 41, 95, 145, 245, 279, Microstructure, 169, 357
509, 531, 587 Miller, R., 439
Freezing, 531 Mix proportioning, 55, 543, 587
Fu, Y., 461 Models, 169, 439
Fujiwara, H., 301 Modulus of elosticity, 419
Fukute, T., 335 Moriwake, A., 335
Mortars (material), 21 1, 263
Gap graded aggregate, 263 Munn, R., 103
George, C., 145
Genois, I., 315 Nogataki, S., 301
Gérard, B., 169 Nawy, E., 21
Gilmour, R., 543 Nimityongskul, P., 21 1
Grout, 587 Nishibayashi, S., 229
Nmai, C., 565
Halliwell, M., 357 Nondesfructive tests, 439
Hamasaki, K., 335 Nonome, H., 279
Han, N., 73
Harbor structures, 145 Ogawa, A., 55
Hayakawa, M., 381 Okawa Y., 229
Heating, 399
Heat of hydration, 473 Penetration tests, 279
High alumina cements, 461 Performance, 245, 439
High-performance concretes, 1, 103, 473, 543 Performance tests, 103
High-strength concretes, 21, 73, 473, 587 Permeability, 41, 145, 169, 279, 587
History, 1 Petrography, 357
Hobbs, D., 489 pH, 461
Holland, T., 607 Porosity, 127, 145, 279, 335
Holm, T., 1 Portland cement, 357, 489
Hydration, 473 Pozzolan cements, 461
Prestressing, 21
Impact, 315 Prisms, 21
Kuroda, T., 229 Quolity assurance, 103

A C 1 SP-II54 95 W Obb2949 0522826 5 1 8
Index 643
Quality control, 543 Strätlingite, 461

Puy, N., 263 Strength, 1, 73, 419
Stroeven, P., 263
Reinforced concrete, 21, 565 Stresses, 21, 73
Reinforcing materials, 335 Structural analysis, 439
Resurfacing, 587 Sugawara, R., 279
Rice husk ash, 95, 211, 263, 531 Sulfate attack, 357, 531
Rusin, Z., 245 Superplasticizer, 95, 335, 381, 473, 509
Superworkable concrete, 335, 381
Sakata, K., 55 Surface layers (of concrete), 279
Salts, 95, 127, 489
Sandberg, P., 95 Tanaka, S., 55
Sands, 263 Temperature, 473
Sano, K., 335 Tensile strength, 41, 315
Scaling, 95 Tensile stress, 279
Scanning electron microscopy, 357 Tension, 21 1, 419
Schrader, E., 419 Tests, 103, 245, 439
Segregation, 301 Thaumasite, 357
Service life, 245 Thermal gradients, 543
Sha'at, A., 41 Thermal resistance, 1
Shahrooz, B., 439 Tritthart, J., 127
Shotcrete, 103, 279, 587 Tromposch, E., 543
Shoya, M., 279 Tsukinaga, Y., 279
Shrinkage, 55, 73, 315
Shrinkage compensating cements, 587 Viscosity, 55, 301, 335, 381
Silica fume, 73, 95, 461, 509, 531, 543, 587,
607 Walraven, J., 73
Sisal, 211 Wang, C., 473
Sivasundaram, V., 509 Water cement ratio, 279, 473
Size screening, 565 Water reducing agents, 55
Slabs, 439, 587 Wolsiefer, J., 587
Slogs, 489
Sodium silicate, 461 Xie, P., 399
Sodium sulfate, 461 X-ray diffraction, 461
Specifications, 607
Stabilization, 21, 229 Yield point, 301
Stiffness, 73 Yokota, K., 381
Strains, 21, 419


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COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

Licensed by Information Handling Services

DISCUSSION of individual papers in this symposium m.ay be submitted in

The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in

Printed in the United States of America

Editorial production Victoria Lunick

Library of Congress catalog card number 95-76476

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

The Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET)

SECOND CANMET/ACI INTERNATIONAL

Las Vegas, U.S.A.

Theodore (Ted) Bremner Henri Isabelle

Wilbert (Wib) Langley Vangi Ramachandran

PREFACE ........................................... ...

HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE -

FLEXURAL CRACKING EVALUATION USING FIBER OPTIC

T H E INFLUENCE O F CONTROLLED PERMEABILITY

A STUDY ON REDUCING SHRINKAGE O F HIGHLY-

CREEP AND SHRINKAGE O F HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE

RESISTANCE O F NON AIR-ENTRAINED RICE HULL ASH

HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

CHANGES IN T H E COMPOSITION O F PORE SOLUTION AND

DURABILITY O F CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN T H E MODELING OF MASS

INFLUENCE O F RICE HUSK ASH ON PROPERTIES OF SISAL

PROMISING APPROACH T O PREVENT ALKALI-

TESTS FOR CLASSIFICATION O F AGGREGATES FOR

TOWARD GAP-GRADED HPC IN VIETNAM USING CRUSHED

IMPROVEMENT IN CONCRETE PERFORMANCE AND

SELF-COMPACTING PROPERTY O F HIGHLY FLOWABLE

PITCH-BASED CARBON FIBER REINFORCED CEMENT

DEVELOPMENT O F SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE FOR

THE THAUMASITE FORM O F SULFATE A ï T A C K IN

APPLICATION O F SUPERWORKABLE CONCRETE IN THE

ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE A N D ITS

STRAIN, CRACKING, AND FAILURE DESCRIBED BY AN

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DETERIORATION AND

MECHANISMS OF STRÄTLINGITE FORMATION IN HIGH

MODELING O F THE DEVELOPMENT O F HEAT O F

INFLUENCE O F EXPOSURE O F CONCRETE T O SALT UPON

EFFECT O F CURING CONDITIONS ON HIGH-VOLUME FLY

RICE HUSK ASH - A UNIQUE SUPPLEMENTARY

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

THE NORTHUMBERLAND STRAIT BRIDGE PROJECT

CORROSION-INHIBITING ADMIXTURES: PASSIVE, PASSIVE-

LONG-TERM DURABILITY OF SILICA FUME STRUCTURAL

SPECIFICATION FOR SILICA FUME FOR USE

SI (Metric) TABLES ................................... 639

INDEX ............................................ 641

High Performance Lightweight

Synopsis: The intrinsic nature of lightweight concrete is to produce a

Keywords: Aggregates; density (mass/volume); fire resistance;&&I

T.W. Bremner is a Professor of Civil Engineering, University of New

The current use of the phrase "High Performance Concrete" (HPC)

Concomitant with this high strength and low W/B, is enhanced

Dictionaries and Thesauruses fail to define "high performance",

High Performance Concrete: concrete that has enhanced

This definition will be used to further define "High Performance Lightweight

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

associated with High Performance have an excellent track record. To instill

This discussion will be restricted to lightweight aggregate concrete,

Based on the foregoing, the following definition of High Performance

High Performance Lightweight Concrete: High Performance