Mechanics of Machines Elementary Theory and Examples PDF

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MECHANICS OF MACHINES
ELEMENTARY THEORY AND EXAMPLES
BY
JOHN HANNAH
B.Sc.(Eng.), A.M.I.Mech.E.
SENIOR LECTURER IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
ENFIELD TECHNICAL COLLEGE, ENFIELD, MIDDLESEX
AND
R. C. STEPHENS
M.Sc.(Eng.), A.M.I.Mech.E.
SENIOR LECTURER IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
THE POLYTECHNIC, REGENT STREET, LONDON, W.l
LONDON
EDWARD ARNOLD (PUBLISHERS) LTD
© John Hannah and R. C. Stephens 1958
First published 1958
Printed in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner Ltd., Frome and London
PREFACE 1079060
This book is intended for students taking the first year of an engineering
degree or diploma course and should also be suitable for Higher National
Certificate courses of comparable standard. The scope of the book has
been made sufficiently wide to cover the variations in syllabuses and
standards of the various universities and colleges.
Each chapter consists of a concise but thorough statement of the
theory and a large number of worked and unworked examples. The
worked examples are intended to form a major part of the work and are
used to amplify the theory. As far as possible, the solutions have been
obtained from first principles, but the use of formulae derived in the text
has sometimes been unavoidable.
Considerable emphasis has been given to the chapter on general
dynamics. This section of the subject is frequently neglected, a know¬
ledge of the basic principles being assumed, but as these principles form
the basis of the more advanced topics in Mechanics of Machines, a thorough
grasp of them is essential.
The authors acknowledge with thanks the permission granted by the
Senates of the Universities of London and Glasgow and the Council of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers to use questions set at their
examinations. These have been designated U. Lond., U. Glas., and
I. Mech, E., respectively.
In the case of University of London papers, the frequent changes in
regulations have rendered the adjuncts Part I, Part II, etc., confusing,
and questions from all sources are of, or slightly above, the standard
required for the first year of an engineering degree course.
The authors are indebted to their colleagues and students for con¬
structive criticism and help in checking the solutions to the 400 problems
included.
JOHN HANNAH
E. C. STEPHENS
v
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1. DYNAMICS.1
1.1 Velocity and acceleration. 1.2 Equations of uniformly accelerated

motion. 1.3 Force, mass, weight and momentum. 1.4 Newton’s Laws
of Motion. 1.5 Impulse. 1.6 Relative velocity. 1.7 Circular motion.
1.8 Principle of conservation of linear momentum. 1.9 Collision of elastic
bodies. 1.10 Work and power. 1.11 Energy. 1.12 Principle of conserva¬
tion of energy. 1.13 Moment of inertia. 1.14 Theorem of parallel axes.
1.15 Torque and angular acceleration. 1.16 Angular momentum or
moment of momentum. 1.17 Principle of conservation of angular
momentum. 1.18 Angular impulse. 1.19 Sudden meshing of rotating
wheels. 1.20 Work done by a torque. 1.21 Angular kinetic energy.
1.22 Total K.E. and rate of change of K.E. 1.23 Equivalent mass of
a rotating body. 1.24 Acceleration of a geared system. 1.25 Equiva¬
lent dynamical system. 1.26 Maximum acceleration and retardation of
vehicles.
Worked examples in general dynamics, 1-10 . . . . .13
Unworked examples, 11-33 ........ 23
Worked examples in hoists, 34-37 ....... 28
Unworked examples, 38-49 . . . . . . . .31
Worked examples in vehicle dynamics, 50-56 ..... 34
CHAPTER 2. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ... 45
2.1 Simple harmonic motion. 2.2 Angular simple harmonic motion.

2.3 Linear motion of an elastic system. 2.4 Angular motion of an elastic
system. 2.5 Differential equation of motion. 2.6 Simple pendulum.
2.7 Compound pendulum.
Worked examples, 1-6 ......... 49
Unworked examples, 7-25 ......... 55
CHAPTER 3. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ... 60
3.1 Velocities in mechanisms : relative velocity diagrams. 3.2 Velocities

in mechanisms : instantaneous centre method. 3.3 Rubbing velocity at
a pin joint. 3.4 Velocity diagram for a block sliding on a rotating link.
3.5 Forces in mechanisms. 3.6 Accelerations in mechanisms. 3.7 Crank
and connecting rod ; graphical constructions for velocity and acceleration.
3.8 Crank and connecting rod ; analytical determination of velocity and
acceleration. 3.9 Forces in crank and connecting rod.
VI
CONTENTS Vll
PAGE
Worked examples in velocity diagrams, 1-6 ..... 68

Unworked examples, 7-23 . . . . . . . . .75
Worked examples in acceleration diagrams, 24-26 . . . .81
Worked examples in crank and connecting rod, 37-40 ... 88
CHAPTER 4. VALVE DIAGRAMS .... 94
4.1 The slide valve. 4.2 The piston valve. 4.3 Graphical constructions
for slide valve motion ; Reuleaux and Bilgram diagrams.
CHAPTER 5. CAMS.106
5.1 Cams and followers. 5.2 Specified motion of follower; uniform

acceleration and deceleration and simple harmonic motion.
CHAPTER 6. CRANK EFFORT DIAGRAMS . . .120
6.1 Crank effort diagrams. 6.2 Fluctuation of speed and energy.

CHAPTER 7. GOVERNORS.131
7.1 Function of a governor. 7.2 Dead weight governors ; Watt, Porter

and Proell governors. 7.3 Spring-loaded governors ; Hartnell governor
and governor with spring-connected balls. 7.4 Effort and power.
7.5 Sensitivity and friction. 7.6 Controlling force and stability.
Worked examples, 1-7 . . . . . . . . .134
CHAPTER 8. BALANCING.147
8.1 Static and dynamic balance. 8.2 Balancing of masses rotating in

the same plane. 8.3 Balancing of masses rotating in different planes
(Dalby’s Method). 8.4 Dynamic forces at bearings.
Unworked examples, 6-19. . . . . . . . .156
Vlll CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION.160
9.1 Friction between unlubricated surfaces. 9.2 Motion on an inclined

plane. 9.3 Screw threads. 9.4 Efficiency of a screw thread. 9.5 Modi¬
fication for V-threads. 9.6 Overhauling of a machine.
CHAPTER 10. FRICTION CLUTCHES .... 175
10.1 Cone and plate clutches. 10.2 Centrifugal clutches.

Unworked examples, 7-25 . . . . . . . . .- 183
CHAPTER 11. BELT DRIVES AND BAND BRAKES . . 187
11.1 Ratio of belt tensions. 11.2 Modification for V-grooved pulley.

11.3 Effect of centrifugal tension. 11.4 Initial tension.
Worked examples, 1-9 . . . . . . . . .190
Unworked examples, 10-32 . . . . . . . .201
CHAPTER 12. SPUR GEARING.205
12.1 Definitions. 12.2 Condition for transmission of constant velocity

ratio. 12.3 Velocity of sliding. 12.4 Path of contact. 12.5 Arc of contact
and contact ratio. 12.6 Interference. 12.7 Rack and pinion.
CHAPTER 13. GEAR TRAINS.220
13.1 Simple trains. 13.2 Compound trains. 13.3 Epicyclic trains.

13.4 Torques on gear trains.
APPENDIX . 237
CHAPTER 1
DYNAMICS
1.1 Velocity and acceleration. The velocity of a body is the rate

of change of its displacement (linear or angular) with respect to time.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and to specify it completely the magnitude,
direction and sense must be known. The speed of a body is merely the
magnitude of its velocity.
The acceleration of a body is the rate of change of its velocity (linear
or angular) with respect to time. A body accelerates if there is a change
in either the magnitude, direction or sense of its velocity and can thus
accelerate without change in speed, as in the case of a body moving in
a circular path with uniform speed.
1.2 Equations of uniformly accelerated motion. Let a body

having linear motion accelerate uniformly from an initial velocity u to a
final velocity v in time t; let the acceleration be / and the distance from
the initial position be s.
Then v = u 4~ /t .... • (i.i)
s = ut -f- \ft2 • (1-2)
and V2 = u2 + 2/s • (1-3)
The corresponding equations for angular motion are
co2 = COj -j~ CLt • (1-4)
6 = COlt 4- \cd2 • (1-5)
<N
and aq2 4~ 2a0 • (1-6)

3
II
where oo1 and co2 are the initial and final angular velocities respectively,
6 the angle turned through in time t and a the angular acceleration.
1.3 Force, mass, weight and momentum. Force is that which

changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion of a body.
The mass of a body is a measure of the quantity of matter it contains.
The weight of a body is the force which the earth exerts upon it.
The momentum of a body is the product of its mass and its velocity.
Mass is a scalar quantity, having magnitude only ; force and momentum
are vector quantities. Weight, having a fixed direction, is regarded as
a scalar quantity.
1.4 Newton’s Laws of Motion. (1) Every body continues in its

state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by
an external force.
1
2 MECHANICS OF MACHINES
(2) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied

external force and takes place in the direction of the force.
(3) To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
From the second law, force oc rate of change of momentum
oc mass x rate of change of velocity,
assuming the mass to be constant
oc mf
i.e. P = kmf where k is a constant.
The units of these quantities are chosen so as to make the value of k
unity.
Since a force of 1 lb.wt. gives a mass of 1 lb. an
acceleration g ft./sec2.
then a force of 1 lb.wt. gives a mass of g lb. an
acceleration 1 ft./sec.2
In the Gravitational or Engineer's System, the unit of mass is the slug
(g lb.) so that
P (lb.wt.) = m (slugs) X / (ft./sec.2)
W W
Thus the mass of a body of weight W is —, i.e. P = —/.
Since the units of mass are lb.sec.2/ft. and those of velocity are
ft./sec., the units of momentum are lb.sec.
In problems concerning force and acceleration, the acceleration must
dv d^x dv
frequently be expressed in one of the forms —-, -or v —, particular
dt dt2 dx
regard being taken of the sense of the acceleration.
1.5 Impulse. The impulse of a constant force P acting for a time

t is the product Pt. If, during this time, the velocity changes from u to v,
m(v — u)
then P=
or Pt = m(v — u)
i.e. impulse of force = change of momentum
A force which acts for a very short time is referred to as an impulsive
force.
1.6 Relative velocity. If two bodies A and B are moving with

velocities va and vb respectively, Fig. 1.1, then the relative velocity of
one to the other is the vector difference of va and vb , i.e. if vectors oa
and ob, representing va and vb in magnitude, direction and sense, are
drawn from the same point o, then ab represents the velocity of B relative
to A and ba the velocity of A relative to B.
DYNAMICS 3
If oa and ob represent the velocities of the same body at different

times, then ab represents the change in its velocity.
1.7 Circular motion. Consider a body of weight W moving in

a circular path of radius r with constant speed v, Fig. 1.2. If it moves
from A to B in time dt and the angle AOB is dd, then, from the relative
velocity diagram, the change of velocity is represented by ab.
Thus change of velocity = v dd

d6
acceleration = v
dt
i.e. f= VO)
where co is the angular velocity of OA.
But v = cor
2
f=co2r or — . . . . . (1.7)
r
This acceleration is directed towards the centre of rotation, 0, and
is called the centripetal acceleration. The radially inward, or centripetal,
force required to produce this acceleration is given by
W W v2
—co2r or- (1.8)
9 g r
If a body rotates at the end of an arm, this force is provided by the
tension in the arm. The reaction to this force acts at the centre of rota¬
tion and is called the centrifugal force. It represents the inertia force
of the body, resisting the change in the direction of its motion.
A common concept of centrifugal force in engineering problems is to

regard it as the radially outward force which must be applied to a body
to convert the dynamical condition to the equivalent static condition.
Thus the system shown in Fig. 1.3 (a) is equivalent to that in Fig. 1.3 (6),
which is frequently more easy to consider. This concept is particularly
useful in problems on engine governors and balancing of rotating masses.
(a) Dynamic
Fig. 1.3
1.8 Principle of conservation of linear momentum. The total

momentum of a system of masses in any one direction remains constant
unless acted upon by an external force in that direction.
1.9 Collision of elastic bodies. Let a body of mass m1, moving

with velocity ux , collide with a body of mass m2 , moving with velocity
u2 in the same straight line, and let both masses move together after
impact with a common velocity v.
The impulses of the masses on each other are equal and opposite and
hence the changes in momentum of the two masses are equal and opposite,
i.e. the total momentum of the two masses before and after impact is
the same.
i.e. mlu1 -f- m2u2 = (m2 + m2)v • • • (1.9)
If the bodies separate after impact, the relative velocity after impact
bears a constant ratio to the relative velocity before impact but in the
opposite direction. This ratio is termed the coefficient of restitution and
is denoted by e. Thus, if the velocities in the same direction after impact
are vx and v2 respectively,
v1 — v2 — — e(ux — u2) . . (1.10)
Also the total momentum remains constant
m1V1 + ^2V2 ~ miUl + m2U2 • (i.ii)
v± and v2 can then be obtained from equations (1.10) and (1.11).
Although there is no change in momentum due to the collision, there
is a loss of kinetic energy, except in the case of perfectly elastic bodies,
where e—l.
1.10 Work and power. Work is the product of the average force
DYNAMICS 5
and the distance moved in the direction of the force by its point of
application.
If a constant force P moves through a distance x, work done = Px.
If the force varies linearly from zero to a maximum value P,
work done — \Px.
rx
In the general case where P=f(x), work done = f(x)dx.
Jo
Power is the rate of doing work, the horse-power being equal to
550 ft.lb./sec. or 33,000 ft.lb./min. Thus the h.p. developed by a force
Pv
P lb. moving at v ft./sec. is -.
8 1 550
1.11 Energy. Energy is the capacity to do work, mechanical energy

being equal to the work done on a body in altering either its position or
its velocity.
The potential energy (P.E.) of a body is the energy it possesses due to
its position and is equal to the work done in raising it from some datum
level. Thus the P.E. of a body of weight IF at a height h above datum
level is Wh.
The kinetic energy (K.E.) of a body is the energy it possesses due to
its velocity. If a body of weight IF attains a velocity v from rest in
time t under the influence of a force P and moves a distance s, then
work done by P — P X s
W v2
i.e. K.E. of body = —/ X -
9 2/
Wv2
(1.12)
~w
The strain energy of a body is the energy stored when the body is
deformed.
1.12 Principle of conservation of energy. Energy can neither

be created nor destroyed. It may exist in a variety of forms, such as
mechanical, electrical or heat energy, but a loss of energy in any one form
is always accompanied by an equivalent increase in another form. When
work is done on a rigid body, the work is converted into kinetic or poten¬
tial energy or is used in overcoming friction. If the body is elastic, some
of the work will also be stored as strain energy.
1.13 Moment of inertia. If the mass of every particle of a body is

multiplied by the square of its distance from an axis, the summation of
these quantities for the whole body is termed the moment of inertia of
the body about the axis and is denoted by I.
The moment of inertia of a particle of mass dm, Fig. 1.4, at a distance

r from an axis through 0 perpendicular to the plane of the paper is dm. r2.
Hence the moment of inertia of the whole body about 0 is
j' dm.r2 ... . (1.13)
If the total mass of the body is m, this

may be written I = mk2 ; k is termed the radius
of gyration and is the radius at which the mass
would have to be concentrated to give the same
value of I.
The units of I are of the form lb.ft.sec.2 but
frequently the value is given in lb.ft.2, which
represents only Wk2. In all such cases, this
value must be divided by g before use in dynamical equations.
1.14 Theorem of parallel axes. The moment of inertia of a body

about any axis is equal to the moment of inertia of the body about a
parallel axis through the centre of gravity together with the product of
the mass and the square of the distance between the axes.
Let IG be the moment of inertia of a body about an axis through
the centre of gravity G, Fig. 1.5. It is required to find the moment of
inertia about a parallel axis through 0, distant h from G.
Moment of inertia of particle about 0
= dm.I2
= dm{x2 + (h -f- y)2}
= dm{x2 -f h2 -f 2hy -f y2}
= dm{r2 + h2 -f- 2hy}
Values of I for some simple cases

(a) Thin disc, radius r. I about an axis through its centre perpendicular
mr2 mr2
to the plane of the disc is ; I about a diameter is . The corresponding
r r
values of k are
V2 and 2'
(b) Uniform thin rod, length l. I about an axis through its centre perpen-
ml2 _ . . . _ _ ml2
dicular to its length is I about a parallel axis through one end is
12 ’
(c) Solid cylinder, radius r and length l. I about the longitudinal or polar axis
mr2
is ; I about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the longitudinal axis is
tr2 l2\
DYNAMICS 7
moment of inertia of body about 0,
I0 = dm. r2 -f- dm.h2 -f- 2h dm.y
= 7G + mh2 -j- 2h X (total moment of the mass about XX).

Since XX passes through the centre of gravity G, the total moment of
the mass about XX is zero. Hence
Iq = Ig~\~ mh2 .... (1.14)
1.15 Torque and angular acceleration. Let the body shown in

Fig. 1.6 rotate about an axis through 0 and let the
angular acceleration produced by a torque T be a.
Then acceleration of particle of mass dm at

radius r = car
.*. force required to accelerate
particle = dm. car
torque required to accelerate
particle = dm. car2
.*. total torque required to accelerate
the body = dm. car2 Fig. 1.6
W
i.e. T = I0ca = —k02ca. (1.15)
9
1.16 Angular momentum or moment of momentum. The

angular momentum of a body about its axis of rotation is the moment
of its linear momentum about that axis.
If the body shown in Fig. 1.7 is rotating about an axis through 0

with angular velocity co, then
velocity of particle
of mass dm at radius r = cor
momentum of particle = dm.cor
.*. moment of momentum
about 0 = dm.cor2
.*. total moment of
momentum of body about 0 = j* dm.cor2
= I0(o . (1.16)
If G is the centre of gravity, then
A) = Iq + rnh2
so that moment of momentum
about 0 — IGco -f mh2co
= IGco -f mvh . (1.17)
i.e. the angular momentum about any axis 0 is equal to the angular
momentum about a parallel axis through G, together with the moment
of the linear momentum about 0.
The units of linear and angular momentum are different, being lb.sec.
(or slug ft./sec.) and lb.ft.sec. (or slug ft.2/sec.) respectively, so that,
for a body possessing both linear and angular momentum, these quantities
are not additive.
1.17 Principle of conservation of angular momentum. The

total angular momentum of a system of masses about any one axis remains
constant unless acted upon by an external torque about that axis.
1.18 Angular impulse. The angular impulse of a constant torque

T acting for a time t is the product Tt. If, during this time, the angular
velocity changes from co1 to co2 , then
T = la — ~ Wl)
t
or Tt — I(co2 — .... (1.18)
i.e. impulse of torque = change of angular momentum
A torque which acts for a very short time is referred to as an impulsive
torque.
If an impulsive force acts on a body, causing rotation, the angular
momentum of the body about the line of action of the force, immediately
before and after impact, remains unchanged, since the force has no moment
about that line.
DYNAMICS 9
1.19 Sudden meshing of rotating wheels. If two rotating gear

wheels or friction discs are suddenly meshed together, the same impulsive
force acts at the circumference of both wheels, but if the radii are different,
the wheels are subjected to different impulsive torques and thus the
changes in angular momentum of the wheels are different. The external
impulsive torque causing the change in total momentum is supplied by
the reactions at the bearings. When the wheels have equal radii, how¬
ever, the impulsive torques are equal and there is no change in the total
angular momentum.
1.20 Work done by a torque. If a constant torque T moves

through an angle 6, work done = TO.
If the torque varies linearly from zero to a maximum value T,
work done = \T0.

•o
In the general case where T = f(0), work done =
Jo
/me-
The h.p. developed by a torque T lb.ft. moving at co rad./sec. is
To, 2nNT
where N is the speed in r.p.m.
550 01 33,000
1.21 Angular kinetic energy. Let a body rotate about O, Fig. 1.8,
with an angular velocity co.
Then K.E. of particle

dm
of mass dm -(cor)'
or
total K.E. of body = — dm.v
u
= (1.19)
1.22 Total K.E. and rate of change of K.E. If the c.g. of a body
is moving with linear velocity v and the body is also rotating about the c.g.
with angular velocity co,
then total K.E. = K.E. of translation -j- K.E. of rotation
= \mv2 -j- %Ico2 ..... (1-20)

where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the c.g.
Rate of change of K.E. = —{\rriv2 -f- i^co2}

dt
dv dco
= km. Iv— 4- \L. 2co—
2 dt 2 dt
= mfv -f- loioo
= Pv + Too ..... (1.21)
= work done in unit time.
1.23 Equivalent mass of a rotating body. Consider a body of

weight W rotating about an axis through 0,
Fig. 1.9 ; let the radius of gyration about this axis
/
be k. If a tangential force P, acting at radius r,
produces an angular acceleration a, then the equa¬
tion of angular motion of this body is
W f
P X r = IqOL — —k2-
9 r
where / is the linear acceleration of the force P.
P= ■f (1.22)
9
which is the equation of linear motion of the body, assumed concentrated
at a radius r.
/k\ 2
The quantity TTf-J is the equivalent weight of the body, referred
to the line of action of P. In problems concerning both linear and angular

accelerations, such as vehicle dynamics, this equivalent weight may be
added to the dead weight in order to obtain the total equivalent weight
having linear acceleration only.
1.24 Acceleration of a geared system. Let two gear wheels A

and B, having moments of inertia Ia and Ib respectively, mesh with a speed
ratio — = n, Fig. 1.10. If a torque T is applied to wheel A to accelerate
the system and aa and cnh are the accelerations of A and B respectively,
then torque required on B to accelerate B = 7&a& = Ibncna
torque required on A to accelerate B = n2Ib<xa
since the torques are inversely proportional to the speeds.
The torque required on A to accelerate A = Iaoia
total torque required on A to accelerate A and B = Ia<xa -f- n2Ib<xa
i.e. T = (Ia + «V,)«a . (1.23)
DYNAMICS 11
The quantity Ia -f- w2/& may be regarded as the equivalent moment of

inertia of the gears referred to wheel
A. This principle may be extended
to any number of wheels geared
together, the moment of inertia of
each wheel in the train being multi¬
plied by the square of its gear ratio
relative to the reference wheel.
Thus, in problems on hoists, the
moments of inertia of the various
gears may be reduced to an equi¬
valent moment of inertia of the motor shaft.
The above result can also be obtained from the general principle that
the nett energy supplied to a system in unit time is equal to the rate of
change of its kinetic energy (see Art. 1.22).
Thus To>a = |-{i/acoa2 + ilb0)b2}

at
= Wa + n%} X |(«>0)2
= i{Ia + n2h) X 2ft)aaa
i.e. T = {Ia + n2Ib }aa
This torque is in addition to any torque required on A to overcome external

resisting torques applied to A and/or B.
If P is the tangential force between the teeth, then
. . . . (1.24)
rh
or
T ~ Ia*a
where ra and rb are the pitch circle radii* of A and B respectively.
1.25 Equivalent dynamical system. It is required to replace

a rigid body by a dynamically equivalent system of concentrated masses.
The necessary conditions are
(a) the total weight must be the same in each case ;
(b) the position of the c.g. must be the same in each case ;
(c) the moment of inertia about an axis through the c.g. must be the
same in each case.
* See Art. 12.1.

Thus, if a body of weight W and radius

of gyration k about its c.g. is to be re¬
placed by an equivalent two-mass system,
Fig. 1.11, then
W1+Wt=W . . (1.25)
W1a= WJd . (1.26)
Fig. 1.11 W W W
—a2 + —b2 = —k2 . (1.27)
9 9 9
From equations (1.25) and (1.26),
b a
w1= W and W9 = W
a -f- b a -J- b
Substituting in equation (1.27) gives the essential condition for the placing
of the masses, i.e. ab — k2. Either a or b can be chosen arbitrarily and
the other term obtained from this relation.
1.26 Maximum acceleration and retardation of vehicles. The

maximum possible acceleration or retardation of a vehicle is limited
by the friction force between the
wheels and the road.
Consider a vehicle accelerating
up a gradient, inclined at an
angle 6 to the horizontal, Fig. 1.12.
Let the tractive force be F and the
reactions at the front and rear
wheels be Nf and Nr respectively.
Then, for maximum acceleration,
F = jnNf , for front wheel
drive,
F = juNr , for rear wheel
drive, Fig. 1.12
and F = ju(Nf -f- Nr), for four
wheel drive.
For this latter ideal condition to be realized, however, the ratio of the
tractive forces applied to the front and rear wheels must be in the ratio
of the reactions, Nf and Nr, respectively, otherwise slipping will not occur
at all wheels simultaneously.
Resolving forces perpendicular and parallel to the incline,
Nf + Nr= W cos 6 (1.28)
GENERAL DYNAMICS 13
Taking moments about G,
Fh=Nrb-Nfa .... (1.30)
Hence / may be determined from equations (1.28), (1.29) and (1.30).
For maximum retardation, the braking force F is obtained in the same
way as for the tractive force but acts in the opposite direction.
(a) General Dynamics
1. The velocity of a train travelling at 60 m.p.h. decreases by 10 per cent in

the first 40 sec. after application of the brakes.
(a) Calculate the velocity at the end of a further 80 sec., assuming that,
during the whole period of 120 sec., the retardation is proportional to the
(b) Derive an expression for the retarding force in lb./ton weight of the
train.
(c) Find the h.p. being dissipated at the end of the whole period, if the
train weighs 500 tons. (U. Lond.)
{a) Since the retardation is proportional to the velocity,

/= — kv, where k is a constant.
The change of speed in time dt, dv — — f dt = — kv dt
i.e.
v
i.e. loge v — — kt -f- C
When t — 0, v — 88 ft./sec., .'. loge 88 — C
so that loge — — — kt
88
or v — 88e~&*
When t = 40 sec., v = 0-9 X 88 = 79*2 ft./sec.
k = 0-002635
Therefore, when ^ = 120 sec., ?; = 88e~0002635x120
= 64-2 ft./sec. or 43-75 m.p.h.
W 2240
{b) P = mf — —kv = — X 0-002635v
g 32-2
— 0-1835?; lb./ton, where v is in ft./sec.
(c) At the end of 120 sec., total retarding force
= 500 X 0-1835 X 64-2 = 5900 lb.
T 5900 X 64-2
.'. h.p. = = 688
550
2. Show that the efficiency of a pile driver (i.e. useful work done in driving
pile/initial energy of monkey), when employed for driving a given size of
pile, increases with the weight of the monkey, assuming no rebound from the
head of the pile.
A pile weighing 10 cwt. is driven by a monkey weighing 16 cwt. falling
a distance of 10 ft. on to the top of the pile. The pile is driven a distance
of J in. and there is no rebound. Find the penetration resistance of the
pile, assumed constant, and also the amount of energy expended in deforming
the head. (U. Lond.)
Let W1 and W2 be the weights of monkey and pile respectively,

v± be the velocity of the monkey just before impact,
and v be the common velocity of the monkey and pile after impact.
Equating momentum before and after impact,
W±v i = (W1 + W2)v
w
'•e- w = \yi + wp ■ ■ ' ' (1)
Since the K.E. of the monkey and pile is utilized in driving the pile, then
work done in driving pile = K.E. of monkey and pile after impact
TFi + TFj
= t>-V2,
work done in driving pile W± + W,2 2

Efficiency = V*
initial K.E. of monkey Wxvf
Substituting for v from equation (1),
TFi
efficiency — which increases with W±
w, + Wt’
w± = 16 cwt., W2 = 10 cwt. and
v1== VZgh — V2 x 32-2 X 10 = 25*4 ft./sec.
16
Therefore, from equation (1), v = — X 25-4= 15-6 ft./sec.
Let the resistance be R lb.

1 TEi + Wo
Then, work done by R — R X ^ = l " 1 --——v2
,26 x 15-63
= 1-= 98 ft.cwt.
2 32-2
R = 4700 cwt. = 235 tons
Energy expended in deforming the head
= initial K.E. of monkey — work done on pile
16 x 25*42
— 9-^- 98 = 62 ft.cwt. = 3-1 ft.tons
32-2
GENERAL DYNAMICS 15
3. Fig. 1.13 shows a tilt hammer, hinged at 0, with its head A resting
on top of the pile B. The hammer,
including the arm OA, weighs 56 lb.
Its centre of gravity G is 16 in. hori¬
zontally from 0, and its radius of gyra¬
tion about an axis through G parallel
to the axis of the pin 0 is 3 in. The
pile weighs 300 lb. The hammer is
raised through 45° to the position shown
in dotted lines, and released. On
striking the pile there is no rebound.
Find the angular velocity of the
hammer immediately before impact and
the linear velocity of the pile immedi¬
ately after impact. Neglect any im¬
pulsive resistance offered by the earth
into which the pile is being driven.
(U. Lond.)
Let be the angular velocity of OA before impact,

a>2 be the angular velocity of OA after impact,
and v be the initial velocity of pile after impact.
Moment of inertia of hammer about 0
W,
_J- 2 _
56 X (32 + 162)
— —
= 3845 lb.in.sec.2
9 32-2 x 12
Potential energy in raised position = kinetic energy in lowest position
3845
i.e. 56 x 16 sin. 45° = X cof*
from which co1 = 5*75 rad./sec.

Neglecting the impulsive resistance of the earth, the total moment
of momentum of the system about 0 is constant, the impulsive reaction
of the hinge having no moment about that point,
i.e. initial moment of momentum about 0
= final moment of momentum about 0
i.e. 3845 x 5-75 = 3845 x to, H-—— x v X 18
But since hammer and pile remain in contact after impact, v — 18co2.
221 = 3845 x co2 + ——— X 182 x co,

32-2 x 12
co2 = 0-762 rad./sec.
v = 0-762 x 18 = 13-72 in./sec.
4. The two buffers at one end of a truck each require a force of 1-75
tons/in. of compression and engage with similar buffers on a truck which it
overtakes on a straight horizontal track. The truck weighs 10 tons and its initial
speed is 6 ft./sec., while the second truck weighs 15 tons with initial speed
2 ft./sec., in the same direction. Find (a) the common speed when moving
together during impact, (b) the kinetic energy then lost to the system and the
compression of each buffer spring to store this, and (c) the velocity of each truck
on separation if only half of the energy stored in the springs is returned.
(I. Mech. E.)
{a) Momentum before impact

= momentum at instant of common velocity *>
i.e. 10 X 6 + 15 X 2 = 25 X v
common velocity, v = 3-6 ft./sec.
10 15
K.E. X 62 + i X X 22
32*2 32*2
25
X 3-62
32-2
= 1*49 ft.tons
If x is the compression of each spring, in inches, strain energy stored in

springs = K.E. lost in impact
, 1-75Z2 1 .. 10
i.e. 4 X -= 1-49 X 12
2
x = 2-26 in.
(c) Final K.E. after separation

= K.E. at instant of common velocity
+ J X strain energy stored in springs
10 15 25 1-49
X 3-62 +
32-2 32-2 32*2
i.e. 10V + 15v22 — 372 . . . (1)
where % and v2 are the final velocities of the 10- and 15-ton trucks
respectively.
Also the initial and final momentum must be the same,
i.e. 10^ -|- 15i>2 = 25 X 3-6 = 90 (2)
.*. from equations (1) and (2),
vx = 1-9 ft./sec. and v2 = 4-73 ft./sec.

GENERAL DYNAMICS 17
5. Two parallel shafts can he connected by a gear wheel of 2-5 in. radius
sliding on one shaft A to engage with a wheel
of 5 in. radius fixed to the other shaft B.
Before engagement the shaft speeds of A and
B are respectively 1400 and 900 r.p.m. in
opposite directions. If the inertia of A is
equivalent to 20 lb. at 3 in. radius and of B to
80 lb. at 5 in. radius, calculate the speed of A
after engagement and the tangential impulse
measured in lb.sec., experienced at the wheel
teeth. (I. Mech. E.)
Eeferring to Fig. 1.14,

20 X 32 180
Ia = lb.in.sec.2
0 32-2 x 12 32-2 x 12
80 x 52 2000
h= lb.in.sec.2
32-2 x 12 32-2 x 12
Let nx and n2 be the initial and final speeds of A in r.p.m.,
and JVj and N2 be the initial and final speeds of B in r.p.m.,
and let X be the tangential impulse between the teeth.
Then X acts so as to increase the speed of A and decrease the speed of B.
Angular impulse = change of angular momentum
i.e. ^Xf,= Za(»s - »i) X ^ (1)

60
2n
and Xxr„=- Ib{N2 - N,) x (2)
60
. *V. h («s - «i)
-
i.e.
2J 180(»2 - 1400)
(3)
2000(Nt — 900)
also (4)
Therefore, from equations (3) and (4), the speed of A after engagement,
n2 — 1693 r.p.m.
Substituting in equation (1),

180 2tt
X= (1693 - 1400) X
2J x 32-2 x 12 60
= 5-716 lb.sec.
.
6 A rigid uniform beam AB, 20 ft. long, is supported vertically with the
end B resting on the ground. End A is released and the beam is allowed to
fall. It turns about the end B which remains in its original position. A
point C on the beam, 12 ft. from B, strikes the edge of a horizontal step. After
the impact the beam rotates about the edge of the step without slipping. Deter¬
mine the height of the step if the beam comes momentarily to rest in the hori¬
zontal position. (U. Lond.)
(A
i
i
Deferring to Fig. 1.15,

let co1 and co2 be the angular velocities of the beam immediately before
and after impact,
and v1 and v2 be the linear velocities of G immediately before and after
impact.
In falling from the vertical position, loss of P.E. = gain of K.E.
Wl2
i.e. Wl-( 1 - cos 6) = 1W -COi
A 39
(1 — cos 6)
In moving to the horizontal position after impact, gain of P.E. = loss

of K.E.
i.e. Wa cos 6
2iga cos 0
l2 + 12a2
During impact, the moment of momentum of the beam about C remains
constant since the impulsive force at C has no moment about that point.
W W
i.e. IGcoi-v± X a = IGoo2 + —v2 X a
9 9
GENERAL DYNAMICS 19
taking clockwise momentum as positive.
But vi — °>i X ^ and v2 = co2 X a
Wl2 W l Wl2 . W 9
~ Tî-o
^12 £ 2 = ~
g 12 #
Substituting for aq and m2 from equations (1) and (2),
/ iP _ la 24ga cos 0
3^(l - cos 0) = (— + a2
\ 12 2 /V ' \12 l2 + 12a2
Therefore, when l = 20 ft. and a = 2 ft., cos 6 = 0-1515
height of step, h = 12 cos 0 = 1-82 ft.
7. A railway truck of weight 20 tons, moving at 4 m.p.h., is brought to

rest by a buffer stop. The buffer exerts a force of 5000 lb. initially, and
this force increases uniformly by 4000 lb. for each 1 ft. compression of the
buffer. Neglecting any loss of energy at impact, find the maximum com¬
pression of the buffer and the time required for the truck to be brought to
rest. (U. Bond.)
When the buffer is compressed a distance x ft.,
restoring force = 5000 -f- 4000x
5000+ 4000,= - 20 X 2240 ^

32-2 dt2
d2x
i.e. + 2-875x 3-595
dt2
The solution is* x — A cos Tit + B sin 1-71 — 1-25
When t — 0, x= 0 0 = A - 1-25 A = 1-25
dx
When t — 0, 5-87 ft./sec.
dt
5-87 = TIB B= 3-45
.*. x = 1-25 cos 1-71 + 3-45 sin 1*7$ — 1-25
dx
and = - 2-125 sin 1-7* + 5-87 cos l-7«
dt
dx
When the truck is brought to rest, — = 0
dt
2-125 sin 1-7* = 5-87 cos l-7«
i.e. tan 1-71 = 2-76
from which t = 0-722 sec.
The maximum compression of the buffer is given by
x = 1-25 cos 1-7 X 0-722 + 3-45 sin 1-7 X 0-722 - 1-25
= 2-43 ft.
* See Appendix.
8. A frictionless flexible chain, of total length 30 in., hangs over the edge
of a table by 10 in. and is held in that position.
Determine the time taken for the chain to just slide off the table if released.
(U. Lond.)
Let w be the weight of the chain per
(20-x)-
unit length, Fig. 1.16.
1
When a length x in. has slid off the 77777777777777777777Z
table,
accelerating force = w(10 -J- x)
30w d2x
w(10 + «) =
32-2 x 12 dt2
d^x Fia. 1.16
i.e. — - 12-88z = 128-8
dt2
The solution is* x = A cosh 3-592 -j- B sinh 3-592 — 10
When t = 0, x= 0 /. 0 - A - 10 /. A = 10
When t = 0, — = 0 .*. 0 = 3-595 5 = 0

’ dt
x = 10(cosh 3-592 — 1)
When x = 20 in., 20= 10(cosh 3-592 - 1)
from which 2 = 0-492 sec.
Alternative Solution
If the chain moves a distance dx,
work done = loss of P.E. = w(10 + x)
rx
total work done for a movement x = w( 10 + x)dx
Jo
xt
w^10z + + C
When x = 0, work done = 0, C= 0

30 w
Gain in K.E. = -vi
30 w xi
-v‘ wl 10z -j-
<
2 X 32-2 X 12/ **
V2 =
30 \ 2
dx xi
.*. v= — = 5-075 lOx + — ) = 3-585V(20x + x2)
dt 2
* See Appendix.
GENERAL DYNAMICS 21
dx
dt —
3-585V(20x + x2)
20 dx
t =
o 3-585\/{(x + 10)2- 102}
1 10"
20
cosh
3-585 10 0
1
[cosh 1 3 — cosh-11]
3^585
1
X 1-7615
3-585
0-492 sec
9. A connecting-rod weighs 2 lb. and the distance between the big and
small end centres is 9 in. ; the centre of gravity of the rod is 6 in. from the
small end centre and the moment of inertia is 30 lb.in.2 about an axis 'perpen¬
dicular to the rod and through the centre of gravity. If the rod is to be replaced
by a three-mass system, one at each of the end centres and one at the
centre of gravity, determine the masses of these particles. If the rod is to
be replaced by two masses, one at each of the end centres, determine the cor¬
rection to be made to the moment of inertia of the two masses.
Let Wa, Wb, and Wg be the weights of the particles at A, B and G

respectively, Fig. 1.17.
A B For the total mass to be the same,

3§> wa + Wb + Wg = 2 . (1)
For the centre of gravity to remain in the
same position,
Wa X 3 = Wb X 6 . (2)
wa For the moment of inertia about the centre

ws Wb of gravity to be the same,
Fig. 1.17
Wa X 32 + Wb X 62 = 30 (3)
from equations (1), (2) and (3),
Wn = ¥■ lb., Wb = | lb., and Wff = j lb.
For a two-mass system,

swa=mb
and Wa + Wb = 2
and
/„ = - x 32 + - X 62 = 36 lb.in.2
3 3
correction = 36 — 30 = 6 lb.in.2
10. An electric motor drives a machine through a speed-reducing gear

of ratio 9:1. The motor armature, with its shaft and gear wheel, has moment
of inertia 12 lb.ft.2 The rotating part of the driven machine has moment
of inertia 900 lb.ft.2 The driven machine has a constant resisting torque of
75 lb.ft. and the efficiency of the reduction gear is 95 per cent.
(a) What power must the motor develop to drive the machine at a uniform
speed of 160 r.p.m. ?
(b) The torque developed on the motor armature, in starting from rest, is
20 lb.ft. What time will be required for the speed of the machine to increase
from zero to 60 r.p.m. ?
(c) If the gear ratio were altered so as to give the machine the greatest
possible angular acceleration in starting from rest, what would then be the
gear ratio ? The starting torque of the motor is 20 Ib.ft. as before.
(U. Lond.)
output h.p. 2jt X 75 X 160

Input h.p. = 2-405
0-95 33,000 X 0-95
(b) Let A and B refer to the input and output shafts respectively.
Let the starting torque be Ta (20 Ib.ft.) and assume that A and B
rotate in the same direction, so that Ta and the resisting torque Tb act
in opposite directions.
d
Then nett work done per sec. = — (K.E. of the system)
dt
i.<3. 0-9571am„ + Thcob = ~(\Ia<x>* +
(c) If the gear ratio

GENERAL DYNAMICS 23
12 , 900)
then 0-95 x 20 x ncoh — loojh =
32-2n + 32-2j 6<Xfi
f 19n - 75
.. — 32*2
\l2n2 + 900y
d<x>
For maximum acceleration, = 0
dn
i.e. (12n2 + 900) X 19 (19n — 75) X 2n X 12
i.e. n2 — 7-9w — 75 0
,\ n = 13-47
11. A mass of 1500 lb. falling 8 in. is used to drive a pile of mass 1100 lb. into
the ground. Assuming there is no rebound, find the common velocity of the
driver and pile at the end of the blow and the loss of kinetic energy. If the resist¬
ance of the ground is constant, find its value if the pile is driven 3 in. (U. Lond.)
(.Ans. : 3-78 ft./sec. ; 424 ft.lb. ; 2*19 tons)
12. A mass of 600 lb. is allowed to fall vertically through 3 ft. on to the top
of a pile weighing 1000 lb. Assuming that the falling mass and pile remain in
contact after impact and that the pile is moved 6 in. at each blow, find, allowing
for the action of gravity after impact:
(a) the average resistance against the pile ; (b) the energy lost in the blow.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 2952 lb.; 1126 ft.lb.)
13. A pile which weighs § ton can just carry a steady load of 40 tons without
subsidence. The load is removed and the pile driven to a greater depth by blows
of a 2-ton hammer dropping on to the top of the pile from a height of 4 ft. The
hammer does not rebound from the top of the pile.
(a) Calculate the penetration per blow, assuming that the ground resistance is
constant.
(b) What is the efficiency of the pile driving operation ? Would this efficiency
be increased or decreased if a heavier hammer were used ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 1-72 in. ; 72-8 per cent; increased)
14. The head, A, of a drop hammer is attached to a wooden board, B, which

is raised when two rotating rollers, CC, are pressed against it with a force P,
Fig. 1.18. The hammer is raised 5 ft. and then falls
freely to strike the die. If the nett weight is 400 lb.
and the penetration of the hot metal is \ in., what is
the average force of the blow ?
The diameter of the rollers is 8 in. and they are
rotating at a constant speed of 86 r.p.m. The force
P is 900 lb. and the coefficient of friction between
the rollers and the board is 0-25. Find the time
taken to raise the hammer 5 ft. If blows were
delivered at the rate of 15/min., what would be the
average h.p. of the driving motor ? Determine also
the maximum h.p. that the motor would have to give
if no flywheel effect were present. {U. Glas.)
{Ans. : 96,000 lb.; 2 04 sec. * 0-934 ; 2-46)
15. Define the quantities impulse and momentum and state the principle
of the conservation of momentum.
A stationary truck, of total weight 9 tons, is set in motion by the action
of a shunting locomotive which provides an impulse of 3 ton sec. The truck
travels freely along a level track for a period of 15 sec. when it collides with
a truck of weight 12 tons which is moving at 2 ft./sec. in the same direction.
The track resistance is 15 lb./ton. Both trucks move on together after the
collision. Determine their common speed and the loss of energy at impact.
(I. Mech. E.) (Ans. : 4-36 ft./sec. ; 2-41 ft. ton)
16. A towing van weighing 5000 lb. is attached to an automobile weighing
3000 lb. by a wire rope of 15 ft. effective length. The initial distance between
the fixing points for this rope is 10 ft. so that the van may move 5 ft. forward
before the rope tightens. The van is accelerated from the initial at-rest position
under a uniform tractive effort of 500 lb.
Determine the van speed (a) just before the rope starts to tauten, (b) at the
instant when the rope ceases to stretch.
Determine also the average impulsive force on the van during this stretching
period, assuming that the rope takes up the strain in 0-1 sec.
Ignore frictional losses and neglect the effect of the tractive effort during
the tensioning period of 0-1 sec. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 5-67 ft./sec. ; 3-55 ft./sec.; 3,305 lb.)
17. Two cylinders, each of weight 50 lb., external radius 8 in., and radius
of gyration 6 in., rotate freely in parallel fixed bearings which are at the same
level.
One cylinder is revolving at 60 r.p.m. and the other at 90 r.p.m. when a
plank weighing 100 lb. is laid gently upon them. Calculate the velocity attained
by the plank and the time for this velocity to be reached. Assume that each
cylinder supports one half of the weight of the plank and that the coefficient
of friction between plank and cylinders is 0-3. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 1-885 ft./sec.; 0-256 sec.)
18. The inertia starter for a small aero engine consists of a hand-driven
crank and geared to a small flywheel running at 30 times the crank speed. To
start the engine, the handle is used to wind the flywheel up to a high speed
and the handle is then pushed in to clutch with the engine. The energy stored
in the flywheel then turns the engine to start it.
The flywheel rim is 2 in. wide at inner and outer radii of 3-25 in. and 4-25 in.
and is made of steel of density 0-28 lb./cu. in. Calculate the kinetic energy
stored where the crank is being turned at 130 r.p.m. If the mean hand-turning
effort is 6-7 lb.ft., how long will it take to get up to this speed and what is
the torque given to the engine if the handcrank speed drops at the rate of
75 r.p.m./sec. on being clutched to the engine ? (U. Glas.)
(Ans. : 3340 ft.lb. ; 73 sec.; 9-42 lb.ft.)
19. A flywheel weighing 100 lb. is mounted on a 3 in. diameter shaft in two
bearings, one on either side of the wheel. Under the action of the friction on the
bearings, the speed of the flywheel falls from 200 r.p.m. to 150 r.p.m. in 14 sec.
with uniform deceleration.
A plain cast iron ring 18 in. outside diameter, 14 in. inside diameter and 3 in.
thick is now bolted on to the side of the flywheel, concentrically with it. The
cast iron weighs 0-26 lb./cu. in. The effect of bearing friction now is to reduce
the speed uniformly from 200 r.p.m. to 150 r.p.m. in 20 sec.
Assuming that the coefficient of friction is constant, find its value. Find also
the radius of gyration of the flywheel. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-0213; 5-75 in.)
GENERAL DYNAMICS 25
20. Fig. 1.19 shows a cylinder in contact with a
plane whose inclination, a, to the horizontal may be
varied. The coefficient of friction between the cylinder
and the plane is 0-2 and the cylinder is solid and of
homogeneous material.
Determine the value of a for the cylinder to just slip
before it rolls when first released.
What is the acceleration of the cylinder under these
conditions ? {U. Lond.)
(.Ans. : 31°; 11-1 ft./sec.2)
21. A steel bar, 8 ft. long and 3 in. diameter, starts from rest and rolls without
slipping, with its axis perpendicular to the track of an inclined plane. Find
(a) the velocity of translation and (b) the kinetic energy of rotation, at the instant
when the bar has rolled 20 ft. down the track. The weight of the bar is 193-2 lb.
and the angle of inclination of the plane is 10°. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 12-22 ft./sec. ; 224 ft.lb.)
22. Two shafts A and B are parallel to each other and are connected by a pair
of gear wheels so that the shaft A rotates at four times the speed of B. B carries
a flywheel whose moment of inertia is 5-2 ton.ft.2 On A there are various rotating
parts whose total moment of inertia is 1-7 ton.ft.2 Find the total K.E. of the
system when B rotates at 200 r.p.m. Find the driving torque required on shaft B
to accelerate the system uniformly from rest so that the speed of B is 200 r.p.m.
after 30 sec.
If the shafts are 2 ft. 6 in. apart, what is the tangential force between the teeth
on the two gear wheels during this acceleration ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 221 ft.ton ; 0-70 ton.ft. ; 0-296 ton)
23. A short, heavy shaft is being turned in a lathe wdiich is driven by a motor
giving 3 h.p. at 1400 r.p.m., the speed reduction between the motor and the lathe
spindle being 10 to 1. The friction torque at the lathe spindle is 13 lb.ft. The
moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the motor is 2 lb.ft.2, that of the lathe
face-plate and the piece being turned is 30 lb.ft.2
If the turning tool is suddenly given an excessively heavy cut which stops the
shaft in one revolution, calculate the total force on the tip of the tool if it is cutting
at a radius of 5-5 in. Assume the force to be uniform during the decelerating
period. {U. Glas.) {Ans. : 483 lb.)
24. A rigid beam AB of uniform cross-section and weighing 80 lb., is hinged
at A to a fixed support and is maintained in a horizontal position by a vertical
helical spring attached to B, AB being 6 ft. A weight of 5 lb. is allowed to fall
on to the beam with a striking velocity of 10
ft./sec. and the point of impact is 4 ft. from
A. Assuming the weight and beam move
together, determine the angular velocity of
the beam immediately after impact.
{U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 5/26 rad./sec.)
25. Fig. 1.20 show's a flywheel A weighing

28 lb., of outside diameter 18 in. and radius
of gyration 7 in., initially rotating at 300 r.p.m.
A second flywheel B weighing 16 lb., of out¬
Fig. 1.20 side diameter 15 in., and radius of gyration 6
in., is carried in bearings mounted on a slider C. Initially B is not rotating. The
B
slider is now pushed to the left so that wheel B presses against A, until the wheels
roll on each other without slipping.
Neglecting bearing friction, calculate the angular velocities of the two fly¬
wheels after slipping has ceased.
If the coefficient of friction between the wheels is 0-12, and the horizontal
force between them is constant at 14 lb., calculate the time from the instant
when the wheels initially make contact until slipping ceases. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : A, 187 r.p.m. ; B, 224-5 r.p.m. ; 2-78 sec.)
26. A drum A of weight 500 lb., external diameter 15 in., and a radius of
gyration 12 in., rotates on frictionless bearings with a speed of 250 r.p.m. ;
a stationary drum B of weight 120 lb., external diameter 9 in., and radius of
gyration 8 in., mounted on a frictionless axis parallel to that of A, is brought into
contact with A, the two being pressed together with a force of 20 lb.
Assuming a coefficient of friction of 0-25, determine :
(а) the time of slipping and the final speeds of A and B.
(б) the time of slipping if a torque is applied to A to maintain a constant speed
of 250 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 29-8 sec. ; 192-8 r.p.m. ; 321 r.p.m. ; 38-55 sec.)
27. Two gear wheels A and B are mounted on parallel shafts so that they
may revolve separately or may be meshed together externally.
Mass Number Radius of Original
Wheel (lb.) of teeth gyration (in.) r.p.m.
A 10 100 12 300
B 12 50 10 100
The wheels were originally turning freely in the same direction.
Find (a) the speed and direction of rotation of wheel A, if the wheels are
suddenly meshed, assuming that there is no back-lash of the teeth ; (b) the
loss of energy in ft.lb. due to impact. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 30-76 r.p.m. in original direction ; 160 ft.lb.)
28. A valve weighing 0-5 lb. closes horizontally under the action of a spring.
In the closed position the spring is compressed 0-5 in., and the maximum opening
of the valve is 0-25 in. If the spring stiffness is 20 lb./in., find the time required
for the valve to close and the velocity with which it strikes the seat. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 0-0067 sec. ; 69-2 in./sec.)
29. A valve is opened vertically downwards by a cam and then released by a
trip gear, to be shut by a close-coiled helical spring concentric with the valve stem.
The maximum valve opening is 0-625 in., the stiffness of the spring is 150 lb./in.,
the weight of the valve and attached details is 6^ lb. The spring compression
when the valve is closed is 0-85 in.
Neglecting all frictional resistances and the gravitational force on the valve
and associated details, determine : (a) the time taken for the valve to close, and
(b) the velocity at the moment of impact. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 0-01 sec. ; 114 in./sec.)
.
30 The moving table of a machine tool slides upon horizontal guides. The
table weighs 240 lb. and the frictional force opposing its motion is 40 lb. At
a time when the speed of the table is 3 ft./sec., the driving mechanism is dis¬
connected and the table is then brought to rest in a distance of 1-5 in. by collision
with a spring buffer attached to the fixed frame of the machine. Calculate the
time required for the spring to attain its greatest compression. Assume that the
spring is initially free from stress and neglect any loss of energy in the initial
impact. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 0-0622 sec.)
GENERAL DYNAMICS 27
31. A truck weighing 6 tons and moving at a speed of 10 m.p.h. runs into
a stationary truck weighing 12 tons which is in contact with a pair of spring
buffers. The combined stiffness of the buffer springs is 2 ton/in. and the buffers
are already compressed 2 in. before impact occurs. Neglecting the effects of
friction and the mass of the buffers, find how much further they will be com¬
pressed. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 1-262 in.)
32. The inlet valve of a 4-stroke petrol engine operates while the crank turns
through 180°, the lift in inches being given by 0-125 (1 — cos 2ojt) where eo, the
crank velocity, corresponds to an engine speed of 3600 r.p.m.
Find the minimum force to be applied by the valve-spring to maintain contact,
if the mass of the valve with its attachments is 0-48 lb. and its axis is horizontal.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 88-3 lb.)
33. A rocking lever weighs 150 lb. and has a radius of gyration of 9 in. about
its centre of mass, which is 3 in. from the axis of oscillation of the lever. Find
completely the equivalent two-mass system, if one of the masses is placed at the
axis of oscillation.
What torque is required to give the lever an angular acceleration of
150 rad./sec.2 ? {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 135 lb. at axis ; 15 lb. at 27 in. from c.g. ; 437 lb.ft.)
(b) Hoists
34. A load weighing 500 lb. is lifted by means of a rope which is wound
several times round a drum and which then supports a balance weight of
300 lb. As the load rises the balance weight falls. The drum has a diameter
of 4 ft. and a radius of gyration of 21 in. and its weight is 150 lb. The
frictional resistance to the movement of the load is 25 lb., and that to the move¬
ment of the balance iveight 20 lb. The frictional torque on the drum shaft is
60 lb.fi.
Find the torque required on the drum, and also the h.p. required, at an
instant when the load has an upward velocity of 8 ft./sec. and an upward
acceleration of 4 ft./sec.2 (U. Lond.)
Let Tx and T2 be the tensions in

the rope, Fig. 1.21.
Then T, = 500 + — x 4 + 25
1 32-2
and T'.= 300 - — X 4-20

2 32-2
Tx - T2 = 344-4 lb.
torque to accelerate loads = 344-4 x 2 = 688-8 lb.ft.
Torque to accelerate drum = X 1 75 4 qq

32-2 2
= 88-6 lb.ft.
total torque = 688-8 + 88-6 = 777-4 lb.ft.
777-4 8
H.P. =-X - = 5-65
550 2 -
Alternative Solution
Equivalent mass of drum at rope = W— — x ^ = 114*84 lb.

r2 242
Total mass to be accelerated = 500 + 300 + 114-84 = 914-84 lb.
60
Total friction force to be overcome at rope, P = 20 -f 25 -f — =75 lb.
2
Then, equivalent tension in rope
914-84
= 75 - 300 + 500 +-— x 4 = 388-6 lb.
32-2
HOISTS 29
torque = 388-6 x 2 = 777-2 lb.ft.
Pv 388-6 X 8
H.P. = 5-65
550 550
35. A hoist with a 4-ft. diameter drum lifts a cage hy means of a wire
rope that winds on to the drum. The drum is driven hy an electric motor
through a double reduction gear.
Determine the motor torque to give a cage an acceleration upwards of
3 ft./sec.2, given the following data:
Speed Wt. {lb.) k (in.)

(r.p.m.)
Rotor of motor and pinion . 1440 500 45
Intermediate gear . . 340 800 9-5
Low speed gear . 75 2000 26‘5
Drum and shaft . 75 2500 22-0
Cage .... — 4000 —
Rope (rising) 1000

t (U. Lond.)
Total weight to be accelerated = 4000 -j- 1000 = 5000 lb.
tension in rope = 5000 -j- ——- X 3 = 5466 lb.

1 32-2
torque on drum to produce this tension = 5466 X - = 10,930 lb.ft.
Equivalent moment of inertia of rotating system referred to drum
1 ' 2500 x 222 + 2000 x 26-52

32-2 x 122
'340\ 2 /^ 440\ 2'
+ 800 X 9-52 X [ — j + 500 x 4-52 X
75 75
= 1688 lb.ft.sec.2
Angular acceleration of drum = -§ rad./sec.2
torque on drum to accelerate drum, gears and motor
= 1688 X f = 2532 lb.ft.

total drum torque = 10,930 + 2532
= 13,462 lb.ft.
75
motor torque — 13,462 X = 700 lb.ft.
1440
36. A cage used for raising coal in a mine shaft weighs 15 cwt. and
carries a load of 25 cwt.; the shaft is 800 ft. deep and the haulage rope weighs
3 lb./ft. The maximum h.p. which can be applied to the rope at the winding
drum is 450 h.p. at a rope speed of 30 ft./sec.
Find the minimum time in which the speed of 30 ft./sec. is attained.
(U. Lond.)
Weight of cage and load = (15 + 25) X 112 = 4480 lb.

Weight of cable being accelerated = 800 X 3 = 2400 lb.
When the cage has risen a distance h ft.,
weight of cable being raised = (800 — h) X 3 = (2400 — 3h) lb.
tension in cable ={4480 -f (2400 — 3A)} +{4480 + 2400} X /

9
= 6880O +lj — 3h lb.
450 X 550
Tension in cable at 30 ft./sec. =-= 8250 lb.
' 30
If the motor torque is assumed constant, then, since the inertia of the
drum is not given, the tension in the cable may be assumed constant.
The equation of motion is therefore
8250 = - 3h
6880 d2h
i.e. 1370 = X - 3h
32^ It*
d2h
or — - 0-11842/* = 6-41
dt2
The solution is* h = A cosh 0*1184* -f- B sinh 0*1184* — 457*5
When t = 0, h = 0 0 = A - 457*5 i.e. A = 457*5
When t = 0, = 0 0 = 0*11845 i.e. 5 = 0

dt
/. h = 457*5(cosh 0*1184* - 1)
— = 54*2 sinh 0*1184*

dt
dh
when — =30 ft./sec., * = 4*45 sec.
dt -
37. A wagon weighing 14 tons is hauled up an incline of 1 in 20 by a rope

which is parallel to the incline and is being wound round a 3 ft. 6 in. diameter
drum. The drum, in turn, is driven through a 40 to 1 reduction gear by an
* See Appendix.
HOISTS 31
electric motor. The frictional resistance to the movement of the wagon is
260 lb., and the efficiency of the gear drive is 85 per cent. The bearing friction
at the drum and motor shafts may be neglected. The rotating parts of the
drum weigh 1\ tons with radius of gyration 17 in. and the rotating parts on
the armature shaft weigh 250 lb. with radius of gyration 5 in.
At a certain instant the wagon is moving up the slope with a velocity of
6 ft./sec. and an acceleration of 0-4 ft./sec.2 Calculate the motor torque and
the h.p. being developed. (U. Lond.)
Tension in rope = component of weight down slope
-f- inertia force + friction force
= 14 x 2240 _]_ 14 x 2240 x 04 + 260 = 2220 lb.

20 32-2
torque on drum to accelerate load = 2200 X If = 3890 lb.ft.
,, 1J X 2240
Moment ot inertia oi drum = x |ily = 174-5 Ib.ft.sec.2
32-2
04
Angular acceleration of drum = — = 0-2286 rad./sec.2
I4
torque on drum to accelerate drum = 174-5 X 0-2286 = 40 lb.ft.
torque on armature to accelerate drum and load
= (3890 + 40) x i X 100 = 114 lb.ft.

40 85
250
Moment of inertia of armature = X ^ j — 1-348 lb.ft.sec.2
32-2
0-4
Angular acceleration of armature = — X 40 = 9-1 rad./sec.2
torque on armature to accelerate armature

= 1-348 x 9-1 = 12-27 lb.ft.
total armature torque = 114 + 12-27 = 126-27 lb.ft.
Too 126-27
H.P. developed by motor X X 40 = 31-5.
550 550
Note that the efficiency of the gearing does not affect the torque
required to accelerate the motor armature.
38. The cage of a goods hoist has a total weight when loaded of 2500 lb. The
rope passes over a drum at the top of the shaft and thence to a balancing mass
of weight 1000 lb. Cage and balance weight move on parallel guides and the force
of friction in each line may be taken as the same and constant at 100 lb. The
drum has an effective diameter, between rope centres, of 5 ft., a total weight,
allowing for the rope, of 1200 lb. and a radius of gyration of 2 ft. The maximum
acceleration attained is 5 ft./sec.2 which occurs at a speed of 8 ft./sec. The
maximum speed is 15 ft./sec. and retardation is at a uniform rate from that speed
to zero in the last 15 ft. of travel. Determine : (a) the power required to
drive t he system at the condition of maximum acceleration ; (b) the rope tensions
in both lines during retardation. (/. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 34-38 h.p. ; 2019 and 1133 lb.)
39. A hoist has a winding drum 3 ft. effective diameter and a radius of
gyration of 1-1 ft., the weight of the drum being 230 lb. A load of 700 lb. is to be
raised 120 ft., the weight of tho lifting rope being £ lb./ft. If the acceleration is
6 ft./sec.2 until a constant velocity of 20 ft./sec. is reached, find the h.p. necessary
just at tho end of the acceleration. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 34)
40. An electrically driven capstan, at the top of an incline, hauls a truck
weighing 4 tons up a track having an inclination of 1 (vertical) in 12 (along the
track). The resistances are constant and amount to 1/30 ton. If the truck
starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly to attain a speed of 15 m.p.h. after
ail interval of 30 sec., what is the tension in the cable ? Find the tension in the
cable if the speed drops to 5 m.p.h. in the next 120 ft. length of track. Assuming
the cable had broken when the speed had reached 15 m.p.h., how far would the
truck proceed up the track ? {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 0-458 ton ; 0-144 ton ; 82-1 ft.)
41. A winding drum raises a cage weighing 1000 lb. through a height of 400 ft.
The winding drum weighs 500 lb. and has an effective radius of 1-75 ft. and
a radius of gyration of 1-2 ft. The weight of the rope is 2 lb./ft.
The cage has at first an acceleration of 5 ft./sec.2 until a velocity of 30 ft./sec.
is reached, after which the velocity is constant until the cage nears the top, when
the final retardation is 20 ft./sec.2
Find (i) the time taken for the cage to reach the top, (u) the torque which
must be applied to the drum at starting, {Hi) the h.p. at the end of the acceleration
period. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 17-08 sec. ; 3700 lb.ft. ; 105-8)
42. A train of loaded trucks weighs 20 tons and is pulled up an incline 1500 ft.
long with a gradient of 1 in 40, by a wire rope wound round the drum of a winding
engine at the top of the incline. The frictional resistance is 20 lb./ton. The
drum weighs 3 tons, its diameter is 7 ft. and its radius of gyration is 3 ft. If the
tension in the rope must not be more than 1£ tons and if the speed of the train is
not to exceed 30 m.p.h., find the minimum time in w'hich the train can ascend the
incline and the maximum h.p. required. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 57-94 sec. ; 235)
43. The weight of the main girders and end cradles of an electric travelling
crane is 7-5 tons. The cross carriage with lifting crab weigh 2-5 tons. The lifting
gear has an efficiency of 75 per cent when raising a load of 10 tons, and the
efficiency of the travelling gear is 65 per cent. A 10 ton load is being raised with
an acceleration of 0-5 ft./sec.2 while the crane is being accelerated forward at the
same rate. At the instant when the hoisting speed is 90 ft./min. and the travelling
speed 180 ft./min., the hoisting motor is developing eight times the power de¬
veloped by the travelling motor.
Find (a) the power developed by each motor, (6) the rail resistance, in lb./ton,
(c) the kinetic energy of the load. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 82-8 h.p., 10-35 h.p. ; 26-84 lb./ton; 3920 ft.lb.)
44. The main shaft of a winding gear carries two drums and a brake ring.
The rope from one drum raises the loaded cage while that from the other lowers
the empty one. The total moment of inertia of the shaft masses, inclusive of the
constant length of rope wound on the drums, is 12,000 lb .ft.2 about the axis of
rotation. Each cage weighs 5000 lb. and the rising cage carries a load of 2500 lb.
The total depth is 900 ft., the winding drum diameter is 9 ft. and the rope weighs
2 lb./ft.
The cages are to be uniformly accelerated to the full speed of 25 ft./sec. in the
HOISTS 33
first 70 ft. and uniformly retarded during the final 4 sec. Frictional effects are
neglected and the full weight of 900 ft. of rope may be assumed as constant on the
ascending side during acceleration and on the descending side during retardation.
Determine (a) the total time per wind, (b) the driving torque on the drum shaft
during acceleration and the braking torque during retardation, (c) the power
developed just after acceleration ceases. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ana. : 40-8 sec. ; 28,800 lb.ft. ; 9855 lb.ft. ; 182-5 h.p.)
45 .A lift weighing 2000 lb. is connected to a rope which passes over a drum
of 3 ft. 4 in. diameter, and a balance weight of 1000 lb. is attached to the other
end of the rope. The moment of inertia of the drum is 2500 lb.ft.2 and it is driven
by a motor through a reduction gear (25 to 1) of 90 per cent efficiency. Neglect¬
ing the inertia of the gears, calculate the motor torque for a lift acceleration of
10 ft./sec.2 If the maximum output of the motor is 20 h.p., what will be the
maximum uniform speed of the lift ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 163-8 lb.ft. ; 9-9 ft./sec.)
46. A large winding drum with a direct-coupled motor is used to operate a cage
in a mine 4500 ft. deep. The diameter of the main part of the drum is 35 ft.
One end is conical, the smaller diameter being 17 ft., and the rope begins to wind
on this part when the cage is beginning to ascend. The drum and rotor of the
motor together weigh 500 tons, and the radius of gyration may be taken as
10 ft. The weight of the loaded cage is 12 tons and the weight of the whole length
of rope is 9 tons. If the motor can give a starting torque of 355 ton.ft., find the
acceleration of the cage at the beginning of the ascent. If the maximum h.p. of
the motor is 5000, find the maximum possible speed of the cage when it is 2000 ft.
from the bottom of the shaft and the rope is winding on the large diameter of the
drum. (U. Glas.) {Ans. : 0-936 ft./sec.2; 72-3 ft./sec.)
47 . A haulage gear is driven by a motor which develops 20 h.p. at the full
speed of 750 r.p.m. The haulage drum is 5 ft. diameter and the total reduction
ratio of the gearing between motor and drum is 18-5. The efficiency of the gear
is 75 per cent, the gradient is 1 in 25 and the rail friction is 30 lb. per ton of load.
The masses of the gear are equivalent to a total weight of 5000 lb., radius of
gyration 20 in., at the drum shaft. Calculate the total load that can be hauled at
the full speed.
If the motor can give an excess torque of 10 per cent of that at full speed,
calculate the acceleration possible, assuming that efficiency and rail friction
values remain unaltered. (U. Lond.) [Ans.: 6-5 tons; 0-1465 ft./sec.2)
48. A truck weighing 5 tons is hauled up an incline of 1 in 15 by a rope
parallel to the track. The rope is wound on a drum, 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter, driven
by an electric motor. The drum weighs 1 ton and its radius of gyration is 16 in.
The efficiency of the drive from motor to drum is 88 per cent and the frictional
resistance to the motion of the truck is 300 lb.
At an instant when the truck is moving up the incline at a speed of 10 ft./sec.
and an acceleration of 1 ft./sec.2, find the power output from the electric motor.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 29-65 h.p.)
.
49 A loaded mine skip weighs 30,000 lb. When at rest at the bottom of the
pit, it is supported by a length of 5000 ft. of rope weighing 6-5 lb./ft. The
moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the winding gear is 12 x 106 lb.ft.2
and the radius of the winding drum is 8 ft. During winding, the skip has a
constant acceleration of 3 ft./sec.2 at the beginning and the same retardation at
the end, with a constant velocity of 50 ft./sec. between these periods.
Find the maximum h.p. required from the driving motor. {XJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 7800)
34 MECHANICS OE MACHINES
(c) Vehicle Dynamics
50. A self-propelled truck, of total weight 25 tons and wheel diameter

30 in., runs on a track for which the resistance is 40 lb./ton. The engine
develops 80 h.p at its maximum speed of 2400 r.p.m. and drives the
axle through a gear box. Determine : (a) the time to reach full speed from
rest on the level if the gear reduction ratio is 10 to 1. Assume the engine
torque to be constant and a gearing efficiency of 94 per cent; (b) the gear
ratio required to give an acceleration of \ ft./sec.2 on an up gradient of
1 in 70 assuming a gearing efficiency of 90 per cent. (I. Mech. E.)
h.p. x 33,000 80 x 33,000 550

(a) Engine torque lb.ft.
:N 2n X 2400 71
550 94
axle torque =- X 10 X = 1646 lb.ft.
71 100
tractive force = = 1316 lb.

1-25
Resistance to motion — 25 X 40 = 1000 lb.
.*. nett tractive force = 1316 — 1000 = 316 lb.
The equation of motion of the truck is therefore
316 = 2_5 *J2t0/

32-2 J
f — 0*1817 ft./sec.2
Final speed = — X —X 1*25 = 10tt ft./sec.

r 60 10 7
10 71
= 173 sec.
0*1817
(b) If the required gear ratio is n, then

550 90
tractive force = X n X X = 126n lb.
71 100 1*25
Component of weight down incline

_ 25 X 2240
— = 800 lb.
nett tractive force = 126n — 1000 — 800 = 12Qn — 1800

25 X 2240
12 6n - 1800 X \
32*2
n = 21*2
VEHICLE DYNAMICS 35
51. A motor-car weighs 2200 lb. and the road wheels have a radius of
T2 ft. The engine rotating parts have a moment of inertia of 7-5 lb. ft.2
and the four road wheels together have a moment of inertia of 85 lb.ft.2 The
gear ratio from engine to back axle is 5 5 and when the car speed is v ft./sec.
the engine torque available for propulsion is (65 — 0-003v2) lb. ft. and the
resistance to motion is (55 + 0-02v2) lb.
Determine the acceleration of the car at a speed of 40 ft./sec. on a level
road and calculate the time required to increase the speed of the car from
40 to 70 ft./sec. (U. Lond.)
Equivalent moment of inertia of wheels

= 85 + 5-52 X 7*5 = 312 lb.ft.2
total equivalent weight to be accelerated
312
= 2200 +-= 2417 lb.
1 22
*
5-5
Tractive force at road = (65 — 0-003?;2) X —
5-5
nett accelerating force — (65 — 0-003?;2) X-(55 + 0-02v2)
1*2
= 243 - 0-03375?;2 lb.
The equation of motion of the car is therefore
243 0-03375®2 = 2417/

32-2 J
1079060
f = 3-24 — 0-00045®2 . a)
When » = 40 ft./sec., /= 3-24 - 0-00045 x 402
= 2-52 ft./sec.2
Equation (1) may be written in the form
— = 3*24 - 0-00045?;2
dt
dv _ 2225 dv
or dt =
3-24 - 0-00045?;2 “ 84-752 — v2
7o 2225 dv
Hence t=
40 84-752 ?;2
2225 84-75 + vl70

2 x 84-75 84-75 — v_ 40
= 13-13 log, 3-76

= 17-35 sec.
52. A motor vehicle of total weight 3000 lb. has road wheels of 25 in.
effective diameter. The engine develops a maximum torque of 150 lb.ft.
when running at uniform speed, and the transmission efficiency is 85 per cent.
Given that the total moment of inertia of the road wheels and axles is
180 Ib.ft.2 and that of the engine and flywheel is 20 lb.ft.2, calculate the value
of the gear ratio that will give maximum acceleration up a slope of 1 in 8
with a road resistance of 60 lb. under maximum torque conditions.
(I. Mech. E.)
Let n be the gear ratio and /the acceleration of the vehicle in ft./sec.2
Then tractive force required to overcome resistance, component of weight
down slope and inertia force = 60 + _j_ 5229/ — 435 _[_ 93-1/ lb.
8 32-2*
m . . . 180 /
Torque to accelerate wheels = X = 5-37/ Ib.ft.
32-2 12-5
12
total torque on wheels
12-5
- 5-37/+ (435 + 93-1/) x-= 102-4/ + 452-5 Ib.ft.
12
engine torque required
1 100 120-5/+ 532-5
= (102-4/+ 452-5) X - X =-—- Ib.ft.
n 85 n
Torque to accelerate engine parts
20 /
= 0-596nf
~ 3^2 x m x n
12
120-57-J- 532-5
total engine torque =-—-— + 0-596nf — 150 Ib.ft.
n
150 n — 532-5
120-5 + 0-596»2
if
For maximum acceleration, -— = 0
dn
i.e. (120-5 + 0-596w2) X 150 - (150w - 532-5) x l-192n
from which n = 18-21
Note that the transmission efficiency does not affect the torque required
to accelerate the engine parts.
53. The resistance to motion of a train on a horizontal track is 8 + 0-002v2

lb./ton where v is the velocity in ft./sec. The draw-bar pull is assumed con¬
stant and equal to 50 lb. per ton weight of train. If the train approaches a
gradient of 1 in 100 at a speed of 60 ft./sec., find the speed when it has travelled
5000 ft. up the gradient. (U. Lond.)
VEHICLE DYNAMICS 37
If the weight of the train is W tons, component of weight down the

,. , W X 2240 „
gradient = -—- lb.
100
W X 2240
.*. nett tractive force = 50IE — IE(8 + 0-002v2) —
100
= IE(19-6 - 0-002*;2) lb.
The equation of motion of the train is therefore
whoa nnno 2\
W (19-6 — 0-002?;2) W x 2240
=-v dv
—
' 32-2 dx
2240v dv
.*. dx
32-2(19-6 — 0-002-y2)
2240 0-004v dv
x= —
32-2 X 0-004 J 19-6 — 0-002i>2
= - 17,400 log, (19-6 - 0-002v2) + C
When x — 0, v = 60 ft./sec.,
0 = - 17,400 log, (19-6 - 7-2) + C
0 = 43,750
when x = 5000 ft., 5000 = — 17,400 log, (19-6 - 0-002v2) + 43,750
from which v = 71-8 ft./sec.
54. A motor-car has a wheel base of 94 in. with a centre of gravity S3 in.
above the ground and 40 in. behind the front axle. The coefficient of friction
between the tyre and the ground is 0-5.
Calculate the maximum 'possible accelerations when the vehicle is :
{a) driven on all four wheels; '(b) driven on the front wheels only;
(c) driven on the rear wheels only. (I. Mech. E.)
From Art. 1.26, Nf + Nr = W (1)

W
F = -f . . (2)
9
and F x 33 = Nr X 54 — Nf X 40 (3)
(a) F — 0-5 Nr + 0-5 Nf = 0-5TE, (4)
IE
0-5IE = —-/, from equations (2) and (4),
9
.*. f— 16-1 ft./sec.2
(b) F = 0-5 Nt.(5)

Nr = 1-046W/ from equations (3) and (5)
IE
.*. Nf = from equation (1)
2-046
W W
0-5 X - = —/ from equation (2)
2-046 g
f= 7-86 ft./sec.1 2 * * * * * * 9
(c) F = 0-5Nr.(6)
Nf = 0-937iVr from equations (3) and (6)
W
Nr =- from equation (1)
r 1-937 1 V
W W
0-5 X -= —/ from equation (2)
1-937 g
f — 8-31 ft./sec.2
55. A motor-car has a wheelbase of 9ft., its centre of gravity is 2 ft. above
ground-level and is equidistant from the axles. The brakes are arranged to
apply the same braking torque at each wheel. The coefficient of adhesion
between tyres and road may be taken as 0-6. If the brakes are applied on a
down grade of 1 vertical in 10 sloping, show that the rear wheels will skid first,
and find the retardation when this is about to happen. (U. Lond.)
From Art. 1.26,
Nf-\-Nr= W cos a (1)
W
F-- W sina + —f . (2)
9
and F X 2 = Nf X 4| — Nr X . (3)
From equation (3) it is evident that Nf > Nr , so that friction will
first become limiting at the rear wheels. Hence, the rear wheels will
skid first and thus maximum braking force,
F = 2fiNr = 1-2 Nr
Also sin a = 0-1 and cos a = 0-995
Therefore equations (1), (2) and (3) become
Nf + Nr = 0-995TF (4)
1 -2iVr — 01W = —/ (5)

9
and 2-42Vr + 4-5Ar = 4-5 Nf (6)
. Nf = 1-534Nr
in equation (4), 2-534Nr = 0-995W .
Nr = 0-393W
W
.*. in equation (5), 1-2 X 0-393TF — 0-1W = —f
9
from which f= 0-371 g= 11-95 ft./sec.2
VEHICLE DYNAMICS 39
56. A motor-car has brakes which act on all four wheels. The weight of
the car is 1 ton and when at rest the loads carried by the rear and front wheels
on a level road are 7 and 13 cwt. respectively. The length between the front
and rear axles is 10 ft. and the height of the centre of gravity above the ground
is 2 ft. Find the ratio of the braking forces on the rear and front wheels when
all four wheels are on the point of skidding together if the coefficient of friction
between the wheels and the road is 0-1. Also find the shortest distance in which
the car can be brought to rest from a speed of 35 m.p.h. (U. Lond.)
Referring to Fig. 1.12, a= X 10 = 3-5 ft.

and 6 = X 10 = 6-5 ft.
From Art. 1.26,
Nf + Nr = W (1)
W
0ANf + 0ANr = —/ (2)
9
and (04N, + 04Nr) X 2 = Nf X 3-5 - Nr x 6-5 (3)
From equations (1) and (3),
Nr = 0-27TF
and Nf = 0-73TF
ratio of braking forces = = 0-37

PNf
W
From equation (2), 04JF = —/
9
f = 04^r = 12-88 ft./sec.2
s = —■
2/
(35 X ff)2
= 102-3 ft.
2 x 12-88
57. An electrically driven road vehicle weighing 1000 lb. has four wheels, of
effective diameter 16 in., of radius of gyration 5 in. and of weight 20 lb. The
armature of the electric motor weighs 144 lb., has a radius of gyration of 4 in.
and rotates at 4 times the speed of the road wheels. The rolling resistance to
motion of the vehicle is to be assumed constant at 50 lb.
Determine the acceleration of the vehicle if it is allowed to run freely down a
slope whose inclination to the horizontal is sin-1 0-2. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 3 ft./sec.2)
58. A motor vehicle weighs 2100 lb. and the moments of inertia of the road
wheels and rear axle are together 200 lb.ft.2 The effective diameter of the road
wheels is 25 in. Find the acceleration on the level at an instant when the engine
output torque is 70 lb.ft. and the overall speed reduction ratio is 14. Take the
air and road resistance as 45 lb. at this speed, and the transmission efficiency as
88 per cent. (U. Lond.) (.Ans. : 11-1 ft./sec.2)
59. A 10-ton truck is driven at a steady speed of 25 m.p.h. on a level road,

against a tractive resistance of 45 lb./ton. The wheels are 48 in. diameter, the
engine runs at 1800 r.p.m. and the transmission efficiency may be taken as 0-83.
Calculate the engine h.p. and the gear ratio in use, engine to wheels.
With the throttle fully open and the engine giving three times this power, at
the same speed, estimate the maximum truck speed in m.p.h. up a 10° slope, and
the gear ratio required. Under these conditions, what is the overall efficiency as
a weight-lifting machine ? (U. Glas.)
(.Ans. : 35-3 ; 10-28 ; 9-16 m.p.h. ; 27-3 ; 89-5 per cent)
60. A motor-car, of total weight 3000 lb., and running in top gear at 35 m.p.h.,
passes on to a rising gradient of 1 in 20 at that speed. The road and other resist¬
ances may be taken as constant at 60 lb./ton. With conditions unchanged the
speed falls uniformly to 25 m.p.h. in a distance of 1200 ft. An intermediate gear
is then engaged for which the speed ratio between the engine and the road wheels
is 9 : 1 and the transmission efficiency is 85 per cent. The engine is then develop¬
ing a torque of 750 lb.in. Determine :
(a) the tractive efforts before and after the gear change ; the road wheels are
30 in. in diameter;
(b) the time between the start of retardation and the recovery of the original
speed of 35 m.p.h. ;
(c) the powers being developed by the engine when the car is retarding and
accelerating through 30 m.p.h. The transmission efficiency in top gear
is 94 per cent. (I. Mech. E.)
[Ans. : 180 lb. ; 383 lb. ; 36-24 sec. ; 15-38 h.p. ; 36-0 h.p.)
61. A locomotive weighing 90 tons pulls a train of 10 coaches, each weighing
30 tons, at a speed of 45 m.p.h. on a level track, against frictional resistances
totalling 15 lb./ton.
(a) Find the h.p. of the locomotive and the draw-bar pull on the leading
coach.
(b) If the rear four coaches are suddenly released, find the speed of the engine
and remaining coaches after 120 sec., assuming frictional resistance per
ton and draw-bar pull remain unchanged.
(c) Find the speed of the released coaches after 120 sec., if
(i) the resistance remains unchanged ;
(ii) the resistance varies directly with the speed. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 702 ; 4500 lb. ; 52-85 m.p.h. ; 27-35 m.p.h.; 30-4 m.p.h.)
62. A motor vehicle has a total mass of 3 tons of which 400 lb. represents the
mass of the parts rotating at engine speed. The radius of gyration of these
rotating parts is 10 in. The diameter of the road wheels is 32 in. and the engine
crankshaft rotates at five times the speed of the road wheels.
Neglecting the inertia of the wheels and the transmission losses, determine, for
a constant engine torque of 300 lb.ft.,
(a) the total kinetic energy of the vehicle at a speed of 20 m p.h. ;
(b) the acceleration of the vehicle when travelling up a slope of 1 in 10.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 63-35 ft. ton ; 1-375 ft./sec.2)
63. The total weight of a locomotive is 75 tons and two-thirds of this total is
carried on the coupled driving wheels. The locomotive has to pull a train of
weight 325 tons under conditions such that the limiting coefficient of adhesion
between wheels and rails is 0-13. Determine, (a) the starting acceleration on the
level if the initial resistances are assumed to be 25 lb./ton for the locomotive and
15 lb./ton for the train ; (b) the time to reduce speed from 45 to 30 m.p.h. on
a down gradient of 1 in 400 with the power off and brakes on the driving wheels
VEHICLE DYNAMICS 41
only, if the tractive resistances are 10 lb./ton of total weight; (c) the power
developed when climbing a gradient of 1 in 120 at the maximum possible speed
if the resistance, in lb./ton of total weight, is given by (6-0 + 0-005v2), where v is
the speed in m.p.h. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. ; 0-281 ft./sec.2 ; 37*5 sec. ; 1885 h.p.)
64. The engine of a motor-car runs at 3420 r.p.m. when the road speed is
60 m.p.h. The weight of the car is 2400 lb. The inertia of the rotating parts of
the engine corresponds to 24 lb. at a radius of gyration of 0-48 ft. and that of the
road wheels to 240 lb. at 0-8 ft.
The efficiency of engine and transmission is 0-9 and the wind resistance is
200 lb. The road wheel diameter is 2-5 ft. Estimate the h.p. developed by the
engine when the car travels on a level road at 60 m.p.h. with an acceleration of
3 ft./sec.2 (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 78-5)
65. A car weighs 1700 lb., the moment of inertia of the road wheels is
160 lb.ft.2 and that of the engine parts is 5 lb.ft.2 The effective diameter of
the road wheels is 25 in. and the maximum engine torque is 580 lb.in. at an
engine speed of 2000 r.p.m. If the resistance to motion in lb. is given by
R = 30 -f- 0-05v2, where v is the speed in m.p.h., find the road speed and the
acceleration of the car when the gear ratio is 13-5 to 1 and the engine is developing
full torque at 2000 r.p.m. The efficiency of the transmission is 88 per cent.
{I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 11-02 m.p.h. ; 6-4 ft./sec.2)
66. For a typical motor-car the rolling resistance is given by the expression
40 + 0-22 V and the air resistance by 0-06 V2, the resistance being in lb. and V the
speed in m.p.h. in each case.
Assuming that the power output at engine speed corresponding to 30 m.p.h.
is 34 b.h.p. with a transmission efficiency of 84 per cent and that the inertia of
the vehicle corresponds to a weight of 2800 lb., calculate the maximum possible
acceleration in ft./sec.2 when running on the level under these conditions.
{I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 2-95 ft./sec.2)
67. The speed of a car on the level is 40 m.p.h., the engine indicating 25 h.p.
and the weight of the car being 2500 lb. The car will just run down a gradient
of 1 in 25 when the clutch is in but with ignition cut off.
Assuming the engine and transmission friction and also the road resistance to
be independent of the speed, and the wind resistance to be proportional to the
square of the speed, determine the h.p. required to drive the car up a gradient of
1 in 25 at a speed of 35 m.p.h. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 28-3)
68. A motor-cycle engine gives a torque of 18 lb.ft. at 2000 r.p.m. The
moment of inertia of each road wheel is 30 lb.ft.2 and that of the engine parts is
lb.ft.2 The effective diameter of the rear wheel is 25 in. and the total weight of
the machine and rider is 400 lb.
If the speed reduction between engine and rear wheel is 9 : 1 and the combined
effect of rolling resistance and windage is assumed to amount to 40 lb., find the
road speed and acceleration of the motor cycle at the above engine speed.
{I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 16-5 m.p.h.; 5-8 ft./sec.2)
69. A modern touring automobile weighs 3950 lb. unloaded and carries two
persons, each of whom weighs 150 lb., together with 450 lb. of luggage. The
maximum output torque from the engine is 144 lb.ft. while the effective windage
and rolling resistance at a speed of 60 m.p.h. is 140 lb. In third gear the ratio,
engine speed to back axle speed, is 6-43 : 1, while the effective radius of the road
wheels is 14 in. The total moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the engine
and the wheels is equivalent to a flywheel of moment of inertia 600 lb.ft.2 at the
road wheels.
Determine :
(a) the time taken for the vehicle to accelerate from 50 m.p.h. to 70 m.p.h. at
full output torque, on the assumption that the windage and rolling
resistance may be assumed constant over this range and that trans¬
mission losses may be neglected ;
(b) the maximum gradient that this vehicle can climb in this gear, at a steady
speed of 60 m.p.h. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 7-17 sec. ; sin-1 0-1385)
70. The engine of a car rotates at 12 times the speed of the road wheels,
which are 26 in. in diameter. The weight of the car is 2000 lb. The engine
flywheel weighs 22 lb. and its radius of gyration is 5 in. The resistance to motion
of the car is 60 lb. Calculate the engine torque and power required to accelerate
the car at 2 ft./sec.2 when travelling on a level road at 20 ft./sec. The efficiency
of power transmission may be taken as 85 per cent and the inertia of the other
rotating parts may be neglected. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 22-18 lb.ft. ; 8-93)
71. A motor vehicle weighs 20,000 lb. and the engine develops 110 b.h.p. at
2200 r.p.m. The transmission efficiency is 92 per cent in the top gear of 3-3 to 1
and 85 per cent in the third gear of 8-2 to 1. The performance characteristics are
such that the vehicle will just reach a speed of 60 m.p.h. at 2200 r.p.m. and full
throttle when running on the level in still air and at the same engine speed in
third gear it will just climb a gradient of 1 in 18.
The combined air and rolling resistance is given by a formula of the form
R — A + BV2. Calculate the values of A and B when R is in lb. and V is in
m.p.h. and hence deduce the engine h.p. required for climbing a gradient of 1 in 50
at 30 m.p.h. in top gear. (I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 284-8 ; 0-0944 ; 67)
72. A motor-car weighs 2500 lb. including the four road wheels which each
have an effective diameter of 26-4 in., radius of gyration 11 in. and weight 55 lb.
The engine develops 45 b.h.p. at 3000 r.p.m. and the parts rotating at engine
speed weigh 120 lb. with a radius of gyration of 3^ in. The transmission efficiency
is 90 per cent and the total road and air resistance at this engine speed in top gear
of 4-2 to 1 is 180 lb. Calculate the acceleration in ft./sec.2 under these conditions.
{I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 1-065 ft./sec.'2)
73. A motor vehicle of total weight 12,500 lb. starts the ascent of a 1 in 50
gradient at a speed of 20 m.p.h. and maintains a constant tractive effort of 750 lb.
throughout the total length of 2000 ft. The road resistance amounts to 75 lb./ton.
After the ascent it has to travel along a straight level stretch of 500 ft. in length
before taking a bend of 150 ft. radius. The roadway at the curve is unbanked
and the coefficient of friction against side slip is 0-4. Determine the uniform
tractive effort that is permissible on the 500 ft. length if the vehicle is not to reach
a speed at the curve in excess of that at which skidding would occur. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 508-5 lb.)
74. A motor vehicle has a total weight of 1-5 tons, a wheelbase length of 10 ft.
and a track width of 5 ft. The centre of gravity is 5-7 ft. behind the front axle
and 2-2 ft. above road level.
Determine {a) the time to rest from 30 m.p.h. if there are brakes on all four
wheels and these are fully effective on a level road for which the limiting co¬
efficient of friction is 0-35 ;
(6) the normal road reactions on the front and rear wheel pairs when accelerat¬
ing on a level track at 4 ft./sec.2;
(c) the normal road reactions on the inner and outer wheel pairs when travel-
VEHICLE DYNAMICS 43
ling at a steady speed of 40 ft./sec. on a roadway curved to a radius of 200 ft. and
banked at 10°. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 3-91 sec. ; 0-604 ton ; 0-896 ton ; 0-728 ton ; 0-818 ton)
75. (a) Prove that the ‘ equivalent mass ’ of a rolling disc of mass M, radius R
and radius of gyration about its axis k, is
(b) A car of total weight 1800 lb. accelerates on a horizontal road. The wheel
diameters are 26 in. and the radius of gyration k — 10^ in. Each pair of wheels
weighs 150 lb. The wheel base is 6 ft. and the co-ordinates of the c.g. of the car
are 2 ft. 6 in. from the front wheels and 2 ft. 4 in. above the ground. Determine
the maximum acceleration possible if the coefficient of friction between the tyres
and the road is 0-5. (TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : 14-5 ft./sec.2)
76. A motor vehicle, weight 4000 lb., has to climb a gradient whose sine is 0-4.
The drive Is via the back wheels, the wheel base is 10 ft. and the centre of gravity
of the vehicle is 4 ft. behind the front axle and 2 ft. above the ground.
Determine, for ascent at a uniform speed,
(а) the minimum coefficient of friction between tyres and road ;
(б) the h.p. necessary if the speed is 10 m.p.h. and the transmission efficiency
is 60 per cent. (TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0-895 ; 71)
77. A motor vehicle has a wheelbase of 8 ft. When standing on a level road
its centre of gravity is 3 ft. behind the front axle and 18 in. above the road surface.
The coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is 0-4. The vehicle
may be driven (a) by the front wheels, (6) by the rear wheels or (c) by all four
wheels. In case (c) the drive is arranged so that the torque transmitted to the
front axle is the same as that transmitted to the rear axle.
Determine, for each of these forms of drive, the maximum gradient that may
be climbed at a uniform speed, without wheels pin. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : sin-1 0-22 ; sin-1 0-16; sin-1 0-333)
78. A vehicle having a wheelbase of 11 ft. is driven along a horizontal road by
a torque applied to the rear wheels. The centre of gravity is 2^ ft. above the
ground and 4^ ft. behind the front axle. The coefficient of friction between the
wheels and the ground is 0-3. Determine :
{a) the maximum acceleration of the vehicle if the wheels are not to slip ;
(b) the maximum retardation of the vehicle when a braking torque is applied
to the rear wheels. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 4-235 ft./sec.2; 3-7 ft./sec.2)
79. A motor-car weighing 2500 lb. has axles 8 ft. apart. When standing on
a level road, the centre of gravity of the car is 2 ft. above ground level, and 3 ft.
in front of the rear axle.
Calculate the normal reaction on each wheel when the car is moving down a
gradient of 1 in 20, against a wind resistance of 40 lb. acting parallel to the road
and 2 ft. 6 in. from it, with the engine switched off and the rear wheel brakes
applied so as to give a deceleration of 2 ft./sec.2 What must be the coefficient of
friction between the rear wheels and the road if the rear wheels are not to skid
under these conditions ? Neglect the rotational inertia of the wheels and engine.
{TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : Rear, 751-5 lb., front 499 lb. ; 0-16)
80. The wheelbase of a car is 11 ft., and the centre of gravity is 4 ft. in front
of the rear axle and 2 ft. 6 in. above the ground level. The coefficient of friction
between the wheels and the road is 0-45. Find the maximum acceleration which
the car can be given on a level road if it has a rear-wheel drive. Find its maxi¬
mum deceleration if the braking force on all the wheels is the same and no wheel
slip occurs. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 10-25 ft./sec.2 ; 13-25 ft./sec.2)
81. A motor vehicle has a loaded weight of 2900 lb. with a wheelbase of 104 in.
The centre of gravity is 54 in. behind the front axle and 26 in. above the ground.
Calculate the load on the front axle
(a) when the car is running at constant speed ;
(b) when the car is decelerating with all four wheels just locked by braking,
the limiting road adhesion coefficient being 0-6. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 1395 lb. ; 1830 lb.)
82. The forces acting on a vehicle as it descends an incline are shown in
Fig. 1.22. These are its weight W, the normal forces at the contacts of the wheels
and the ground and the tangential forces caused by the application of the brakes.
The braking forces are increased equally until slip occurs at the rear wheels. If
the friction coefficient is 0-4, find the deceleration then produced and verify that
the front wheels have not reached the condition of slip. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 2-45 ft./sec.2)
CHAPTER 2
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
2.1 Simple harmonic motion. A body moves with simple har¬

monic motion if its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from
a fixed point and is always directed towards that point. Let the line
OP, of length a, rotate about a fixed point 0, with constant angular
velocity co, Fig. 2.1. Then, if time is
measured from the position OB, the angle
turned through by OP in time t,
ip = cot
If Q is the projection of P on the dia¬
meter AB, the displacement of Q from
B
its mid-position,
x = a cos ip . . (2.1)
The maximum displacement, a, is termed
the amplitude of the motion. The velo¬
city of Q is the component of the velocity
of P parallel to AB,
Fig. 2.1
i.e. v = coa sin ip = co\/(a2 — x2) (2.2)
and rmax = coa, when x = 0 . (2.3)
The acceleration of Q is the component of the acceleration of P parallel
to AB,
i.e. / = co2a cos ip = co2x . . . (2.4)
and /max. =oj2a when x = a . . . (2.5)
Thus the acceleration of Q is proportional to its displacement from the
fixed point 0 and is always directed towards 0, so that the motion of
Q is simple harmonic.
These formulae give merely the numerical relationships between dis¬
placement, velocity and acceleration without regard to direction.
The periodic time is the time taken for one complete revolution of P,
2jt
i.e. tD — sec.
co
/
but, from equation (2.4), co2
x
rx o /dif
Misplacement
tp = 2jt
Jr 2 71 /--7— sec.
\J ac
acceleration
(2.6)
The frequency, n = — vibrations per sec.

*v
or N=
60
~tv
—
2 7lSJ
f- X
vibrations per min. (v.p.m.) (2.7)
2.2 Angular simple harmonic motion. The equations of Art. 2.1

apply equally well in the case of angular simple harmonic motion. Thus,
if the amplitude of the motion is </>, Fig. 2.2, the
angular velocity of the body at any angular dis¬
placement, 6, is given by
Q = coVW2 - 02) . . (2.8)
where a> is the angular speed of the line generating
the S.H.M.
^ and ^max. CO(f> (2.9)
The angular acceleration is given by

a = co20 . (2.10)
and amax. = co2</> . (2.11)
angular displacement
The periodic time, tp = 2n
J■ angular acceleration
= 9
An /6- sec. (2.12)
a
60 /a
and N = — / - v.p.m. . (2.13)
27i\J 6
2.3 Linear motion of an elastic system. If a body of weight W,

controlled by an elastic system, is given a displacement x, then restoring
force = Sx, where S is the stiffness of the system (i.e. the restoring force
per unit displacement).
When released, the acceleration of the body is given by
force = mass X acceleration
W
i.e. Sx = -f
9
x_ W
i.e. constant
f = gs
W
sec. from equation (2.6)
gS
Id
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 47
where d is the static deflection under the load W . (2.14)
or N= — | v.p.m.
%V
187*8
v.p.m. where d is in inches (2.15)
~^/d
2.4 Angular motion of an elastic system. If a body of moment

of inertia Z, controlled by an elastic system, is given an angular displace¬
ment 0, then restoring torque = qO, where q is the torsional stiffness of
the system (i.e. the restoring torque per unit angular displacement).
When released, the angular acceleration of the body is given by
torque = moment of inertia X angular acceleration
i.e. qO = Za
6 I
i.e. — = - = constant
a q
or (2.16)
2.5 Differential equation of motion. If a body of weight W is

acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from the equili¬
brium position, the equation of motion is
Wd2x
= — Sx
9 dt2
The negative sign arises because the restoring force Sx is opposite in
direction to the displacement x.
This may be written
d2x Sg
+ co2x = 0 where co2 (2.17)
dt2 w
The solutionis* x = A cos cot -f- B sin cot . . . (2.18)
This equation represents an oscillatory motion of periodic time,
The constants A and B are determined by the initial conditions of the

motion.
* See Appendix.
Thus if x— a when t = 0
dx
and — =0 when t = 0
dt
then A — a and B= 0
so that x —a
= a cos cot ..... (2.19)
In Fig. 2.1 these conditions correspond to the motion commencing
when P coincides with B, so that i/j = cot.
Differentiating equation (2.19) twice,
n
v = — coa sin cot = coa cos ( cot -f- — (2.20)
and f = — co2a cos cot = co2a cos (cot -}- n) . (2.21)

Equations (2.20) and (2.21) correspond to equations (2.2) and (2.4) except
that the correct signs are automatically obtained by differentiation.
Equations (2.20) and (2.21) show that the velocity leads the displace¬
ment by 90° and the acceleration leads the displacement by 180°.
The corresponding equations for angular motion are
J2d
= -q6
dt2
d20
i.e. -f- co20 = 0 where co2 = % (2.22)
dt2
\ 0 = A cos cot B sin cot (2.23)
If Q = (f) when t = 0
and ^= 0 when t = 0
dt
then 0 = <j) cos cot ..... (2.24)
Q, — — cocf> sin cot . . . . . (2.25)
and a =—co2cj> coscot. .... (2.26)
2.6 Simple pendulum. If the pendulum is given a small angular

displacement 6, Fig. 2.3,
restoring moment about O = Wl sin d

— WIO, since 0 is small.
Wl2
WIQ = J„oc = -a
9
0 l
a 9
tp = 2 n
n- sec. (2.27)
9
2.7 Compound pendulum. Let the radius of gyration about the
centre of gravity G be k and the distance of the point of suspension from
G be h, Fig. 2.4.
If the pendulum is given a small angular displace¬

ment 6,
restoring moment about 0 = Wh sin 0
^ WhO
Whd = I0 *
9
e
A P+p
• •
a Wh gh
Ik2 + P
tv = 2ji sec. (2.28)
gh
1. ^4 spring of stiffness 10 lb./in. is suspended vertically and two equal

weights of 8 lb. each are attached to the lower end. One of these weights is
suddenly removed and the system oscillates. Determine :
(a) the amplitude and frequency of the vibration,
(b) the velocity and acceleration of the mass when passing through the half
amplitude position and
(c) the energy of the vibration in in.lb. (I. Mech. E.)
16
(a) Static deflection under a load of 16 lb. = — =1-6 in.
v * 10
8
J) )) 55 55 ^ 0-8 in.
10
Therefore, when one weight is removed, the remaining weight will oscillate
about the static deflection position of that weight with an amplitude of
0-8 in.
187*8
The frequency, N from equation (2.15)
187*8
210 v.p.m.
(6) oo = from equation (2.14)
32*2 X 12
22 rad./sec.
0*8
v = co\/(a2 — x2) from equation (2.2)

= 22y'(0-82 - 0-42) = 15-25 in./sec.
/ = co2x from equation (2.4)
= 222 x 0-4 = 193-2 in./sec.2
(c) Velocity of weight in mid-position

= coa
= 22 X 0-8 = 17-6 in./sec.
. jr Tji • •, ... W 9 8 X 17-62 n . „
.. K.E. in mid-position = —v2 = —-= 3-2 m.-lb.
2g 2 X 32-2 x 12 -
.
2 Derive an expression for the periodic time of vibration of a mass of
weight W attached to the free end 'of a close-coiled helical
'///S/J spring of stiffness S and weight w, allowing for the weight
of the spring.
A spring of stiffness 13-8 lb./ft. weighs 1-7 lb. A
weight of 10 lb. is attached to the free end and set in
motion. Find the time of oscillation (a) neglecting the
weight of the spring ; (b) allowing for the weight of the
spring.
Let a be the amplitude of the vibration, Fig. 2.5,

Fig. 2.5
and co the angular velocity of the line generating the
S.H.M.
Then velocity of W in mid-position = coa
x
velocity of element of spring in mid-position = - coa
L
w
K.E. of element in mid-position = (t)
2g (H
w co2a2 rl
total K.E. of spring in mid-position = — x2 dx
29 P J
w
—co2 a2
W w
total K.E. of system in mid-position = —co2a2 -j- —co2a2
2g fy
00
t(w + !f)
2*79 \ 3/
Taking the lowest position as datum,
wa
P.E. of system in mid-position = Wa -]-
2
since the c.g. of the spring is displaced only a/2.
W
At mid-position, mean spring tension = W -f —
2
w
At lowest position, mean spring tension = W -f- — -f Sa
2
work done in stretching spring to lowest position
w + !) + (w +^ + Sa
■) X a
= Wa + ~ + $Sa*
A
= energy stored in spring at lowest position
Equating the kinetic energy and potential energy of the system in

the mid-position to the energy stored in the spring at the lowest position,
since the total energy of the system remains constant,
— (W
2g \
+ 3/ + Wa + —2 = Wa + —2 + i2 Sa 2
Sg
i.e. co2 =
w
W+
The weight of the spring may therefore be allowed for by adding

one-third of its weight to that of the concentrated load.
o
11 05
/Sg
II
%n\ / w
60 /13-8x 32-2
=63-5 v.p.m.
2 71 \/ 10
N-60 / Sg
2n / W TTT
\ lW + 3
60 /13*8x 32-2
62*0 v.p.m.
2 71 / _ . 1*7
10
3
3. A valve of piston type has a weight of 16 lb. and is driven with S.H.M.
that can be referred to a vector of length 3 in. rotating at 24 rad./sec. The
valve works in oil which creates a viscous resistance proportional to the velocity
at the rate of 0'7 lb./ft./sec. Events controlled by the valve occur when it is
1*5 in. from its mid-position and moving towards it and, again, when it is
1 in. beyond its mid-position on the same stroke. Determine the time between
these events. Evaluate the viscous resisting force at the first and the force in
the driving rod at the second. (I. Mech. E.)
co = 24 rad./sec. and a — 3 in.

In Fig. 2.6, let Qx and Q2 represent the two positions of the valve.
1-5
Then a = cos-1 — = 60°
3
and R = cos-1 - = 70° 32'

‘ 3
y = 49° 28' = 0-863 rad.
0*863
time taken to travel from Qj to Q2 =-= 0-036 sec.
24 -
At Qx, v — oo\/(a2 — £2) from equation (2.2)
= 24^(32 - 1-52) = 62-35 in./sec.
viscous force = — X 0-7 = 3-64 lb.

12 -
At Q2, v= 24V(32 - l2) = 67-9 in./sec.

67-9
viscous force =- X 0-7 = 3-96 lb.
12
f — oo2x from equation (2.4)
= 242 X 1 = 576 in./sec.2
retarding force = 55? x ^?-?_ = 23-85 lb.

6 12 32-2
nett force in driving rod = 23-85 — 3-96
= 19-89 lb.
4. The uniform thin rod, AB, shown in Fig. 2.7, weighs 2 lb. and carries
a concentrated mass weighing 5 lb. at B. The rod is hinged at A and is
maintained in the horizontal position by a spring of stiffness 10 lb./in. at
C. Find the frequency of oscillation, neglecting the effect of the mass of the
spring.
Moment of inertia of system about A

2 242 5
X 242
32-2 x 12 IT + 32-2 x 12
i.e. /A = 8-45 lb.in.sec.2
Fig. 2.7
Let the rod be given a small angular displacement 0 rad. and then
released.
Extension of spring =120 in.
spring force = 120 X 10 = 1200 lb.
restoring moment about A = 1200 X 12
= 14400 lb.in.
14400 = 8-45a
•
a _ 1440
170-5
" 0_845 —
• ¥=-
2;t V e
h from equation (2.13)
= —^170-5 = 124-6 v.p.m.

2 71 -
5. A uniform slender rod 48 in. long is fitted with a transverse pair of

knife-edges, so that it can swing in a vertical plane as a compound pendulum,
the position of the knife-edges being variable.
Find the time of swing of the rod (a) if the knife-edges are 2 in. from one
end of the rod, (b) if they are placed so that the time of swing is a minimum.
In case (a) find also the maximum angular velocity and the maximum
angular acceleration of the rod supposing it to swing through 3° on either
side of the vertical. (U. Lond.)
fk2 + h2
(a) tv = 2 71 from equation (2.28)
+ 222
12
= 1*771 sec.
32-2 x 12 x 22
d (k2 + h2'
(b) For the time of swing to be a minimum, 0
dh\ h
i.e. h= k
minimum t p
48
V12
= 1-683 sec.
32-2 x 12
2tt
In case (a), co = = 3-546 rad./sec.
1*771
maximum angular velocity = oof from equation (2.9)
3 X A 1nr. ,,
= 3-546 X = 0-1857 rad./sec.
180
Maximum angular acceleration = oo2f from equation (2.11)
— 3*5462 X ^ X 71 — 0-6585 rad./sec.2

180 ---
6. Obtain an expression for the moment of
inertia of a body as obtained by the trifilar sus¬
pension method.
A connecting rod weighing 12 lb. is placed on a
horizontal platform which is suspended by three
equal wires, each 50 in. long, from a rigid support.
The wires are equally spaced round the circum¬
ference of a circle of 5 in. radius. When the c.g.
of the connecting rod coincides with the axis of
the circle, the platform makes 10 angular oscilla¬
tions in 30 sec. Determine its moment of inertia
about an axis through its c.g.
The unladen platform weighs 3 lb. and makes 10 angular oscillations
in 35 sec.
Let the platform be displaced through a small angle 0 and let the
corresponding angular displacement of the wires be </>, Fig. 2.8.
Then rO = l(j>
i.e.
H 9
w
Tension in each wire = —
3
W . W
Component perpendicular to r = — sin </> ^ f
3 3
Wr
= --0
3 l
fW r
total restoring couple = 3/ — -0 X r
Wr20
Wr20
/0a
l
6 I0l
a Wr 2
i
tp = Wr2
m
_ t* Wr2
or *o —
4 7l2 l
For connecting rod and platform,
3-02 (3 + 12) x 52
In = = 1-71 lb.in.sec.2
4n2' 50
3-52 3 X 52
For platform alone, I0 = 0*466 lb.in.sec.2
4 7i2 50
for connecting rod alone, I0 — 1*71 — 0*466 = 1*244 lb.in.sec.2
7. A weight of 50 lb. is suspended from a spring which has a stiffness of

80 lb./in. of extension. It vibrates freely with an amplitude of 0*5 in. Find the
periodic time, the velocity and acceleration when displaced 0*3 in. from the
equilibrium position and time interval in passing from this position to the position
of maximum displacement. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 0-253 sec. ; 9-93 in./sec. ; 185 in./sec.2; 0-0374 sec.)
8. On a packaging machine mechanism a crosshead moves in a straight guide

with a simple harmonic motion. At distances of 5 in. and 8 in. from its mean
position the crosshead has velocities of 20 and 10 ft./sec. respectively. Deter¬
mine (a) the amplitude of the motion, (b) the maximum velocity, and (c) the
periodic time. If the crosshead weighs 0-5 lb., what is the maximum inertia
force ? (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 8-775 in. ; 24-34 ft./sec. ; 2-26 sec. ; 0-874 lb.)
9. A small plunger receives simple harmonic motion from a crank driving

through a long connecting rod. The crank length can be set to give a long stroke
of 18 in. or a short stroke of 6 in. The change of speed is such that the product
of crank speed and crank length is constant. The plunger has a weight of 50 lb.
and has to overcome a maximum resistance of 1000 lb. which, on the long stroke,
occurs at one-third of the stroke length from the beginning and, on the short
stroke, at one-sixth of the stroke length from the end. The speed on the long
stroke is 150 r.p.m. Compare, for the positions of maximum resistance, the crank
angles and the driving forces in the connecting rod. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 70° 32'; 1096 lb. ; 131° 49', 425 lb.)
10. A weight W when gradually applied to a spring of elastic force S per unit
deflection produces a static deflection of d. Show that, if disturbed, the resulting
motion will be simple harmonic and that the frequency n, if the effect of the
mass of the spring is neglected, is as given by the formula
2 nn = y/{g/S).
22Z A horizontal shaft, supported in bearings at the ends,
deflects at the centre by 0-001 in. per 100 lb. of load applied
there. When a wheel of weight 650 lb. is centrally fitted
the system responds to an external disturbance and free
100 lb./ft.
vertical vibrations of amplitude 0-01 in. are set up. Calculate
the values of the frequency, the maximum velocity and the
maximum acceleration for this vibration. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 38-8 per sec. ; 2-44 in./sec. ; 594-8 in./sec.2)
11. In the system shown in Fig. 2.9 the top spring has a
50 lb./ft.
stiffness of 100 lb./ft. and the bottom spring 50 lb./ft. The
suspended mass weighs 1 lb. Find the natural frequency
of vibration. {Ans. : 313 v.p.m.)
12. A helical spring has both ends securely fixed, one

Fig. 2.9 vertically above the other, and a mass is attached to the
spring at some intermediate point. Show that the frequency
of the vibrations is a minimum when the load point is midway
between the fixed ends.
A helical spring has a stiffness of 20 lb./in. when one end is fixed and the load
is applied to the free end. Determine the minimum value of the frequency when
both ends are fixed and a mass weighing 40 lb. is applied to the spring. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 265-6 v.p.m.)
13. A torsional pendulum consists of a wire 20 in. long, 0-4 in. diameter, fixed
at its upper end and attached at its lower end to a heavy disc having a moment
of inertia of 200 lb.in.2 The modulus of rigidity of the wire is 6-4 x 106 lb./sq. in.
Find the frequency of torsional oscillation of the disc. If the maximum displace-
ment to one side of the rest position is 5°, find the maximum angular velocity and
acceleration of the disc.
(.Ans. : 378-5 v.p.m. ; 3-45 rad./sec.; 137 rad./sec.2)
14. A solid metal cylinder 18 in. diameter is suspended with its axis vertical
by means of a wire coaxial with the cylinder and rigidly attached to it. The wire
develops an elastic resistance to twisting of 16 lb.ft. per radian of twist. Find
the necessary weight of the cylinder in order that when given a small angular
displacement about its axis, it shall make 40 v.p.m. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 104-4 lb.)
15. A ship is pitching 10° above and 10° below the horizontal. Assuming the
motion to be simple harmonic having a period of 12 sec., find the maximum
angular velocity and angular acceleration of the ship during pitching.
{Ans. : 0-0914 rad./sec. ; 0-04775 rad./sec.2)
16. A flywheel is suspended by resting the inside of the rim on a horizontal
knife-edge so that the wheel can swing in a vertical plane. The flywheel weighs
760 lb. The knife-edge is parallel to and 14 in. from the axis of the wheel.
The time for making one small oscillation is 1-77 sec. Assuming that the c.g. is
in the axis of the wheel, find the radius of gyration about this axis.
Also find the torque to increase the speed of the wheel at a uniform rate from
240 to 250 r.p.m. in f sec. when the wheel is revolving about its axis. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 15-27 in. ; 640-2 lb.in.)
17. Prove the formula for the time of swing of a compound pendulum.
Two straight light rods AB and CD intersect at right angles at E. AE = 14 in.,
BE = 10 in., CE = 25 in., DE = 9 in. Weights are fixed to the extremities of
the rods, 6 lb. at A, 5 lb. at B, 8 lb. at C, 7 lb. at D. The system is set swinging
in a vertical plane, as a compound pendulum, about a horizontal axis through E
perpendicular to the plane of the rods. Find the time of swing.
If the rods swing through 5° on either side of the equilibrium position, find the
maximum kinetic energy and the maximum angular acceleration of the system.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 2-29 sec. ; 0-535 in.lb. ; 0-655 rad./sec.2)
18. A solid disc flywheel has a diameter of 24
in. and is mounted with its axis horizontal on
frictionless centres. A cylindrical mass of 10 lb.,
8 in. in diameter, is bolted to the disc so that its
axis is parallel to that of the wheel and 8 in. away
from it. The whole system is found to swing
with a time period of 3-18 sec. What is the
mass of the flywheel ? {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 100 lb.)
19. A body of uniform thickness has a small
hole drilled at distance h from the centre of
gravity G, from which it is suspended to swing
in its plane as a compound pendulum as shown
in Fig. 2.10. Show that for oscillations of small
amplitude the periodic time is the same as for
a simple pendulum of length h -f k2/h, where
k is the radius of gyration about an axis through
G parallel to that through O.
If the body is a disc 16 in. diameter and h =
6 in., find the periodic time and the position of
an alternative point Ox for which the time of
swing would be the same. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 1-076 sec. ; hx = 5^ in.)
C
20. A large double helical gear weighs 4500 lb. and is suspended from knife-
edges so that it is free to swing in a vertical plane at right angles to the gear axis.
If the point of suspension 28 in. from the gear axis and the period of one complete
oscillation is 2\ sec., determine (a) the moment of inertia of the gear about its
axis and (b) the minimum possible period of oscillation if the point of suspension
may be moved, and the distance of the point of suspension from the gear axis
under these conditions. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 586 lb.ft.sec.2; 2-24 sec.; 24-57 in.)
21. A compound pendulum, whose weight is 14 lb., is observed to make

34 double swings per minute.
A concentrated bob, of weight 20 lb., is now fixed firmly to the pendulum at
a distance of 40 in. from the knife-edge, so that the static equilibrium position of
the pendulum is unaltered. The pendulum, with bob attached, is now observed
to make 30-5 double swings per minute.
Calculate the distance from the knife-edge to the centre of gravity of the
original pendulum and the radius of gyration of the original pendulum about an
axis through its centre of gravity parallel to the knife-edge. {TJ. Lond)
{.Ans. : 16-4 in. ; 15-2 in.)
22. A gear wheel of unit diametral pitch has 200 teeth and weighs 20,000 lb.
It is suspended from knife-edges so that it is free to swing in a vertical plane at
right angles to the axis of the gear. The point of suspension is 4 in. inside the
pitch circle. The period of one complete oscillation is 4-29 sec.
Determine :
(a) the moment of inertia of the gear about its axis of symmetry, stating the
units carefully and justifying any compound pendulum equation used ;
(b) the tangential force that must be applied at the pitch radius of this gear
to give it an angular acceleration of 0-25 rad./sec.2. (TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 34,840 lb.ft.sec.2; 1045 lb.)
23. The moment of inertia of a connecting rod was

//////y////// determined by means of bifilar suspension, as shown in
Fig. 2.11. The length of the equal wires was 3-54 ft.
and their distance apart was 1-05 ft. The weight of the rod
was 35-2 lb. and the time for a complete small angular
oscillation was 3-7 sec.
Determine the moment of inertia of the rod about the
axis AG. {TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : 0-951 lb.in.sec.2)
24. Describe the trifilar method of determining experi¬

mentally the moment of inertia of a body about a given axis
and deduce the expression from which the value of the
Fig. 2.11
moment of inertia is calculated.
In a particular case, the points of attachment of the
three parallel suspension wires form an equilateral triangle
inscribed in a circle of 3 in. radius. The length of each wire is 30 in. and the
period of oscillation is observed to be 2-5 sec. Deduce the moment of inertia
of the body. The body weighs 10 lb. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0-475 lb.in.sec.2)
25. A 5 in. diameter disc is suspended by three wires of length 22 in. sym¬
metrically attached to the rim. Two identical bellcrank levers are placed on the
disc as shown in Fig. 2.12 {a). With this arrangement the disc completes 100
oscillations about a vertical axis in 109 sec.
The levers are then placed on the disc as shown in Fig. 2.12 (b), and in this
condition the disc requires 106 sec. to complete 100 oscillations.
The disc weighs 1-76 lb. and each lever weighs 1-3 lb.
From the results of these experiments, determine the position of the centre of
gravity of a lever, and the radius of gyration of a lever about its centre of gravity.
(U. Glas.) (Ans. : 0-705 in. from apex ; 0-923 in.)
CHAPTER 3
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
3.1 Velocities in mechanisms : relative velocity diagrams. If

the ends A and B of a rigid link, Fig. 3.1, are moving with velocities va
and vb respectively, the velocity of A relative to B is given by ba in the
relative velocity diagram and is denoted by vab, Fig. 3.2.
vab may also be obtained by imparting a velocity equal and opposite
to vb to the link, thereby bringing B to rest, in which case the velocity
of A relative to B is as shown dotted. The link may then be regarded
as rotating about the point B and the angular velocity of the link is given by
âb
(3.1)
AB
It is evident that vab must be perpendicular to AB, otherwise the link
would have to extend or contract along its length. Thus, if the magnitude
and direction of vb are known but only fhe direction of va is known, its
magnitude may be determined by drawing from b a line perpendicular
to AB to intersect the line of action of A at a. Thus, in a mechanism
consisting of a number of rigid links, it is only necessary to know the
velocity of one point in magnitude and direction in order to find the
velocities of all other points for a given configuration.
The velocity of any point C on AB may be obtained by dividing ab
so that be : ba = BC : BA. The line oc then represents the velocity of c.
3.2 Velocities in mechanisms : instantaneous centre method.

If AI and BI are drawn perpendicular to the lines of action of va and vb
respectively, Fig. 3.3, then the link may be considered as rotating instan-
60
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 61
taneously about tbe point I. This is termed the instantaneous or virtual
centre of rotation and moves continuously as the link itself moves. Thus,
if Q, is the angular velocity of the link about I, then
The velocity of any point C on AB is proportional to the distance

of that point from I and is perpendicular to IC, so that
vc = Q.IC
IA
3.3 Rubbing velocity at a pin joint. If r is the radius of the

pin at the joint shown in Fig. 3.4 and and
are the angular velocities of the two links,
then the linear rubbing velocity at the surface of
the pin
= d: ^2)r • • (3*3)
The angular velocities are added when the links
rotate in opposite directions and subtracted
when rotating in the same direction.
3.4 Velocity diagram for a block sliding on a rotating link.

Let be the angular velocity of the link about the fixed point 0, Fig. 3.5,
and va the velocity of the block, assumed known in magnitude and
direction. If A' is the point on the link coincident with the block, then
the velocity of 4' relative to 0 is perpendicular to OA' and the velocity
Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6

of A relative to A' is parallel to OA'. Therefore, if a line perpendicular

to OA' is drawn from the point o, Fig. 3-6, and a line parallel to OA' is
drawn from the point a, the intersection gives the point a'. The velocity
of sliding of A relative to A' is then given by a'a.
3.5 Forces in mechanisms. Let Fa and Fb be the external forces

acting at the ends A and B respectively of a rigid link, Fig. 3.7, and let
va and vb be the velocities of these points
in the directions of the lines of action of
Fa and Fb . Then, if A is the driving end
and B the driven end,
input work per _ output work per
unit time, unit time
i.e. Fava = Fbvb* . (3.4)
pIQ> 3 7 neglecting any work done against friction
or in changing the K.E. of the link.
If friction forces are present, then the efficiency of the transmission
Fbvb
?] = (3.5)
Faua
v
3.6 Accelerations in mechanisms. Consider a link AB, Fig. 3.8,

rotating with angular velocity and acceleration and a respectively. Let
fa and fb be the accelerations of A and B respectively. Then, if oa and
ob are drawn from the point o, Fig. 3.9, to represent fa and/b, the accelera¬
tion of A relative to B is given by ba in the relative acceleration diagram.
This relative acceleration has two components : (a) a centripetal accelera-
v.
tion, 02AB or acting in the direction of A to B and (b) a tangential
Fig. 3.8
* In problems involving static forces, the ratio va/vb represents the ratio of the
virtual velocities and displacements (see Ex. 2).
acceleration, aAB, perpendicular to AB. These are represented respec¬

tively by bal and axa in Fig. 3.9.
Normally, only one acceleration, such as fb, will be known completely
and the other, fa , in direction only. Iffb is drawn as before, the centripetal
acceleration, ba1, can be set off from b, parallel to AB. The intersection
of a line through o, parallel to fa , and a line through , perpendicular
to AB, will then give the required point a.
ab is called the acceleration image of AB, and to find the acceleration
of any point C, a point c is taken on ac such that ac : ab = AC : AB.
The acceleration of C is then represented by oc.
The accelerations of points on other links connected to AB can be
determined in a similar manner.
3.7 Crank and connecting rod : graphical constructions for

velocity and acceleration, (i) Velocity. Let co be the angular velocity
of the crank OC, Fig. 3.10, and the angular velocity of the connecting
rod, PC. Then, since I is the instantaneous centre for PC,
= %
= Q
IC IP PC
c
If PC is produced to intersect a vertical through 0 at M, then triangles

PIC and OCM are similar.
IP 0M
Hence Vp = Vc X — = vc X = CO X OM (3.6)
Ic OC
PC CM
Also V vc Vr,X— = VrX = co X CM (3.7)
IC ° OC
CM
and Q = Vj,c co X (3.8)
PC ~ ’ PC
The velocity diagram for the mechanism is shown by triangle ocp.
(ii) Acceleration—Klein’s Construction.* Draw a circle with PC

as diameter, Fig. 3.11, and produce PC to cut the vertical through 0 at
M. With centre C and radius CM, describe another circle, intersecting
the first at H and K. Draw the common chord HK, intersecting OP at
N and PC at L. Then the quadrilateral OCLN represents the acceleration
diagram to the same scale that OC represents the centripetal acceleration
of C.
Thus fv = co2ON . (3.9)

Also the centripetal acceleration of P relative to C = co2 LC (3.10)
and the tangential acceleration of P relative to C= co2 LN (3.11)
LN
The angular acceleration of PC, a = co2 (3.12)
PC
Proof. Fig. 3.12 shows the acceleration diagram for the mechanism,
oc represents the centripetal acceleration of C relative to 0 (= co2OC)
and cpx represents the centripetal acceleration of P relative to C
The tangential acceleration of P relative to C is perpendicular to PC and

the acceleration of P relative to 0 is horizontal, thus giving the point p.
From equation 3.7, vcp = coCM ...... (1)
Also oc = co2 OC
V,cp (coCM)2
and cpi =
CP CP
cpx _ co2CM2 _ CM2
“ ôcT ~co2OC.CP~ OC.CP
If P and C are joined to H, triangles CLH and CHP are similar,
• CL _ CH
CH ~~ CP
* This construction can only be used when the crank has a uniform angular velocity.
~T CH2 CM2
CL =-=-
CP CP
CL _ CM2
■■ oc- OC.CP
from equations (2) and (3), OCLN is similar to ocpxp
since fc = co20C, then fv = co2ON.
3.8 Crank and connecting rod : analytical determination of

velocity and acceleration.* Let x = displacement of piston from inner
dead centre position, Fig. 3.13.
Fig. 3.13
Then x = (r -f- l) — (r cos 0 + l cos </>)

Also r sin 0 = l sin <f>
T
sin (f) = - sin 0
l
sin 0 , l
=- where n = -
n r
sin2 0
cos (j) =
J' - (")' 1 -
2 w2
since 1 is small.
n
sin 20
.*. x = r(l — cos0) + l
2 n2
sin 20\d0
.*. vp = ^ = ( rsin0 + l
2n2 Jdt
sin 20'
= corl sin 0 4- (3.13)
\ 2n
d2x ( cos 2Q\dO

••• fv = corl cos 0 d-—
It2 \ n Jdt
2 / n , C0S 20>
= co2r[ cos 0 -f~ (3.14)
n
* Approximate expressions are derived in this Art. For exact expressions, see
p. 115.
Let fl and a be the angular velocity and acceleration of the connecting

rod respectively.
sin 0
n
cos 6 dO
n dt
dc/> cos 0 00 cos 0

i.e. o — 00 -- (3.15)
dt cos </> n n
•
dd „sin 0
a= - - — a)2 (3.16)
dt n
3.9 Forces in crank and connecting rod. Let F be the force

on the piston and X the corresponding force at the crank-pin, perpendicular
to the crank, Fig. 3.14.
Then, work done/sec. by F = work done/sec. by X

neglecting the inertia and gravity effects of the connecting rod.
i.e. F X vv = X X vc
.*. X=FxV-F
vc
= F X from equation (3.6) . . (3.17)

OL
crankshaft torque, or crank effort,
T— X x OC = F x OM . . . (3.18)
If p is the pressure in the cylinder of a single acting engine and a the

area of the piston, then the force on the piston due to gas pressure = pa.
In a double acting engine, force on piston = p±a± — p2a2, where px
and p2 are the gas pressures on the two sides of the piston and ax and a2
are the respective areas.
If R is the weight of the reciprocating parts, the force required to
accelerate or decelerate these parts is given by —fv. This force must

9
be subtracted from the gas force during the accelerating period and added
to it during the retardation period.
Thus F = pa——aj2r(cos 0. . (3.19)

9 \ n )
the sign of the inertia force changing at the point of maximum velocity.
In vertical engines, the dead weight R assists the piston effort in the
downstroke and opposes it on the upstroke.
The force in the connecting rod, Q, and the side thrust on the cylinder,
S, can be obtained from the triangle of forces, Fig. 3.15.
Thus Q = F sec </> (3.20)

and S = F tan $ .... (3.21)
The components of Q along and perpendicular to CO give the tangential
and radial forces, X and Y respectively, acting on the crankshaft.
(a) Velocity Diagrams
1. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.16, the crank AB revolves anti¬

clockwise at 16 rad./sec. and the point D is constrained to move vertically
downwards at 2 ft./sec. Draw the velocity diagram
and determine (a) the rubbing speed at E if the pin
diameter is 1 in., and (b) the velocity of F. The
link CE = 15 in. and is horizontal in the position
shown. (U. Lond.)
The velocity diagram for the mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.17. The
vector ab is drawn perpendicular to AB from the fixed point a to represent
the absolute velocity of B and ad is drawn vertically downwards to repre¬
sent the absolute velocity of d (2 ft./sec.). The velocity of B relative to
C is perpendicular to BC and the velocity of C relative to D is perpendicular
to CD ; hence the intersection of lines through b and d, perpendicular
to BC and DC respectively, gives the point c. The line cb is produced to e,
such that cb \be : : CB : BE. The velocity of F relative to E is perpen¬
dicular to EF and the velocity of F relative to A is vertical and thus the
point f is obtained.
From the diagram Vfe
and =
Vfe
3-7 X 12
Thus o - = 7-4 rad./sec. (anticlockwise)
FE 6
Vbe 3-0 x 12
and O„ -
*“*be = 4-0 rad./sec. (clockwise)
BE 9
rubbing speed at E = (Qfe -f- Qbe) X r
= (7-4 + 4-0) X A
= 0-475 ft./sec.
Velocity of F, vfa = 6-25 ft./sec.
VELOCITY DIAGRAMS 69
2. In Fig. 3.18, two equal links AC and

BD, 4 in. long, are pivoted at A and B,
which are 5 in. apart. The links are moved
symmetrically hy being attached to two gear
wheels in mesh. DE and CE each measure
7 in., and the length CF is 20 in.
451b
Fig. 3.18 Fig. 3.19
Draw the velocity diagram for the mechanism when the angle between BD
and the horizontal line through AB is 30°, the vector representing the velocity
of D being 2 in. long, BD rotating clockwise.
If a tension spring is connected between C and D, find the force it must
exert to balance a vertical load of 45 lb. applied at F. (U. Lond.)
The absolute velocities of C and D are represented by ac and bd

respectively in the velocity diagram, Fig. 3.19. The velocity of e relative
to C and D is perpendicular to CE and DE respectively, thus giving the
point e. ce is then extended to / such that ce : cf: : CE : CF.
The tension, T, in the spring CD is obtained by the principle of virtual
work, i.e. if the cranks are given an indefinitely small displacement from
the given position, then work done by spring CD = work done by load at F,
i.e. T x ST = 45 X SF
where dF is the virtual displacement at F and dT is the stretch of the spring-

But the ratio ST/SF is equal to the velocity ratio vT/vF since each of these
displacements takes place in the same time.
Vertical velocity of F, vF— af'= 6*4

Velocity of C relative to D, vT — cd = 2
6-4
T = 45 X — = 144 lb.
2 -
#
3. In the quick return mechanism shown in Fig. 3.20, the distance between
the fixed centres CB — 3 in., crank BA = 6 in., CD = 6 in., and the rod
DE — 12 in. with its centre of gravity G, 3 in. from D. If AB rotates at
120 r.p.m. clockwise, find graphically for the given position the linear velocity
of G and the angular velocity of DE. If the rod DE weighs 14 lb., and the
radius of gyration about G is 4 in., find its kinetic energy. (I. Mech. E.)
va = — X 120 X — = 6-284 ft./sec.

a 60 12 '
In Fig. 3.21, ba represents the absolute velocity of A. If A' is the
point on the link CD which at the given instant is coincident with A, then
the velocity of A' relative to C (and B) is perpendicular to ACD. Also
the velocity of A' relative to A is parallel to ACD, hence the point a!
in the velocity diagram is obtained, a'c is then produced to d such that
a'c : cd : : A'C : CD and the diagram is completed by drawing through
d a line perpendicular to DE and a line through C, parallel to CE, to give
a
the point e. The point g divides ed in the same proportion as G divides

ED in the configuration diagram. The absolute velocity of G is then
represented by the line eg, shown dotted.
vg — 4-32 ft./sec.
de 3-15
^de = 3-15 rad./sec.
DE
K.E. of DE = bnv2 + -J/co2
14 14 y (1)2
4——4-322 + 1 -X AaL 3152 4-25 ft.lb.
“32-2 32-2
4. In the oscillating cylinder mechanism shown in Fig. 3.22, the crank

OA is 2 in. long while the piston-rod
AB is 6 in. long. The crank OA
rotates uniformly about 0 at 300
r.p.m.
Determine, for the position
shown :
(a) the velocity of the piston B
Fig. 3.22 relative to the cylinder walls;
(b) the velocity of the piston B
relative to the frame ;
(c) the angular velocity of the piston-rod AB.
V„ • ~~ X 300 X ~~ ■ 5-24 ft./sec.

60 12
The velocity of A can be resolved into components parallel and per¬
pendicular to AB ; these are shown in Fig. 3.23, by Aa1 and Aa2 respec¬
tively.
Aax represents the velocity along its length of all points on AB and
is therefore the velocity of sliding of the piston relative to the cylinder,
i.e. velocity of sliding = Aax — 4-95 ft./sec.
Aa2 represents the velocity of A perpendicular to the cylinder axis so
that the angular velocity of the piston rod = H

B J ^ AC 9-17
12
2-24 rad./sec.
Velocity of piston parallel to its axis = B6X = AaL = 4-95 ft./sec.
Velocity of piston perpendicular to its axis = Bb2 = Q XB C
3-17
= 2-24 X
12
= 0-59 ft./sec.
resultant velocity of piston = Bb = V4-952 + 0-592 = 4-99 ft./sec.

5. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.24, the crank DC is turning clock¬

wise at 50 r.p.m. When the mechanism is in the position shown, the clockwise
torque applied to DC resists a vertical force of 10 lb. at F. AB = 2 in., BC
= 6 in. and CD = 1 in.
Determine, far the given position of the mechanism :
(ia) the vertical velocity of EF ;
(6) the magnitude and direction of the force acting on the mechanism at
point D. Neglect the effect,s of friction. (U. Lond.)
In Fig. 3.25, ac represents the absolute velocity of C. The velocity

of B relative to C is perpendicular to BC and relative to A it is perpendicular
to BA, thus giving the point b. If E' is the point on BC, coincident with
E at the given instant, then ce' : e'b : : CE' : E'B.
The velocity of swivel E relative to link point E' is parallel to BC,

and relative to A and D it is parallel to EF. Hence the point e is obtained.
From the diagram,
vertical velocity of EF = ea = 4-06 in./sec.
The force P applied to BC at E, Fig. 3.26 {a), must be perpendicular

to BC in the absence of friction. The vertical component of this force
is 10 lb., the horizontal component being supplied by the guides for EF.
The other forces acting on BC are the reactions at B and C. Since
AB oscillates freely, the reaction Rb lies along AB and the remaining
reaction Rc is then obtained from the triangle of forces, Fig. 3.26 (b), the
three forces P, Rb and Rc being concurrent.
From the diagram, Rc = 8*5 lb. and inclination to horizontal = 20°.

The reaction at D is equal and opposite to Rc, the couple produced by
these two forces being the driving torque on the crank DC.
6. Show that the relative instantaneous centres of three bodies, taken in

jpairs, lie on a straight line.
Hence, or otherwise, find the velocity of the slider C, and the angular
velocity of all the links in the mechanism, in Fig. 3.27, if the crank makes
100 r.p.m.
Crank OA is 1 in. long, all other links 4 in., QC is vertical, 0 is 5 in. to
the left and 4 in. below Q. (U. Lond).
Let A, B, C be the three bodies having plane motion relative to each

other, Fig. 3.28. Let IBA and ICA be the instantaneous centres of B and C
relative to A, and IBC that of B relative to C. Assume that IBC is not
on the line joining IBA and ICA. IBC is a point fixed to either B or C
because it is the instantaneous centre about which one body moves relative
to the other. If IBC is considered as a point on B then it is moving rela¬
tive to A about IBA in a direction perpendicular to the line IBA IBB .
If IBC is considered as a point on C it is moving relative to A about ICA

in a direction perpendicular to the line IBC ICA . For these two conditions
to be satisfied, IBC must be on the line joining IBA ICA , i.e. the three
instantaneous centres lie in a straight line.
In Fig. 3.29, the instantaneous centre for AB, Ij , is at the intersection

of lines drawn perpendicular to the directions of motion of A and B and
the instantaneous centre for BC, I2, is at the intersection of lines drawn
perpendicular to the directions of motion of B and C.
2 71
X 100 X 1 = 10-47 in./sec.
60
LB 5-13 ,
Then % vx X —— = 10-47 X -= 8-7 m./sec.
A ItA 6-2 ---
I2C 0 0-74 , . .
VC = VBX —— = 8-7 X - — 1*61 m./sec.
LB 4-0 --
2-77-
oj(\\ --- — X 100 = 10-47 rad./sec.
UA 60 ---
vA 10-47
oj\n =-=- = 1-69 rad./sec.
AB IXA 6-2 ---
vB _ 8-7
WQB — 2-18 rad./sec.
QB“ 4-0
Q H
coBC ----- L= — — 2-18 rad./sec.
BC LB 4-0 ---
The instantaneous centres of

all the members are shown in
Fig. 3.30.
7. A rod PR is constrained by guides to move horizontally, Fig. 3.31, and is

driven by a crank OA and a sliding block at P. For the given configuration find
the velocity of the link PR when OA has an angular velocity of 10 rad./sec. as
shown. (Ans. : 53^ ft./sec.)
8. The end A of a bar AB, Fig. 3.32, is constrained to move along the vertical
path AD and the bar passes through a swivel bearing pivoted at C. When A has a
velocity of 30 in./sec. towards D, find the velocity of sliding of the bar through the
swivel and the angular velocity of the bar.
(Ans. ; 1-25 ft./sec. ; 5-63 rad./sec.)
9. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.33 the crank OA rotates in a clockwise
direction about O at 120 r.p.m. ; the end B of the rigid link AB moves along the
straight line XX, while the end D of the link CD moves along the line YY ;
AB and CD are connected by a pin joint at C. AB = 10£ in., AC = 4 in. and
CD = 12 in.
For an angle EOA of 75°, draw the velocity diagram.
If a force of 20 lb. acting along YY resists the motion of D, determine the
forces (in magnitude and direction) acting on the pins at the ends of the bar AB.
The effects of mass and of friction may be neglected. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : A, 12-4 lb. at 38° to horizontal; B, 11-8 lb. at 28° to horizontal)
Fig. 3.33
10. In Fig. 3.34 CDE is a straight bar connected to the fixed vertical bar AB
by links BC and AD. AD is 22 in. long, CD is 4 in., DE is 10 in. In the position
indicated, AD is inclined to the vertical at an angle of 30° and CDE at 45°.
Find the lengths of AB and BC so that in small movements from the given position
the direction of motion of E will be horizontal.
If a horizontal force of 1 lb. is applied at E, what resisting moment must be
applied to the bar AD at A in order to prevent movement ? Neglect the weight
of the bars. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 14-1 in. ; 11-28 in. ; 2-5 lb.ft.)
11. A four-bar kinematic chain is represented by a quadrilateral ABCD in
which AD is fixed and is 16 in. long. The crank AB, 3 in. long, rotates in a clock¬
wise direction at 120 r.p.m. and drives the link CD, 5 in. long, by means of the
connecting link BC, 14 in. long.
Determine the angle through which CD oscillates and find the angular veloci¬
ties of the links BC and CD in one of the positions when BC is perpendicular to AB.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 93° ; 1-075 and 8-13 rad./sec.)
12. A straight rod PQ, 6 in. long, forms part of a mechanism. The end P of the
rod is constrained to move in a straight vertical path with simple harmonic
motion, making 5 complete oscillations per sec. The travel of P between extreme
positions is 2 in. The rod PQ slides in a small block pivoted at a fixed point 0.
O is situated 2 in. to the right, and 2 in. below the mean position of the point P.
Determine the velocity of Q at an instant when P is 0-5 in. below the centre
of the line of stroke, and is moving upwards. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 2-87 ft./sec.)
13. In the slotted lever mechanism shown in Fig. 3.35, the crank OA rotates
at 90 r.p.m. in an anti-clockwise direction, about the fixed centre O, swinging the
lever DEQ about the fixed centre Q.
Find the magnitude and direction of the angular velocity of the lever DEQ
and the velocity of the slider C when 6 = 45°. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 1-66 rad./sec. anticlockwise ; 10-4 in./sec.)
14 . In the valve gear shown in Fig. 3.36, Ox, 02, and 03 are fixed centres.
Oi is the crankshaft centre, and 02 and 03 are located from the limit of stroke of
Fig. 3.36
the crosshead pin A. The valve at V slides along a surface parallel to the engine
centre line.
The lengths of the members are given in inches as follows :
C^C, 12 ; 02D, 36 ; 03F, 30 ; AB, 27 ; BC, 40 ; DE, 14 ; BE, 7 ; EF, 18 ;
FG, 4 ; VG, 45.
Draw the velocity diagram when the crank angle is 45° as shown. State the
velocity of the valve V when the crank rotates at 90 r.p.m. in the direction given.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 1-8 ft./sec.)
15. In the linkwork shown in Fig. 3-37, P and Q are fixed axes. APE
rotates about P and along it moves a sliding block attached to the end of BQD
which rotates about Q. A and B are connected by the links AC and BC.
AC = If in. ; PE = 3| in. -; QD = 2f in. ; BC = 3 in. ; QB = PA = 1£ in.
If the velocity of E is 2 in./sec., find the velocity of C in magnitude and direc¬
tion when the angle EPQ is 60°. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 1-15 in./sec.)
16. In the mechanism in Fig. 3.38, the crank AB drives the bent link CDE by
means of the sliding block at B. AB = 4 in., CD = 3 in., DE = 15 in.,
EF = 15 in.
When the crank is horizontal, as shown, and is rotating at 60 r.p.m. anti¬
clockwise, find (a) the velocity of the slider F, and (b) the angular velocity of the
link CDE. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 2-08 ft./sec. ; 1-78 rad./sec.)
17. Define ‘ instantaneous centre ’ and show that, if two rigid bodies have
plane motion relative to a third, to which they are connected, the three instan¬
taneous centres lie on a straight line.
Reproduce the centre lines of the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.39. By the use
of instantaneous centres, or otherwise, determine, for the given configuration and
bellcrank speed, the angular velocity of the link EC and the sliding velocity of the
block F. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 3-88 rad./sec. ; 0-42 ft./sec.)
18. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.40 the double crank EOA rotates
uniformly at 200 r.p.m., in an anticlockwise direction, about the fixed centre O ;
the bell crank lever BCD is rocked about the fixed centre C by the link AB, and
the movement of the rigid bar DFG is controlled by the pin joint at D and the
link EF. When the angle 6 is 60°, there is a force P of 100 lb., acting on G,
at 30° to the horizontal, as shown.
Find (a) the linear velocity of G and the angular velocity of DG in magnitude
and direction ;
(b) the magnitude and direction of the force acting at D, and the torque
acting on AE.
OA = 8 in., CD = 6 in., OE = 3 in., DG = EF = 18 in., AB = 24 in.,
PF = 14 in.? BC = 14 in. (U. Lond.)
(.Ans. : 7-8 ft./sec. ; 4-6 rad./sec. anticlockwise ; 70 lb. at 30° to vertical;
10 lb.ft.)
19. The diagram of a linkage is given in Fig. 3.41. Find the velocity of the
slider D and the angular velocity of DC when the crank OxA is in the given
position and the speed of rotation is 90 r.p.m. in the direction of the arrow.
OjA = 1 in., 02B = 24 in., CD = 4 in., AB = 3 in., CB = 2 in.
If a force of 120 lb. is applied to the slider in the direction of its motion, what
will be the torque produced at Ox ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0T6 ft./sec. ; 2T8 rad./sec.; 2T lb.ft.)
20 .In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.42 the crank OA rotates uniformly in
a clockwise direction at 500 r.p.m. ; the rod AB is constrained to move in contact
with the surface of the fixed block D which has an effective radius of 2^ in. about
the fixed centre Q. OA = 2 in., AB = 7 in. and BC = 4 in.
Find the linear speed of C, the velocity of sliding of AB on D and the angular
velocity of AB when the angle 6 is 30°. (U. Lond.)
(.Ans. : 3-75 ft./sec. ; 6-6 ft./sec. ; 26-2 rad./sec.)
21. In the rudder mechanism shown in Fig. 3.43 the pinion A meshes with
a semicircular gear with centre B, the ratio of the pitch circle diameters being
11 to 3. The coupling rod CD is connected to the arm DE, the latter being
connected rigidly at right-angles to EF. When EF lies along the centre line BG,
ED and the gear diameter HBJ are parallel. BE = 100 in., BC = 10 in., and
ED = 17 in.
Find the angular velocity ratio between the pinion and arm EF, when the
latter makes 35° with EG. If the normal force in EF is 8 tons acting at 3 ft.
from E and the efficiency of the mechanism is 60 per cent, find the couple exerted
by the pinion. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 12-7 : 1 ; 3-33 tons ft.)
22. In the four-bar mechanism ABCD, Fig. 3.44, the fixed link AD is 24 in.
long. In the position shown, AB is inclined at 60° to AD. The lengths of the
links AB, BC and CD are respectively 8, 16 and 12 in. A force P of 50 lb. acting
parallel to AD and applied at a point E, half-way along AB, is sufficient to over¬
come a resisting force R, acting along a line inclined at 30° to AD and applied
at a point F, half-way along CD.
Find the magnitude of the force R and of the force at each of the joints A, B,
C and D. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 100 lb. ; 22-2 lb. ; 30 lb. ; 30 lb. ; 82 lb.)
23. Fig. 3.45 shows a crank OA, 2-4 in. long, which rotates anticlockwise
about O at 150 r.p.m. A straight bar DBC
is pivoted at B, which is 5 in. vertically below
O; BC = 2-5 in. The portion BD of this bar
slides in a trunnion fitted at A on the crank
OA. A slider E slides in horizontal guides
1 in. below B, and is connected to C by a rod
CE, 8 in. long. A horizontal force of 30 lb.
opposes the motion of E. Friction is to be
neglected.
For the position shown, where angle
AOB = 120°, find
(a) the angular velocity of DBC and the
linear velocity of E ;
(b) the driving torque on the crank
OA;
(c) the bending moment at B in the bar
DBC. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 4-34 rad./sec. ; 0-812 ft./seo. ; 1-55 lb.ft. ; 3-142 lb.ft.)
ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS 81
(b) Acceleration Diagrams
24. An engine mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.46 ; the crank CB = 3 in.

and the connecting rod BA — 9 in. with
centre of gravity G, 3 in. from B. In
the position shown the crankshaft has
a speed of 25n rad./sec. and an angular
acceleration of 400n rad./sec.2 Find the
velocity and acceleration of G and the
angular velocity and angular acceleration Fig. 3.46
of AB. (I. Mech. E.)
vb — 257t X — = 19-65 ft./sec.

& 12
The velocity diagram, Fig. 3.47, is obtained by drawing cb perpen¬
dicular to CB to represent 19-65 ft./sec. ba is then perpendicular to
Fig. 3.48
BA and ca is parallel to CA, thus giving the point a. The point g divides
ab in the same ratio as G divides AB in Fig. 3.46.
By measurement, vg — gc= 17-35 ft./sec.
and angular velocity of AB = = —-— = 13-65 rad./sec.

AB YJ -
Centripetal acceleration of B relative to C = co2BC = (25;r)2 X
= 1542 ft./sec.2
Tangential acceleration of B relative to C = aBC — 400rr X
— 314-2 ft./sec.2
ab2 10-22
Centripetal acceleration of A relative to B = 9
AB 1 2
= 138-6 ft./sec.2
In the acceleration diagram, Fig. 3-48, the centripetal and tangential

components of the acceleration of B relative to C, cb± and b/b, are drawn
respectively parallel and perpendicular to BC. bax is then drawn to
represent the centripetal acceleration of A relative to B and the diagram
is completed by drawing axa perpendicular to AB and ac parallel to AC,
axa and ac representing the tangential acceleration of A relative to B
and the absolute acceleration of A relative to C respectively. The point g
divides ab in the same ratio as G divides AB in Fig. 3.46.
By measurement, fg = gc =1160 ft./sec.2
and a0& — = 2020 rad./sec.2

ab T2- -- .
25. B ^ In the mechanism shown in

Fig. 3.49 the link AB rotates with
a uniform angular velocity of 30
rad./sec.
Determine the velocity and accel¬
eration of G for the configuration
shown.
The lengths of the various links
are, AB = 4 in. ; BC — 12 in.;
BD = 6 in.; DE = 10 in. ; EF
= 8 in.; DG = 6-66 in.; angle
CAB = 30°. (U. Lond.)
vb — 30 X } = 10 ft./sec.
t
In Fig. 3.50 ab represents the absolute velocity of B ; be is perpendicular

to BC and ac is horizontal, thus giving the point c. d is then positioned
on be such that bd : dc — BD : DC and the diagram is completed by
Fig. 3.50 Fig. 3.51

drawing de perpendicular to DE and fe perpendicular to FE. g then

divides de in the same ratio as G divides DE.
By measurement, vg — ag = 2*0 ft./sec
Centripetal acceleration of B relative to A = eo2AB 302 X J
300 ft./sec.2
cb2 8-752
Centripetal acceleration of C relative to B =
CB 1
= 76-6 ft./sec,
ed2 8-462
Centripetal acceleration of E relative to D = 10
ED 12
= 86 ft./sec.2
ef2 1-92*
Centripetal acceleration of E relative to F = 8
EF 12
= 5*52 ft./sec.5
The absolute acceleration of B is represented by ab, Fig. 3.51. The
centripetal acceleration of C relative to B (beJ is parallel to BC and the
tangential acceleration (c1c) is perpendicular to BC. The absolute accelera¬
tion of C is horizontal, so that the point c is obtained, d is then positioned
on be such that bd : dc = BD : DC.
The centripetal acceleration of E relative to D (dex) is parallel to DE
and the tangential acceleration (e1e) is perpendicular to DE. Also
the centripetal acceleration of E relative to F (ae2) is parallel to EF and
the tangential acceleration (e2e) is perpendicular to EF, so that the inter¬
section of the two tangential acceleration vectors gives the point e. g then
divides de in the same ratio as G divides DE.
By measurement, fg = ag = 220 ft./sec.2
26. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.52, D is constrained to move on a

horizontal path. Find, for the given configuration, the velocity and accelera¬
tion of D and the angular velocity and acceleration of BD when OC is rotating
in a counter clockwise direction at a speed of ISO r.p.m., increasing at the rate
of 50 rad./sec.2
(U. Lond.)
(2n
X 180 1 X ! = 9-42 ft./sec.
\60
The absolute velocity of C is represented by oc, Fig. 3.53. The velo¬
cities of B relative to C and A are respectively perpendicular to CB and
AB, thus giving the point b. The velocity of D relative to B is perpen¬
dicular to BD and relative to A it is horizontal, so that point d is obtained.
By measurement, vd= da = 5*7 ft./sec.

, bd 6-7 , .
and =-= — = 4-47 rad./sec.
BD 1-5 ---
Tangential acceleration of C relative to 0 = aOC = 50 X J
(
= 25 ft./sec.2
2jz
60 *
\2
) * i
= 177*7 ft./sec.2
Fig. 3.53 Fig. 3.54

be2 2-52
Centripetal acceleration of B relative to C =
BC 1
= 6*25 ft./sec.
ha2 7-752
Centripetal acceleration of B relative to A =
BA 2l
3
= 90-1 ft./sec.
db2 6-72
Centripetal acceleration of D relative to B =
DB 1-5
= 30 ft./sec.2
The point c in the acceleration diagram, Fig. 3.54, is obtained by
drawing the centripetal and tangential components oc1 and cxc respec¬
tively parallel and perpendicular to OC. The centripetal components of
the accelerations of B relative to C and A (cbL and ab2 respectively) are
next drawn and the point b then lies at the intersection of the tangential
components, bxb and b2b. The diagram is completed by setting off bd1
to represent the centripetal acceleration of D relative to B and d±d to
represent the tangential acceleration, the acceleration of D relative to A
being horizontal.
By measurement, fd — da = 37 ft./sec.:
ddx 107 „ 0 , .
and ahr, =-= ——- = 7To rad./sec.
bd BD ff ---
27. One end A of a link AB of length l shown in Fig. 3.55 moves with uniform
velocity v along a horizontal guide towards 0, while the end B moves in the vertical
guide. From the expressions for the distances of A and B from 0, obtain expres¬
sions for the angular velocity of the rod, the velocity of B and the acceleration of
B, in terms of l, 0 and v.
If l = 25 in., v = 3 ft./sec. and the guide block B weighs 7 lb., find the force P
applied at A in the direction of motion required to overcome the resistance at B
due to its weight and inertia for the position in which 0 = 30°. Neglect friction.
(I. Mech E.)
— v — v2
(Ans. : cd — 7—.—„ ; vu — — v cot d ; fa — r -—n 5 8-87 lb.)
v l sm 0 J l sm 0 ’
V
Fig. 3.55 Fig. 3.56
28. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.56 the crank AB is 3 in. long and rotates
uniformly clockwise at 8 rad./sec. Given that BD = DC = DE ; BC =12 in.,
draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams. State the velocity and acceleration
of the pistons at C and E. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : vc, 2 ft./sec. ; ve, 0-625 ft./sec. ; fc, 13-85 ft./sec.2; fe, 30-2 ft./sec.2)
29. Two links OA and QB turn about fixed parallel axes through 0 and Q.
The ends A and B are pin-jointed to a connecting link AB. The lengths of the
four links are OA, 2 in., AB, 7 in., BQ, 4 in., OQ, 8 in., and OA turns at a uniform
speed of 150 r.p.m. For the position of the mechanism in which A and B are
on opposite sides of OQ and the angle AOQ is 30°, find the angular velocity and
the angular acceleration of BQ. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 8-4 rad./sec. ; 24-5 rad./sec.2)
30. Part of the reversing gear of a steam engine is shown in Fig. 3.57. The
block P reciprocates along the line AB. If the crank OC turns at a uniform
speed of 240 r.p.m., find for the given position of the crank (a) the velocity and
acceleration of the block P, and (b) the velocity and acceleration of the point D.
{I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 12-9 ft./sec. ; 222 ft./sec.2; 10-6 ft./sec. ; 248 ft./sec.2)
31. In Fig. 3.58 a bar ABC moves with points A and B guided along the OY
and OX axes. AB =11 in., BC = 7 in. For the position shown in which A is
4 in. from O, the velocity of A is 30 in./sec. away from O and the acceleration of A
is 150 in./sec.2 towards O.
Find the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the bar and the velocity
and acceleration of the point C. Show the directions of these on the diagram.
{I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 2-93 rad./sec. ; 11-3 rad./sec.2; 2-25 ft./sec. ; 9-92 ft./sec.2)
32. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.59 the crank AB rotates in an anti¬
clockwise direction at a uniform speed of 240 r.p.m. The crank length AB is 4 in.
while the lengths of BC and BD are respectively 16 in. and 20 in.
Fig. 3.59 Fig. 3.60

Determine, for the position shown, the instantaneous difference in the velocity
of C as compared with that of D and the instantaneous difference in the accelera¬
tion of C as compared with that of D, along their respective axes. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 1-8 ft./sec. ; 118-3 ft./sec.2)
33. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.60 the crank BC, 4 in. long, turns at
300 r.p.m. about a centre C offset 3 in. from the horizontal line of stroke of A.
The connecting rod BA = 12 in. Find the length of stroke of A, and the times
of inward and outward motion. For the position shown with BC turned 30°
from the horizontal, find the velocity and acceleration of the point A.
(I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 8-3 in. ; 0-106 sec. ; 0-094 sec. ; 4-5 ft./sec. ; 380 ft./sec.2)
34. Fig. 3.61 shows a slider-crank mechanism in which the crank AB is 12 in.
long and the connecting rod BC is 42 in. long. In the position shown, where the
crank is inclined at 45° to the vertical, the angular velocity of the crank is
30 rad./sec. clockwise and it has an angular retardation of 300 rad./sec.2
Find the acceleration of the slider at C and the angular acceleration of the
connecting rod. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 833 ft./sec.2 ; 119 rad./sec.2)
35. In the link ABC in Fig. 3.62, AB = 24 in., BC = 9 in. A and B are
attached by pin joints to the sliding blocks. If, for the position where
BD = 15 in., A is sliding towards D with a velocity of 20 ft./sec. and a retarda¬
tion of 500 ft./sec.2, find the acceleration of C and the angular acceleration of the
link. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 864 ft./sec.2; 294 rad./sec.2)
36. The connecting rod of an engine is 25 cm. long and the stroke is 11 cm.
When the crank is 45° past the i.d.c. position the acceleration of the piston is
500 metres/sec.2 and the speed of the engine at this instant is 1000 r.p.m. Find
the angular acceleration of the crank and of the connecting rod for this position
of the crank. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 1545 rad./sec.2; 1440 rad./sec.2)
(c) Crank and Connecting Rod
37. A vertical single-cylinder engine has a cylinder diameter of 10 in.

and a stroke of 18 in. The reciprocating parts weigh 400 lb., the connecting
rod is 4 cranks long and the speed is 360 r.p.m. When the crank has turned
through an angle of 45° from the t.d.c. the nett pressure on the piston is 150
Ib./sq. in. Calculate the effective turning moment on the crankshaft for this
position. (U. Lond.)
From equation (3.14),

cos 20'
fv = w2rf cos 6 +
n
'2jr
=
\60
X 360
)
x /. cos 45° -f-
12\
cos 90c
= 753 ft./sec.2
Or alternatively, from Klein’s Con¬

struction, Fig. 3.63,
/„ = «2ON
= (— x 360
\60 )
V x 0-53
= 753 ft./sec.2
Force to accelerate reciprocating parts = -fv

0
_ 400
X 753 = 9350 lb.
~ 32^2
Gas force on piston = 150 X ^ X 102 = 11,800 lb.
Dead weight of piston = 400 lb.

CRANK AND CONNECTING ROD 89
nett force on piston,
F = 11,800 + 400 - 9350 = 2850 lb.
T = F X OM from equation (3.18)
= 2850 X 7-6
= 21,660 lb.in. or 1805 lb.ft.
38. A steam engine, 8 in. bore and 12 in. stroke, has a connecting rod
25 in. long. The reciprocating parts weigh 300 lb. and the speed is 250 r.p.m.
When the crank is at 30° to the i.d.c. and moving outwards, the difference in
steam pressure is 120 Ib./sq. in. The crank-pin is 2\ in. diameter. Neglect¬
ing the effect of the mass of the connecting rod, determine :
(a) the rubbing velocity at the crank-pin surface;
(b) the force on the crank-shaft bearing;
(c) the torque reaction on the frame. (U. Lond.)
2 jr
(a) Referring to Fig. 3.64, co = — X 250 = 26-2 rad./sec.
CM
Q = co X from equation (3.8)
PC
5-25
= 26-2 x-- — 5-5 rad./sec.
25 '
rubbing speed at crank pin = (Q -f co) X radius of pin
= (5-5 + 26-2) x — = 3-3 ft./sec.

12 ---
cos 20s
(b) Piston acceleration, fv = co2rl cos 0 +
n
= 26-22 x J(cos 30° + ¥65 cos 60°)
= 338 ft./sec.2
R
nett piston force, F = pa — — fp
9
= 120 X - X 82 - — x 338 = 2870 lb.

4 32-2
D
The force on the crankshaft bearing at 0 is equal to the force Q in

the connecting rod, which is applied to the crank at C. From the triangle
of forces,
Q — F sec </>
6 sin 30°
sin cj) = 0T2
25~
.*. 0 = 6° 54'
Q = 2870 sec 6° 54' = 2890 lb.
(c) Torque reaction on frame,

T = F X OM from equation (3.18)
= 2870 x — = 884 lb.ft.

12 -
39. A petrol engine of cylinder diameter 3'75 in. and stroke 4-5 in. has
a piston of weight 2-5 lb. and a connecting rod of length 9'5 in. When rotating
at 2000 r.pnn., and on the explosion stroke with the crank at 20° from the
t.d.c. position, the gas pressure is 100 Ib./sq. in.
Find : (a) the resultant load on the gudgeon pin, (b) the thrust on the
cylinder wall.
Determine also the speed above which, the other conditions remaining
constant, the qudqeon pin load would be reversed in direction.
(U. Lond.)
Piston acceleration,
cos 20'
fv = co2rl cos 0 +
n
2-25
— X 2000V X —(cos 20° + cos 40°
60 J
12 V ¥5" )
= 9230 ft./sec.2
nett piston force,
F = pa — -f -f R
9
= 100 X - X 3*752 — — x 9230 + 2*5

4 32-2
= 392 lb.
2-25 sin 20°
In Fig. 3-65, sin </> = 0-081
9-5
f = 4° 39'
[a) Resultant load on gudgeon pin, Q = F sec </>

- 392 sec 4° 39' 393 lb.
(b) Thrust on cylinder wall, S = F tan (f>
= 392 tan 4° 39' = 31*9 lb.
For Q to be reversed, F must be reversed,
R / r \
i.e. —co2rl cos 0 -f- - cos 20 ) > pa -f- R
9 \ l )
2-5 (2ji \2 2-25/ ono , 2-25
i.e. -[ —N ) X -[ cos 20 4--cos 40
32-2\60 / 12 \ 9-5
71
> 100 X - X 3-752 + 2-5
4
from which N > 2488 r.p.m.
40. In a simple engine mechanism, AB is the crank and BC is the con¬

necting rod. C is to the left of A and recijrrocates horizontally along a line
passing through A. AB = 2-5 in., BC = 10 in., AB turns at 600 r.p.m.
and there is a reciprocating mass of 15 lb. at C.
{a) Determine the crank angles, measured from i.d.c., from 0° to 360° for
which the torque on the crankshaft due to the mass at C is zero.
(b) Determine the torques on the crankshaft due to the mass at C for crank-
angles of 20° and 210°, measured from i.d.c., stating clearly the sense in which
they are acting. (U. Lond.)
(a) From equation (3.18), T = F X OM.

Therefore the torque on the crankshaft is zero when either F or OM
is zero.
OM is zero when 0 = 0°, 180° and 360°
R 2 / f] i cos 20s
F is zero when —cozr[ cos 0 -1- = 0
g \ n
cos 20
i.e. cos 0 + =0
i.e. 2 cos2 0 i cos 0 — 1 = 0

from which cos 0 = 0-225
or 0 = 77° and 283°
m R 0 / n , cos 20\
(b) T = — co2r( cos 0 + -) X OM
9 \ n )
1-5/2rc 2V o , cos 20'
=-( — X 600 X -—[ cos 0 -\- X OM
32-2\60 / 12 V 4
= 38-3( cosO + ) X OM
4
When 0 = 20°, OM = 1-07 in.
cos 40o>
T = 38-3f cos 20° + X 1*07
= 46'4 lb.in.
When 0 = 210°, OM = 0-97 in.
cos 420ON
.-. T = 38-3^cos 210° + X 0-97
= — 27-5 lb.in.
The negative sign denotes an acceleration away from the crankshaft.
In each case the torque is acting against the direction of motion.
41. A horizontal steam engine has a cylinder diameter of 10 in. and a stroke
length of 20 in. The length of the connecting rod is 45 in. When the engine
is running at 250 r.p.m. and the crank is at 30° to the o.d.c. and moving inwards,
the turning moment on the crankshaft is 3500 lb.ft. Determine for this position,
(a) the effective pressure on the piston ; (b) the crosshead guide reaction ;
(c) the rubbing velocity at the surface of the crank pin which has a diameter
of 4 in. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 134 lb./sq. in. ; 1200 lb. ; 42-3 in./sec.)
42. A vertical steam engine has a stroke of 24 in. and a cylinder diameter of
9 in. The piston rod diameter is 2 in. and the length of the connecting rod is
48 in. The reciprocating parts weigh 220 lb. When the crank has rotated G0°
from the t.d.c. position, the steam pressure on the top side of the piston is
70 lb./sq. in. (gauge) and on the under side is 20 lb./sq. in. (gauge).
For this position, calculate the thrust in the connecting rod, the thrust on the
crosshead guide, the turning moment on the crankshaft and the radial force in
the crank. The inertia forces may be neglected. (£7. Lond.)
{Ans. : 3600 lb. ; 800 lb. ; 3375 lb.ft. ; 1065 lb.)
43. The crank and connecting-rod lengths of a simple steam engine are 5 in.
and 20 in. respectively. The connecting rod has a mass of 360 lb. and its c.g. is
11 in. from the small end, the radius of gyration about the small end being 12-5 in.
The diameters of the gudgeon pin and crank-pin are 2| in. and 3| in. respectively
and the engine speed is 300 r.p.m. Determine for a crank angle of 45° from the
inner dead centre (a) the K.E. of the connecting rod due to its angular velocity
about its c.g. ; (6) the surface rubbing speeds of the gudgeon and crank-pins.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 44-5 ft.lb. ; 0-535 ft./sec.; 5-41 ft./sec.)
44. In a double-acting vertical steam engine the reciprocating masses weigh
185 lb. At a point on the upstroke when the angle between the crank-pin and the
t.d.c. is 140°, the steam pressure on the underside of the piston is 30 lb./sq. in.
(abs.) and on the upper side 2 lb./sq. in. (abs.). The cylinder is 8 in. diameter and
the piston rod T5 in. diameter. The connecting rod is 20 in. long and the stroke
10 in.
Find the crank effort for this position, neglecting the effect of inertia. (U.
Lond.) (Ans. : 252 lb.ft.)
45. A horizontal reciprocating engine mechanism has a crank OA, 9 in. long,
and a connecting rod AB, 40 in. long. Viewing the mechanism with B to the left
of O the crank rotates clockwise, and when it is at 30° to the i.d.c. and moving
outwards, the angular velocity of the connecting rod is 5 rad./sec. For these
conditions determine (a) the angular velocity of the crank ; (b) the linear velocity
of the centre point of the rod relative to that of the piston ; (c) the thrust and
turning moment on the crankshaft per 100 lb. of effective force at B. (I.
Mech. E.) {Ans. : 25-5 rad./sec. ; 8-33 ft./sec. ; 82 lb. ; 45 lb.ft.)
.
46 A vertical steam engine, 18 in. bore and 30 in. stroke, runs at 240 r.p.m.
The reciprocating parts of the engine weigh 150 lb. and the connecting rod is
48 in. long. When the piston is moving downwards and the crank is 90° beyond
t.d.c. the steam pressure above the piston is 100 lb./sq. in., while that below the
piston is 15 lb./sq. in.
Determine the instantaneous torque on the crankshaft, neglecting piston rod
area. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 28,700 lb.ft.)
.
47 A steam engine has a stroke of 8 in. and connecting rod of length 16 in.,
its centre of gravity being at 7 in. from the crank-pin centre and radius of gyration
about the centre of gravity being 5 in. The connecting rod weighs 250 lb. and
the effective reciprocating mass is to be taken as 200 lb. The crank rotates at
240 r.p.m. Determine (a) the crank torque due to the inertia of the reciprocating
mass and (b) the kinetic energy of rotation of the connecting rod for a crank angle
of 45°. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 262 lb.ft. ; 13-6 ft.lb.)
.
48 An engine mechanism has a 6 in. crank radius and 15 in. connecting rod,
with a crosshead weighing 20 lb. The crank rotates at 60 r.p.m. Draw the
velocity diagram and the acceleration diagram for the crank position of 45° from
the o.d.c.
State the acceleration of the crosshead and calculate the crank torque due to
inertia. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 13-7 ft./sec.2; 2T4 lb.ft.)
.
49 The diameter of one cylinder of a vertical engine is 38 in. and the piston
rod diameter is 6 in. The cylinder is above the crankshaft. The piston stroke
is 40 in., the connecting rod is 84 in. long and the engine speed is 120 r.p.m. The
reciprocating parts weigh 2-3 tons. When the piston has completed J of the
downstroke, the downward steam pressure is 126 lb./sq. in., and the back pressure
is 85 lb./sq. in.
Find the piston acceleration and the effective turning moment on the crank¬
shaft in ton ft. {U. Lond.) {Ans.: 132 ft./sec.2; 22-4 ton ft.)
50. The crankshaft of a vertical single-cylinder engine, stroke 10 in., rotates
at 300 r.p.m. The reciprocating masses (including part of the connecting rod)
weigh 200 lb. The connecting rod weighs 250 lb. ; it is 18 in. long, the c.g. is
12 in. from the gudgeon-pin axis and the radius of gyration about the same axis
is 14-5 in. When the crank is 30° from the t.d.c. position and moving downwards,
find (a) the reaction at the crosshead guides due to the inertia of the reciprocating
parts ; {b) the total kinetic energy of the connecting rod. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 329 lb. ; 531 ft.lb.)
CHAPTER 4
VALVE DIAGRAMS
4.1 The slide valve. Fig. 4.1 shows a simple slide valve in its
mid-position ; its function is to control the flow of steam to and from
the cylinder of a steam engine. It oscillates in the steam chest with
approximately S.H.M., being driven
by a rod operated by an eccentric
on the crankshaft.
As the valve moves to the right,
steam is admitted by the outside
edge to the steam port Sx. On the
return stroke, the same edge cuts off
the supply and the steam in the
cylinder expands ; the inside edge
then permits the exhaust steam to
escape through the exhaust port E.
Fig. 4.1 When the valve moves to the right
again, the exhaust steam is cut off
and the remaining steam in the cylinder is compressed until the end of
the piston stroke, when fresh steam is admitted and the cycle repeated.
A similar sequence of events takes place on the other side of the piston,
with regard to steam port S2.
The amount by which the outer edge of the valve overlaps the edge
of the steam port in mid-position is termed the outside or steam lap, s,
and the corresponding overlap on the inner edge is termed the inside or
exhaust lap, e. The steam port commences to
open slightly before the piston reaches its extreme
position, Fig. 4.2, and the amount of this opening
is termed the lead, l. At the i.d.c., the valve must
be displaced from its mid-position by a distance
s -f- l and the angle of the eccentric must there¬
fore be displaced more than 90° in advance of the
crank. The angle in excess of 90° by which the
eccentric leads the crank is termed the angle of Fig. 4.2
advance, a.
From Fig. 4.3 (a),
s -f l
sin a = ■ (4-1)
where r is the radius of the eccentric.
94
VALVE DIAGRAMS 95
If the valve is displaced a distance x from its mid-position when the

crank has turned through an angle 0 from the i.d.c., Fig. 4.3 (6), then
x = r sin (6 + a) . . . . (4.2)
Since the valve must move a distance s before admitting steam,
opening to steam = x — s = r sin (0 -f- a) — s . (4.3)

Similarly, opening to exhaust = x — e = r sin (0 + a) — e . (4.4)
The values of 0 which satisfy the equation r sin (0 -f- a) — 5 = 0 give the
crank angles for admission and cut off and the values of 6 which satisfy
the equation r sin (6 -f- a) — e = 0 give the crank angles for release and
compression.
The piston displacement, X, corresponding to the crank angle 0, is
obtained by drawing an arc with centre P and radius PC to cut the line
of stroke at N. Then
Z = PXN - PN = PjCi + CjN - PN = CjN
4.2 The piston valve. An alternative to the slide valve is the

piston valve, Fig. 4.4. The steam enters the cylinder from the space
between the pistons and exhaust takes place at the ends of the valve
cylinder. This is termed inside admission.
When the crank is at the i.d.c., the piston must be moving to the left
and be displaced a distance s -f- l to the left of its mid-position. The
Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5

4.3 Graphical constructions for slide-valve motion.

(a) Reuleaux diagram. A circle is described on AB, Fig. 4.6, where
AB represents the travel of the valve and also, to a different scale, the
stroke of the piston. The angle
AOP is the angle of advance, a,
and the perpendicular distances of
lines 12 and 34 from PQ represent
the steam and exhaust laps respec¬
tively. Lines 01, 02, 03 and 04
are then the crank positions for
admission, cut-off, release and com¬
pression respectively. The radius
/x' of a circle of centre A, tangential to
line 12, gives the lead.
For any position of the crank,
such as OX,
XY = XZ-YZ = rsin(0 + a)-s
= opening to steam
Similarly, for a crank position
OX',
XT' = r sin (0 + a) - e
= opening to exhaust
The maximum opening to ex¬
Indicator Diagram
haust is JH unless this exceeds the
width of the exhaust port. In this
case, a line ab may be drawn
Fig. 4.6 through K parallel to PQ such that
JK is equal to the width of the port.
The opening to exhaust is therefore constant between crank positions
0a and 06.
The velocity of the valve is the component of the velocity of the
eccentric E along the line of stroke,
i.e. valve velocity = cor cos (0 -f a) = coOZ (4.5)
If the ratio connecting rod/crank radius is n, the position of the piston

corresponding to a given crank-pin position is obtained by drawing through
that point an arc of length nr, centred on the line of stroke to the left
of A, to intersect the diameter AB. Thus the piston position at cut-off
is at the point N.
The diagram, which applies for either outside or inside admission, has
been drawn for the cover end and for clockwise rotation. For the crank
end, lines 12 and 34 lie on opposite sides of PQ and the lead circle is drawn
VALVE DIAGRAMS 97
from point B. If the laps are equal for crank and cover ends, the crank
positions at cut off, etc., are diametrically opposite.
(b) Bilgram diagram. A circle is described with the valve travel,
AB, as diameter, Fig. 4.7, and PQ is drawn at angle a to AB. Circles
of radii equal to the steam and exhaust laps are drawn at both P and Q ;
lines 01, 02, 03 and 04, tangential to these circles, then give the crank
positions at admission, cut-off, release and compression respectively.
For any crank position, OX,
YZ = PZ — PY = r sin (0 + a) — s = opening to steam
Similarly, for any crank position, OX',
Y'Z' = QZ' — QY' = r sin (Q -j- a) — e = opening to exhaust

Maximum opening to steam = OM
Maximum opening to exhaust = ON
If a perpendicular is drawn from P to AB, cutting the steam lap circle
at R, then RS = r sin a — s = lead.
The diagram has been drawn for the cover end ; for the crank end,
the diagram is reconstructed with the crank-end data and the points
1, 2, 3, 4 he on opposite sides of the point 0. For equal laps, they are
diametrically opposite to those for the cover end.
The Bilgram diagram has the advantage over the Reuleaux diagram
in that it can be constructed when the valve travel is initially unknown.
1. A simple slide valve is designed for outside admission and has a travel
of 4 in., with outside lap 1 in. and inside lap f in. Cut-off occurs at 70
per cent of the stroke for the cover end of the cylinder. If the connecting
rod is four times the crank length, determine (a) the angle of advance and the
lead; (h) the crank angles and piston positions at admission, release and
compression; (c) the crank angle and piston position at cut-off for the crank
end, assuming the same laps as for the cover end. (U. Lond.)
Using the Reuleaux diagram, a circle of 4 in. diameter is drawn,

Fig. 4.8. The point Nx is then marked on AB such that ANX = 0-70 X AB
— 2-8 in. and an arc of radius 4 X r = 8 in., centred on the line of stroke
to the left of A, is drawn through Nx to cut the circle at the point 2. The
line 02 is then the crank position at cut-off.
1 2 is drawn tangential to a circle of centre 0 and radius equal to the

steam lap, 1 in. PQ and 3 4 are then drawn parallel to 12, 3 4 being
tangential to a circle of centre 0 and radius equal to the exhaust lap, f in.
(a) By measurement, angle of advance = f_ AOP = 43-5°
lead = AR = 0-38 in.
(b) Crank angle at admission z. A01 = 346-5°
crank angle at release l_ A03 = 147°
crank angle at compression Z_ A04 = 305-5°
Piston displacement at admission,

AN- = OJ08 = 0.02
as fraction of outstroke AB
Piston displacement at release, = 3-75 =
as fraction of instroke AB 4
VALVE DIAGRAMS 99
Piston displacement at compression, _ BN4 _ 3-0 _ ^
as fraction of instroke — AB _ 4
(c) Since the steam laps are the same at both ends, the crank position
at cut-off for the crank end is diametrically opposite to 02, i.e. 05. For
this position,
crank angle = A05 = 75|°
and piston displacement, BN5 _ 2-33

0-58
as fraction of instroke ~AB~
2. A steam engine is to have a piston valve arranged for steam admission

on the inner edges and exhaust on the outer. The travel is 4 in. with a lead of
in. and a cut-off at 0'75 of the stroke on the cover to crank stroke. The
connecting rod/crank ratio is 4'25. Determine (a) the steam lap and the
setting of the eccentric relative to the crank, (b) the release and compression
points as fractions of the stroke for zero exhaust lap, (c) the cut-off on the other
stroke if the lead is J in. (U. Lond.)
Using the Reuleaux diagram, a circle of 4 in. diameter is drawn,

Fig. 4.9. The point Nx is then marked on AB such that ANX = 0-75 X AB
— 3 in. and an arc of radius 4-25 X r = 8-5 in., centred on the line of
Fig. 4.9
stroke to the left of A, is drawn through Nx to cut the circle at the point 2.
1 2 is then drawn tangential to the lead circle for the cover end, described
with radius Tyin. from centre A. PQ and 3 4 are parallel to 1 2, 3 4 being
tangential to the lead circle for the crank end, described with radius J in.
from centre B. The piston position at cut-off on the instroke, N4 , is

obtained by drawing an arc, of radius 8-5 in., through 4, to give point N4 .
(a) By measurement, steam lap = OR = 1 in. and the angle a = 36J°.
Hence the eccentric must be set at an angle of 270° -f- 36|° = 306J°, in
advance of the crank.
AN2 3-7
(6) Fraction of outstroke at release = 0-925.
AB T=
BN3 3-54
Fraction of instroke at compression = 0-885.
AB
BN4 2-7
(o) Fraction of instroke at cut-off = 0-675.
AB T
3. A D-slide valve on a vertical steam engine is to have, for the down
stroke, a lead of J in., a cut-off of 70 per cent and release at 95 per cent of the
stroke measured from top dead centre. The maximum opening to steam during
mlet is to be f in. Find the valve travel, the angle of advance, and the steam
and exhaust laps. The ratio of connecting rod to crank is to 1, and the
obliquity of the eccentric rod can be neglected. (U. Lond.)
Using the Bilgram diagram, the port opening circle, of radius § in., is
described from centre O, Fig. 4.10, and the lead line is drawn J in. below
the horizontal line through O. Using the port opening circle (or any other
convenient circle of centre O), the crank angles at cut-off and release
are determined. Thus anx = 0-70 X ab, an2 = 0-95 X ab and the arcs
through nx and n2 are of radius 4-5a6.
Fig. 4.10
VALVE DIAGRAMS 101
The line mx0 is produced to a convenient length and, by trial, the steam
lap circle with centre P is drawn to touch the lead line, the port opening
circle and the line m10 produced. The valve travel circle is then drawn
from centre 0 with radius OP, and the exhaust lap circle is drawn with
centre P, tangential to the line m20 produced.
By measurement, valve travel = AB = 3-4 in.
angle of advance = /_ AOP = 39°
steam lap = PM = 0-94 in.
exhaust lap = PN = 0-32 in.
4. A vertical steam engine is to have a slide valve to give a cut-off at

0-72 of the downstroke with a lead of f in., a part opening of 1 in. and com¬
pression at 0'85 of the stroke. The connecting rod/crank ratio is 4. Deter¬
mine the valve travel, the angle of advance and the steam and exhaust laps.
If the bottom end lead is fa in., decide the exhaust lap for the same stroke
fraction at compression on the upstroke, and state the mean cut-off value for
the engine. (U. Lond.)
Using the Bilgram diagram, the port opening circle, of radius 1 in., is
described from centre 0, Fig. 4.11, and the lead line is drawn § in. below
the horizontal line through 0. Using the port opening circle, the crank
angles at cut-off and compression are determined, as in the previous
Fig. 4.11
example. The steam lap circle with centre P is drawn to touch the lead
line, the port opening circle and 0 produced. The valve travel circle
is then drawn passing through P and the exhaust lap circle is described
from centre P touching 0m2 produced.
By measurement, valve travel = AB = 3f in.
angle of advance = /_ AOP = 43°
steam lap — PM = y§ in.
exhaust lap = PN4 = — 0-045 in.
The negative sign signifies that the valve does not entirely cover the
steam port on the exhaust side when the valve is in the mid-position.
For the bottom end, the lead line is set off in. above AB and the
crank angle at compression determined as before. The steam and exhaust
lap circles are drawn with centre Q, tangential to the lead line and the
radius 0m3 respectively. A tangent to this steam lap circle, produced
backwards to m4 , enables the piston position, w4 , at cut-off to be obtained.
Thus, exhaust lap = QN2 — 0-32 in.
bn4 1-26
and fraction of stroke at cut-off = 0-63
ab ¥o
, n • 0‘72 + 0-63
so that mean cut-on lor engine =-= 0-675
5. A vertical steam engine is fitted with a D-slide valve with outside steam
admission. The valve chest cover is removed and the flywheel turned by
hand so as to make the valve slide up and down over the valve face. The
distance from the top edge of the valve to a fixed mark higher up on the valve
face is found to vary from a maximum of in. to a minimum of § in. When
the engine is on top dead centre the distance is 3§ in. When the valve is
just opening or closing the upper port to steam the distance is in.
Find the valve travel, lead, steam lap and angle of advance. Determine
also the crank angles at admission and cut-off. (U. Lond.)
Valve travel = 4f — f- = 4§ in.
When piston is at top dead centre, displacement of valve from mid¬

position
4-4
_ ^8,3 03 _ 1 3
-X" I 8" — °8 - 1 6 in.
x = r sin (6 -f- a) from equation (4.2)
i.e. — 4-| = ^ sin (180° -f a)
angle of advance, a = sin 1 0-372 = 21° 50'

VALVE DIAGRAMS 103
When the valve is uncovering the steam port, displacement of valve
from mid-position
43
±8 113.
3 _ Q 3 _
18 ^18 —
in.
i.e. steam lap, s = in.

. s -f- l
sin a =- from equation (4.1)
r
A _i_ 7
i.e. 0-372 =
o 3
Z16
from which lead, l = 0-19 in.

At admission and cut-off,
x = s= g- in.
.-. f = — sin(0 + 21° 50')

2
0 + 21° 50' = sin-1 0-2858 = 16° 36' and 163° 14'
0 = - 5° 14' and 141° 24'
6. Define steam lap, exhaust lap, inside lap, outside lap, and angle of advance
for a simple slide valve (a) with outside steam admission, (b) with inside steam
admission.
The displacement of a slide valve from its mid-travel position is given by
x = 2-3 cos(G + 120°), where 0 is the crank angle measured from inner dead
centre. The valve has outside steam admission and a steam lap, for both ends,
of 1 in. Determine the angle of advance. Determine also the steam lead, the
crank angles at admission and cut-off, and the ratio of expansion, for both ends
of the cylinder. The length of the connecting rod is four times the throw of the
crank. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 30° ; 0-15 in. ; - 4° 14'; 124° 14'; 1-21 ; 1-35)
7. The length of the connecting rod of a steam engine is five times the crank
radius. On opening the steam chest the dimension of the valve and valve seating
are found to be as shown in Fig. 4.12.
On rotating the flywheel, the travel of the valve was found to be 4 in. and it
was noted that the maximum openings at crank and cover ends were equal.
Cut-off at the cover end occurred at 78 per cent of the stroke.
Find (a) the lead and maximum valve opening to steam ;
(b) the fraction of the stroke at cut-off for the crank end ;
(c) the fractions of the stroke for the beginning of compression for both
ends. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : \ in. ; in.; 71 per cent; 88-5 per cent (cover), 92 per cent (crank))
8. The slide-valve of a steam engine is designed to have the following par¬
ticulars : travel of valve, 5 in.; lead on the outstroke, 0-25 in.; steam lap,
1 in. Find the crank angles at admission and cut-off for this arrangement.
In fitting the valve to its spindle, it was accidentally placed 0-2 in. out of
position, giving later admission at the head end. What are now the crank angles
at admission and cut-off ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : - 6° 25'; 126° 35'; - 1° 19'; 121° 18')
9. A D-slide-valve for a steam engine has a travel of in. There is outside
steam admission and the steam lap for the head end of the cylinder is 1 \ in. The
angle of advance is 40° and the ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius is
4 to 1.
Find, for the outstroke, (a) the lead, (6) the position of out-off expressed as
crank angle and also as a percentage of the outstroke, (c) the opening to steam
when the piston is at one quarter of the outstroke.
If the engine runs at 150 r.p.m., find the maximum velocity of the valve.
{U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0*45 in.; 112° ; 73-5 per cent; 1-34 in.; 3*44 ft./sec.)
10. The travel of a slide-valve of a steam engine is 3 in. ; the outside or steam
lap is \ in. and the lead is ^ in. If the exhaust is open 10° before the end of the
outstroke, deduce the magnitude of the inside or exhaust lap and the crank angles
at which admission, expansion, exhaust and compression begin. The connecting
rod length is four times the crank radius. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : - 0-3125 in. ; 357° 26'; 138° 30'; 170° ; 325° 57')
11. A steam engine is fitted with a piston valve having inside admission ;
steam and exhaust laps at the cover end are f in. and ^ in. respectively, the port
width being f in. The travel of the valve is 2-8 in. and the connecting rod/crank
ratio is 3-75 to 1 ; the valve crank leads the main crank by 310°. Draw a valve
diagram and find, for the cover end, the maximum openings to steam and exhaust,
also the position of the piston at cut-off, stating on which stroke it is moving.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 0-65 in. ; 0-75 in. ; 71 per cent of instroke)
12. The slide valve of a steam engine is operated by a simple eccentric, the
angle of advance of which is 42|°. The throw of the eccentric is If in. and the
ratio of connecting rod length to crank throw is 4 to 1. The lead at the head end
is ^ in. and the exhaust lap is f in. Find the steam lap and the fractions of the
stroke when cut-off, release and commencement of compression occur.
If the width of the port is 1 in., draw a sectional view to scale of the port and
valve when the latter is giving the maximum opening to steam and quote the
crank angles between which the port is fully open to exhaust. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 1-125 in. ; 63-2 per cent of outstroke ; 95 per cent of outstroke ;
74-3 per cent of instroke ; 109° to 166°)
13. A simple eccentric and slide-valve is to give a lead of ^ in., a maximum
port opening to steam of 1 in., and a mean cut-off of 75 per cent. Find the radius
and angle of advance of the eccentric and the outside lap of the valve.
If the length of the connecting rod be five times that of the crank, find the
actual cut-off for each stroke. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 1-875 in. ; 32° ; 0-875 in. ; 80 per cent; 71 per cent)
14. A slide-valve with outside steam admission is to give cut-off at 0-55 stroke,
permit a maximum port opening of IT in. and have a lead of 0-3 in., all on the
VALVE DIAGRAMS 105
crank end. If the connecting rod is four cranks long, find the valve travel, angle
of advance and steam lap.
If the lead on the cover end is 0-125 in., state the piston position at cut-off at
that end. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 5 in. ; 42|° ; 1-38 in. ; 64 per cent of instroke)
15. A slide-valve is required to cut off steam to the cylinder at 75 per cent of
the down stroke ; the lead is to be 0-125 in. and the steam lap 1-125 in. The
connecting rod is four times the length of the crank. Determine the radius of the
eccentric sheave, its angular advance and the maximum port opening to steam.
(TJ. Lond.) {Ans.: 2^ in.; 35° 25'; 1^ in.)
16. The slide-valve in the low-pressure cylinder of an engine is to be arranged
to cut off steam at 0-65 stroke on the outstroke. Find the corresponding crank
angle measured clockwise from the inner dead centre, if the length of the connect¬
ing rod is 3£ times that of the crank. The lead is to be in., maximum opening
to steam 2 in. and the opening to exhaust 4£ in. Find the necessary travel of
the valve, the angle of advance and the steam lap. State the fraction of the
return stroke when compression begins. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans.: 99° 5'; 11-14 in.; 41£° ; 3-57 in.; 76 per cent)
17. A simple slide-valve, with outside admission, provides a lead of 0-125 in.,
a maximum port opening of 0-75 in. and a cut-off at 62 per cent of the outstroke.
The ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius is 3-70.
Find the travel of the valve, the steam lap and the angle of advance. If the
exhaust lap is 0-25 in., at what percentage of stroke will release and compression
occur ? {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 4-1 in. ; 1-3 in. ; 44° ; 92 per cent; 77 per cent)
18. A steam engine has a connecting rod/crank ratio of 5 : 1 and is operated
by a simple slide-valve with outside admission of steam, giving a cut-off at 0-65
of the stroke. If the maximum opening to steam is TO in. and the valve lead at
the cover end is 0-2 in., determine the steam lap.
Express the valve displacement from its mid position in terms of the crank
angle of advance and the eccentric radius using numerical values.
Find also the exhaust lap to give release at 0-94 of the stroke. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans.: 1-5 in.; 1-814 sin 0 + 1-72 cos 6; 0-41 in.)
CHAPTER 5
CAMS
5.1 Cams and followers. A plane or disc cam consists of a plate,

rotating about an axis perpendicular to its plane, its profile being such
as to impart a reciprocating or oscillating motion to a follower, which
bears against the cam edge. The follower, which moves in the same plane
as the cam, may be roller-ended, flat-ended or knife-edged. It is kept
in contact with the cam profile by gravity if the accelerations required
are sufficiently small (i.e. less than g) or otherwise by a spring.'
The principal types of cam are (a) those whose profiles are designed
to give a specified motion to the follower, e.g. uniform acceleration or
S.H.M., and (b) those whose profiles consist of straight lines, circular
arcs and other mathematical curves. In type (a), the cam profile is
obtained by geometrical construction ; in type (b) the follower displace¬
ment for any cam angle is obtained analytically or graphically and the
velocity and acceleration are then determined by mathematical or graphical
differentiation.
5.2 Specified motion of follower.

(a) Uniform acceleration and deceleration. Let the follower lift
through a distance s in time t while the cam rotates through a total angle 6 ;
let the acceleration be/j^ during an angle of rotation and the deceleration
be f2 during the remaining angle of rotation 02 .
0
Then, if the angular speed of the cam is co, t = —.
co
cos
Mean velocity = -
T
2cos
maximum velocity, v
~T
V 2 cos/6 2 co2s
fl
h QJoo
V 2(os/0 2co2s
and h-
02/co
4 co2s
If o = o2 =
1 2 2* fl =/.
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in
Fig. 5.1.
106
CAMS 107
Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2
(b) Simple harmonic motion. The motion of the follower is

identical with that of the projection M, Fig. 5.2, on a diameter, of a point
P, moving in a circular path with constant speed, the diameter being
equal in length to the lift of the follower.
Let the follower lift through a distance s in time t while the cam
rotates through an angle 0. Then, if Li is the angular speed of OP,
71 0)71
Q = - =
t T
£ls 0)71S
Tangential velocity of P = — =
2 ~ 20
oms
velocity of follower = velocity of M =-sin ib
20 r
o f7)27T2<?
Centripetal acceleration of P = Li2- = -—-—
1 2 202
0)27Z2S
acceleration of follower = acceleration of M = —— - cos i/j
20 ‘
oms
Maximum velocity, v ==
~20
0)27l2S
and maximum acceleration, f —
202
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in

Fig. 5.2.
1. A cam of minimum radius 2 in., turning uniformly clockwise, is to
give a lift of 1\ in. to a follower which moves on a vertical straight line f in.
to the right of the centre line of the camshaft, the follower being above the cam.
The follower is fitted with a roller of 1 in. diameter and is to have the following
motion :
0°-180° rising with S.H.M. ;
180°-270° falling in- with uniform acceleration ;
270°-360° falling in. with uniform deceleration.
Draw the cam profile, full size, using intervals of 30°, and show the
construction clearly. (U. Lond.)
Fig. 5.3
CAMS 109
The base circle, of radius 2 in., the line of stroke of the follower, XX,
and the follower roller in its lowest position are drawn, Fig. 5.3.
In constructing the cam profile, it is more convenient to regard the
cam as fixed and the line of stroke of the follower to be rotating anti¬
clockwise at constant speed round the cam. The subsequent positions
of the follower stroke have therefore been set out at intervals of 30°.
The stroke of the follower, QQ, has also been divided geometrically
into six divisions, the construction for S.H.M. being shown to the left
and that for uniform acceleration and retardation to the right.* The
various positions of the follower centres are then set off along the corre¬
sponding line of stroke ; at 120°, for example, the distance PjQi is made
equal to PQ', and at 300° the distance P2Q2 is made equal to PQ". Using
the centres so obtained, the follower circles are described and the cam
profile drawn tangential to these circles.
2. A cam with a roller follower

is shown in Fig. 5.4., the roller
being 1\ in. diameter and carried
on a lever pivoted at P. The base
and nose circle radii of the cam are
1\ in. and f in. respectively, the
distance between their centres being
in. The flanks of the cam are
straight and tangential to both
circles.
Plot a curve showing the angular
displacement of the lever against
that of the cam for the period of rise
from the lowest position to the highest.
If the velocity of the cam is uniform at 100 r.p.m., what is the maximum
angular velocity of the lever in rad./sec. during the period of lift ?
(U. Lond.)
The cam profile and follower are drawn for the given position,
Fig. 5.5 (a). Regarding the cam as fixed and the fine OP to be rotating
round the cam, subsequent positions of the follower pivot are obtained,
angular displacements of 15° having been taken for the line OP.
From each position of the pivot an arc of radius PQ is drawn and
the centre of the follower is obtained by trial on this arc so that the follower
circle is tangential to the cam profile. Thus, for a cam displacement of
45°, the position of the follower arm is represented by PXQ! and the
angular displacement of the follower is then /_OPQ — Z_îQi •
The angular displacements at various cam angles are shown graphically
in Fig. 5.5 (6).
* See Practical Geometry and Engineering Graphics, W. Abbott, p. 62.
Follower Displacement
Fig. 5.5
The slope of this curve gives the ratio of the displacements of the lever
and cam and hence the ratio of their angular velocities. Since the cam
GAMS 111
speed is uniform, the maximum angular velocity of the lever occurs at
the point of maximum slope, i.e. at a cam angle of 30°.
Slope of tangent, XX, to curve at this point = 0*485
(2tt
60 X
= 5*08 rad./sec.
3. A cam rotates at 300 r.p.m. and operates a flat follower, the face of
which is perpendicular to the line of stroke. Draw to scale the velocity diagram
for the follower during the lift and find the acceleration of the follower when the
cam is at 35° below the top of the lift, which is at 80°. The shape of this portion
of the cam profile is given in polar notation with origin at the centre of the
base circle which is 2-6 in. diameter.
Angle 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 600 70° 80°
Radius {in.) T30 1-32 T34 14 15 T63 T78 M3 M5
(U. Lond.)
The cam profile, AA, is drawn from the given data, Fig. 5.6 {a). The
positions of the follower end are then drawn tangential to the cam and
perpendicular to the radial construction lines which also serve as the
successive positions of the follower axis.
The positions of the centre of the follower end are transferred to the
vertical line of stroke and are then used to construct the displacement
diagram, Fig. 5.6 (6). Thus for a cam angle of 50°, OC is made equal to
OB and a horizontal line through C then gives the corresponding point
D in the displacement diagram. The velocity diagram, Fig. 5.6 (c), is

obtained by graphically differentiating the displacement diagram,* and
the acceleration at 35° below the top of the lift is obtained from the slope
of the tangent, XX, to the velocity diagram at this point.
Let the polar distance be n in.
Then, if the time scale is 1 in. = a sec., and the displacement scale is
1 in. = b in., the scale of the velocity diagram is 1 in. = — in./sec.

na
Since the horizontal scale is in terms of crank angle, let 1 in. = 0°.
71
0 X
180 0
Then the time scale, a — sec.
— x 300 1800
60
, . 18006. .
Thus the velocity scale is 1 m. = —— in./sec.
nO
By measurement,
velocity scale
acceleration of follower at 35° = slope of tangent XX x
time scale
=2= 330 in./sec.2
4. The mechanism employed to reverse the direction of travel of the table

of a planing machine is operated by a cam and lever, as shown in Fig. 5.7.
The cam is fixed to the table. At the end of the stroke the lever is raised through
an angle of 300 while the cam moves horizontally a distance of 5 in. with
uniform velocity. The lever is raised with uniform angular acceleration during
the first 15° and with uniform angular retardation during the remaining
15°. Draw the cam profile, full size. (U. Lond.)
Considering the cam as fixed and the fulcrum of the lever as moving
to the left, the line of motion of the pivot, O, Fig. 5.8, is divided into
CAMS 113
six equal parts. The arc of movement of the roller, PQ, is then divided
geometrically into six parts, corresponding to uniform acceleration and
retardation of the follower ; the construction has been applied to one
half of the arc only, using the chord as a close approximation to the length
of the arc.
Lines from the successive positions of 0, parallel to the corresponding

angular positions of the arm, are drawn to give the positions of the roller
centres ; thus 01P1 is parallel to, and equal in length to, OP'. The roller
circles are then constructed from these centres and the cam profile drawn
tangential to the circles.
5. The flat-faced cam shown in Fig. 5.9 rotates about 0 at 60 r.p.m.

The roller follower weighs T75 lb. Calculate the vertical acceleration of the
follower and the cam torque for both directions of rotation, when 6 = 30°.
(U. Lond.)
Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10

Referring to Fig. 5.10, change of displacement, x, between positions Q'

and Q for a cam rotation 0
= PQ - P'Q' = (PR + RQ) - P'Q'
= J tan 0 + 4 sec 0 — 4
dx o/ii a n\d0 n i
.. v = — = (1 sec“ 0 + 4 sec 0 tan 0)—
dt dt
= co(^ sec2 0 + 4 sec 0 tan 0)
fJ2r fjn
.*. / = — = co(sec2 0 tan 0 + 4 sec3 0 + 4 tan2 0 sec 0)—
dt2 dt
— co2 sec 0 {sec 0 tan 0 + 4(sec2 0 + tan2 0)}
when 0 = 30°, f — (2n) !A/A.j_+++r

V3\\/3 a/3 \3 3,
8n2 22 . , 2
=-X — = 334 m./sec.2
V3 3 -L-
1-75
Inertia force on roller = X 334 = 1-514 lb.
32-2 x 12
When the cam rotates anticlockwise, the follower rises and accelerates
upwards and thus the inertia force is downwards. When the cam rotates
clockwise, the follower falls and decelerates downwards and thus the
inertia force is again downwards. Therefore, for both directions of
rotation,
vertical force on roller = 1-75 + 1-514 = 3-264 lb.
force normal to flank (along SQ)
= 3-264 sec 30° = 3-77 lb.
cam torque — 3-77 X OS = 3-77 X (OR + RS)
= 3-77(| sec 30° + 4 tan 30°)
= 10-88 lb.in.
Wlien the follower rises, the cam drives the follower. When the follower
falls, the force exerted on the cam provides a torque assisting the rotation
of the cam.
6. A cam consists of a circular disc 12 in. diameter with centre B, and

it rotates about a point A which is 3 in. from B. A roller follower of 3 in.
diameter with centre C is constrained to move vertically (i.e. AC is a vertical).
Find graphically or otherwise the acceleration of C when AB makes 45° to
the right of AC, the cam rotating anticlockwise at 60 r.p.m.
What is the reaction on the cam if the roller weighs 2 lb. ?
(U. Lond.)
CAMS 115
The acceleration of C, Fig. 5.11, may be obtained by constructing the

displacement diagram for the roller and
differentiating graphically twice.
The mechanism ABC, however, is kine¬
matically identical with a simple reciprocat¬
ing engine mechanism, AB being equiva¬
lent to the crank and BC to the connecting
rod. The acceleration of C may therefore
be obtained by the use of Klein’s Con¬
struction, Art. 3.7, or by the analytical
method of Art. 3.8. In the latter case,
however, the approximations based on
the assumption that n was large are no
longer justified since, in this case,
71
n = — = 2-5
3
From Art. 3.8,
x = (r -f l) — (r cos 0 + l cos 4>)
'sinfA 2'
and cos </> = 1 -
n
j / sin 2>
x = r( 1 — cos 0) -f- l 1 -
\ n
— r{ 1 — cos0 -\- n — s/(n2 — sin20)}
dx f . _ sin 20
v = — = wr< sin u +
dt 2 y/(n2 — sin2 0)
sin4 0 + n2 cos 20^1 *
f= = co2r<J cos 0 -j-
dt2 (n2 — sin2 0)3//2
'2n \2 3 sin4 45° + 2-52 cos 90°'
— X 60 ) , cos 45° -f-
X — I
Q0 J 12 ^ (2-52 — sin2 45°)3/2
= 7-15 ft./sec.2
Inertia force on roller = X 7-15 = 0-444 lb.

32-2
* If the terms sin4 6 and sin2 9 are neglected, the approximate expression
cos 2
/ = <o2r^cos 6 4 is obtained, as in Art. 3.8.
n
Therefore, in this case,
D*
V
HI 3/ Aro
) XI2(OOS45
*60'2
= 6-975 ft./sec.2
I COS 90°
)
The roller is decelerating, so that the inertia force acts upwards against
the dead load.
vertical force on roller == 2 — 0444 = 1-556 lb.
2422
reaction on cam along CB =
cos </>
1-556
= 1-62 lb.
sin2 45ov
2-52
7. The exhaust valve of a diesel engine is operated by a cam designed to give

a uniform acceleration of magnitude T5 times the uniform retardation during the
opening period. During closure, the retardation is to be 1*5 times the accelera¬
tion. Opening and closing the valve each occupy 50° of cam rotation. If the
minimum cam radius is 2f in., valve lift If in., and the follower, with a \\ in.
diameter roller, operates in a line passing through the cam axis, draw the outline
of the cam full size. (U. Lond.)
8. A push rod, operated by a cam, is to rise and fall with simple harmonic
motion along an inclined straight path. The least radius of the cam is 2 in. and
the push rod is fitted at its lower end with a roller 1^ in. diameter. When in its
lowest position, the roller centre is vertically above the cam axis. The maximum
displacement of the roller is 2 in. in a direction 30° to the right of the vertical.
The cam rotates at 100 r.p.m. in a clockwise direction. The time of lift is 0-15 sec.
and the time of fall 0-10 sec. with a period of rest of 0-05 sec. at the upper position.
Draw the cam profile, full size. (U. Lond.)
9. The lift diagram for a follower operated by a cam is shown in Fig. 5.12 ;
the follower is at rest for the remaining 210° of revolution. The follower moves
in a straight line passing through the axis of rotation of the cam and carries a
roller If in. diameter, the minimum radius of the cam being 2f in.
Draw the cam profile, full size, leaving sufficient construction lines to indicate
the method used. (U. Lond.)
10. A box cam consists of a circular plate in which a slot is cut as shown in
Fig. 5.13. The centre of rotation of the plate is at O and the slider is operated
by a roller which fits into the slot without any slackness. Plot the displacement
CAMS 117
of the slider against cam angle, using a full-size scale for the displacement and
a scale of 1 in. = 30° for the cam rotation. Take the given position as datum,
and assume a clockwise direction of the cam. State the stroke of the slider.
If the speed of rotation is 1 rad./sec., find the velocity of the slider when the
cam has rotated 45° from the given position. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 0-625 in. ; 0-101 ft./sec.)
11. A valve is required to lift If in. with equal uniform acceleration and
retardation. The tappet which operates the valve is provided with a roller 2 in.
diameter and its line of stroke intersects the axis of the cam at right angles. The
cam turns through 60° during each stroke of the tappet and the shortest distance
between the axis of the roller and the cam is 3 in. Draw one-half of the outline
of the cam.
If the cam turns at a uniform speed of 210 r.p.m., find the acceleration and the
maximum velocity of the valve. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 25-7 ft./sec.2; 6-12 ft./sec.)
12. A circular disc of 6 in. diameter is mounted eccentrically on a shaft and
used as a cam. The line of stroke of the follower passes through the shaft axis,
the follower has a roller end, If in. diameter, and a stroke of 2f in. The cam shaft
rotates uniformly at 400 r.p.m.
Find, graphically or otherwise, (a) the acceleration of the follower when it is
at its maximum displacement from the shaft centre line ; (b) the velocity and
acceleration of the follower when the cam has rotated 60° from the position
specified in (a) (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 242 ft./sec.2; 4-42 ft./sec.; 61 ft./sec.2)
13. A circular cam, 4-75 in. diameter, rotates clockwise at a uniform speed of
90 r.p.m. about a horizontal axis which is 0-75 in. from the centre of the cam.
It actuates a follower fitted with a roller 1-5 in. diameter, the line of stroke of the
follower being vertical, and displaced 1-0 in. to the right of the cam shaft axis.
(a) Construct a lift diagram on a base of cam angle.
(b) Determine the maximum velocity of lift. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 0-67 ft./sec.)
14. A cam operates a flat or palm follower. The follower moves in a straight
line which is normal to its working face. The profile of the cam is formed by a
base circle of 3 in. diameter joined by two tangents to a nose of f in. radius. The
lift of the follower is 1 in., and the speed of the cam is 30 r.p.m. about an axis
which contains the centre of the base circle. Draw the displacement-time and
velocity-time curves for the period of lifting only. (U. Lond.)
15. A cam rotates at 300 r.p.m. and operates a roller follower, which moves in
a vertical line through the centre of the base circle of the cam (3 in. diameter).
The shape of the cam profile for the first 90° is given in polar notation with origin
at the centre of the base circle.
Angle 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

Radius (in.) If If If If 2£ 2§ 3
Draw, full size, the profile of this part of the cam and construct the displace¬
ment curve for the roller follower, which is 1 in. diameter. State the maximum
velocity of the follower. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 4-7 ft./sec.)
16. A valve of an engine is operated by a cam and tappet. The line of
motion of the valve is vertical; it does not pass through the camshaft axis but is
offset £ in. The lower end of the tappet is fitted with a roller £ in. diameter.
The lift of the valve is -& in. and occurs in 50° of camshaft rotation with a period
of rest of 15°, followed by lowering during the next 50°. The valve is at rest for
the remainder of the revolution.
If the acceleration of the valve is to be numerically constant, draw, four times
full size, the cam profile if the least radius of the cam is 1 in.
Find also the acceleration and maximum velocity of the valve when the cam¬
shaft speed is 500 r.p.m. (XJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 375 ft./sec.2; 3T2 ft./sec.)
17. A cam rotating on a horizontal axis operates a vertical rod which is fitted
with a roller 14 in. diameter at its lower end. The axis of the rod does not pass
through the cam axis, but is offset f in. The rod rises during 60° rotation of the
cam, falls during the following 60°, and remains at rest for the following 240°.
The rod moves with simple harmonic motion during both strokes, the lift being
2 in.
Taking the least radius of the cam to be 24 in., draw, full size, the profile of
the cam. (U. Lond.)
18. A valve of a petrol engine is moved vertically by a cam which is in con¬
tact with the lower end of the valve stem. The valve is raised 3^- in. while the
cam rotates 45° and is lowered the same distance in the following 45°, the motion
being simple harmonic. During the remaining 270° of cam rotation the valve
remains in its lowest position. The valve which weighs ^ lb., is pressed down
upon the cam by a spring which exerts a force of 200 lb. when the valve is in its
highest position and 40 lb. when the valve is in its lowest position. The camshaft
speed is 2000 r.p.m.
Find the greatest speed of the valve, also the force exerted by the cam on the
valve at the highest and lowest positions. (XJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 6-54 ft./sec. ; 115 lb. ; 125 lb.)
19. The cam shown in Fig. 5.14 rotates uniformly in an anti-clockwise
direction about the fixed centre O, and actuates a follower through the roller of
centre Q. The path of the roller centre lies on the straight line OX, contact
between roller and cam being maintained by a spring.
Plot, on a cam angle base, the displacement of the centre Q for the first 240°
from the position shown ; mark on the curve the points reached by Q when roller
and cam are in contact at the ‘ change-over ’ points A, B and C and state the cam
angle in each case. (XJ. Lond.) (Ans.: 52°; 138°; 212°)
20. A cam A consists of a circular disc 4 in. diameter with a flat edge BC cut
on it as shown in Fig. 5.15. The follower consists of a roller D, 1 in. diameter,
mounted on nn arm EF which is hinged at E and which moves a block G sliding
CAMS 119
in vertical guides HK. There is no interference between the arm EF and the cam.
In the position shown, BC is horizontal.
(i) Find the angles through which the cam must rotate clockwise from the
position shown in order to place G (ci) at its lowest position, (b) in its
highest position.
(ii) Find the total travel of G.
(iii) Find the height of G above its lowest position when the cam has rotated
45° clockwise from the position shown.
A graphical solution is suggested. (U. Lond.)
{.Ans. ; 10-5° ; 69° ; 2-54 in. ; 0-66 in.)
21. Fig. 5.16 shows an arm AB, in. long, hinged to the underside of a
slider which moves horizontally at 2 in./sec. The arm carries a roller 1 in. diameter,
which rolls along the stationary profile CDE. This profile consists of two circular
arcs of equal radii.
Draw a graph of angular displacement of AB against time. Find the average

and the maximum angular velocities of AB while the roller rises from E to C.
(U. Lond.) {Ans.: 0-31 rad./sec.; 0-86 rad./sec.)
22. A cam profile consists of two circular arcs, of radii 1-0 in. and 0-5 in.,
joined by straight lines, giving the follower a lift of 0-5 in. The follower is a roller
of 1 in. radius and its line of action is a straight line passing through the camshaft
axis. When the camshaft has a uniform speed of 500 r.p.m., find the maximum
value of the velocity and acceleration of the follower while in contact with the
straight side of the cam. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 4T1 ft./sec. ; 687 ft./sec.2)
CHAPTER 6
CRANK EFFORT DIAGRAMS
6.1 Crank effort diagrams. The torque on an engine crankshaft

varies considerably throughout the working cycle, due to variations in
the crank position, the pressure in the cylinder and the inertia force on
the piston. If the crankshaft torque is plotted against the crank angle,
a crank effort diagram is obtained, Fig. 6.1. The total area under the
curve represents the work done by the crankshaft during the cycle.
If the resisting torque is constant,
this is represented by the line AE,
which also represents the mean
engine torque. Between points A
and B, the engine torque exceeds
the resisting torque and the crank¬
shaft accelerates, the area a of the
loop representing the excess energy
supplied during that time. Similarly,
between B and C, the engine torque
is less than the resisting torque and
the crankshaft decelerates, the area
b representing the deficit in energy
available during that time. At the
points of intersection, A, B, etc., the engine and load torques are equal,
so that there is no acceleration or deceleration of the flywheel; hence
the speed is a maximum or a minimum at these points.
For multi-cylinder engines, the total torque for any crankshaft position
is the algebraic sum of the torques exerted by the various cranks. These
are not equal since the cranks will have different angular positions relative
to the crankshaft.
For presses and punches, etc., the input torque is usually constant
and the resisting torque is fluctuating. The significance of the curved
and straight lines in Fig. 6.1 thus becomes interchanged.
6.2 Fluctuation of speed and energy. Over the complete cycles

the area of the loops above the mean torque line exactly equals the area
of the loops below the line if the mean speed is constant. To prevent
large fluctuations of speed due to the variation in nett crankshaft torque,
however, a flywheel is fitted, its function being to act as a reservoir,
absorbing energy as the speed increases and releasing it as the speed falls.
120
CRANK EFFORT DIAGRAMS 121
If the energy of the flywheel at point A = U,

the energy of the flywheel at point B = TJ a,
the energy of the flywheel at point C = U -j- a — b,
the energy of the flywheel at point D = U -f- a — b -f- c,
and the energy of the flywheel at point E = TJ a— b c — d = U.
The energy at E must be the same as at A since the cycle is then

repeated.
The points at which the energy is greatest and least can be determined
by inspection and these correspond to the points of greatest and least
speeds respectively. The difference, or fluctuation, in energy between
these points must be equal to the energy stored in the flywheel due to
the change in speed.
If co is the mean speed, oq and co2 are the maximum and minimum
speeds respectively and E is the work done during the cycle,
the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is the ratio
greatest fluctuation of speed per cycle

mean speed
(O-l (Or
i.e. a= • (6.1)
(O
and the coefficient of fluctuation of energy is the ratio

greatest fluctuation of energy per cycle
work done per cycle
i.e.
iKco i2 — <V) (6.2)
|8 =
E
If the speed variation is small, cox -f co2 — 2co
Also co1 — co2 = am
iI(co! + 0)2]((O1 — co2)

E
|/.2ft).aa)
E
or
PE
I — (6.3)
aco'
E
1. The turning-moment diagram for a jpetrol engine is drawn to the

following scales : turning moment 1 in. = 1200 Ib.in. ; crank angle 1 in.
= 30°. The turning-moment diagram repeats itself at every half-revolution
of the engine and the areas above and below the mean turning-moment line,
taken in order, are 0-36, 0-84, 0-05, 0-42, 1-18, 0-33 sq. in. The rotating
parts are equivalent to a mass of 80 lb. at a radius of gyration of 6 in.
Determine the coefficient of fluctuation of speed when the engine runs at
1800 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
The turning-moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6.2. By inspection,

or by tabulating the energies at the various points A, B, C, etc., as in
Art. 6.2, the total energy is greatest at point B and least at point E.
Fig. 6.2
1200 / 7T \*
1 sq. in. represents X (30 X — 52-35 ft.lb.
fluctuation of energy between points B and E, /3E
= (- 0-84 + 0-05 - 0-42) x 52-35
= 63-35 ft.lb.
/= ..... from equation (6.3)

am2
80 x (J)2 63-35
a — 0-00287 or 0-287%
* The angle 9 must be expressed in radians.

2. The flywheel of a single-cylinder 4-stroke Diesel engine has a mass of
2250 lb. with a radius of gyration of 2 6 ft. The mechanical efficiency of the
engine is 72 per cent when developing 40 b.h.p. at 400 r.p.m.
The area between the compression line and the atmospheric line of the
indicator diagram is 0-52 of the nett area of the diagram, and the suction
and exhaust can be assumed to be at atmospheric pressure.
Determine the coefficient of fluctuation of speed of the engine at this load.
(U. Lond.)
The indicator diagram is shown in Fig. 6.3.
Fig. 6.3
40 X 33,000
Output work per cycle = = 6600ft.lb.
200
100
indicated work per cycle =-X 6600= 9167 ft.lb.
72
9167
average indicated work per stroke = 2292 ft.lb.
Area EAD = 0-52 x area ABCD

work done during working stroke = area ABODE
= 1-52 x area ABCD
= 1-52 x 9167 = 13,930 ft.lb.
excess energy absorbed by flywheel = 13,930 — 2292 = 11,638 ft.lb.
PE
7 =
aor
11,638
a=
2250 x 2-62
x [ - x 400X2
32-2 60
= 0-014
3. The variation of crankshaft torque of a 4-cylinder petrol engine may

he approximately represented by taking the torque as zero for crank angles
0° and 180° and as 190 lb.ft. for crank angles 20° and 45°, the intermediate
portions of the torque graph being straight lines. The cycle is repeated in
every half-revolution. The average speed is 600 r.p.m. Supposing that
the engine drives a machine requiring a constant torque, find the weight of the
flywheel, of radius of gyration 10 in., which must be fitted in order that the
total variation of speed shall be 1 per cent. (U. Lond.)
The crankshaft torque

diagram is shown in Fig.
6.4.
Work done in J revolution = area OABC
- m x (2t x m) + “ x (“5 * m)
= 340 ft.lb.
340
mean torque =-= 108-1 lb.ft.
n
81-9
z + y = — X 155 = 66-75°
y 190
fluctuation of energy represented by shaded area
-819 x (® x iis) + ¥x (,6TC x m)

= 83-4 ft.lb.
I = Pl
aco2
W = 97-9 lb.
4. An engine working on the two-stroke cycle has three cylinders with
cranks at 120°. The turning moment for any cylinder is assumed to increase
uniformly from zero to a maximum while the crank turns 90°, to fall uniformly
to zero over the next 90° and to remain zero over the remainder of the revolution.
If the engine develops 20 h.p. per cylinder when running at a mean speed
of 400 r.p.m., draw the turning moment diagram for one cylinder and from
it construct the combined diagram. Determine the variation in the kinetic
energy of the flywheel and its required weight for a radius of gyration of 1 ft.
to limit the total speed variation to 2 r.p.m. (I. Mech. E.)
OABC is the diagram for one cylinder, Fig. 6.5.
work done per cycle per cylinder = — 33,000 _ ^
1650 = l^max X 7T
rmax = 1050 lb.ft.
3 X 1650
Mean torque for three cylinders = —-- = 787-5 lb.ft.
2 71
1050 - 787-5 JL i
x= X n — - rad.
1050 4
fluctuation of energy, represented by shaded area
n
(1050 - 787-5) X -
4
= 103 ft.lb.
pE
OL(D‘
W x l2 103
i.e.
32-2 2 ^ 2
X — X 400
400 60
/. W = 378 lb
5. A single cylinder internal-combustion engine working on the 4-stroke

cycle develops 100 h.p. at 360 r.p.m. The fluctuation of energy can be as¬
sumed to be 0-9 times the energy developed per cycle. If the coefficient of
fluctuation of speed is not to exceed 1 per cent, and the maximum centrifugal
stress in the flywheel is to be S00 Ib./sq. in., estimate the mean diameter and
the cross-sectional area of the rim. Cast-iron weighs 0-26 Ib./cu. in.
(U. Lond.)
CO = — X 360 \2ti rad./sec.

60
w i i i 77 100 x 33,000 1QOOrw, „
ork done per cycle, E —--- = 18,330 ft.lb.
180
fE _ 0-9 x 18,330
11 GO lb.ft.sec.2
aco2 0-01 x 144tt2
wvi wco2r2 *
Centrifugal stress, f
9 9
where r is the mean rim radius,
0-26 X 144tt2 x r2
i.e. 800 -
32-2 x 12
r = 28-9 in.
i.e. mean diameter = 57-8 in.
wa X 2 nr
9 9
where a is the cross-sectional area of the rim,
0-26 x a x 2n x 28-93
i.e. 1160 X 12 =
32*2 x 12
a = 136-2 sq. in.
6. A single-cylinder, four-stroke engine of 35 i.h.p. runs at 400 r.p.m.

and drives a machine through gearing at 1200 r.p.m. The moments of inertia
of the rotating parts of the engine and the machine are 8700 lb.ft.2 and 280
lb.ft.2, respectively. The excess energy developed by the engine is 80 per cent
of the indicated work per cycle. Calculate the coefficient of fluctuation of speed
of the engine, and then estimate how much additional flywheel rim weight, at
8 in. radius, is required on the machine to reduce this coefficient to 0-005.
(U. Glas.)
1200N2 t
Equivalent moment of inertia of engine = 8700 -j- X 280
400/
= 11,220 lb.ft.2
* See Strength of Materials, J. Case, 3rd edn., p. 25 (Edward Arnold),
f See Art 1.24.
35 X 33,000
Work done per cycle, E =
200
= 5780 ft.lb.
I =
a oj‘
11,220 0-8 X 5780

i.e.
32-2
a X f ^ X 400
60
/. a = 0-00757
0-00757
If a = 0-005, equivalent moment of inertia = 11,220 X
0-005
= 17,000 lb.ft.2
'1200V
.\ 17,000 = 8700 -f- {280 + W X (A)2}
400/
from which W = 1445 lb.
7. Distinguish between the functions of the governor and the flywheel of an

engine.
A double-acting steam engine runs at 100 r.p.m. A curve of the turning-
moment plotted on a crank angle base showed the following areas alternately above
and below the mean turning-moment line : 0-96, 0-5, 0-64, 0-76, 0-32, 0-56, 0-42,
0-52 sq. in. The scales used were 1 in. = 8000 lb.ft. and 1 in. = 30° crank angle.
If the total fluctuation in speed is limited to 1^ per cent of the mean speed,
determine the weight of the flywheel necessary if the radius of gyration is 3-5 ft.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 7368 lb.)
8.
The turning-moment diagram for an engine is drawn on a base of crank
angle and the mean resisting torque line added. The areas above and below the
mean line are +5-4, —1-4, +1-6, —5-6 sq. in., the scales being 1 in. = 2000 lb.ft.
torque and 1 in. = 30° of crank angle.
Find the weight of flywheel required to keep the speed between 297 and
303 r.p.m., if its radius of gyration is 1-75 ft. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 3120 lb.)
9. The turning-moment diagram of an engine, which has been drawn to scales
of 1 in. to 10,000 lb.in. and 1 in. to 20° of rotation of the crankshaft, shows that
the greatest amount of energy which has to be stored by the flywheel is represented
by an area of 5 sq. in. The flywheel is to run at a mean speed of 240 r.p.m. with
a total speed variation of 2 per cent. If the mass of the flywheel is to be 1000 lb.,
determine suitable dimensions for the rim, the internal diameter being 0-9 of the
external diameter.
Neglect the inertia of the arms and hub of the wheel. Cast iron has a density
of 450 lb./cu.ft. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 48-6 in. external diameter ; 10-9 in. thick)
10. A vertical Diesel engine running at 350 r.p.m. develops 800 h.p. and has
4 impulses per revolution. If the fluctuation of energy is 25 per cent of the work
done during each impulse, estimate the cross-sectional area of the rim of the
flywheel required to keep the speed within 2 r.p.m. of the mean speed when the
mean peripheral speed of the rim is 4500 ft./min. Cast iron weighs 0-26 lb./cu. in.
(£7. Lond.) (Ans. : 58-5 sq. in.)
11. Establish an expression for the radius of gyration of an annular ring of

given external and internal radii.
A disc-type cast-iron flywheel for a small oil engine is limited by engine
framing and clutch requirements to the following sizes : rim, 16 in. external and
14 in. internal diameters and 2 in. long ; hub, 4 in. outside diameter, 2 in. bore
and 1*5 in. long ; web, 0-5 in. thick. The turning-moment diagram for the engine
shows that the maximum fluctuation of energy is 355 ft.lb. Determine the
coefficient of speed fluctuation for a mean speed of 1500 r.p.m.
Take the density of cast iron as 0-26 lb./cu. in. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : V^(-R3 -f r2) ; 3-55 per cent)
12. A motor driving a punching machine exerts a constant torque of 500 lb.ft.
on the flywheel, which rotates at an average speed of 120 r.p.m. The punch
operates 60 times per min., the duration of the punching operation being £ sec.
It may be assumed that the punching effort is equivalent to a constant torque on
the flywheel, and that friction and other losses may be neglected.
Deduce the value of the resisting torque and sketch graphs of input and output
torques on a base representing the angle of rotation of the flywheel. Hence
deduce the moment of inertia of the flywheel required if the speed variation from
maximum to minimum is not to exceed 10 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 2500 lb.ft. ; 12,300 lb.ft.2)
13. A machine press is worked by an electric motor, delivering 3 h.p. con¬

tinuously. At the commencement of an operation, a flywheel of moment of
inertia 1200 lb.ft.2 on the machine is rotating at 250 r.p.m. The pressing opera¬
tion requires 3500 ft.lb. of energy and occupies 0-75 sec. Find the maximum
number of pressings that can be made in 1 hr. and the reduction in speed of the
flywheel after each pressing. Neglect friction losses. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 1697 ; 23 r.p.m.)
14. A single cylinder gas engine, working on the four-stroke cycle, develops
15 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The work done on the gases during the compression stroke
is 0-7 times the work done by the gases during the power stroke. The turning-
moment diagram for the compression stroke may be taken as a triangle with its
apex at 30° before the i.d.c., and that for the power stroke as a triangle with its
apex at 30° after the i.d.c. The turning moment during the suction and exhaust
strokes is negligible, {a) Determine the maximum fluctuation of energy. (6) If
the speed is not to fluctuate more than 2^ per cent above or below the mean
speed, find the weight of flywheel required, assuming its radius of gyration to be
18 in. {U. Lond.) {Ans.: 10,175 ft.lb.; 2950 1b.)
15. A petrol engine has two cylinders side by side. The connecting rods are
both attached to the same crankpin so that .the pistons have identical motions,
and the cylinders fire alternately so that there is one firing stroke in each revolu¬
tion. The engine gives 15 b.h.p. at 3000 r.p.m., and it may be assumed that
60 per cent of the developed energy per cycle is stored in the flywheel. Calculate
the percentage fluctuation of speed at 3000 r.p.m. The moment of inertia of the
flywheel is T5 lb.ft.2
Taking the radius of gyration of the flywheel as 5 in., what increase in weight
of the flywheel is necessary to maintain the same fluctuation of speed at 1500 r.p.m.
{U. Glas.) {Ans.: 2T5 per cent; 26 lb.)
16. A single-cylinder four-stroke internal combustion engine develops 40 h.p.
at 300 r.p.m. The turning-moment diagram for the expansion and compression
strokes may be taken as two isosceles triangles, on bases 0 to n and 3n to 4re radians
respectively, and the nett work done during the exhaust and inlet strokes is zero.
The work done during compression is negative and is one quarter of that during
expansion.
Sketch the turning moment diagram for one cycle and find the maximum
value of the turning moment during expansion.
If the load remains constant, mark on the diagram the points of maximum
and minimum speeds. Also find the moment of inertia, in lb.ft.2, of a flywheel to
keep the speed fluctuation within ±1-5 per cent of the mean speed. (U. Lond.)
' (.Ans. ; 7467 lb.ft. ; 10,500 lb.ft.2)
17. Fig. 6.6 shows the variation

with time of the torque required on
the driving shaft of a machine during
one cycle of operations. The shaft is
direct coupled to an electric motor which
exerts a constant torque and runs at a
mean speed of 1500 r.p.m. The rotating
parts are equivalent to a flywheel of
weight 40 lb. with a radius of gyration 0 0-5 07 0-9 M sec 20
of 10 in. Fig. 6.6
Determine (a) the h.p. of the motor,
neglecting friction ; (b) the percentage
fluctuation of speed. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 2-74; 5-93 per cent)
18. A machine is engaged on repetitive work, each cycle of operations occupy¬

ing one revolution of its shaft. The driving torque required on the machine shaft
is 20 lb.ft. during 100° of its rotation, 8 lb.ft. during the next 120° and 2 lb.ft. for
the remainder of the revolution. The rotating parts on the machine shaft have
moment of inertia 70 lb.ft.2 The machine is driven through gearing by an elec¬
tric motor whose speed is 4 times that of the machine shaft. The rotating parts
on the motor shaft have moment of inertia 2-5 lb.ft.2
(a) Assuming that the motor develops a constant torque, find its magnitude.
(b) If the maximum speed of the motor during the cycle of operations is
500 r.p.m., find its minimum speed. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 2-25 lb.ft.; 483 r.p.m.)
19. A gas engine develops 30 h.p. at 270 r.p.m. It has hit-and-miss governing
and there are 125 explosions per min. The flywheel weighs 2000 lb. and has a
radius of gyration of 2-25 ft. If it is assumed that the work done is identical for
each working cycle, that the work done by the gases on the explosion stroke is
2-4 times the work done on the gases during compression stroke, and that the work
done on the other two strokes is negligible, find the maximum fluctuation of speed
of the flywheel as a percentage of the mean speed. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 4-62 per cent)
20. Calculate the percentage fluctuation of speed in a four-stroke cycle engine

from the following data : cylinder diameter 8 in., stroke, 16 in., speed, 250 r.p.m.,
weight of rotating parts, 2600 lb., radius of gyration of rotating parts, 2 ft., mean
pressure in cylinder during expansion stroke, 110 lb./sq. in., and during compres¬
sion stroke, 25 lb./sq. in. above atmosphere. The pressure during suction and
exhaust may be neglected and the resistance at the crankshaft assumed constant.
(U. Lond.) (Ans. : 3T4 per cent)
21. A rolling mill is to be driven by an electric motor giving a steady output

of 200 h.p., independent of speed. A heavy flywheel is directly coupled to the
motor to take peak loads and is in the form of a solid cast-iron disc, 10 in. thick.
During a particular period of sec. the power absorbed by the mill is 500 h.p.
for 2 sec., 80 h.p. for 4 sec., and 400 h.p. for 3^ sec.
Find the minimum diameter of flywheel required if the speed is allowed to fall,
during the 9^ sec., from 500 to 450 r.p.m. Ignore the inertia of the motor
armature and mill and take the weight of cast iron as 0-26 lb./cu. in. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 6-32 ft.)
22. An engine has 3 single acting cylinders, the cranks being spaced 120°
apart. For each cylinder, the crank effort diagram consists of a triangle :
Angle 0° 60° 180° 180° to 360°
Torque (lb.ft.) 0 150 (max.) 0 0
Find (a) the mean torque, and (b) the moment of inertia of the flywheel in
lb.ft.2 necessary to keep the speed within 180 ± 3 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 112-5 lb.ft. ; 53-4 lb.ft.2)
23. A shaft fitted with a flywheel rotates at 250 r.p.m. and drives a machine,
the resisting torque of which varies in a cyclic manner over a period of three
revolutions. The torque rises from 500 lb.ft. to 2000 lb.ft. in a uniform manner
during % rev. and remains constant for the following 1 rev. It then falls uniformly
to 500 lb.ft. during the next ^ rev. and remains constant for 1 rev., the cycle
being then repeated.
If the driving torque applied to the shaft is constant and the flywheel has a
weight of 1000 lb. and a radius of gyration of 2 ft., find the h.p. necessary to drive
the machine and the percentage fluctuation of speed. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 59-5 ; ± 3-46 per cent)
CHAPTER 7
GOVERNORS
7.1 Function of a governor. The function of a governor is to

control the mean speed of an engine, as distinct from that of a flywheel,
which controls only cyclic fluctuations in speed. In the centrifugal types
of governor, the effect of centrifugal force on the rotating balls causes
a sleeve to rise until equilibrium is obtained. The sleeve controls the
fuel supply by means of a linkage and any change in engine speed produces
a change in the sleeve position, which adjusts the fuel supply accordingly.
7.2 Dead weight governors
(a) Watt governor, Fig. 7.1 (a). The Watt governor is basically a
conical pendulum with the lower links attached to a sleeve of negligible
weight. If the weight of the ball is w and the centrifugal force upon
it is F, then, taking moments about the instantaneous centre for the
lower link, I, to eliminate the effect of the tension in the upper arm,
F X XZ = w X IZ
(b) Porter governor, Fig. 7.1 (b). The Watt governor is only
suitable for a speed range of about 60-80 r.p.m., and for higher speeds
it is necessary to add a weight to the sleeve to increase the speed range
for a given range of ball radius ; this is the basis of the Porter governor.
If the weight on the sleeve is W, then, taking moments about I to eliminate
the effect of the tension in the upper arm and the reaction at the sleeve,
F X XZ = w x IZ + —- X IY
2
131
(c) Proell governor, Fig. 7.1 (c). The Proell governor is similar
to the Porter governor, except that the balls are attached to extensions
to the lower arms. This has the effect of reducing the change of speed
necessary for a given sleeve movement. Taking moments about I,
JxXZ = wxIZ + -xIY

2
7.3 Spring-loaded governors
(a) Hartnell governor, Fig. 7.2 (a). The governor is assembled

with the central spring initially compressed and this compression can be
adjusted to give any required equilibrium speed for a given ball radius.
If F is the centrifugal force acting on the ball, P the force exerted on
the sleeve by the spring and W the weight of the sleeve, then, taking
moments about the fulcrum, 0, of the bell-crank lever,
P+ W .
F X ---X b
When the ball arm is not vertical, the moment of the ball weight
about the fulcrum and the changes in length of the moment-arms are
usually neglected.
(b) Governor with spring-connected balls, Fig. 7.2 (b). The
governor is assembled with the connecting spring initially stretched and
the equilibrium speed for a given ball radius is adjusted by the use of an
auxiliary spring attached to the sleeve mechanism. If P is the tension
in the main spring, R the tension in the auxiliary spring and W the weight
of the sleeve, then, taking moments about 0,
W+-R
(F — P) x a =-- X b
z
7.4 Effort and power. The effort of a governor is the force exerted
at the sleeve for a given fractional change in speed.
GOVERNORS 133
The power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a given
fractional change of speed.
i.e. power — mean effort X sleeve movement
7.5 Sensitivity and friction. If the maximum and minimum

speeds of a governor are co1 and co2 respectively and its mean speed is
co, the sensitivity of the governor is defined as ——-.

CO 2
If there is a friction force / between the sleeve and the spindle, the
effective sleeve load becomes W + / when the sleeve is rising and W — /
when falling. For any sleeve position, there is thus a range of speed over
which the governor is insensitive. If, for any position, the maximum
and minimum speeds before sleeve movement occurs are co' and co"
respectively and the speed in the absence of friction is co, the coefficient
of insensitiveness is defined as the ratio —--—.

co
7.6 Controlling force and stability. The radially inward, or

centripetal, force acting on each rotating ball due to the sleeve weight,
spring force, etc., is termed the controlling force and a graph of the variation
of this force against radius is called a controlling force curve. Fig. 7.3 (a)
shows such a curve for a Porter type governor and Fig. 7.3 (b) shows that
for a Hartnell type governor. At any equilibrium speed, co, the controlling
force is equal and opposite to the centrifugal force.
i.e. the controlling force, F = —co2r

9
r w
A governor is stable if for each speed within the working range there
is only one radius of rotation for equilibrium. Thus r must increase as

CD increases, i.e. the ratio F/r must increase as cd increases. This condition
is satisfied in the case of the Porter governor curve but, for the Hartnell
governor, it is only satisfied if the straight line intercepts the vertical
axis below the origin, such as the line ab.
A governor is isochronous if the equilibrium speed is the same for all
radii of rotation. The ratio F/r is then a constant and corresponds to
the controlling force line cd, passing through the origin.
For such a governor, the sleeve will move to one of its extreme positions
immediately the speed deviates from the isochronous speed. The fuel
inlet valve is therefore either fully open or fully closed and equilibrium is
unlikely to be achieved.
A governor is unstable if the radius of rotation decreases as the speed
increases, i.e. the ratio F/r decreases as r increases. This corresponds
to a controlling force line which intercepts the vertical axis above the
origin, such as the line ef.
For such a governor, the equilibrium speed at the lowest sleeve position
is higher than at the highest position. The sleeve will therefore always
move to one of the extreme positions and the engine speed will not settle
between the two limiting speeds.
1. Fig. 7.4 (a) shows a Porter governor for which the speed range can be
varied by means of the auxiliary spring S. The spring force is transmitted
to the sleeve by the arm AB which is pivoted at A. The two balls each weigh
0-8 lb. and are supported by four light links C± , C2 , C3 and C4 , each 3
in. in length. The sleeve carries a weight of 2 lb.
Fig. 7.4
GOVERNORS 135
The sleeve begins to rise when the balls revolve at 200 r.p.m. in a circle of
3 in. radius. The speed of the governor is not to exceed 220 r.p.m. when the
sleeve has risen f in. from its original position.
Determine [a] the necessary stiffness of the spring S, and
(b) the tension in the link Cx when the sleeve begins to rise.
(U. Lond.)
If the force exerted by the spring S is P lb.,
then force on sleeve = -fP lb.

Therefore total load on sleeve = -fP + 2 lb.
The lower link C2 is in equilibrium under the centrifugal force on the

ball, F, the weight of the ball, 0-8 lb., half the load on the sleeve,
-JP -j- 1 lb., the tension in the upper link Cj and the horizontal reaction
on the sleeve.
Taking moments about I, Fig. 7.4 (b),
F X XZ = 0-8 X IZ + (|P + 1) X IY
i.e. -— —( — nX
32-2 X 12\60 J
X r X h = 0-8(r - 1-25) + UP + 1) X 2(r — 1-25)
i — \5 it
i.e. 0-0000221Nbh = (r —l-25)(2-8 + 0-4P) . . (1)
When N = 200 r.p.m., r = 3 in. and h= + If2) = 3-031 in.
Therefore, from equation (1), P1 = 4*795 lb.
When N = 220 r.p.m., h = 3*031 - 0*1875 = 2-8435 in.
and r = V(3i2 - 2-84352) + 1J = 3-295 in.
• P — 5-593 lb.
'. spring stiffness = Pi-Pm

sleeve movement
5-593 - 4*795 _ _ n ,
= 5*32 lb./in.
2. v 3_
F\ ft
4*795
Vertical reaction at A at 200 r.p.m. = + 1 + 0*8
= 2*758 lb.
3*5
tension in Cx = 2*758 sec 0 = 2*758 X
3*031
= 3*185 lb.
2. A Porter governor has 12 in. arms and the rotating balls each weigh
4 lb. At the mean speed of 120 r.p.m., the arms make 30° to the vertical.
Determine the central dead load and the sensitivity of the governor if the sleeve
movement is i 1 w. (U. Lond.)
W
Taking moments about I, Fig. 7.5, F X h = w X r + — X 2r
i.e. -co2rh = 4r -f- Wr

32-2 X 12
i.e. 001035a)2/i = 4 + W . a)
2jr
At the mean speed, co = — X 120 = 4jr rad./sec.
1 60 ‘
and h = 12 cos 30° = 10-39 in.
Hence W = 13 lb.
40-6
Equation (1) then gives co =
Vh
When sleeve rises 1 in., h = 10-39 - 0-5
= 9-89 in.
40-6
co-, = —-= 12-9 rad./sec.
1 V9’89 .
When sleeve falls 1 in., h = 10-39 + 0-5

= 10-89 in.
40-6
CO2 = = 12-3 rad./sec.
yTO-89
co 4jt
sensitivity = = 20-95
co i — co2 12-9 — 12-3
GOVERNORS 137
3. A governor of the Proell type is shown diagrammaiically, with certain
dimensions, in Fig. 7.6 (a). The central loa/1 acting on the sleeve weighs
55 lb. and the two rotating weights each weigh 7 lb. When the governor
sleeve is in mid-position the arm AB of the cranked lever ABC is vertical,
and the radius of the path of rotation of the weights is 7 in.
If the governor spjeed is to be 160 r.p.m. when in mid-position, find
(a) the length of the arm AB, and (6) the tension in the link BD.
Neglect friction. (U. Lond.)
Taking moments about I, Fig. 7-6 (b),
F X AE = 7x6 + — X 12
2
7 /2t7- \2
i.e. -(X !60 ) X 7 x (AB + 8) = 372
32-2 X 12\60
i.e. AB — 245 in.
55
Vertical reaction at D = 7 4- 34-5 lb.
2
tension in BD = 34-5 sec <j>
10
= 34*5 X — = 4343 lb.
8 -
4. A loose-ball governor is shown in Fig. 7.7 (a). When in operation,

the balls rise up the flange A and push up the sleeve against the spring, while
the collar and lever on the top of the dome actuate the control gear. There are
12 steel balls, 2 in. diameter, and the dead weight lifted (cover and control
gear) is 55 lb. The ball centres are at 5 in. radius in the lowest position and
the maximum rise of the sleeve is f in. Calculate the initial compression and
stiffness of the spring for a speed ranqe of 350 to 364 r.p.m. The weight of
one ball is T173 lb. (U. Glas.)
Radius of rotation of balls at bottom speed = 5 in.

radius of rotation of balls at top speed = 5J in.
If P is the total force exerted on the balls by the dead weight and the
spring, one ball is in equilibrium under a vertical load, P/12, the centrifugal
force on the ball, F, its weight, W, and the reaction of the ball-race, R.
Hence, from the triangle of forces, Fig. 7.7 (b),
P W
— +W=F oo^r
12 ' g
P , - 0 1*173 /2tt \2
i.e. — -f 1-173 =-[ — N 1 r
12 32-2 x 12\60
When N 350 r.p.m., r = 5 in., P = 230-4 lb.
spring force = 230-4 — 55 = 175-4 lb.
When N = 364 r.p.m., r= 5f in., P = 290-2 lb.
spring force = 290-2 — 55 = 235-2 lb.
235-2 - 175-4
spring stillness = ---= 79-7 Ib./m.
3
4
175-4
initial compression = 2-20 in.
GOVERNORS 139
5. A form of emergency governor is shown in Fig. 7.8. The governor is

contained in the main shaft A of the machine. The loose bolt BB weighs
0-3 lb. and its centre of gravity at G is 0 05 in. from the centre of rotation 0.
The movement of the bolt is opposed by a spring, giving a force of 90 lb./in.
The travel of the bolt is 0*2 in.
Calculate the initial force in the spring such that the bolt will begin to
move outwards at 6600 r.p.m. Find also the speed of rotation at which the
bolt will return from the outer to the inner position and show that the governor
is unstable in all positions. (U. Lond.)
At 6600 r.p.m., centrifugal force, F = ——-(— X 6600 j X 0-05

32*2 x 12\ 60 /
= 18*55 lb. = initial spring force
In outer position, spring force = 18*55 + 0*2 x 90

= 36*55 lb.
Therefore the bolt, whose centre of gravity is now 0*25 in. from O, will
move inwards when the centrifugal force falls below this spring force of
36*55 lb.
0*3 /2 n
i.e. when > -N X 0*25
32*2 x 12\60
i.e. when
In Fig. 7.9, graphs Oa and 06 are plotted, representing the centrifugal
force on the bolt for different radii at speeds of 6600 and 4144 r.p.m.
respectively. It will be seen that at 6600 r.p.m. the centrifugal force
exceeds the spring force at all radii so that the bolt will immediately
move to the outer stop, and at 4144 r.p.m. the spring force exceeds the
centrifugal force for all radii so that the bolt will immediately move to
the inner stop. The governor is therefore unstable in all positions.
6. A spring-controlled centrifugal governor has two rotating masses, each

weighing 6 lb., and the limits of their radii
of rotation are 4 and 5 in. Each mass is
directly controlled by a spring attached to
it and to the casing of the governor, Fig.
7-10. The stiffness of each spring is 40
lb./in. and the force in each spring, when
the masses are in their mid-position, is
80 lb. In addition there is an equivalent
constant inward radial force R = 15 lb.
acting on each mass, in order to allow for
the dead weight of the mechanism.
Neglecting friction, find the range of
speed of the governor.
What would be the required force in
each spring, when the masses are in their
mid-position, for isochronism and what would then be the speed ?
(U. Lond.)
If P is the total inward force on each rotating mass, then, for equili¬
brium, centrifugal force, F = P
6 /%7l \2
i.e. 1 -N x r= P
32-2 X 12\60
or N = 76-6 /-....
r
a)
At maximum speed, r — 5 in.
and P = 15 + 80 + 40 X i = 115 lb.
V I15
-f- = 368 r.p.m,
At minimum speed, r = 4 in.

and P = 15 + 80 - 40 X i = 75 lb.
^2 =
-,6VT- = 332 r.p.m.
For isochronism, N is to remain constant as r changes and hence,

P . .
from equation (1), — is to remain constant.
If S is the spring force required at mid-position, then, equating the
values of — at 5 in. and 4 in. radii,

r
GOVERNORS 141
15 + S + 40 X i 15 + S - 40 X 4
from which S = 165 lb.

r15 + 165 + 40 x |
Substituting in equation (1), N = 76-6
484-8 r.p.m.
7. In a Hartnell governor the length of the ball arm is 7\ inthat of the

sleeve arm is 5\ in., and the weight of each ball is 6 lb. The distance of the
pivot of each bell-crank lever from the axis of rotation is df in., and the
speed, when the ball arm is vertical, is 300 r.p.m. The speed is to increase
0'6 per cent for a lift of \ in. of the sleeve.
(a) Neglecting the dead load on the sleeve, find the necessary stiffness of
the spring and the required initial compression.
(b) What spring stiffness and initial compression would be required if
the speed is to remain the same for the changed position of the sleeve (i.e. the
governor is to be isochronous). . (U. Lond.)
Let P be the force exerted by the spring and F the centrifugal force
on one ball. Then, taking moments about 0, Fig. 7*11,
F x n = ^ x 5j
i.e. - 6- fevY
32-2 X 12\60 )
x r X 7 2 = S- X 5£
L
P = 0-00046442VV
At 300 r.p.m., r — 6J in.

Px = 0-0004644 x 3002 x 6-75
= 282-1 lb.
For a 0-6 per cent increase in speed, N = 301-8 r.p.m.
and r = 6f + \ X — = 7-432 in.

5i
.*. at 301-8 r.p.m., P2 = 0-0004644 x 301-82 X 7-432
= 314-4 lb.
Pi
spring stiffness =
compression of spring
314-4 - 282-1
64-6 lb./in.
0-5
initial spring force
Initial compression =
stiffness
282-1
= 4-37 in.
64-6
For isochronism, the equilibrium speed remains constant for all radii
of rotation. If P3 and P4 are the spring forces for isochronism correspond¬
ing to radii of rotation of 6-75 in. and 7-432 in. respectively,
then P3 = 0-0004644 X 3002 X 6-75 = 282-1 lb.
and 0-0004644 x 3002 x 7-432 = 310-6 lb.
310-6 - 282-1 Kr7 . „ ,.

.'. stiffness —-—-= 57-0 lb./m.
0-5
Initial compression = 28P = 4-95 in.

1 57-0 -
8. In a Porter governor the upper and lower arms are each 8 in. long, and are
each inclined at 30° to the vertical when the sleeve is in its lowest position. The
points of suspension are each 1^ in. from the axis of the spindle. The weight of
each rotating ball is 6 lb., and that of the central load on the sleeve 40 lb. If
the movement of the sleeve is 1^ in., find the range of speed of the governor.
(U. Lond.) (Ans. : 168-4 to 183-7 r.p.m.)
9. For a Porter governor with equal arms, h is the vertical depth of the balls
from the apex of the governor and co is the angular velocity. Show from first
principles that
dh
~h
If the weight of each ball is 4 lb. and h = 8 in., determine the friction effect at
the sleeve for a speed range of 160 r.p.m. to 165 r.p.m. at this position. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 0-737 lb.)
GOVERNORS 143
10. A Porter governor is arranged as shown in Fig. 7.12. The rotating weights
are each 7 lb. The sleeve, of weight 2-5 lb., actuates a lever, which has a weight of
5 lb., its centre of gravity being as marked, and which must exercise an operating
pull, P, of 6 lb. The frictional effect of the gear reduced to the sleeve may be
taken as 4 lb. Determine the central weight, W, with which the sleeve must be
loaded so that the governor is on the point of moving out from the given position
at 180 r.p.m. Compare the speed at which it would begin to move in from this
position. Any formula used must be established. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 50-7 lb. ; 171 r.p.m.)
(N.B. Moments must be taken about the top pivot of forces on the upper
arm.)
11. Define sensitivity, stability and isochronism as applied to governors.

In the Proell governor shown in Fig. 7.13 the arm ABC is formed in one piece.
Each ball weighs 4 lb. and the effect of friction is equivalent to a force of 2 lb. at
the sleeve. AB = 6 in., BC = 2 in. and BD = 6 in.
Find the magnitude of the central load on the sleeve, if the governor is to rise
to its mean position as shown in the diagram when the speed is 120 r.p.m., the
portion BC of the lower arm then being vertical. The gravitational effect of the
balls must be taken into account. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 7-3 lb.)
12. A ball governor of the vertical compression spring type runs at a mean
speed of 180 r.p.m. The bell-crank lever arms are 6 in. and 3 in. and the rotating
balls weigh 6 lb. each, the ball radius being 4 in. at mean speed.
If the speed range of the governor at mean speed is ±1 r.p.m., determine the
friction effect at the sleeve. (Neglect the effect of gravity on the balls.)
What spring stiffness would be required to make the governor isochronous, if
the sleeve lift is in. from the mean position ? (Assume the ball arm vertical
at the mean position.) (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 0-98 lb. ; 44-2 lb./in.)
13. In a spring-controlled governor of the Hartnell type the arms of the bell-
crank levers are horizontal and vertical when the sleeve is in its mid-position ;
the horizontal arm is 6 in., the vertical arm in. long, and the fulcrum is 7 in.
from the vertical axis of the governor spindle. The vertical arms carry masses
weighing 12 lb. each. Find the strength of the central spring if the top and
bottom speeds of the governor are 200 and 180 r.p.m. respectively and sleeve lift
is 1 in.
To increase the speed of the governor an additional load is applied to the

sleeve by means of a spring attached to the middle of a forked horizontal lever
partially embracing a recess in the sleeve at the forked end and anchored at the
other end. Find the strength of this spring when the top and bottom speeds are
260 and 230 r.p.m. respectively. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 83-8 lb./in.; 27T6 lb./in.)
14. A governor of the Hartnell type, with dimensions as shown in Fig. 7.14,
runs at a mean speed of 300 r.p.m., each ball weighs 5 lb., and a 3 per cent reduc¬
tion in speed causes a sleeve movement of £ in. If the ball arm is vertical at the
mean speed, and gravitational effects are ignored, find the spring stiffness in
lb./in. Neglect the weight of the arms. By how much must the adjusting nut
be screwed down to render the governor isochronous and what will be the resulting
operational speed of the governor. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 144 lb./in. ; 0-582 in. ; 356 r.p.m.)
15. Show that a governor will be stable if, when values of the controlling force,
F, are plotted against the radius of rotation, R, the slope of the graph at any radius
is greater than the corresponding value of F/R.
In a governor of the Hartnell type, the rotating masses are 4 lb. each and the
length of the arms of the bell-crank levers are shown in Fig. 7.15. If the speeds
are required to be 295 and 305 r.p.m., when the radii of rotation are 5-3 and 5-7 in.
respectively, determine the stiffness of the spring and give the law connecting F
and R. Neglect the moments due to the weights of the balls when the upright
arms of the levers are not vertical. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 30-9 lb./in.; F = 19-612 - 51-55)
16. A Hartnell governor has two rotating balls, weighing 6 lb. each. The ball
radius is 5 in. in the mean position when the ball arms are vertical and the speed
is 150 r.p.m. with the sleeve rising. The length of the ball arms is 5^ in. and the
length of the sleeve arms 3^ in. The stiffness of the spring is 40 lb./in. and the
total sleeve movement is in. from the mean position.
Allowing for a constant friction force of 3 lb. acting at the sleeve, determine
the speed range of the governor in the lowest and highest sleeve positions.
Neglect the obliquity of the ball arms. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans.: 155 to 161 r.p.m.; 123-5 to 133-5 r.p.m.)
GOVERNORS 145
17. A spring controlled governor has two balls each of mass 20 lb., suspended
on arms 12 in. long which are pivoted at the axis of the vertical governor spindle.
The balls are connected by two springs, one on each side of the balls, which exert
a radial pull on the balls. The springs have an unstretched length of 8 in. and
the minimum speed of rotation of the governor is to be 150 r.p.m., the radius of
the governor circle being then 6 in.
Determine the necessary stiffness of each spring, allowing for the effect of the
weight of the balls, and the speed when the radius of the governor circle is 6^ in.
(U. Lond.) (Ans. : 8T3 lb./in. ; 159 r.p.m.)
18. Compare and contrast the functions of a governor and a flywheel on an

engine.
In a centrifugal governor, the two operating masses, weighing 2-J- lb. each,
rotate in a circle of 7 in. diameter when in mid-position ; the two controlling
springs which connect directly the two operating masses in parallel have a stiffness
of 5 lb./in. (each) and are extended 2\ in. when the governor is in mid-position.
Find the equilibrium speed for this position and for the case when the operating
masses rotate in a circle of 9 in. diameter. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 301 r.p.m. ; 319 r.p.m.)
19. When the governor, shown in Fig. 7.16, rotates at 300 r.p.m. the two
operating masses B move in a circle of 9 in. diameter, and the sleeve S is then
at the right-hand stop Tx; when the speed drops to 250 r.p.m. the sleeve moves
1£ in. to the left-hand stop T2. If the two springs connecting the masses B each
have a stiffness of 4£ lb./in., determine the weights of the operating masses B and
the extension of the springs when the sleeve is at the left-hand stop. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 4-03 lb.; 2-572 in.)
Fig. 7.16
20. A spring-controlled governor has two balls, each weighing 5 lb. The
mean speed is to be 500 r.p.m. and the variation ±2 per cent. The extreme radii
of the path of the balls are 4£ in. and 3| in. Find the controlling force at the balls
in each case.
If the effect of friction be ±10 lb. at each ball, find the highest and lowest
speeds. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 166-1 lb. ; 119-2 lb. ; 525 r.p.m.; 468-7 r.p.m.)
21. The weight of each ball of a spring-loaded governor is 6 lb., the maximum
and minimum radii of rotation are 4^ in. and 2\ in. and the corresponding values
of the controlling force on each ball are 55 lb. and 115 lb. Assuming the control¬
ling force curve to be a straight line, find the equilibrium speeds for radii of
rotation of 2^, 3£ and 4^ in.
If friction of the governor mechanism is equivalent to a force of 1 lb. at each

ball, what are the extreme equilibrium speeds for a radius of rotation of 3^ in. ?
(I. Mech. E.) (Ana. : 359-5 ; 377-8 ; 387-6 ; 375-6 ; 380-0 r.p.m.)
22. A spring-loaded governor is shown in Fig. 7.17. The two balls, each of
weight 12 lb., are connected across by two springs A. A supplementary spring B
provides an additional force at the sleeve through the medium of a lever which
pivots about a fixed centre at its left-hand end. In the mean position, the radius
of the governor balls is 6 in. and the speed is 600 r.p.m. The tension in each
spring A is then 250 lb. Find the tension in the spring B for this position.
If, when the sleeve moves up f in., the speed is to be 630 r.p.m., find the
necessary stiffness of the spring B in lb./in., if the stiffness of each spring A is
45 lb./in.
Neglect the moments produced by the weights of the balls. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 706 lb. ; 250 lb./in.)
23. In the bowl A, Fig. 7.18, are 8 steel balls B of 2^ in. diameter and resting
on the balls is the disc C, 48 lb. in weight. If the internal surface of the bowl is
part of a sphere of 9 in. radius, determine the speed of rotation about the vertical
axis at which the balls will move with their centres in a circle of 10^ in. diameter.
The weight of steel is 0-283 lb./cu. in. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 166 r.p.m.)
CHAPTER 8
BALANCING
8.1 Static and dynamic balance. When a shaft carrying several

eccentric masses is in static balance, the centre of gravity of the system
lies in the axis of the shaft so that the shaft and attached masses remain
in any position in which it is placed. When the shaft rotates, however,
centrifugal forces act upon the masses, and if these are not rotating in
the same plane, couples also act upon the shaft. Therefore, for complete
dynamic balance, (i) the resultant force acting upon the shaft must be
zero and (ii) the resultant couple acting upon the shaft must be zero.
8.2 Balancing of masses rotating in the same plane. If

W1 , W2, W3, etc., Fig. 8.1, are the out-of-balance masses and
rY , r2, r3 , etc., are the respective radii of rotation, then for dynamic
balance, the vector sum of the centrifugal forces must be zero,
2 W
—w2r = 0, where co is the angular speed of the shaft,
9
(jj%
i.e. YsWr = 0, since — is the same for each mass.
9
If, therefore, a force polygon with sides representing the magnitudes
and directions of the weight-arm products W1r1 , W2r2, etc., is drawn,
Fig. 8.2, the closing side represents the product of the balance mass, B,
and its radius of rotation, b.
The condition SIFr = 0 is also the condition for static balance.
8.3 Balancing of masses rotating in different planes (Dalby’s

Method). If the out-of-balance masses, W1, W2 , W3 , etc., Fig. 8.3,
are situated at distances lx, l2 , l3 , etc., from a reference plane, the
147
forces W1r1 , W2r2 , etc., may be transferred to tbe reference plane by

the addition of couples of magnitude , W2r2l2, etc., acting in the
Wy
Fig. 8.3
planes containing the respective forces and the shaft axis. Then, for
balance, the resultant force in the reference plane must be zero,
i.e. l^Wr = 0, and the resultant couple in the reference plane must be
zero, i.e. HWrl = 0.
These two conditions determine the necessary weight-arm products
B^b1 and B2b.2 for balance. Thus the closing side of the couple (Wrl)
polygon, Fig. 8.4, represents the magnitude and direction of the couple
required for equilibrium, B^x, and the closing side of the force (Wr)
polygon, Fig. 8.5, represents the magnitude and direction of the force,
B2b2 , required in the reference plane for equilibrium.
The reference plane is normally chosen to coincide with the plane of

revolution of one of the unknown masses, thus eliminating the couple
produced by this mass.
In constructing the couple polygon, it is usual to draw the couple
vectors in the directions of the respective forces instead of 90° anti¬
clockwise to them, as required by the normal convention for couple vectors.
The shape of the polygon is unaffected and it then has sides parallel to
those of the force polygon.
BALANCING 149
Where the reference plane divides the planes of revolution of the masses,
the vectors for the couples to one side of the plane are drawn radially
outwards and those to the other side, being regarded as negative, are
drawn radially inwards.
8.4 Dynamic forces at bearings. If a shaft is unbalanced, the

dynamic forces at the bearings may be obtained by first determining the
weight-arms B1b± and B2b2 necessary in these planes to achieve balance.
These products, multiplied by —, then give the unbalanced forces on

9
the bearings, being opposite in direction to those of the corresponding
forces for balance.
If a shaft is in static balance, it is only subjected to an unbalanced
couple, this being the same about all planes, and the bearing reactions
are then equal and opposite.
1. A rotating shaft carries four masses, A, B, C and D, rigidly attached

to it; the mass centres are at 1\ in., if in., if in. and if in. respectively from
the axis of rotation; A, C and D weigh 15 lb., 10 lb. and 8 lb.; the axial
distance between A and B is 16 in. and that between B and G is 20 in.; the
eccentricities of A and C are at 90° to one another.
Find, for complete balance, (a) the angles between A, B and D ; (b) the
axial distance between the planes of revolution of C and D ; and (c) the weight
of the mass B. (U. Lond.)
Fig. 8.6
The plane of B, Fig. 8.6 (a), is chosen as the reference plane since it
contains one of the unknown masses and distances measured to the right
of it are regarded as positive. Using the given data, the following table
is compiled.
W r Wr l Wrl
Plane (lb.) (in.) (lb.in.) (in.) (lb.in.2)
A 15 i£ 18f -16 -300
B W H If IF 0 0
C 10 if 16* 20 325
D 8 if 11 20 -f- x 220 + llx
The couple polygon, Fig. 8.7, is constructed from the data in the Wrl
column, the direction of the couple due to A being downwards since it is
negative.
By measurement, the closing side, ad — 442*5 = 220 -f 11a; lb.in.2

from which x — 20*2 in.
Also 6 = 471°
The force polygon, Fig. 8.8, is then constructed, using the data in the
Wr column and the known directions of the forces at A, C and D.
By measurement, the closing side, db — 27*4 = 1J1F lb.in.
W = 18*3 lb.
Also <j> = 171°

from which the angle between B and D = 115°
The relative positions of the masses are shown in Fig. 8.6 (b).
2. Attached to a uniformly rotating shaft are four discs A, B, C and D,

spaced at equal intervals along the shaft, of weight 15 lb., 25 lb., 14 lb. and
12 lb. respectively; the mass centres of the discs are at 0-20 in., O'15 in.?
Fig. 8.9
BALANCING 151
0-25 in. and 0-40 in. respectively from the axis of rotation. An additional
mass M may he attached to D at an effective radius of 3 in. from the axis of
rotation. Find the minimum value of the weight of M, and the relative angular
positions of the mass centres of all the weights to ensure complete dynamic
balance for the rotating shaft. (U. Lond.)
The plane of D, Fig. 8.9 (a), is chosen as the reference plane. Using
the given data, the following table is compiled.
W r Wr l Wrl
A 15 0-2 30 3a 9a
B 25 015 3-75 2a 7-5a
C 14 0-25 3- 5 a 3-5 a
12 0-4 4- 8 0 0
D
{M 30 3if 0 0
9a a
a
Fig. 8.11
From the couple polygon, Fig. 8.10, the relative directions of A, B

and C are obtained. The force polygon is then constructed, Fig. 8.11,
from which the resultant weight-arm in plane D is obtained.
For M to be a minimum, the force due to M must lie in the same
straight line as that due to the 12 lb. weight.
Thus, by measurement, 4-8 -f- 3M = cd = 2*96 lb,in.

M = - 0-613 lb.
i.e. its direction is opposite to that of the 12 lb. weight. The relative
angular positions of the masses are shown in Fig. 8.9 (6).
3. A shaft rotating at 120 r.p.m. is supported in hearings A and B, 6 ft.

apart, A being at the left-hand end. Two unbalanced rotating masses of
15 lb. and 20 lb. at radii of 3 in. and 2 in. respectively are situated between
A and B at distances of 2 ft. and 3 ft. respectively from A. The angle between
the radii is 60° when viewed along the shaft.
Find the magnitudes, directions and senses of the forces of the shaft on
the bearings due to the combined action of the dynamical forces and gravity
when the 15 lb. weight is vertical and above the shaft and the 20 lb. weight is
on the right of the 15 lb. weight when viewed from B to A. Show the results
in an end view looking from B to A. (U. Lond.)
Fig. 8.12
The plane of A, Fig. 8.12 (a), is chosen as the reference plane. Using
the given data, the following table is compiled :
W r Wr l Wrl
Plane (lb.) (in.) (lb.in.) (ft.) (lb.in.ft.)
A — — 0 0
B — — i?2 6 gr2
C 15 3 45 2 90
D 20 2 40 3 120
Fig. 8.14
BALANCING 153
From the couple polygon, Fig. 8.13, 6R2 = 182*5 lb.in.ft.
.*. R2 = 30*4 lb.in.
'2 n
X 120
dynamic force at B = R2
l2 — = 30*4 X ^ ^
g 32*2 x 12
= 12*48 lb.
From the force polygon, Fig. 8.14, Rx — 43*6 lb.in.
gxm2
dynamic force at A = R, — = 43*6 x --
J 1 g 32*2 x 12
= 17*85 lb.
The directions of R± and R2 given by the couple and force polygons
are those for balance. The unbalanced forces at the bearings are there¬
fore opposite to these directions, i.e. in directions ab, Fig. 8.14, and bd,
Fig. 8.13.
-o , • -dt , , , . , , 15x2 + 20x3
h orce on bearing B due to dead weight =-
6
= 15 lb. downwards
Force on bearing A due to dead weight =35—15
= 20 lb. downwards
Therefore resultant force at B = Fb, Fig. 8.15
= 8*5 lb.
and resultant force at A = Fa , Fig. 8.16
= 8*0 lb.
The directions of the forces are shown in Fig. 8.12 (6).
Fia. 8.15
F
4. A small three-throw crankshaft has cranks of radii 5 in., set at 120°

to each other, and equally spaced with a pitch of 10 in. The revolving masses
at crank radii are the same for each line and of amount 30 lb. The shaft is
supported in two bearings symmetrically arranged with respect to the cranks
and 34 in. apart. Determine the dynamical loads on the bearings for a speed
of 500 r.p.m.
The shaft is to be balanced by means of a weight at a radius of 7\ in.
in the plane of No. 1 crank, and a weight at radius 10 in. attached to the fly¬
wheel situated 9 in. beyond the bearing adjacent to No. 3 crank. Determine
the magnitude of these balance weights and their angular positions relative to
No. 1 crank. (U. Lond.)
wc
1 2 : c \ o
A b
!
;
V
^ in" > -< -.ft ^ ^
i
in" >- n" 1 t r^x \ 1
n 2Cjr \ 1
rl • y.
(a) (b) Wx
Fig. 8.17
Since the cranks are symmetrical, the forces are balanced.

The plane of A, Fig. 8.17 (a), is chosen as the reference plane. Using
W r Wr l Wrl
A R 0 0
1 30 5 150 7 1050
2 30 5 150 17 2550
3 30 5 150 27 4050
B R 34 34 R
From the couple polygon, Fig. 8.18,

34R = 2600 lb.in.2
R = 76-4 lb.in.
dynamic load at bearing B
(— x 500^2
■y
= 76-4 x 60
32-2 x 12
= 543 lb.
Fia. 8.18
BALANCING 155
The dynamic load on bearing A is equal and opposite to that on bearing B.
To balance the shaft, the balance weights in planes 1 and C must
provide a couple equal to that provided by the reactions at the bearings.
If F is the weight-arm product in planes 1 and C, then, since the
planes are 36 in. apart,
„ 2600 .. _ u .
F =-= 72-2 lb.m.
36
70.q
r2'
Therefore, in plane 1, W1 = -—= 9-63 lb.
1 7i2
71 -
and in plane C, Wr. = — = 7-22 lb.

10
The angular positions of the balance weights are shown in Fig. 8.17 (6).
5. A shaft 56 in. long carries four eccentric loads A, B, C and D, spaced

at 0, 18, 30 and 56 in. from one end. The loads are respectively 15, 22,
30 and 12 lb., and eccentricities are 1\, 2, 2\ and 4 in. The directions of
the eccentricities of B, C and D relative to A are 60, 200 and 270°. The
shaft is carried in bearings E and F, which are 7 in. and 40 in. from A, E
being between A and B.
{a) Determine the maximum and minimum vertical forces on bearing F,
when the shaft rotates at 90 r.p.m.
(b) What is the maximum speed at which the shaft may run, to ensure
that the vertical component of the load on F is always downwards ?
(U. Lond.)
Fig. 8.19
The plane of E, Fig. 8.19 (a), is chosen as the reference plane. Using
W r Wr l Wrl
A 15 H 22^ -7 -157£
E — — Re 0 0
B 22 2 44 11 484
C 30 2i 67£ 23 1555
F — — Rf 33 33 Rf
D 12 4 48 49 2352
.
From the couple polygon, Fig. 8.20, 33Rf 2830 lb.in.2
Rf 85-8 lb.in.
dynamic reaction at F = 85-8 X

160 X9°
32-2 x 12
= 19-75 lb.
If Wf is the static reaction at F, then, taking moments about plane E,

33Wf + 15 X 7 = 22 x 11 + 30 X 23 + 12 X 49
from which Wf = 42-9 lb. downwards
maximum vertical force at F = 42-9 + 19-75 = 62-65 lb.
and minimum vertical force at F = 42-9 — 19-75 = 23-15 lb.
For the vertical component of the force at F to be always downwards
C-nX
85-8 X A6° ' < 42-9
32-2 x 12
i.e. N < 133 r.p.m.
6. Two similar discs, A and B, are mounted on a shaft with their centre
planes 8 in. apart. Masses C, D and E are attached to the disc A in the positions
shown in the following table :
Angular
Mass Radius position
(lb.) (in.) (°)
c 2 4 0
D n 5 60
E 3 H 135
BALANCING 157
Determine (a) the unbalanced force on the shaft when its speed is 300 r.p.m.,
(b) the magnitude and angular position of a mass attached to disc B, at a radius
of 6 in., that will make the resultant radial force zero. What will be the rocking
couple in case (b) when the speed is 120 r.p.m. ? (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 37 lb. ; 2-42 lb. ; 252° 42'; 47-3 lb.in.)
7. A shaft carries three pulleys A, B and C, the pulleys B and C being 4 ft.
and 7 ft. from A. The pulleys are out-of-balance to the extent of 3, 5 and 4 lb.in*
respectively and are keyed to the shaft so as to give static balance. Find the
relative angular positions of the radii which define the unbalance. If the shaft
is supported in bearings 6 ft. apart, find the dynamic load on each bearing when
the shaft makes 300 r.p.m. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : Relative to A, B, 126° 52'; C, 270° ; 7-23 lb.)
8. Four masses, at equal radii and rotating in parallel planes, are attached to
a shaft. In each of the end planes, spaced a distance of 2b apart, there is a mass
weighing 12 lb. The inner planes, spaced a distance 2a apart, are symmetrical
with the end planes and each contains a mass weighing 15 lb. If the masses on
the inner planes are at right angles to each other, find the ratio of a to b and the
relative angular positions of the other masses for complete balance. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0-53 ; 107° 8' between each inner and outer mass)
9. A turbine rotor is found to be out of balance to the extent of 3 lb. at
1 ft. 6 in. radius in the plane AA and 4 lb. at 2 ft. radius in the plane BB, the
relative angular positions being given in the end view, Fig. 8.21. It is desired
to balance these masses by a mass in each of the planes XX and YY at radii of
1 ft. 9 in. and 1 ft. 6 in. respectively.
Determine the magnitude and positions of these masses and show their positions
in an end view. {U. Glas.)
{Ans. : X, 2-84 lb., 210° from A ; Y, 4-24 lb., 329° 6' from A)
10. A rough casting for a rotor weighs 450 lb. and is mounted on centres
46 in. apart, ready for machining ; it is given static balance by two masses A
and B in planes which are situated 20 in. and 16 in. respectively on either side
of the plane containing the mass centre. The weights of the masses A and B are
20 lb. and 24 lb. respectively, and their mass centres are at 90° to each other
relative to the axis of the casting, and at 15 in. and 18 in. radius respectively.
Determine the eccentricity of the mass centre of the casting, its position relative
to that of mass A, and the forces on the centres when the rotor with attached
masses A and B is run at 50 r.p.m. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 1175 in. ; 124° 47'; 1413 lb.)
11. A horizontal shaft supported in bearings 4 ft. apart carries two masses A
and B, each weighing 12 lb., placed at distances of 1 ft. and 2 ft. respectively from
one of the bearings. Static balance is obtained by the addition of a balance
weight of 10 lb. acting at a radius of 8 in., the position of the balance weight being
midway between A and B. If the radii of the mass centres of A and B are 7 in.
and 9 in. respectively, find the relative angular positions of the three weights,
and also the magnitude of the unbalanced couple acting on the bearings when the
shaft rotates at 100 r.p.m. (TJ. Lond.) (Ans. : 132° 23' between A and B;
129° 9' between B and balance weight; 25-2 lb.ft.)
12. A shaft is supported in two bearings 8 ft. apart and projects 2 ft. beyond
the bearings at each end. The shaft carries three pulleys, one at each end and
one at the middle of its length. The end pulleys weigh 180 lb. and 100 lb. and
their centres of gravity are at 0T5 and 0-20 in. respectively from the shaft axis.
The centre pulley weighs 140 lb. and its centre of gravity is 0-25 in. from the shaft
axis. If the pulleys are arranged so as to give static balance, determine the
dynamic forces produced on the bearings when the shaft rotates at 300 r.p.m.
(U. Lond.) (Ans. : 62-2 lb.)
13. Four pulleys A, B, C, D, are mounted on a shaft. Due to carelessness in

manufacture, the centres of gravity of the pulleys do not lie on the shaft axis, but
are displaced slightly from it, as indicated by the following table :
Displacement of
Weight centre of gravity
Pulley (lb.) from axis of rotation
A 1000 0-3 in.
B 1500 0-24 in. at 30° to A
C 1500 0-24 in. at 90° to A
D 1000 0-18 in. at 150° to A
This shaft is carried in bearings at E and F, the pulleys and bearings being
situated so that the axial distances along the shaft are AB = -f 24 in.,
AC = + 36 in., AD = -f 60 in., AE = + 12 in., AF = -f 48 in.
If the system rotates at 300 r.p.m., determine the magnitude of the bearing
reactions arising from the lack of balance, and the direction of these reactions
relative to the out-of-balance force from pulley A. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 1775 lb. at 198° ; 1193 lb. at 296°)
14. The out-of-balance of a machine rotor is equivalent to 10 lb. at 0-4 in.

radius in one plane A, together with an equal mass at 0-6 in. radius in a second
plane B. AB = 15 in. and the two radii are at 120°. Find the mass required
in a third plane C at a radius of 5 in. and its angular position with respect to
the given radii so that there is no resultant out-of-balance force. Find also the
position of C along the axis for the residual couple to be a minimum and the
value of this couple when the speed is 500 r.p.m. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 1-05 lb.; 260° to A, 12-86 in. from A ; 34-8 lb.ft.)
15. A three-throw crankshaft has double-webbed cranks of 6 in. radius set at

120° to each other and equally spaced with a pitch of 20 in. The rotating masses
at crank radius are : No. 1, 60 lb. ; No. 2, 80 lb. ; No. 3, 80 lb. Balance is to
be effected by a balance weight attached to the outside web of crank No. 1, with
a mass centre 6 in. from the central plane of the crank and at a radius of 9 in.
from the centre of the shaft; and also by removing material, at a radius of
30 in., from a wheel fixed 30 in. beyond the central plane of crank No. 3.
Determine the weights to be fitted and removed and their angular positions
relative to crank No. 1. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 7-6 lb. removed at 152° from No. 1 ; 14-7 lb. added at 126° from No. 1)
BALANCING 159
16. Three rotating masses, A = 14 lb., B = 11 lb., and C = 21 lb., are carried
on a shaft, with centres of gravity 5^ in., 8 in., and 3 in. respectively from the shaft
axis. The angular positions of B and C are 60° and 135° respectively from A,
measured in the same direction. The distance between the planes of rotation of
A and B is 4^ ft., and between those of A and C is 12 ft., B and C being on the
same side of A.
Two balance weights are to be fitted, each with its centre of gravity 4^ in.
from the shaft axis, in planes midway between those of A and B and of B and C.
Determine the magnitude and angular position with respect to A of each balance
weight. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 36-7 lb. between A and B ; 187° to A ; 29-3 lb. between
B and C, 310° to A)
17. A rotating shaft is to carry four discs, A, B, C and D, whose weights are
15 lb., 25 lb., 20 lb. and 18 lb. respectively ; they are to be spaced at intervals of
12 in., 15 in., and 9 in. along the shaft. The mass centres of A, B and C are at
1£ in., \ in. and £ in. respectively from their axes of rotation.
(а) The three discs A, B and C are first attached to the shaft, at the spacing
specified above and with their mass centres in positions which give static balance.
Find the relative angular positions of their mass centres.
(б) The disc D is then attached to the shaft in such a position as to nullify
the out-of-balance couple, when the reference plane passes through A. Find the
eccentricity of the mass centre of D and its angular position relative to that of A.
(U. Lond.)
{Ans.: {a) B, 141° 6' and C, 211° 20', relative to A; (6) 0-742 in., 14°)
18. A shaft carries four wheels, A, B, C, D, equally pitched 10 in. apart.
The unbalance {Wr) values for A and C are, respectively, 5 and 6 lb.in., and the
line of unbalance in C is at 90° to that of A, which may be taken as the reference
direction. The out-of-balance amounts for B and D are initially unknown, but
the complete rotor is dynamically balanced by adding a weight of 0-81 lb. to
wheel B at a radius of 24 in. and at an angle of 215° to the reference, and
by removing material of weight 0-20 lb. from D at a radius of 18 in. and at an
angle of 120°. Determine the initial and final unbalance values for B and D.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : B, initial 11-7 lb.in., 44° ; final 8-1 lb.in., 202° ;
D, initial 0-7 lb.in., 9° 30'; final 3-9 lb.in., 310°)
19. A shaft turning at a uniform speed carries two uniform discs A and B of
masses 10 lb. and 8 lb. respectively. The mass centres of the discs are each 0-1 in.
from the axis of rotation. The radii to the mass centres are at right angles. The
shaft is carried in bearings C and D between A and B such that AC = 1 ft.,
AD = 3 ft., AB = 4 ft.
It is required to make the dynamic loading on the bearings equal and a
minimum for any given shaft speed by adding a mass at a radius of 1 in. in a
plane E.
Determine {a) the magnitude of the mass in plane E and its angular position
relative to the radius through the mass centre in plane A.
(6) the distance of plane E from plane A.
(c) the dynamic loading on each bearing when the mass in plane E has been
attached and the shaft turns at 200 r.p.m. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0-3 lb. ; 51° 20'; 6-55 ft. ; 0-71 lb., bearing loads in same direction ;
1-28 lb. ; 141° 20'; 1-61 ft. ; 1-42 lb., bearing loads in opposite direction)
(The first set of answers gives a lower value for the minimum bearing loads.)
CHAPTER 9
FRICTION
9.1 Friction between unlubricated surfaces. When one body is

sliding on another, the tangential force resisting the motion is directly
proportional to the normal force between the surfaces in contact. Thus,
if P is the friction force and N is the normal force, Fig. 9.1,
P — juN . . . . (9.1)
where /li is a constant for any given pair of surfaces. This constant is
termed the coefficient of friction and is approximately independent of the
area of contact, the sliding velocity and the intensity of pressure.
The resultant of the friction force P and the normal force N is repre¬
sented by R and the angle between R and N is termed the friction angle,
From the triangle of forces,
P
tan $ = — = a . . . . (9.2)
N
9.2 Motion on an inclined plane. If a body of weight IT rests

on an inclined plane, Fig. 9.2, then
component parallel to plane = W sin a
component perpendicular to plane = W cos a
Therefore, if uniform motion is produced by a force, P, parallel to the
plane,
P — If sin a -f- /fJF cos a, for motion up the plane . . (9.3)
and
P = IT sin a — fxW cos a, for motion down the plane . (9.4)
If IT sin a < cos a (i.e. a < </>), the direction of P in the latter
160
FRICTION 161
case becomes reversed and must be applied to push the body down the
plane with uniform speed.
If uniform motion up the plane is produced by a horizontal force P,

Fig. 9.3, the reaction R is inclined at the friction angle </> to the normal,
as shown by the full line. Then, from the triangle of forces,
P = W tan (a + </>) • • • • (9.5)
For motion down the plane, R lies to the opposite side of the normal,
as shown dotted. Thus,
P — W tan (a — <£) . . . . (9.6)
If a < (f>, the direction of P in the latter case again becomes reversed.
9.3 Screw threads. Let W be the axial force against which the
screw is turned, Fig. 9.4, and P the tangential force at the mean thread
radius necessary to turn the nut. The development of a thread is an
inclined plane, Fig. 9.5, and turning the nut against the load is equivalent
to moving this load up the plane by the horizontal force P applied at
the mean radius of the thread.
Fig. 9.4
162 MECHANICS OP MACHINES
Therefore, from equation (9.5),

tan a + tan 4
P = W tan (a + 4) = W
1 — tan a tan </>
PP tan a -T p
1 — p tan a
If d is the mean thread diameter and p the pitch, then
tan a = P_ (9.7)
nd
d Wd tan a + p
The torque, T=Px-= (9.8)
2 1 — p tan a
When the nut is being unscrewed, the reaction R lies at the angle </>
to the opposite side of the normal so that
tan a — p
P = W tan (a — </>)= IT (9.9)
1 + p tan a
If a is greater than </>, P will still be in the direction shown in Fig. 9.5,
i.e. acting so as to prevent acceleration of the nut along the screw, but in
most practical cases, a is less than </> so that the direction of P becomes
reversed.
9.4 Efficiency of a screw thread. For motion up the plane (i.e.
work done by IT
against the load), the efficiency is the ratio
work done by P
W x p tan a
i.e. V (9.10)
P X nd tan (a + 0)
For motion down the plane (i.e. with the load), the efficiency is the
ratio W°rk jone ky this being termed the reversed efficiency,

work done by IT
P X nd tan (a — (f>)
i.e. V (9.11)
W X p tana
For the efficiency to be a maximum,
d / tan a \ _
da\tan (a + </>)/
i.e. tan (a + ^) sec2 a = tan a sec2 (a + 4)
i.e. sin 2(a + 4) — sin 2a
2(a + 4) ~ 2a or n — 2a
a = -
71 4, ignoring the alternative solution.
4 2
(n_ A
tan
maximum efficiency =
2,/ 1 — sin 4
(9.12)
+ sin 4
tan P + ^ 1
FRICTION 163
For the reversed efficiency to be a maximum,
d /tan (a — </>)'
= 0
dtx\ tan a
71 (/>
from which a — - 4- —
4 2
71
tan
.*. maximum efficiency = as before.
tan( i+i
9.5 Modification for V-threads. For a V-thread, the normal
force between the nut and the screw is increased
since the axial component of this force must equal
W. Thus, if the semi-angle of the thread is /?,
W sec
Fig. 9.6, then normal force = W sec /?.
The friction force is therefore increased in the
ratio sec/?: 1, so that the V-thread is equivalent
to a square thread having a coefficient of friction
of fi sec /?.
9.6 Overhauling of a machine. Consider
a machine in which a load W is just lifted a dis¬
tance x by an effort P which moves a distance y in
the same time. If the work done against friction Fig. 9.6
is F, then
Wx
efficiency . (9.13)
Py
and F — Py — Wx . (9.14)
If the machine just reverses, or overhauls, when the effort is removed,

work done by the load in descending a distance x = Wx.
If the friction is assumed to be the same as when the load is raised,
Wx = F
Therefore, from equation (9.14)
Wx — Py — Wx
i.e. Py — %Wx
Wx 1
Tj 2 or 50 per cent.
2Wx
Thus a machine will overhaul if the forward efficiency > 50 per cent,
1. Two wedges A and B weighing 100 lb. and 5 lb. respectively are in
contact as shown in Fig. 9.7. If the coefficient of friction between all the
contacting surfaces is 0-1, determine the least value of the force P to push the
wedge A upwards. What would be its value if there were no friction ?
(U. Lond.)
The forces on the wedges when motion is about to take place are shown
in Fig. 9.8, the effect of tilting being neglected.
Eesolving forces vertically and horizontally :
For wedge A, #x cos 30° = 100 + //#3 + ^#i sin 30°
i.e. 0-816#! - 0-l#3 =100.(1)
and #3 = jaR1 cos 30° + R± sin 30°
i.e. 0-5866#! — #3 = 0 . . . . . . (2)
For wedge B, 5 + #i cos 30° = #2 -f- jaR1 sin 30°
i.e. — 0-816#i + #2 = 5.(3)
and P = #! sin 30° + jaR1 cos 30° + jliR2
i.e. 0-5866#i + 0-l#2 = P.(4)
Therefore, from equations (1), (2), (3) and (4),
P = 88-73 lb.
Without friction, equation (1) becomes Rx cos 30° =100

and equation (4) becomes P = Rx sin 30°
Hence P = 100 tan 30°
= 57-74 lb.
FRICTION 165
2. A rotor rests with its journals in V-supports as shown in Fig. 9.9,
the angle of the V is 26, the journal radius r and the coefficient of friction
at the contacts /a. Show that provided contact at the point A is maintained,
the value of the couple required to produce rotation is
T= PWr
(1 + p2) sin 6
and that contact ceases when the couple attains the value Wr cos 6.
(I. Mech. E.)
The forces acting on the shaft when motion is about to take place
are shown in Fig. 9.10.
Equating applied and resisting torques,
T = ju(R1 + Rf)r ...... a)
Equating vertical forces,
W = (R1 + Rf) sin 6 -f- p(R2 — R±) cos 6 (2)
Equating horizontal forces,
(R2 — Rf) cos 6 = ja(R1 + R2) sin 6 (3)
Therefore, from equations (2) and (3),
W = (1 + /m2)(-Ri + Rf) sin 0
Hence, from equation (1),
pWr
T=
(1 -{- P'2) sin 6
When R± is zero,
equation (1) becomes T = pR2r
equation (2) becomes W = R2(sin 0 + p cos 0)
W
i.e. R
sin 0 + /.i cos 6
equation (3) becomes R2 cos 6 = ju,R2 sin 6,

i.e. fi = cot 6
r = cotex ./Wr —
sin U + cot u cos u
— Wr cos 6
Note that the given conditions can only apply without acceleration of
the shaft if fi has the value cot0.
3. In the friction gear shown in Fig. 9.11, the roller A is the driver and
the disc B is the follower. The pressure distribution along the line of contact
between roller and disc is uniform. When the power output on the follower
is the greatest possible show that the greatest possible efficiency is
2a -j- b
2(a -j- b) (U. Lond.)
If r is the radius at which there is no slip between the driver and the
co r
follower, Fig. 9.12 (a), then — = —. At points between 0 and X, the
cob R
roller A is moving faster than the corresponding points on B and between
0 and Y it is moving slower than the corresponding points on B. Hence
the friction forces acting on B are as shown in Fig. 9.12 (6).
If p is the force per unit length between the driver and follower,
normal force on length OX = p[r — a)
friction force on length OX = jup(r — a)
friction torque on B due to length UA
(r + a)
= Mr - a)
2
FRICTION 167
= _ 2j
2v '
Similarly, friction torque on B due to length OY
= pip(a + b — r)
(a + b + r)
z
= y(l> + bY - r*)
resultant friction torque on B, Tb = ^{(r2 — a2) — ([a -J- b]2 — r2)}

2
power output = Tbcob = ^m&{2r2 — a2 — (a + 6)2}
2 r
This has its greatest value when r = a -f b
greatest possible power output = ~ ooaRb(â ^

2 \ a + bJ
For this condition, torque on A = pipbR
power input = pipbRcoa
w<oam(—tf)
2 V “ + * / ... 2a -\- b
efficiency =
pipbRo)a 2(« + 6)
4. J. spring is compressed by means of a screw which is coaxial with

it and bears directly on its end. The screw has a 60° V-thread, of mean
diameter T5 in., and a pitch 0-25 in. The spring has a stiffness of 200
lb./in., and has been compressed initially through 2-5 in.
If the coefficient of friction at the screw thread is 01, find the work done
on the screw in compressing the spring through a further 2 in.
(U. Lond.)
Mean load on screw, W = 200 X 3-5 = 700 lb.
Virtual coefficient of friction = pi sec f
= 0*1 X sec 30° = 0-1155
m p 0-25
Tan a = — —- = 0-053
71 d 71 X 1-5
, Wd tana + /^
.. mean torque =-.-— from equation (9.8)
2 1 — pi tan a
700 x 1-5 0-053 + 0-1155
2 1 - 0-1155 X 0-053
= 89-1 lb.in.
Angle turned through = = 8 rev. = 16tz: rad.
work done = 89-1 X 16tt = 4480 in.lb.
5. A turnbucJcle is used to tighten a steel wire rope, 120 ft. long and
0-08 sq. in. cross-sectional area, which is rigidly anchored at each end. The
turnbucJcle has right- and left-handed single-start square threads each of
0-25 in. pitch and mean diameter 0-875 in. The coefficient of friction between
the nut and the screw threads is 0-15.
If the turnbucJcle has already been adjusted to put a load of 400 lb. in
the rope, determine the worJc done during further tightening of the rope by
one revolution of the turnbucJcle. How much of this worJc is wasted in over¬
coming friction ? TaJce E for the wire rope as 20 X 10Q Ib./sq. in.
For one turn, stretch of rope = 0-5 in.
. x . Eax 20 X 106 X 0-08 X 0-5

increase in tension =-= -
l 120 X 12
= 556 lb.
556
mean tension, W = 400 -f-= 678 lb.
• 2
0-25
Tan a = — = = 0-091
nd n X 0-875
Wd tan a + u
.*. torque, T = 2 x —.--
2 1 — /a tan oc
678 x 0-875 0-091 + 0-15

= 2 X -.--
2 1 - 0-15 X 0-091
= 145 lb.in.
.’. work done on turnbuckle to tighten rope

= 145 X 27i = 910 in.lb.
Work required to stretch rope = 678 X 0-5 = 339 in.lb.
.*. work done against friction = 910 — 339 = 571 in.lb.
6. The cutter of a broaching machine is pulled by a square threaded screw

of 2f in. external diameter and \ in. pitch ; the operating nut taJces the axial
load of 90 lb. on aflat surface of 3 in. and 4\ in. internal and external diameters
respectively. If the coefficient of friction is 0-15 for all contact surfaces on
the nut determine the h.p. required to rotate the operating nut when the cutting
speed is 25 ft./min. (U. Lond.)
FRICTION 169
Mean thread diameter, d = 2f — J = 2|in.
77 0" 5
Tan a = — =-= 0-0637
nd n x 2-5
Torque due to thread load and friction
Wd tan oc + p
2 1 — {a, tan oc
90 x 2-5 0-0637 + 0-15
= 24-3 lb.in.
2 1 - 0-15 x 0-0637
Torque due to collar friction = pWr*
= 0-15 x 90 x — — 1-5 = 25-3 lb.in.

2
total torque on nut — 24-3 -f- 25-3 = 49-6 lb.in.
Speed of nut = — ^ ^ = 600 r.p.m.

0-5
2 nTN 2n X 49-6 X 600
h.p. = = 0-472
33,000 x 12 33,000 x 12
7. A worm-wheel of 80 teeth is supported in hearings of 4 in. diameter

for which the coefficient of friction is 0-015, and is driven by a double-threaded
worm in. diameter, \ in. pitch (i.e. lead 1 in.). The thrust is carried on
a collar of 5 in. mean diameter. The coefficients of friction for worm and
collar are, respectively, 0-08 and 0-06. The worm may be assumed to have
a square thread. The wheel-shaft has to deliver 20 h.p. at 20 r.p.m. Deter¬
mine the input torque on the worm spindle and the over-all efficiency.
(U. Lond.)
r, , , , , , h.p. X 33,000 X 12
Output torque on worm-wheel = —-
2 tiN
20 X 33,000 X 12
63,000 lb.in.
2jz X 20
Circular pitch of wheel = 0-5 in.
80 v 0-5
.*. P.C.D. of wheel = -- = 12-73 in.
71
63,000
tangential force on wheel = = 9900 lb.
6-365
This is also the axial force on the worm.
Mean diameter of worm = 3J — J = 3J in.
Tan a = — , = ——r = 0-098

7id 7i X 3|
* It is assumed that the friction force acts at the mean radius.
torque on worm due to thread load and friction

Wd tan a + fi
2 1 — fi tan a
_ 9900 x 3-5 0-098 + 0-08
2 '1 0-08 X 0-098
= 3110 lb.in.
Torque on worm due to collar friction
= iiWr = 0-06 X 9900 X 2-5
= 1486 lb.in.
Friction torque at wheel bearings = 9900 X 0-015 x 2 = 297 lb.in.
torque on worm = 297 X — = 7-4 lb.in.

^ 40
total torque on worm = 3110 + 1486 -f- 7-4 = 4603 lb.in.
Speed of wheel = 20 r.p.m.
speed of worm = 20 X 40 = 800 r.p.m.
4603 X 800 X 2tt co
.*. input h.p. = -= 58-5
33,000 X 12
20
efficiency = -= 0-342 or 34-2 per cent.
58-5 ---
8. A cylinder is held at rest on a slope of 20° by means of a cord in the vertical

plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and bisecting it. The end is
attached to the curved surface of the cylinder, is tangential to it and parallel to
the slope, i.e. inclined at 20° to the horizontal. If the cylinder weighs 40 lb.,
find (a) the tension in the cord ; (b) the minimum coefficient of friction between
the sloping surface and the cylinder compatible with equilibrium. (I. Mech. E.)
(.Ans. ; 6-84 lb. ; 0-182)
9. A body is pushed up a rough surface inclined at a to the horizontal.
The inclination of the slope is such that the body would just slide down without
acceleration if not supported (i.e. a is the angle of friction). Find the mechanical
efficiency of the lift, (a) if the push is parallel to the incline, (b) if it is horizontal.
(I. Mech. E.) {Arts. : 50 per cent; £(1 — tan2 a))
10. A body weight of IT lb. on a plane inclined at 20° to the horizontal and
for which the coefficient of friction is /z, is acted upon by a force applied upwards
and parallel to the plane. When this force has a value of 12 lb. the body slides
steadily downwards ; when the value is 35 lb., the body moves steadily upwards.
Deduce from these results the values of W and /u.
A different body, of weight 100 lb. and with a surface for which, on the same
plane, the friction coefficient is 0-15, is to be moved by a force, P, directed at an
angle of 15° to the plane, i.e. at 35° to the horizontal. Calculate the value of P
which will cause steady upward movement, and also the value to which P must
be reduced before downward movement becomes possible. Any formulae used
should be established or explained by vector diagrams of forces. (I. Mech. E.)
(.Ans. : 68-7 lb. ; 0-1785 ; 50 lb.; 20-85 lb.)
FRICTION 171
11. A cylindrical roller 1 ft. diameter rests on a horizontal floor with its
curved surface against the edge of a horizontal step 3 in. high and parallel to the
axis of the roller. The coefficient of friction between the roller and step is 0-25.
Find the magnitude of the torque about the axis of the roller which will suffice to
rotate it in contact with the step if the roller weighs 100 lb. (I. Mech. E.)
(.Ans. .* 162 lb.in.)
12. A rectangular sluice gate, 10 ft. high and 8 ft. wide, can slide up and down
between vertical guides. Its vertical movement is controlled by a screw which,
together with the weight of the gate, exerts a downward force of 800 lb. in the
centre line of the sluice. When nearly closed the gate encounters an obstacle at
a point 18 in. from one end of the lower edge. If the coefficient of friction between
the edges of the gate and the guides is 0-25, calculate the thrust tending to crush
the obstacle. (TJ. Lond.) (Ans. : 711 lb.)
13. The 5 ton load shown in Fig. 9.13, is raised by means of a wedge. Find
the required force P, given that tan 6 = 0-2 and // = 0-2 at all rubbing surfaces.
(U. Lond.) (Ans. : 3-36 tons)
14. Shaft A drives B through the friction drive shown in Fig. 9.14. The
normal pressure between wheel and disc is 10 lb./in. along the line of contact, and
the coefficient of friction is 0-2. When a torque of 5 lb.in. is applied at shaft A,
which rotates at 2000 r.p.m., find (a) the power transmitted to shaft B, (b) the
efficiency. (TJ. Lond.) (Ans. : 0T3 h.p. ; 82-3 per cent)
15. Fig. 9.15 shows a friction drive in which roller D is the driver and disc F
is the follower. It may be assumed that pressure is uniform along the line of
contact and that the coefficient of friction is constant.
(a) Show that the velocity ratio of D to F is 2-55 : 1, when no power is being
transmitted.
(b) When power is being transmitted show that the efficiency is a maximum
for a velocity ratio of 3 : 1.
(c) Determine the efficiency under condition (b). (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 84-5 per cent)
16. A square-threaded screw of mean diameter 1^ in. and having 4 threads
per in. is used to raise a load of f ton. The nut, which rotates, has a bearing
surface whose mean diameter is 2\ in. Find the effort required at the end of a
lever 12 in. effective length to raise the load when [i = 0-08. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 26-68 lb.)
17. A single-start screw thread has a mean diameter of 2-3 in. and a pitch of
0-5 in. The section of the thread is of Acme form having a total angle of 29°
between the faces. If /j, — 0-05, find (a) the torque necessary to overcome an
axial load of 3 tons, and (b) the efficiency of the thread. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 938 lb.in.; 57*1 per cent)
18. A screw jack is used horizontally in sliding a bedplate into position on its
foundation. The bedplate weighs 4 tons and fi between it and the foundation is
0-25. The screw of the jack has a mean diameter of 2-0 in. and a pitch of \ in. ;
fj, = 0-1. The axial thrust is carried on a collar of mean diameter 2-7 in. for
which n = 0-15. Determine the torque required on the jack and the efficiency
of the operation. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 71-7 lb.ft.; 20-7 per cent)
19. The saddle of a lathe is operated by means of a single-start square-threaded
lead screw which has 4 threads per in. and an outside diameter of 1£ in. If the
force required to move the saddle is 50 lb., estimate the torque required to turn
the lead screw if // = 0-12. If a formula is used the derivation must be given.
(U. Lond.) (Ans. : 5-40 lb.in.)
20. The table of a planing machine is traversed by means of a simple square-
threaded screw of \ in. pitch and 2 in. outside diameter. The thrust on the
screw is taken by a collar bearing of 3 in. mean diameter.
If the pressure of the cut is 90 lb., the total weight of the table and part being
machined is 500 lb. and the speed of cutting is 6 in./sec., find the h.p. employed.
Take the various coefficients of friction as follows :
table in guides = 0-10 ; screw = 0-15 ; collar bearing = 0-20. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0-82)
21. A right- and left-hand screw has an outside diameter of 2 in. and square
threads of ^ in. pitch. It is used to alter the distance apart of two nuts which
press in opposite directions and do not turn against their loads. If the efficiency
of the arrangement is found to be 33 per cent, find the coefficient of friction
between the threads. (I. Mech. E.) (Ans. : 0-18)
22. Two co-axial rods are connected by a turnbuckle, one rod having a right-
handed and the other a left-handed V-thread. On both the rods the mean
diameter of the thread is 0-942 in., the included angle of its profile is 55° and there
are seven threads per in.
Taking /u to be 0-15, find the torque required to tighten the turnbuckle when
the tensile force in the rods is 1 ton. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 458 lb.in.)
23. A sluice gate, weighing 6 tons, is subjected to a normal pressure of 250 tons.
It is raised by means of a vertical screw which engages with a screwed bush fixed
to the top of the gate. The screw is rotated by a 50 b.h.p. motor running at a
maximum speed of 600 r.p.m., a bevel pinion on the motor shaft gearing with a
bevel wheel of 80 teeth keyed to the vertical screw. The screw is 5 in. mean
diameter and 1 in. pitch, /u for the screw in the nut is 0-08 and between the gate
and its guides is 0-10.
FRICTION 173
If friction losses, additional to those mentioned above, amount to 15 per cent
of the total power available, determine the maximum number of teeth for the
bevel pinion. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 14)
24. A worm running at 2000 r.p.m. is to drive a worm wheel at 100 r.p.m.
and to transmit to it 20 h.p. The worm is double-threaded, of 3 in. mean dia¬
meter and ^ in. pitch. The thrust of the worm is taken by a collar of mean
diameter 3 in. The coefficient of friction is 0-05 for both worm and collar. Find
the input h.p. (TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : 39)
25. Working from first principles, derive the approximate rule that if the
efficiency of a lifting machine is less than 50 per cent, the machine is self-locking,
i.e. the load will not descend when the effort is removed.
A screw jack has a square thread of 2|- in. mean diameter and % in. pitch.
The load on the jack revolves with the screw. The coefficient of friction at the
screw thread is 0-05. (a) Find the tangential force required at 12 in. radius to
lift a load of 1200 lb. (6) State whether the jack is self-locking. If it is, find
the torque necessary to lower the load. If it is not, find the torque which must
be applied to keep the load from descending. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 14-3 lb. ; efficiency = 0-56 ; not self-locking ; 20-5 lb.in.)
26. A lifting jack with differential screw threads
is shown diagrammatically, Fig. 9.16. The portion B
screws into the fixed base C and carries a right-handed
square thread of pitch 0-375 in., the mean diameter of
the thread being 2-25 in. The part A is prevented from
rotating and carries a right-handed thread of pitch 0-25
in. on a mean diameter of 1-25 in., screwing into the part
B. If /i for each thread is 0-15, find the torque necessary
to be applied to the part B to raise a load W of 1000 lb.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 284 lb.in.)
27. The operating spindle S of the lifting jack shown
Fig. 9.16
in Fig. 9.17 is threaded at both ends to engage the nuts
A and B. Nut A has a right-hand thread, and B has a
left-hand thread. Both threads are square in section, each having a pitch of
-^2 in., and a mean diameter of f in. If [i for each nut is 0-15, and all the side
links are inclined at 35° to the vertical, determine the torque required at the
spindle, {a) to raise a load of 1000 lb., {b) to lower the same load.
Neglect pivot friction. (TJ. Lond.)

(Ans. : 114-7 lb.in. ; 43-5 lb.in. applied to prevent acceleration of load)
28. A machine vice consists of a fixed jaw, a movable jaw and a spindle
through which there passes a tommy bar of effective length 11 in. The spindle
screws into the fixed jaw, the screw thread being square, 4 threads per in., If in.
outside diameter. A collar on the spindle, If in. mean diameter, bears on a suit¬
ably machined surface on the movable jaw, /i = 0-06.
If the work in the vice jaws is gripped with a force of 2300 lb., find the tangential
force required at the end of the tommy bar, (a) to tighten the screw, (b) to slacken
it. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 26-3 lb. ; 9-7 lb.)
(N.B. Except for collar friction, movable jaw would overhaul in case (b).)
/
CHAPTER 10
FRICTION CLUTCHES
10.1 Cone and plate clutches. In a cone or plate clutch, the

torque is transmitted by friction between one or more pairs of co-axial
annular faces maintained in contact by an axial thrust.
A cone clutch consists of one pair of friction faces only while a disc or
plate clutch usually has several plates, both sides of each plate normally
being effective. A single-plate clutch has therefore two pairs of contact
surfaces. In a multi-disc clutch having n pairs of surfaces in contact,
the torque transmitted is n times that for a single pair since each pair of
surfaces takes the full axial thrust.
Consider two conical surfaces, Fig. 10.1, maintained in contact by an
axial thrust W.
Let T = torque transmitted

p — intensity of normal pressure between surfaces
rx, r2 and R = outer, inner and mean radii of faces respectively
Area of elementary ring = 2nr dr cosec
normal force on ring = p X 2nr dr cosec ft
Axial component of this force = p X 2nr dr cosec f$ x sin
= 2 nrp dr
f»i
total axial force, W — In I pr dr . (10.1)
J r2
175
Friction force on ring = jup X 2nr dr cosec

moment of force about axis = fip X 2nr2 dr cosec
b
torque transmitted, T = 2nju, cosec p pr2 dr (10.2)

r»
If it is assumed that the pressure is uniform over the contact area,
then p is a constant, so that equation (10.1) becomes
W — np{rx2 — r22)
and equation (10.2) becomes T = %7ipp(r^ — r23) cosec p
i/*W (Vi
r-,° —
ft)
cosec p (10.3)
If it is assumed that the wear is uniform over the contact area, then,
since wear oc pressure X velocity
oc pressure X radius,
pr = constant ( = c)
Equation (10.1) then becomes
W = 2 nc(rx — r2).(10.4)
and equation (10.2) becomes
T — TtfJLC(rx2 — r22) cosec
/uWl % + £t\ cosec
— juWR cosec p.(10.5)

For a plate clutch, ft = 90°, so that, for each pair of contact faces,
T = f fiWi for uniform pressure . (10.6)
and T = juWR for uniform wear . . . (10.7)

The assumption applicable to a particular clutch depends upon its
condition ; for a new clutch the pressure will be approximately uniform
but for a worn clutch the uniform wear theory is more appropriate.
Since the uniform pressure theory gives a higher friction torque than the
uniform wear theory (see Ex. 1), the latter theory should always be used,
unless otherwise stated. Conversely, in calculating the h.p. lost in friction
at a pivot, footstep or collar bearing, the uniform pressure theory should
be used. In this way, any error is on the safe side.
10.2 Centrifugal clutches. A centrifugal clutch consists of a

number of shoes which can move in radial guides and bear on the inside
of an annular rim, Fig. 10.2. The outer surfaces of the shoes are covered
with a friction material, and as the speed rises the centrifugal force on
the shoes causes them to transmit power by friction to the rim.
FRICTION CLUTCHES 177
Fig. 10.2
Springs are fitted to keep the skoes clear of the rim at low speeds and
thus allow the motor to gain speed before taking up the load.
Let n = number of shoes
F = centrifugal force on each shoe
P = inward force on each shoe exerted by spring
R = inside radius of rim
ja = coefficient of friction between shoe and rim
Then nett radial force between each shoe and rim = F — P
friction force on rim = /u(F — P)
.*. friction torque per shoe = /uR(F — P)
total friction torque — njuR(F — P) (10.8)
1. A plate clutch has for a friction surface one face of an annular disc
of outer radius rx and inner radius r2 . Derive the expression for the friction
torque in terms of the radii, the axial load, the coefficient of friction, assuming
(a) a uniform intensity of pressure, (h) uniform wear. Calculate the ratio
of the torques given hy the above assumptions for values of rjrx equal to 0,
J, f and 1. Compare the assumptions in the light of these results.
(U. Lond.)
For uniform pressure, Tv = h from equation (10.6)

vn
{'ri2 + rpr2 + r22)*
\pW-
(*i + r2)
piW
For uniform wear, w (r1 -f r2) from equation (10.7)
Tm 4 (rf -f rpr2 + r22) = 4 1 + (Vfi) + KAi)2

w 3’ (rx + r2)2 3 1 + Z{r2/ri) + {rjrj
* It is necessary to factorise and cancel the term (rx— r2) since the expression is
indeterminate when rx — r2.
rA 0 1 1
2 t
*i
Tp 4 28 28 148
1
Tw 3 25 27 147
The torque given by the uniform pressure theory is always higher than
that given by the uniform wear theory, although for values of rjrx > J,
the difference is negligible.
2. A plate clutch has 3 discs on the driving shaft and 2 discs on the driven
shaft, providing four pairs of contact surfaces, each of 9 in. external diameter
and 5 in. internal diameter. Assuming uniform pressure, find the total
spring load pressing the plates together to transmit 35 h.p. at 1575 r.p.m.
Take /a = 0-3.
If there are 6 springs each of stiffness 75 lb./in. and each of the contact
surfaces has worn away by 0-05 in., what is the maximum h.p. that can be
transmitted at the same r.p.m., assuming uniform wear and the same coefficient
of friction ? (U. Lond.)
T _ h.p. X 33,000 x 12 _ 35 X 33,000 x 12

2tiN 27i x 1575
= 1400 lb.in.
For uniform pressure,
i.e.
/. W = 324-5 lb.
Total wear = 8 X 0-05 — 0-4 in.
reduction in spring force = 0-4 X 75 X 6 = 180 lb.
new axial load = 324-5 — 180 = 144-5 lb.
For uniform wear, T = tyWr
= 4 X 0-3 X 144-5 X 3-5 = 606 lb.in.
606
maximum h.p. = X 35 = 15-2
1400
3. The mean diameter of the contact surfaces of a conical friction clutch

is 12 in. and the width of the conical surface is 2\ in. The clutch is lined with
material giving a coefficient of friction of 0-3 and the angle between the
generator of the conical surface and its axis is 15°.
If the intensity of the normal pressure between the surfaces is limited
to 10 Ib./sq. in., find the greatest 'power that can be transmitted at a speed
of 1200 r.p.m. without slipping of the clutch and also the least axial force
necessary to hold the clutch in engagement. (U. Lond.)
From Fig. 10.1,

rx — r2— 2-5 sin 15° = 0-647 in.
ri + r2
i
also —-- = 6* in.
•
2
.*. rx = 6-323 in. and r2 = 5-676 in.
The greatest h.p. that can be transmitted is given by the uniform
pressure theory but this is only likely to be transmitted while the clutch
is new. Hence, assuming uniform wear, the maximum pressure will
occur at the minimum radius,
/. c = pr = 10 x 5-676 = 56-76
.*. W = 2nc{r1 — r2) from equation (10.4)
= 27i X 56-76 X 0-647 = 231 lb.
T — juWR cosec 15°
= 0-3 X 231 X 6 X 3-864 = 1610 lb.in.
, 2jiTN
v 33,000 x 12
2n X 1610 x 1200 on _
=-= oO-o
33,000 X 12 -
Fig. 10.3
From Fig. 10.3, least axial force to hold clutch in engagement
= W + juN cos
where N is the normal force between the surfaces
but N — W cosec (1
axial force required = TF(1 + [i cot (1)
= 231(1 + 0-3 cot 15°)
= 490 lb.
4c. In a cone clutch the contact surfaces have an effective diameter of

3 in. The semi-angle of the cone is 15°. ja = 0-3. Find the torque required
to produce slipping of the clutch if the axial force applied is 40 lb.
This clutch is employed to connect an electric motor, running uniformly
at 1000 r.p.m., with a flywheel which is initially stationary. The fly-wheel
weighs 30 lb. and its radius of gyration is 6 in. Calculate the time required
for the flywheel to attain full speed and also the energy lost in the slipping
of the clutch. (U. Lond.)
T = juWR cosec
= 0-3 X 40 X 1*5 cosec 15° = 69-5 lb.in.
For the flywheel, T = lex.

30 X 62
.\ 69-5 X a
32-2 X 12
a 24*9 rad./sec.2
2n
X 1000
60
time taken, t = 4*2 sec.
24-9
Let 0m and 0f be the angles turned through by the motor and flywheel
respectively before slipping ceases.
'2n
Then 6m = X 1000^ X 4-2 = 440 rad.
60
Since the flywheel accelerates uniformly from rest to 1000 r.p.m.
Of = \0m — 220 rad.
Work done by motor — T0m

Work done on flywheel = T0f
work lost in friction = T(0m — 6f)
= 69-5(440 - 220) == 15,300 in.lb.
5. An engine is coupled to a rotating drum by a friction clutch which has

a single disc faced on each side with a ring of friction material. The inner
and outer diameters of each ring are 9 in. and 12 in. respectively, jli — 0-3,
and the axial pressure on the disc is 300 lb. The engine develops a constant
torque of 30 lb.ft., and its inertia is equivalent to that of a flywheel of weight
50 lb. and radius of gyration 1 ft. The drum weighs 120 lb., its radius
of gyration is T25 ft. and the torque to overcome friction is 5 lb.ft.
If the clutch is engaged when the engine speed is 500 r.p.m. and the drum
is at rest, find the speed when clutch slip ceases, and the duration of slipping.
Find also the total time taken for the drum to reach a speed of 500 r.p.m.
(U. Lond.)
Assuming uniform wear, T = pWR X 2

'3+2
= 0-3 X 300 X (
= 78-75 lb.ft.
12 s)
] X 2
Nett retarding torque on engine = 78-75 — 30 = 48-75 lb.ft.

Jor7K T 50 X l2
48-75 = I6a6 = —, -a.
32-2
cte = 31-36 rad./sec.2

Nett accelerating torque on drum = 78-75 — 5 = 73-75 lb.ft.
WEf T 120 X 1-252

73-75 — Id<x.d--ad
ad = 12-67 rad./sec.2
If N is tbe final steady speed in r.p.m. when slipping ceases and t is

the time of duration of slipping, in sec.,
27i 500 - N
then 31-36 =
60 t
and 12-67 = — .-
60 t
N = 143-8 r.p.m. and t = 1-19 sec.
After slipping has ceased, the nett accelerating torque on the engine and
drum
= 30 - 5 = 25 lb.ft.
50 X l2 + 120 x 1-252
••• 25=- 32^2-“
a = 3-39 rad./sec.2
If t' is the time in sec. for the system to reach 500 r.p.m. after slipping
ceases, then
. 2n 500 - 143-8
t = — X - = 11 sec.
60 3-39
total time taken = 1-19 + 11 = 12-19 sec.

6. Fig. 10.4 shows one of the four shoes of a centrifugal clutch. The
contact surface is 6 5 in. radius and the friction force is juS, where S is the
resultant of the normal forces on the surface and fj, — 0-25. The centre of
gravity is 1 in. from the contact surface. The clutch is to commence engage¬
ment at 500 r.p.m. If it is to transmit 28 h.p. at 750 r.p.m., calculate the
corresponding value of S and find the weight of each shoe and the pressure of
the beam spring on the adjusting screw. If the spring has a stiffness of
960 lb./in., find the power transmitted at 750 r.p.m. when the shoes have
worn y~q in., if not adjusted. (I. Mech. E.)
Kadius of c.g. of shoe — 6-5 — 1 = 5-5 in.

W
centrifugal force on each shoe, F = —co2r
9
W
(2JLn ] x 5-5
32-2 x 12\60
'
= 0-000156JFN2 lb.
h.p. x 33,000 x 12
At 750 r.p.m. T —
2 7i X N
28 X 33,000 x 12
2n X 750
= 2350 lb.in.
T = 4jaSR from equation (10.8)
i.e. 2350 = 4 x 0-25 X S X 6-5
S = 362 lb.
When the shoe makes contact with the rim, the spring force remains
constant as the speed rises and is therefore equal to the centrifugal force
at 500 r.p.m.
S = F- P
i.e. 362 = 0*000156 IF x 7502 - 0-000156TF X 5002
/. W = 7*43 lb.
Pressure on beam spring at 750 r.p.m.
= spring force at 500 r.p.m.
= 0*000156 X 7*43 X 5002
= 290 lb.
When shoe wears yg in., increase in spring force = 960 X = 60 lb.
new spring force = 290 -j- 60 = 350 lb.
7*43 /271 r-
New centrifugal force -[ _ x 750 ) X 5*5625 660 lb.
32*2 x 12\60 J
S = 660 - 350 = 310 lb.
.*. h.p. = — x 28 = 24
F 362 -
7. An axial thrust of 5 tons is carried by a plain collar-type thrust bearing,

having inner and outer diameters of 10 in. and 16 in. respectively. Assuming
that [x between the thrust surfaces is 0 02, and that the local wear rate of these
surfaces is proportional to the pressure and to the rubbing speed, determine the
h.p. absorbed in friction at a speed of 120 r.p.m. (TJ. Lond.) (Ans. : 2*77)
8. Establish a formula for the maximum torque transmitted by a single plate
clutch of internal and external radii rx and r2 if the limiting coefficient of friction
is /x and the axial spring loading is P. Assume that the pressure intensity on the
contact faces is uniform.
Apply this to determine the time required to accelerate a countershaft of
rotating weight 1000 lb. and radius of gyration 9 in. to the full speed of 250 r.p.m.
from rest through a single plate clutch of internal and external radii 5 in. and
8 in. taking [x as 0*3 and the spring load as 120 lb. (U. Glas.)
{Ans. : 11*55 sec.)
9. A multi-plate clutch is to transmit 15 h.p. at 1500 r.p.m. The inner and
outer radii for the plates are to be 2 in. and 4 in. respectively. The maximum
axial spring force is restricted to 220 lb. Calculate the necessary number of pairs
of surfaces if /x = 0*35 assuming constant wear. What will be the necessary axial
force ? (TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : 3 ; 200 lb.)
10. A friction clutch is required to transmit 45 h.p. at 2000 r.p.m. It is to be
of single-plate disc type with both sides of the plate effective, the pressure being
applied axially by means of springs and limited to 10 lb./sq. in. If the outer
diameter of the plate is to be 12 in., find the required inner diameter of the clutch
ring and the total force exerted by the springs. Assume the wear to be uniform.
[x = 0*3. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 8*6 in. ; 459 lb.)
11. A plate clutch consists of a fiat driven plate gripped between a driving
plate and presser plate so that there are two active driving surfaces each having
an inner diameter 8 in. and an outer diameter 14 in. fx = 0*4. The working
pressure is limited to 25 lb./sq. in. Assuming the pressure is uniform, calculate
the h.p. which can be transmitted at 1000 r.p.m. If the clutch becomes worn so
that the intensity of pressure is inversely proportional to the radius, the total
axial force on the presser plate remaining unaltered, calculate the h.p. which can
now be transmitted at 1000 r.p.m. and the greatest intensity of pressure on the
friction surfaces. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 186; 180; 34-4 lb./sq. in.)
12. A machine is driven from a constant speed shaft, rotating at 300 r.p.m.
by means of a friction clutch. The moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the
machine is 112 lb.ft.2 The clutch is of the disc type, both sides of the disc being
effective in producing driving friction. The external and internal diameters of
the discs are respectively 8 and 5 in. The axial pressure applied to the disc is
10 lb./sq. in. Assume that this pressure is uniformly distributed and that
/z — 0-25.
If when the machine is at rest the clutch is suddenly engaged, what length of
time will be required for the machine to attain its full speed ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 2-61 sec.)
13. A power shaft running at a steady speed of 175 r.p.m. drives a counter¬
shaft through a single-plate friction clutch of external and internal diameters
15 in. and 9 in. respectively. The masses on the countershaft have a radius of
gyration of 10 in. and a total weight of 750 lb. The axial spring load operating
the clutch is 100 lb., and /z = 0-3. Assuming uniform acceleration, determine
the time required to reach full speed from rest, and the work dissipated due to
clutch slip during that time. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 9-88 sec. ; 2710 ft.lb.)
14. A multi-plate clutch is used to connect two shafts in line. In this, one
set of plates can slide axially in a shell attached to one shaft while the other set
of plates can slide along the second shaft. Sketch the arrangement showing an
operating mechanism for pressing the plates together. If the inner and outer
diameters of the contact surfaces are 3-5 in. and 5-5 in. respectively and there are
six contacts, find the axial thrust required to transmit 10 h.p. at 750 r.p.m.
Assume that /z = 0-3 and that the contact pressure times radius is a constant
over each surface. Find also the contact pressures at the inner and outer radii.
{I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 207-4 lb. ; 18-86 lb./sq. in.; 12 lb./sq. in.)
15. An electric motor drives a co-axial rotor through a single-plate clutch
which has two pairs of driving surfaces, each of 11 in. external and 8 in. internal
diameter ; the total spring load pressing the plates together is 125 lb. The
weight of the motor armature and shaft is 1750 lb. and its radius of gyration
10-5 in. ; the rotor weighs 3000 lb. and its radius of gyration is 9 in.
The motor is brought up to a speed of 1250 r.p.m. ; the current is then switched
off and the clutch suddenly engaged. Determine the final speed of the motor
and rotor, and find the time taken to reach that speed and the kinetic energy
lost during the period of slipping. How long would slipping continue if a con¬
stant torque of 40 lb.ft. were maintained on the armature shaft ? fi = 0-35.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 552 r.p.m. ; 87-6 sec.; 198,400 ft.lb.; 246-3 sec.)
16. A power shaft running at 180 r.p.m. drives a countershaft through a
single-plate friction clutch of internal and external radii 3 in. and 6 in. respectively,
Iu being 0-3. The countershaft has a total moment of inertia of 200 lb.ft.2 If the
time taken for the countershaft to attain full speed from rest is 6 sec., determine
the axial spring force in the clutch, and also the work dissipated due to clutch
slip. Any formula for the clutch torque should be proved. Assume uniform
wear. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 86-7 lb.; 1103 ft.lb.)
17. A multi-disc friction clutch has to be designed to transmit 100 b.h.p.
from an engine running at 2000 r.p.m. Assuming that the pressure distribution
is uniform at 20 lb./sq. in., and that the inner and outer diameters of the lining
are respectively 4 in. and 6 in., determine the necessary end thrust and the
necessary number of plates. Take /z = 0-25. If this clutch, after manufacture,
is used to transmit the power from a larger engine to a rotor which weighs 2500 lb.
and has a radius of gyration of 8 in., determine the time required for this rotor to
reach 1500 r.p.m. from standstill. Assume that the clutch is transmitting the
maximum possible torque. (U. Lond.)
{.Ans. : 314-2 lb. ; 8 plates ; 20-5 sec.)
18. The rotating parts of a heavy grinding mill are carried on a vertical shaft
running at 120 r.p.m. ; the load of 2 tons is carried by a conical bearing of
5 in. outer diameter and 2 in. inner diameter with an included angle of 120°.
Assuming// = 0-075 and that the intensity of pressure varies inversely as the radius,
determine the h.p. wasted in friction. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 1-293)
19. A motor drives a machine through a friction clutch which transmits

1260 lb.in. while slip occurs during engagement. For the motor the rotor weighs
140 lb. with radius of gyration 5\ in. and the inertia of the machine is equivalent
to 50 lb. at the driving shaft with radius of gyration 3 in. If the motor is running
at 750 r.p.m. and the machine is at rest, find the speed after engaging the clutch
and the time taken. Find also the energy absorbed in the clutch during engage¬
ment. Torques acting on the motor and machine other than at the clutch are to
be neglected. {I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 678 r.p.m. ; 0-0656 sec. ; 3260 in.lb.)
20. A thrust of 3 tons along the axis of a shaft is taken by a pivot bearing
consisting of the frustum of a cone. The outer and inner diameters are 8 in. and
4 in. and the semi-angle of the cone is 60°. The shaft speed is 200 r.p.m. and
// = 0-02. Assuming that the intensity of pressure is uniform over the surface
of the bearing, find, from first principles, {a) the magnitude of this pressure, in
lb./sq. in. ; (6) the h.p. absorbed in friction. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 178-2 lb./sq. in. ; 1-54)
21. A cone clutch is required to transmit 40 h.p. at 1200 r.p.m. The mean
diameter of the bearing surface is 10 in. and the cone angle is 25°. Assuming
/u — 0-3 and a normal pressure of 20 lb./sq. in., determine the axial width of the
conical bearing surface and the axial load required. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 2-17 in. ; 302 lb.)
22. Two co-axial rotors A and B are connected by a single-plate clutch with
two pairs of friction surfaces, each of 12 in. external and 9 in. internal diameter,
the total spring load on the clutch pressing the plates together is 150 lb. The
weights and radii of gyration of A and B are 2500 lb., 8 in., and 1800 lb., 15 in.
respectively. // = 0-3.
The rotor A is given a speed of 1200 r.p.m., while B is stationary, and the clutch
is then suddenly engaged. Determine the time taken for A and B to reach the
same speed, the magnitude of that speed, and the amount of kinetic energy lost
during the period of slipping of the clutch. Assume that the effective radius of
the clutch is the arithmetic mean of the inner and outer contact surface radii.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 78-8 sec. ; 340 r.p.m. ; 194,500 ft.lb.)
23. An induction motor has a centrifugal clutch fitted inside its belt pulley
to allow it to start without load and to take the load automatically when well up
to speed. The clutch consists of four 4 shoes ’ which can move outwards radially
under centrifugal forces against the inward pull of springs. These shoes then
press against the inner drum surface of the pulley and take up the drive by friction.
Each shoe weighs 3-0 lb. and the centre of gravity is at 3-75 in. radius when the
shoes are just touching the drum which has a radius of 5 in. Each of the four
spring-pulls is then 260 lb. The friction coefficient may be taken as 0-25 between
shoe and drum.
G
Calculate the speed at which the shoes first touch the drum, the torque and the
h.p. which can be transmitted at 1200 and at 1450 r.p.m. (TJ. Glas.)
(.Ans. : 902-6 r.p.m. ; 83-2 lb.ft. ; 19 03 ; 171-3 lb.ft. ; 47-29)
24. A centrifugal clutch has four blocks which slide radially in a spider keyed
to the driving shaft and make contact with the internal cylindrical surface of a
drum keyed to the driven shaft. When the clutch is at rest each block is pulled
against a stop by a spring so as to leave a radial clearance of £ in. between the
block and the drum. The pull exerted by the spring is then 100 lb. and the mass
centre of the block is 8 in. from the axis of the clutch.
If the internal diameter of the drum is 20 in., the weight of each block is
15 lb., the stiffness of each spring is 200 lb./in. and the coefficient of friction
between block and drum is 0-3, find the maximum h.p. the clutch can transmit at
500 r.p.m. (I. Mech. E.) (Ans. : 69-7)
25. A centrifugal friction clutch has a driving member consisting of a spider
carrying four shoes which are kept from contact with the clutch case by means of
the flat springs until increase of centrifugal force overcomes the resistance of the
springs and power is transmitted by friction between the shoes and the case.
Determine the necessary weight of each shoe if 30 h.p. is to be transmitted at
750 r.p.m. with engagement beginning at 75 per cent of the running speed. The
inside diameter of the drum is 12 in. and the radial distance of the centre of gravity
of each shoe from the shaft axis is 5 in. Assume /j, — 0-25. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 12-03 lb.)
CHAPTER 11
BELT DRIVES AND BAND BRAKES
11.1 Ratio of belt tensions. Consider a flat belt partly wound

round a pulley so that the angle of lap is 0, Fig. 11.1, and let T1 and T2
be the tensions in the belt when it is about to slip in the direction shown.
If the tensions at the ends of an element subtending an angle dO at
the centre are T and T -f- dT and the reaction between the belt and the
pulley is R, then, resolving forces radially,
(T + dT)— + T— = R
2 2
Therefore, neglecting the second order of small quantities,
TdO = R . . . . (11.1)
Resolving forces tangentially,

(T + dT) - T = juR
i.e. dT = juR
— fiT dO from equation (11.1)
i.e. Ti
— fiO
T2
or Tt = efl°
(11.2)
T2
187
If the belt is used to transmit power between two pulleys, Fig. 11.2,
Tx and T2 are the tight and slack side tensions respectively. If the pulleys
are of unequal diameters, the belt will slip first on the pulley having the
smaller angle of lap, i.e. on the smaller pulley.
If v is the speed of the belt in ft./sec., then
h.p. transmitted = (T-. — T2)— (11.3)

1 ' 1 2 550
(11.4)
11.2 Modification forV-grooved pulley. For a V-grooved

pulley, the normal force between the belt or rope is increased since the
radial component of this force must equal R. Thus, if the semi-angle
of the groove is /?, Fig. 11.3,
N = — cosec B
2 '
frictional resistance = 2juN

— juR cosec
Fig. 11.3
BELT DRIVES AND BAND BRAKES 189
The friction force is therefore increased in the ratio cosec /5 : 1, so that
the V-grooved pulley is equivalent to a flat pulley having a coefficient
of friction of [jl cosec /?.
T
Hence i_e^0cosec0 .... (11.5)
2
11.3 Effect of centrifugal tension. Consider a belt, of weight

w per unit length, wound round a pulley of radius r, Fig. 11.4. Let the
speed of the belt be v and the centrifugal tension be Tc.
F
If F is the centrifugal force acting on an element of the belt subtending

an angle dO at the centre, then, resolving forces radially,
F = 2T. —
i.e. ^v- = Tcde

a r
wv‘
or T,= (11.6)
9
This is the tension caused by centrifugal force on the belt and is
additional to the tension due to the transmission of power.
If allowance is made for this additional tension in determining the
ratio of the belt tensions, equation (11.1) becomes
Td0 = R'+ F = R + ——
9
wv
so that dT — juR = jul T-) dO = ju(T — Tc) dO
dT
i.e. -= a dO
T — Tc f
whence, integrating as before,
Ti-T,
— e^d (or e^6 cosec 0) (11.7)
t2-tc
Tx — Tc and T2 — Tc are the effective driving tensions and Tx and

T2 are now the total tensions in the belt.
Allowing for centrifugal tension, equation (11.4) becomes
*»
From equation (11.8) the h.p. transmitted is a maximum when
- Tc)v} = 0
dv
df _ wvs\
i.e. —(Tvv - = 0
dv\ 9 )
wv2
i.e.
9
or T
-1- c = \T
The maximum h.p. is then obtained by substituting this value of Tc

and the corresponding value of v in equation (11.8).
11.4 Initial tension. The belt is assembled with an initial tension,

T0 . When power is being transmitted, the tension in the tight side
increases from T0 to Tx and on the slack side decreases from T0 to T2 .
If the belt is assumed to obey Hooke’s Law and its length to remain
constant, then the increase in length of the tight side is equal to the
decrease in length of the slack side,
i.e. T1 T0 — T0 T2
since the lengths and cross-sectional areas of the belt are the same on
each side.
Hence T1+T2= 2T0 . . . . (11.10)
1. Two pulleys, one 18 in. diameter and the other 8 in. diameter, are on
parallel shafts 6 ft. 6 in. apart, and are connected by a crossed belt. Find
the length of belt required and the angle of contact between the belt and each
pulley.
What h.p. can be transmitted by the belt when the larger pulley rotates at
200 r.p.m. if the maximum permissible tension in the belt is 200 lb., and the
coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0-25 ? (U. Lond.)
From triangle ABC, Fig. 11.5,

cb
cos - =
9 + 4
0-1667
2 78
angle of lap for each pulley,
0 = 360° - 2 x 80° 24'

= 199° 12' = 3-474 rad.
Length of belt = 9 X 3-474 + 4 X 3-474 + 2 x 78 sin 80° 24

= 199 in.
T1 = 200 lb.
200 200
*
• • T9, — = 83-85 lb.
e°-25 X 3-474 2-384
v
h.p. = (Tx T,)— from equation (11.3)
— X 200 X —
= (200 — 83-85) x —-— = 3-36
' '550 -
2. A belt drive consists of two V-belts in parallel, on grooved pulleys

of the same size. The angle of the groove is 30°. The cross-sectional area
of each belt is T2 sq. in. and /a = 0-12. The density of the belt material is
0-04 Ib./cu. in. and the maximum safe stress in the material is 1000 Ib./sq. in.
Calculate the h.p. that can be transmitted between pulleys 12 in. diameter
rotating at 1500 r.p.m. Find also the shaft speed in r.p.m. at which the
power transmitted would be a maximum. (U. Lond.)
0 = n rad.
2 jr
v = —X 1500 X i = 78-54 ft./sec.
60 2
w = 0-04 x 12 x 1-2 = 0-576 lb./ft.

WV‘
•
• •
Tn = from equation (11.6)
0-576 x 78-542
- 110-4 lb.
32-2
T± = 1000 X 1-2 = 1200 lb.

g/xO cosec /3 __ gO-12 x n x cosec 15° _ 4*291
T,-Tc
_ enQ cosec p from equation (11.7)
T2-Tc
1200 — 110-4
i.e. 4-291
T2 - 110-4
from which T2 = 364-3 lb.
v
h-f- - <r- - %x 2
78*54
= (1200 - 364-3) X X 2 239
550
For maximum h.p., Tc — \TX = 400 lb.
400 = 0 576
32-2
.*. v = 149-5 ft./sec.
149-5
.*. N = 1500 X ^rr = 2860 r.p.m.
78-54
3. An open belt drive connects two pulleys 48 in. and 20 in. diameter,
on parallel shafts 12 ft. apart. The belt weighs 0-6 lb./ft. length, and the
maximum tension in it is not to exceed 400 lb.
The 48 in. pulley, which is the driver, runs at 200 r.p.m. Due to belt
slip on one of the pulleys, the velocity of the driven shaft is only 450 r.p.m.
Calculate the torque on each of the two shafts, the h.p. transmitted, and the
h.p. lost in friction, [a = 0'3.
What is the efficiency of the drive ? (U. Lond.)
From Fig. 11.6, cos - = —-— — 0-0972

8 2 144
- = 84° 25' = 1-472 rad.

2
.*. angle of lap on smaller pulley,
0 = 2-944 rad.
The belt speed is that corresponding to the peripheral speed of the larger
(driving) pulley.
O Jr
v = 200 X — x 2 = 41-9 ft./sec.
60
WV‘
T
1 c =
9
0-6 X 41-92
= 32-7 lb.
32*2
Tr-T,
« =
t2-tc
400 — 32-7
i.e. = e0-3 x 2-944 = 2-419
T2 - 32-7
from which T2 = 185 lb.
torque on driver = (400 — 185) X 2 = 430 lb.ft.
and torque on follower = (400 — 185) X = 180 lb.ft.
h.p. of driver = (400 — 185) X = 16-38.

550
48
If there were no slip, speed of follower would be — X 200 = 480 r.p.m.
20
450
h.p. transmitted to follower = 16-38 X -= 15-36
480 -
.'. h.p. lost in friction = 16-38 — 15-36 = 1-02
Efficiency of drive = ^ x 100 = 93-76 per cent

16-38 -
G*
w
4. A small air compressor is belt-driven from a lay shaft in a workshop,

the pulley on the compressor being 12 in. diameter, and the angle of lap of the
belt is 165°. When the belt is moved from the loose to the fast pulley, it slips
for 8 sec. until the compressor attains its constant speed of 300 r.p.m. The
flywheel of the compressor has a moment of inertia of 100 lb. ft* and the friction
requires a constant torque of 3 lb. ft. If the coefficient of friction is 0-28
during the accelerating period, find the tensions in both reaches of the belt, and
also the distance that the belt slips and the energy lost in that time due to the
belt slip. (U. Glas.)
While slip is taking place, ratio of belt tensions,
r. e° 28 x (165 x iso) = 2-24
2 71
(1)
300 X
60 5ji , . ,
Acceleration of compressor = — = — rad./sec.£
8 4 '
6
Nett torque on compressor = (T1 — Tf) X —
,rr rp \ 6 100 5tt

' 1 21 12 32-2 4
i.e. Ti-Tt 30*38 lb. (2)
Tx = 54*87 lb. and T 2 = 24*50 lb.
2 jT 6
Belt velocity = ^300 X X 15*71 ft./sec.
60/ 12
distance moved in 8 sec. 8 X 15*71 = 125*68 ft.
Since the pulley accelerates uniformly until its circumferential speed
is 15*71 ft./sec., distance moved by a point on the circumference
= i X 125*68 = 62*84 ft.
slip of belt relative to pulley = 125*68 — 62*84 = 62*84 ft.
Energy lost due to slip = (T1— T2) X distance slipped
" = 30*38 X 62*84 = 1908 ft.lb.
5. Two parallel horizontal shafts, whose centre lines are 16 ft. apart, one
being vertically above the other, are connected by an open belt drive. The
pulley on the upper shaft is 42 in. diameter, that on the lower shaft 60 in.
diameter. The belt is 6 in. wide and the initial tension in it when stationary
and when no torque is being transmitted is 600 lb. The belt weighs 1 lb./ft.
length; the gravitational force on it may be neglected but centrifugal force
must be taken into account. The material of the belt may be assumed to
obey Hooke’s Law, and the free lengths of the belt between 'pulleys may be
assumed to be straight. The coefficient of friction between the belt and either
pulley is 0-3. Calculate
(a) the pressure in Ib./sq. in. between the belt and the upper pulley when
the belt and pulleys are stationary and no torque is being transmitted;
(b) the tension in the belt and the pressure between the belt and the upper
pulley if the upper shaft rotates at 400 r.p.m. and there is no resisting torque
on the lower shaft, hence no power being transmitted;
(c) the greatest tension in the belt if the upper shaft rotates at 400 r.p.m.
and the maximum possible h.p. is beinq transmitted to the lower shaft.
(U. Lond.)
cos - =-= 0-468 as in Example 1

2 192 ^
0 = 124° 12' = 2-17 rad.
(a) Let the pressure on an element subtending an angle dO at the

centre, Fig. 11.7, be p lb./sq. in. Then, resolving forces radially,
dO
V X 21 dO X 6 = 2 X 600
*2 *
p = 4-76 lb./sq. in.

WV*
(b) A =
9
1 X I — X 400 X 1-75XS
60
167 lb.
32dJ
The total length of the belt remains constant, and since the material
obeys Hooke’s Law, the tension remains constant at 600 lb. Part of
this force is now due to centrifugal tension, however, and the reaction
between the belt and the pulley is reduced.
Effective tension = 600 — 167 = 433 lb.
433
X 4-76 = 3-44 lb./sq. in.
600
(c) Tx + T2 = 2T0 = 1200 lb. . (1)
Also Tl ~ 167 = e0-3 x 217 = 1-918 . (2)
T2 - 167
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), T1 = 737 lb.
6. Fig. 11.8 shows a belt drive fitted with a gravity idler. The driver
rotates anticlockwise at 360 r.p.m. and the coefficient of friction between belt
and 'pulley is 0-3. Determine the initial belt tension and the h.p. transmitted
(neglect any sag in the belt.) (U. Lond.)
'driver
12" dia
Let P = normal reaction at 0 between idler and lever, Fig. 11.9

R == resultant of initial belt tensions, T0 , at idler
= V2y0
Taking moments about lever pivot,
P x 12 = 40 X 16
P = 53-3 lb.
R = 53-3 sec 15° = 55-2 lb.
55-2
= 39 lb.
V2
Angle of lap on driving pulley =210°
= 3-66 rad.
•^ _ gO-3 X 3 C6 _ 3*0
" T„
Due to the action of the idler, the slack side tension remains constant
at 39 lb.
Tx = 39 X 3 = 117 lb.
v
h.p. = (T1 — T2)
550
^ X 360 X
60 2
= (117 - 39) X = 2-675
550
7. Fig. 11.10 shows the layout of a band brake applied to the brake drum
of a hoist, where the braking force P is applied at one end of a lever which
is pivoted on a fixed fulcrum at F. The drum diameter is 40 in., the arc of
contact 225° and fi — 0 3.
Calculate the force P to give a braking torque of 4000 lb. ft. if the drum is
rotating (a) clockwise, (6) anti-clockwise. Comment on the large difference
between the answers to (a) and (b). (U. Lond.)
{Tl “ T*) x - = 4000

T1— T2 = 2400 lb. . (1)
Also h = e0 3 x 225 x i55 = 3-248 (2)

^2

Tt = 3467 lb. and T2 = 1067 lb.
The tight side tension Tx is on the side which is being pulled on to the
pulley.
(a) Clockwise rotation, Fig. 11.11.

Taking moments about F,
P X 25 + 3467 X 1 = 1067 X 4
P= 32 lb.
(b) Anti-clockwise rotation, Fig. 11.12.

Taking moments about F,
P X 25 -f 1067 X 1 = 3467 X 4
• P = 512 lb.
In case (a) the couple about the fulcrum due to belt friction is acting
in the same direction as that due to P, whereas, in case (b) it is acting
in the opposite direction.
8. The essential features of a transmission dynamometer are shown in

Fig. 11.13. A is the driving pulley
which runs at 500 r.p.m. B and C are
jockey pulleys mounted on a horizontal
beam pivoted at D, about which point
the complete beam is balanced when at
rest. E is the driven pulley, and all
portions of the belt between the pulleys
are vertical. A, B and C are each
1 ft. diameter and the thickness and
weight of the belt are to be neglected. DF
is 2 ft. 6 in.
Find :
(a) the value of the weight W to main¬
tain the beam in a horizontal position
when 5 h.p. is being transmitted;
(b) the value of W when the belt just begins to slip on A, [jl being 0-2 and
the maximum tension in the belt 250 lb. (U. Lond.)
(u) Diameter of E = 3 ft.

500
.*. speed of E = r.p.m.
o
h.p. X 33,000
Torque on E =
2jt N
5 X 33,000
i.e. iTi ~ T*) X g 500
2te X
3
.-. T1- T2= 105 lb.
Taking moments about D, Fig. 11.14,
W X 2J + 2T2 x 1 = 2Tj X 1
W = HTt - 1\)
= i x 105
= 84 lb.
(b) When belt is about to slip,
T, = 1-875
T*
T1 = 250 lb.
250
. •. T2 -
— = 1334 lb.
1-875
/. W = |(250 - 133-4) = 93-3 lb.
9. For the simple brake shown in Fig. 11.15, find a relationship between
the braking torque and the applied force P
lb., if the coefficient of friction between
the brake drum and brake block is 0-35. h—is"—>
What is the braking torque if P

= 100 lb. ? Also find the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force at
each of the hinges A and B.
(U. Lond.)
The reaction, R, between the block

and the drum passes through the point
B, Fig. 11.16, and at the point of
intersection with the drum periphery,
Q, it is inclined at the friction angle,
</>, to the radius at that point, OQ.
f = tan~]/i = tan-1 0-35
= 19° 18' Fig 11.15
12 _ 15
From triangle OQB,
~ sin (180° - 19° 18')
d = 15° 20'
Taking moments about A,

P x 33 = R X x
33 P
R=
15 cos 0
friction torque, T = Rr
33P
X 15 sin d
15 cos 6
= 33P X tan 15° 20'
== 9-05P lb.in.
When P — 100 lb., T = 9-05 X 100 = 905 lb.in.

33 X 100
Resultant force at hinge B, R — = 228 lb.
15 cosit 15° -i
Inclination to horizontal, 6 = 15° 20'
Horizontal component of reaction at A,
H — R cos 6 — P
= 228 cos 15° 20' 100 = 120 lb.
Vertical component of reaction at A,
V = R sin 0
= 228 sin 15° 20' = 60-3 lb.
resultant reaction at A, F = yj(H2 F2)
= V(1202 + 60-32) = 1344 lb-
V
Inclination to horizontal, a = tan 1 —
H
= tan-1-= 26° 41'

120 -
10. A ship is dragged through a lock by means of a capstan and rope. The
capstan, which has a diameter of 20 in., turns at 30 r.p.m. The rope makes
3 complete turns around the capstan, /i being 0-25, and at the free end of the rope
a pull of 20 lb. is applied. Find (a) the pull on the ship, (b) theh.p. required to
drive the capstan. (U. Lond.) (Ans. : 2220 lb. ; 10-47)
11. A leather belt, 5 in. wide and \ in. thick, transmits power from a pulley
30 in. diameter which runs at 500 r.p.m. The angle of lap is 150° and /i — 0-3.
If the weight of 1 cu. in. of leather is 0-035 lb. and the stress in the belt is not
to exceed 400 lb./sq. in, find the maximum h.p. which can be transmitted.
(I. Mech. E.) {Ans. : 27-84)
12. In a belt drive, the angle of lap of the belt on the small pulley is 150°.
With a belt speed of 4000 ft./min. and a tension in the tight side of the belt of
300 lb., the greatest power which can be transmitted without slip is 13-5 h.p.
What increase of power would be obtained for the same belt speed and maxi¬
mum tension by using an idler pulley so as to increase the angle of lap to 210° ?
Take into account the centrifugal effect, the weight of the belt being \ lb./ft.
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 3-35)
13. A pulley is driven by a flat belt, the angle of lap being 120°. The belt is
4 in. wide by \ in. thick and weighs 0-035 lb./cu. in. If n = 0-3 and the maximum
stress in the belt is not to exceed 200 lb./sq. in., find the greatest h.p. which the
belt can transmit and the corresponding speed of the belt. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 8-1 ; 71-5 ft./sec.)
14. Power is transmitted between two shafts, 15 ft. apart, by an open wire
rope passing round two pulleys, of 10 ft. and 6 ft. diameter respectively, the groove
angle being 40°. If the rope weighs 2-5 lb./ft., and the maximum working tension
is 2 tons, determine the maximum h.p. that the rope can transmit, and the corre¬
sponding speed of the smaller pulley, [i = 0-2. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 615 ; 442 r.p.m.)
15. Power is transmitted from an electric motor to a machine tool by an open
belt drive. The effective diameter of the pulley on the motor shaft is 6 in. while
that on the machine tool is 8 in. with a centre distance of 24 in. If the motor speed
is 1440 r.p.m. and the maximum permissible belt tension is 200 lb., then the
maximum power transmissible is 8 h.p.
It is necessary that the power transmissible be increased to 9 h.p., using the
same pulleys, centre distance and motor speed. The belt is treated with a special
preparation that increases its coefficient of friction by 10 per cent of its existing
value, and in addition a jockey pulley may be fitted. Determine,
{a) the existing coefficient of friction ; (6) the new angle of lap. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0-292 ; 190°)
16. A vertical open-belt drive connects two pulleys A and B, the centres of
which are 13 ft. apart. The belt weighs § lb./ft. Pulley A is 3 ft. diameter, has
radius of gyration of 17 in., and weighs 55 lb. Pulley B is 20 in. diameter, has
radius of gyration of 9 in., and weighs 40 lb. When at rest the tension in the belt
is 160 lb. Assuming that the belt obeys Hooke’s Law, determine the tensions in
the two portions of the belt between the pulleys when 2 h.p. is being transmitted,
the speed of A being 180 r.p.m. Neglect belt stretch over the pulleys. Find also
the kinetic energy of the belt and pulleys under these conditions. (TJ. Lond.)
{Am. : 179-5 lb.; 140-5 lb.; 309 ft.lb. ; 1010 ft.lb.)
17. A belt drive consists of a V-belt working on a grooved pulley, with an
angle of lap of 160°. The cross-sectional area of the belt is 1 sq. in., the groove
angle is 30 and // = 0-1. The density of the belt material is 0-04 lb./cu. in. and
its maximum safe stress is 1200 lb./sq. in. of cross-section.
Derive an expression for the ratio of the tensions on the two sides of the drive
when the belt is about to slip.
Calculate the h.p. that can be transmitted at a belt speed of 80 ft./sec.
(TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : 106)
18. The following particulars apply to one pulley of a rope drive between two
parallel shafts :
Effective diameter of pulley. 5 ft. Total angle of groove . . 45°
Minimum angle of lap . . 180° Maximum permitted load
Weight of rope per ft. run . 0-3 lb. per rope.150 lb.
Coefficient of friction . . 0-25
{a) Find the h.p. transmitted per rope at a pulley speed of 200 r.p.m., if
centrifugal tension may be neglected.
(b) Find the pulley speed when centrifugal tension accounts for half the per¬
mitted load in the rope, and the h.p. which can be transmitted at that speed.
(TJ. Lond.) {Ans.: 12-45; 343 r.p.m.; 10-65)
19. Power is transmitted from a shaft rotating at 250 r.p.m. by 10 ropes
running in grooves in the periphery of a wheel of effective diameter 5 ft. 6 in.
(to the centre line of the rope). The groove angle is 50°, and the arc of contact
round the wheel rim is 180°. The maximum permissible load in each rope is
200 lb. and its weight is 0-38 lb./ft.
If the coefficient of friction between the rope and wheel surface is 0-3, what
h.p. can be transmitted under the above conditions ? {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 162)
20. A rope drive is required to transmit 45 h.p. at 160 r.p.m. The grooved
pulley has a mean diameter to the rope centre of 4 ft. and the groove angles are
45°. Taking /jl as 0-25, and the arc of contact of the ropes as 190°, determine the
number of ropes required if the greatest pull in each rope is limited to 150 lb.
{TJ. Lond.) {Ans. : 6)
21. A small generator is driven by means of a V-belt which has a total angle
of 60° between the faces of the V. The angle of lap on the pulley is 120° and the
mean radius of the belt as it passes round the pulley is 2 in. If /u = 0-2 and the
weight of the belt is 0-3 lb./ft., find the tension in each side of the belt when 1 h.p.
is being transmitted at a pulley speed of 1800 r.p.m. {TJ. Lond.)
{Ans. : 40-1 lb. ; 22-56 lb.)
22. A 4 to 1 speed reduction drive between two parallel shafts at 6 ft. centres
is provided by means of five parallel V-belts running on suitable pulleys mounted
on the shafts. The effective diameter of the driving pulley is 14 in. and the driv¬
ing shaft rotates at 740 r.p.m. The included angle of each pulley groove is 40°,
each V-belt weighs 0-30 lb./ft. and the coefficient of friction between belt and
groove is 0-28.
Determine what h.p. can be transmitted by the drive, if the tension in each belt
is not to exceed 180 lb. (XJ. Lond.) {Ans. ; 58-3)
23. Derive the expression T±/T2 — et*d for a vertical belt drive, where Tx and
T2 are the tight and slack side tensions respectively when slipping is about to
commence, n is the effective coefficient of friction and 0 is the angle of lap.
Starting from the above equation, and allowing for centrifugal tension,
calculate (a) the belt speed at which the maximum power will be transmitted by
a V-belt weighing 0-04 lb./in., the maximum belt tension being limited to 450 lb. ;
(b) the h.p. transmitted at this speed.
The angle of lap on the pulley is 170°, [i — 0-17 and the belt is running in a
groove of total angle 45°. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 100-3 ft./sec. ; 40)
24. A centrifugal air-compressor is driven by an electric motor through a
double V-belt drive. The effective diameter of the compressor pulley is 4 in.
while that of the motor pulley is 5 in. The centre distance between the shafts is
15 in. The motor output is 12 h.p. at 2840 r.p.m., the coefficient of friction
between the belt and the pulley may be as low as 0-2 and the included angle of
the pulley groove is 40°.
{a) Determine the initial belt tension, neglecting the effects of centrifugal
tension, assuming that (i) both belts are operative ; (ii) one belt only is operative.
(b) On which basis, (i) or (ii) above, would you determine the initial tension,
making the assumption that the maximum permissible belt tension is 150 lb. ?
Explain briefly the reasons for your particular choice. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 37-2 lb. ; 72-4 lb. ; (ii) )
25. An electric motor running at 1400 r.p.m. transmits power by 3 V-belts,
each of 0-5 sq. in. cross-sectional area, the total angle of groove being 45°. The
density of the belt material is 0-06 lb./cu. in. and the maximum allowable working
stress in the belts is 300 lb./sq. in. fj, = 0-2. The angle of lap on the motor
pulley is 145°. Calculate the maximum power which can be transmitted and the
corresponding diameter of the motor pulley. {U. Glas.)
{Ans. : 26-7 ; 10-96 in.)
26. The drive from an electric motor to a line shaft is by 3 V-belts in parallel.
The mean diameter of the pulley on the motor is 6 in. and the motor and shaft
speeds are 1600 and 400 r.p.m. respectively. The shafts are 40 in. apart. The
belt weighs 0-05 lb./cu. in., the cross-sectional area of each belt is 1-25 sq. in.,
the angle between the sides of the V-groove is 30°, and /jl — 0-13.
If the tensile stress in the belt material is not to exceed 1200 lb./sq. in., find
the h.p. that can be transmitted by the drive. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 247)
27. The winding drum of a crane has an effective diameter of 18 in., and
carries a brake wheel 48 in. diameter. The angle of lap of the brake band is 270°,
and fi — 0-33. Find the maximum load which the brake can sustain on the wind¬
ing drum, if the safe working tension in the brake band is 3500 lb.
Derive any formula used, and make a neat diagram of the brake and operating
lever. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 7360 lb.)
28. A band brake is fitted to the circumference of a wheel of 3 ft. diameter,

the angle of contact being 220°. The band is fixed at one end and a pull of 40 lb.
can be applied at the other end. The weight of the wheel is 1200 lb., and its
radius of gyration is 15 in. /i = 0-2.
If the wheel is rotating at 600 r.p.m. and the brake is then fully applied, find
the time required for the wheel to come to rest. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 52-8 sec.)
29. The band brake indicated in Fig. 11.17 is applied to a shaft carrying a
flywheel of 800 lb. mass, with a radius of gyration of 18 in. and running at
360 r.p.m.
Find (a) the torque applied due to a hand load of 20 lb., given that /u = 0-2 ;
(b) the number of turns of the wheel before it is brought to rest. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 42-3 lb.ft; 150 rev.)
30. The hand-brake shown in Fig. 11.18 is used on a wall crane. The brake
drum is 24 in. diameter, the lifting drum is 16 in. diameter and carries a load of
900 lb. If fi = 0-3, find the least force at the end of the 2 ft. lever to support the
load. (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 10-4 lb.)
31. A brake consists of a flexible band on the periphery of a wheel of 30 in.
diameter. One end of the band is attached to a fixed pin and the other is sub¬
jected to a pull of 50 lb. The angle of lap is 270° and fx — 0-2.
Sketch the arrangement, showing the direction of rotation of the wheel, and
find the value of the maximum braking torque. If the wheel and the parts
attached to it have a moment of inertia of 1500 lb.ft.2, find the time to come to rest
from an initial speed of 600 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 97-6 lb.ft. ; 30 sec.)
32. Fig. 11.19 shows a band brake for use on a winch, consisting of a drum
18 in. diameter around a portion of the circumference of which is wrapped a band
APQB the ends of which are attached to the brake lever as shown at points A
and B. The lever can move around the fixed point O.
Determine the load to be applied to the lever 2 ft. from 0 in order to apply
a torque of 5000 lb.ft. to the drum, the rotation being clockwise, /x = 0T. The
band may be considered to be inextensible, so that the linkage does not depart
appreciably from the position shown when under load. Lengths OC = 15 in.,
OA = 6 in., OB = 12 in. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 96 lb.)
CHAPTER 12
SPUR GEARING
12.1 Definitions. When two gears are in mesh, the larger is

termed the wheel or spur and the smaller the pinion. Quantities relating
to the wheel and pinion are denoted by capital and small letters respectively.
Pitch circle diameters (D, d) : the diameters of discs which would
transmit the same velocity ratio by friction as the gear wheels. If T and
t are the numbers of teeth and Q and co the angular velocities of the wheel
and pinion respectively, then since the circumferential velocity of both
pitch circles is the same,
n d_t
m = D=T
The pitch circle radii are denoted by R and r. The pitch point is the
point of contact of two pitch circles.
Circular pitch the distance between a point on one tooth and
the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth, Fig. 12.1, measured along

the pitch circle,
tiD nd
Diametral pitch (P) : the number of teeth per inch of p.c.d.,
D d p
Module (m) : the number of inches of p.c.d. per tooth,
D d 1
i.e. m= —— -
T t P
205
Base circle : the circle from which the involute curves* forming the
tooth profiles are drawn.
Addendum : the radial height of a tooth above the pitch circle.
The radii of the addendum circles are denoted by Ra and ra .
Dedendum : the radial depth of a tooth below the pitch circle.
Working depth : the sum of the addenda of two mating teeth.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity (ip) : the angle between the
common normal to two teeth in contact and the common tangent to the
pitch circles.
The proportions recommended by the British Standards Institution
in B.S.S. 436-1940 are:
addendum = 1/P
dedendum = 1-25/P
working depth = 2/P
pressure angle = 20°

SPUR GEARING 207
12.2 Condition for transmission of constant velocity ratio.
In Fig. 12.2, Ox and 02 are the centres of the pinion and wheel respectively,
1^2 is the common normal at the point of contact, C, and 0^ and 02I2
are the perpendiculars from Ox and 02 respectively to the common normal.
Let vCi be the velocity of point C on the pinion and vCi be the velocity
of point C on the wheel. If the teeth are to remain in contact, the com¬
ponents of these velocities along the common normal I1I2 must be equal,
i.e. vc cos a = vCi cos /?
i.e. oo01C cos a = !Q02C cos/5
i.e. coO^ = IX)2I2
oo _ 02I2 _ 02P
" 5 = oj,= o^p
If oo/Q, is to be constant, P must be the pitch point for the two wheels’
i.e. the common normal at the point of contact must pass through the
pitch point. This condition is fulfilled by teeth of involute form, provided
that the base circles from which the profiles are generated are tangential
to the common normal. Since all points of contact lie on the common
normal, it is called the line of contact. The force between two mating
teeth acts along this line in the absence of friction, so that it is also called
the 'pressure line.
12.3 Velocity of sliding. The velocity of sliding is the velocity

of one tooth relative to its mating tooth along the common tangent at
the point of contact. If the wheel is regarded as fixed, the pinion rotates
instantaneously about the point P with a relative velocity oo -j- O. Hence
the velocity of sliding at C = (oo -f- H) X PC . . (12.1)
The maximum velocity of sliding thus occurs at the first or last point of
contact.
12.4 Path of contact. Assuming the pinion to be the driver, the

first and last points of contact are A and B, Fig. 12.3, where the addenda
circles cut the common normal. The path of contact is AB, which is
divided into the path of approach, AP, and the path of recess, BP.
AP = AI2 — PI2 = \/(Ra2 — R2 cos2 yi) — R sin yo . (12.2)
BP = BIX — PIX = y''(r02 — r2 cos2 yj) — r sin y) . (12.3)
and AB = AP -f- BP = y'(Ra2 — R2 cos2 p)
+ V(ra2 ~ r2 cos2 w) ~ {R + r) sin V • (12.4)
12.5 Arc of contact and contact ratio. The arc of contact is the
arc of the pitch circle EF, Fig. 12-3, between the positions of a tooth at
the first and last points of contact with its mating tooth. It is divided
into the arc of approach, EP, and the arc of recess, PF.
Z. M02N = z. E02P
arc MN arc EP
R cos xp R
arc MN
arc EP =
cos xp
But, from the construction of the involute curve, arc MN line AP.
path of approach
arc of approach = . (12.5)
cos xp
. path of recess
Similarly, arc of recess = -- . (12.6)
cos xp
„ path of contact
.*. arc of contact = =- • (12.7)
cos xp
Number of pairs of teeth in contact, or contact ratio,
arc of contact
. (12.8)
circular pitch
The maximum and minimum pairs of teeth in contact are the nearest
whole numbers above and below this value.
SPUR GEARING 209
12.6 Interference. For correct tooth action, the points of contact

on two mating teeth must lie on the involute profiles. If the addendum
of one tooth is too large, however, contact may occur between the tip
of that tooth and the non-involute portion of the mating tooth between
the base circle and the dedendum circle, Fig. 12.1. This causes under¬
cutting of the mating tooth and interference is said to occur.
For no interference between the teeth, the first and last points of
contact must he between the points of tangency, Ix and I2, Fig. 12.3,
i.e. the addendum circles must cut the common tangent to the base circles
between Ij and I2. The limiting case occurs when the addendum circles
pass through these points and since the limiting addendum for the pinion
is larger than that for the wheel, it is usually interference between the
tips of the wheel teeth and the flanks of the pinion teeth which has to be
prevented. This limits either the maximum wheel addendum or the
minimum number of teeth on the pinion.
For no undercutting of the pinion teeth, maximum permissible
addendum radius of wheel
— 02li — + V22)
— -y/{R2 cos2 xp -f (r sin ip -f- R sin xp)2}
= -y/(R2 -f- 2Rr sin2 xp -f- r2 sin2 xp)
.’. maximum wheel addendum
= V(#2 + 2Pr sin2 xp -j- r2 sin2 xp) — R . (12.9)
If the standard addendum, 1/P, is used, then for no interference,
1 2r
— = — < \/{R2 + 2Rr sin2 xp -f- r2 sin2 xp) — R
jP i
1 G
i.e. - < i^(G2 + 2G sin2 ip + sin2 ip) — -
t L
R
where G is the gear ratio,
r
# ^ 2
. (12.10)
1 > s/{G2 + sin2 xp( 1 + 2G)}-G
12.7 Rack and pinion. A rack may be regarded as a wheel of

infinite radius ; the teeth are straight-sided and are normal to the line
of contact. Referring to Fig. 12.4 and assuming the pinion to be the
driver,
path of approach, AP = a cosec xp where a = rack addendum
and path of recess, PB = BI — PI
— V(ra2 — 7,2 cos2 w) — r sin W
path of contact, AB = \Z{ra2 — r2cos2xp) — r sin xp + a cosec xp. (12.11)
For no interference between the rack tips and the pinion flanks,
maximum rack addendum = IX = IP sin ip
= r sin2 ip .... (12.12)
Maximum path of contact — IB = \/{ra2 — /2 cos2 ty) • • (12.13)
If the standard addendum, 1/P, is used for the rack, then
— = —<rsin2w. . . . (12.14)
P t r
t > 2 cosec2 ip . (12.15)
If ip = 14J°, t > 17
If ip = 20°, t > 32
1. Two gear wheels of 6 diametral pitch have 24 and 33 teeth respectively.

The pressure angle is 20° and each wheel has a standard addendum of 1
module. Find the length of the arc of contact and the maximum sliding
velocity if the speed of the smaller wheel is 120 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
24
= 2 in.
2x6
33
= 2-75 in.
2X6
Addendum = J = 0*167 in.
ra = 2-167 in. and Ra = 2-917 in.
Assuming the pinion to be the driver,

SPUR GEARING 211
path of approach = \/{Ra2 — R2 cos2 ip) — R sin ip from equation (12.2)

= ^{2-m2 - 2-752 cos2 20°) - 2-75 sin 20°
= 0-412 in.
path of recess = \/{ra2 — r2 cos2 ip) — r sin ip from equation (12.3)
= V(2-!672 - 22 cos2 20°) - 2 sin 20°
= 0-395 in.
path of contact = 0-412 -f 0-395 = 0-807 in.
path of contact
arc of contact = from equation (12.7)
cos ip
0-807
0-857 in.
cos 20°
Velocity of sliding = (co + H) X PC from equation (12.1)
The maximum value of PC is the path of approach, i.e. 0.412 in.
2-71-
o) = 120 x — = 12-57 rad./sec.

60 '
24
H = 12-57 X — = 9-14 rad./sec.
33 '
maximum velocity of sliding = (12-57 + 9-14) X 0-412
= 8-96 in./sec.
2. The following particulars of a single reduction spur gear are given :

Gear ratio — 10 to 1.
Distance between centres = 27\ in.
Pinion transmits 500 h.p. at 1800 r.p.m.
Involute teeth of standard proportions (addendum = 1/P); Pressure angle
= 22y.
Permissible normal pressure between teeth = 1000 lb. per in. of width.
Find (a) the nearest whole number for the diametral pitch if no inter¬
ference is to occur; (b) the number of teeth in each wheel; (c) the necessary
width of the pinion; (d) the loads on the bearings of the wheels due to the
power transmitted. (U. Lond.)
(a) For no interference, the maximum addendum radius for the larger
wheel is given by
Ra = \/{R2 + 2Rr sin2 ip -j- r2 sin2 ip) from equation (12.9)
but R -f- t = 27-5 in. and — = 10

r
R = 25 in. and r = 2-5 in.
Ra= V(252 + 2 X 25 X 2-5 sin2 22J° + 2-52 sin2 22J°)
= 25-38 in.
maximum addendum = 0-38 in. = —

P
P = 2-63
Therefore, to nearest whole number, diametral pitch =
(b) Number of teeth on wheel 2 X 25 X 3 - 150
>5 5? ,, pinion : 2x2-5x3=15
500 x 33,000 x 12
(c) Torque transmitted by pinion
2ji x 1800
= 17,520 lb.in.
Assuming the whole of the torque to be transmitted by one pair of teeth,
the normal force between the teeth along the line of contact
_ 17,520
base circle radius of pinion
17,520
= 7575 lb.
2-5 cos 22J°
7575
necessary width of pinion = = 7-575 in.
1000
7575
{d) Load on each bearing = = 3788 lb.
3. Two parallel shafts are connected by spur gearing through an inter¬

mediate wheel or idler, as shown in Fig. 12.5 (a). The lines joining the
centres of the wheels are at right angles and the number of teeth on the
idler is 40, diametral pitch 4. Neglecting friction and the weight, find the
force on the idler shaft when 5 h.p. is being transmitted at an idler speed
of 360 r.p.m., the direction of rotation being (a) clockwise, (b) anticlockwise.
The teeth are 20° involute. What will be the base circle diameter of the idler ?
(U. Lond.)
P.C.D. of idler = — = 10 in.

4
5 X 33,000 X 12
Torque transmitted by idler = = 875 lb.in.
2n X 360
875
tangential force at P.C.D. of idler = = 175 lb.
175
force along common normal = = 186-5 lb.
cos 20°
Assuming A to be the driver, the forces, driving and resisting, acting on
SPUR GEARING 213
the idler for clockwise rotation of the idler are as shown in Fig. 12.5 (6),
and the resultant force on the shaft,
R = 2P cos 65° = 2 x 186-5 X 0-4226 = 157-5 lb.
For anticlockwise rotation of the idler, the forces acting upon it are as
shown in Fig. 12.5 (c) and
R = 2P cos 25° = 2 x 186-5 X 0-9063 = 338 lb.
Base circle diameter of idler = 2x5 cos 20° = 9-397 in.
4. A 'pinion of 20 involute teeth and 5 in. P.C.D. drives a rack. The

addendum of both pinion and rack is J in. What is the least pressure angle
which can be used to avoid undercutting ? With this pressure angle, find
the length of the arc of contact and the minimum number of teeth in contact
at a time. (U. Bond.)
r = 2-5 in., ra = 2-5 -f- 0-25 = 2-75 in.

For no interference, rack addendum < r sin2 ip from equation (12.14)
0-25
¥5
i.e. sin ip > 0-3162
least pressure angle, ip — 18° 26'
Length of path of contact = \/{ra2 ~ 7,2 cos2 T) from equation (12.13)

= V(2-752 ~ 2*52 cos2 18° 26')
= 1-392 in.
1-392
length of arc of contact =-- from equation (12.7)
cos 18 26
= 1-467 in.
\
number of pairs of teeth in contact

arc of contact
from equation (12.8)
circular pitch
1-467
= 1-865
5tt/20
minimum number of teeth in contact is one pair.
5. What is the effect of increasing the centre distance of a pair of spar

wheels having involute teeth upon the following :
(a) effective addenda, (b) working depth, (c) arc of contact, (d) backlash ?
A pinion with 25 teeth is cut with a cutter of 10 D.P. and 14\° pressure
angle at the standard distance. It is made to mesh with a rack having straight¬
sided teeth at an angle of 70° to the pitch line. The pinion rotates at 120
r.p.m. Determine the speed of the rack. (U. Lond.)
Increasing the centre distance of a pair of spur wheels results in

a decrease in the effective addenda, the working depth and the arc of
contact. The backlash is increased.
25
P.C.D. of pinion = — = 2-5 in.
Base circle diameter = 2-5 cos 14|° = 2-42 in.

When made to mesh with the rack, the new pressure angle becomes 20°,
Fig. 12.6. The base circle of the pinion remains unaltered but the new
P.C.D. becomes
2-42
2-576 in.
cos 20°
Speed of rack = pitch circle velocity of pinion
lon 2-576
= — X 120 x ——
60 2
= 16-18 in./sec.
Fig. 12.6
SPUR GEARING 215
6. A gear wheel weighs 2000 lb. and has a radius of gyration of 2 ft.
It has 300 teeth of 5 D.P. If, owing to incorrect tooth form, the speed fluctu¬
ates dr 0-04 per cent during the time of contact, find (a) the variation in torque,
(b) the variation in tooth pressure, when the wheel rotates at 300 r.p.m. Assume
constant acceleration and deceleration. (U. Lond.)
Change in angular velocity during time of contact

0-04 /271 qr\f\
—-X — X 300
100 V60
= 0-004tz; rad./sec.
rr- , . . 1 60 1
lime ol contact =- X -=-sec.
300 300 1500
assuming only one pair of teeth in contact.
Assuming constant acceleration and deceleration,
angular acceleration or deceleration = ^ __ g rad./sec.2

6 1/1500 '
variation in torque = dr /a
2000 X 22
= ± 32-2
X 67r = dr 4680 lb.ft.
300
P.C.D. of wheel = 60 in.
variation in tooth pressure = dr —- = dr 1875 lb.
7. A pinion of 4 in. P.C.D. drives a wheel of 10 in. P.C.D. The teeth

are of involute form, angle of obliquity 20°. If the addendum on each wheel
is 0-2 in., the pinion speed is 2000 r.p.m. and p — 0-1, find for the first point
of contact:
(a) the sliding velocity between the teeth, and
(b) the transmission efficiency. (U. Lond.)
r = 2 in., ra = 2-2 in., R = 5 in., Ra = 5*2 in.

(a) At the first point of contact, C, Fig. 12.7,
velocity of sliding = (co -f £1) X PC, from equation (12.1)
But PC is the path of approach and, since the pinion is the driver,
PC = \Z{Ra2 — R2 cos2 ip) — R sin xp from equation (12.2)
= V(b-22 - 52 cos2 20°) - 5 sin 20° = 0-505 in.
200jz
co = — X 2000 rad./sec.
60
80tc
and — — X co rad./sec.
10
/200tt 80jz\
velocity of sliding = ( — + — ] X 0-505
\ 3 3
= 148 in./sec.
(b) At the first point of contact, let the pitch circles rotate through
a distance <5. Then the angle turned through by the pinion is d/r and
the time taken is d/cor.
Distance of sliding in this time = velocity of sliding X time
= velocity of sliding x —
cor
148<5
200tt
~3~ X
= 0-353(5 in.
If F is the tangential force between the teeth, the normal force along
the line of contact is F sec ip.
friction force at point of contact = piF sec ip
.*. work lost in friction = fiF sec ip X 0-353(5
Work done by pinion in this time = Fd
„ . Fd — uF sec ip x 0-353(5
instantaneous transmission emciency =----
= 1 - 0-1 X sec 20° X 0-353

= 0-962 or 96-2 per cent.
SPUR GEARING 217
8. Two spur wheels with involute teeth gear together externally. The pitch
circle diameters are 4 and 10 in. and the smaller wheel has 16 teeth. The pres¬
sure angle is 20° and the addendum is 0-3 of the circular pitch.
Determine (a) the length of the arc of approach if the smaller wheel is the
driver ;
(b) the maximum velocity of sliding between the teeth when the
driver rotates at 150 r.p.m. (U. Lond.)
(Arts. : 0-639 in. ; 1-17 ft./sec.)
9. For a pair of gear-wheels of involute teeth, show diagrammatically the two
pitch circles in contact, the base circles, the addendum circles and the line along
which the point of tooth contact moves. If the numbers of teeth in the wheels
are 20 and 29 with a pressure angle of 20°, diametral pitch equal to 4 and standard
addendum 1/P, calculate the length of the path of contact. Find also the angle
turned by each wheel while any one pair of teeth is in contact. (I. Mech. E.)
{Ana. : 1-18 in. ; 19-85° ; 28-8°)
10. A gear-wheel having 20 teeth of involute form of 4 D.P. and an angle of
obliquity of 20° drives another wheel of the same dimensions. Calculate the
length of the arc of contact if the addendum is £ in.
If the addendum were altered so that the arc of contact was the maximum
possible, what would be the length of this arc and the addendum required for this ?
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 1-222 in. ; 1-82 in. ; 0-406 in.)
11. What condition must be satisfied if two wheels in gear are to have a con¬
stant velocity ratio ? Show that this condition is satisfied by teeth of involute
profile. A single reduction gear transmits 160 h.p., the P.C.D. of the pinion
being 9 in. and its speed 650 r.p.m. If the pinion is supported by bearings on
each side, calculate the total load on these bearings due to the power transmitted.
The wheel teeth are of involute profile with a pressure angle of 20°. If the pres¬
sure angle is reduced to 15°, what is the percentage reduction in bearing load ?
(U. Lond.) {Ans. : 3670 lb. ; 2-7)
12. A gear-wheel has involute teeth, the pressure angle being 20°. There are
18 teeth, 2 D.P., and the wheel rotates at 250 r.p.m. If this wheel meshes with
one having 30 teeth, find (a) the length of the line of contact, and (6) the maxi¬
mum rubbing velocity. The addendum for each wheel is the reciprocal of the
diametral pitch. {U. Lond.) {Ans. : 2-35 in. ; 4-26 ft./sec.)
13. Two equal gear-wheels of 15 in. P.C.D. and 4 D.P. are in mesh. The teeth
are of involute form, of 20° angle of obliquity. Determine the maximum
addendum necessary if there are always to be at least two pairs of teeth in contact.
If the gear-wheels rotate at 110 r.p.m. and 8 h.p. is being transmitted, find the
normal force between the teeth, assuming that the total force is divided equally
between the two pairs of teeth. Neglect friction. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 0-283 in. ; 325 lb.)
14. Two mating gear-wheels have 20 and 40 involute teeth of 2 D.P. and 20°
obliquity, and the addendum on each wheel is to be made of such a length that
the line of contact on each side of the pitch point has half the maximum possible
length.
Determine the addendum height for each gear-wheel and the length of the line
of contact.
If the smaller wheel rotates at 250 r.p.m., find (a) the velocity of the point of
contact along the surface of each tooth at the instant when the tip of a tooth on
the smaller wheel is in contact, and {b) the velocity of sliding at this instant.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 0-812 in. ; 0-324 in. ; 2*565 in. ; 7-46 ft./sec. ;
1-865 ft./sec.; 5-6 ft./sec.)
H
15. A pinion having 20 involute teeth of 4 D.P. rotates at 200 r.p.m. and
transmits 2 h.p. to a gear wheel having 50 teeth ; the addendum on both wheels
is £ of the circular pitch and the angle of obliquity is 20°. Find (a) the length of
the path of approach and of the arc of approach, (b) the normal force between the
teeth at an instant when there is only one pair of teeth in contact. (U. Lond.)
(.Ans. : 0-521 in. ; 0-554 in. ; 268 lb.)
16. Two gear-wheels have teeth of 5 D.P., angle of obliquity 20°, the numbers
of teeth being 15 and 20. The addendum is the same for each wheel and is as
large as possible while avoiding interference.
Find (a) the length of the addendum ; (b) the contact ratio ; (c) the sliding
velocity at the first point of contact when the smaller wheel is driving at 3500
r.p.m. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-225 in.; 1-65; 328-5 in./sec.)
17. Two gear-wheels of 10 D.P. and of 20° pressure angle, each having 100
teeth, are in mesh together. Determine the minimum addendum length neces¬
sary if the contact ratio is to be 2-0. How much greater is the addendum length
than that of a standard tooth of the same pitch ?
If these gears transmit 10 h.p. at 1000 r.p.m. and the tooth load is shared
uniformly between those pairs of teeth in contact, determine the maximum and
minimum normal loads between each pair of teeth. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 0-109 in. ; 0-009 in. ; 67-3 lb. and 44-8 lb. since number
of pairs of teeth in contact varies between 2 and 3)
18. A pair of spur gears with involute tooth form have a diametral pitch of P
and equal addenda of 1/P. Show that involute interference will occur if the
number of teeth on the pinion is less than
2
V{£2 + (1 + 2G) sin2 ip} - G
where ip is the pressure angle and G the gear ratio.
A pair of gears is required to give a ratio of 2-5 : 1. A D.P. of 8 is to be used
and a pressure angle of 20°. Determine suitable numbers of teeth for the wheel
and pinion and the exact centre distance. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 16 ; 40 ; 3-5 in.)
19. A rack and pinion are in gear, the teeth being of involute form with
pressure angle ip and standard addendum 1/P. Make a sketch showing the pitch
line and circle of contact, the addendum line and circle, the line of pressure and
the pinion base circle. For no contact inside the base circle, show that the num¬
ber of pinion teeth must exceed 2 cosec2 ip. For ip = 20°, the least number of
teeth, and diametral pitch, P = 8, find the length of the path of tooth contact.
(I. Mech. E.) (Ans. : 18 teeth ; 0-67 in.)
20. A pinion of 10 in. P.C.D. drives a rack. The addendum height for both
pinion and rack is 0-5 in. and the teeth, of involute form, have a pressure angle
of 20°.
(a) Show that interference does not occur, (b) Find the minimum number
of teeth on the pinion to ensure continuity of contact. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : Maximum permissible rack addendum = 0-585 in. ; 12)
21. A pinion with 24 involute teeth of 6 in. P.C.D. drives a rack. The
addendum of the pinion and rack is J in. What is the least pressure angle which
can be used if under-cutting of the teeth is to be avoided ? Using this pressure
angle, find the length of the arc of contact and the minimum number of teeth in
contact at one time. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 16° 47'; 1-585 in.; 2 pairs)
22. Explain what is meant by the term ‘ interference ’ as applied to toothed
gearing with involute profiles.
SPUR GEARING 219
A pinion with 25 teeth, 5 D.P., is required to mesh with a rack, the teeth being
of involute form with a pressure angle of 15°. Find the largest addendum that
can be used on the rack if interference is to be avoided.
If the addendum is the same for both rack and pinion, find the length of the
arc of contact in terms of the circular pitch of the teeth. (I. Mech. E.)
(.Ans. : 0-1674 in. ; l-868p)
23. A pinion has involute teeth of standard proportions ; pressure angle 20°,
addendum equal to the reciprocal of the diametral pitch. What is the smallest
number of teeth that may be used if undercutting of the flanks is to be avoided
when the pinion gears with a rack ?
How may the proportions be modified so as to allow a pinion with a smaller
number of teeth to be used ? (I. Mech. E.) {Arts. : 18)
24. A pinion of 4 in. P.C.D. drives a rack. The teeth are of involute form,
the angle of obliquity is 20° and the total depth of the teeth on each wheel is to
be 0-7 in., the root clearance being 0-04 in.
Determine the lengths of the addendum and root for both pinion and rack, the
addendum of the rack being as large as possible consistent with correct tooth
action.
Calculate the length of the path of approach. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 0-426 in. ; 0-274 in. ; 0-234 in. ; 0-466 in. ; 0-684 in.)
CHAPTER 13
GEAR TRAINS
13.1 Simple trains. In the simple trains shown in Fig. 13.1, let
Na , Nb— speeds of A and B
Ta , Tb — numbers of teeth on A and B
ra , rb = pitch circle radii of A and B
In train (a),
Na r± (13.2)
>> 55 (^)j
Nb ra
jj G)>
Na r± (13.3)
Nh ra
The negative signs signify that A and B rotate in opposite directions.
The idler, C, Fig. 13.1 (b) and (c), does not affect the velocity ratio of
A to B but decides the direction of B.
13.2 Compound trains. In the compound trains shown in Fig. 13.2

wheels C and D are rigidly connected together to form a compound wheel
which rotates on the intermediate shaft, XX.
s_- X
X
'-1
driver
driver
u (a) (b)
Fig. 13.2
220
GEAR TRAINS 221
No T c Tb
Then (13.4)
A* Ta'Td
speed of driver product of teeth on followers
or
speed of follower product of teeth on drivers
In the reverted or co-axial train, Fig. 13.2 (6), the equation
ra + rc = rb + ra must also be satisfied,
i.e.
Ta _j_
Tc A Td
2P1 ' 2Pj 2P2 ' 2P2 ' ' ' ^13'5^
where P1 and P2 are the diametral pitches of A and B respectively.
The tooth numbers to satisfy equations (13.4) and (13.5) are usually
found by trial.
13.3 Epicyclic trains. Referring to the epicyclic train shown in

Fig. 13.3, S is the sun-wheel, A the annulus, having internal teeth, and
P is a planet wheel which can rotate freely on a pin attached to the arm L.
The arm L rotates freely about the axis of S.
Suppose it is required to find the velocity ratio
of S to L when A is held fixed.
The procedure is as follows :
(a) Rotate each member through one complete
revolution clockwise (considered positive), i.e.
imagine the whole gear locked and rotated once.
(b) Hold the arm L fixed and rotate the annulus
through one revolution anti-clockwise, thus return¬
ing it to its former position. Since the arm is
fixed, wheels A, P and S form a simple train and
the revolutions of P and S due to the rotation of A are — Ta/Tv and
+ TJTs respectively.
(c) Add the corresponding rotations of each member in operations
(a) and (b) to obtain the resultant motion.
These operations are set out in tabular form thus :
L A P S
(a) Turn whole gear clockwise 1 rev. +1 +1 +1 +1
Ta Ta
(b) Hold arm L, turn A anticlockwise 1 rev. 0 -1
+ T,
Ta , T«
(c) Resulting motion [=(«) + (&)] . +1 0 1_-
TP l + Tt
The last line of the table gives the relative motion of the arm, sun-
wheel and planet when the annulus is fixed. It is always the fixed wheel
which is given —1 rev. in line (6).
Where all the members are rotating, a modification of the method
is necessary. The whole gear is given -f-a rev. in line (a). In line (6),
the arm is held fixed and any wheel is given -f-b rev. The motion of the
other wheels is then found as before. The resulting motion found by the
addition of lines (a) and (b) is in terms of the constants a and b, which
are then evaluated from the known speeds of two of the members.
Thus, in tabular form :
L A P S
(a) Give whole gear -fa rev. . +a ■f a -f a -fa
Ta
(b) Hold arm L, give A +6 rev. 0 +6
+TP'h T/h
Ta i
(c) Resulting motion . +a a+6 b Cl .b
13.4 Torques on gear trains. In the gear units shown in Fig. 13.4,
let Ca , Cb and Cc be respectively the applied input torque, the resisting
torque on the output shaft and the torque to hold the casing fixed. If
. auu ji iui lj i vi
in opposite directions
(a) (b)
there is to be no acceleration of the system, the nett torque applied to

the unit about any one axis must be zero,
i.e. Ca -f- Cb -f- Cc — 0 . . . . (13.6)
Also, if there is no acceleration, the kinetic energy of the system remains
constant so that the nett work done per second is zero,
i.e. Cacoa + Cbcob = 0 . . . . (13.7)
The appropriate signs must be given to both torques and speeds in
equations (13.6) and (13.7). In Fig. 13.4 (a), the direction of the fixing
torque Cc will depend on the relative magnitudes of Ca and Cb.
If, allowing for friction, the efficiency of the unit is r), then
output power
rj = ----
input power
so that equation (13.7) becomes
riCacoa + Cbcob = 0 . (13.8)
GEAR TRAINS 223
If the casing is not fixed, Cc represents either an input or output torque

and equation (13.7) becomes
CaCOa "f* CbMb “I" CcOJc =0 . . . (13.9)
1. Two shafts, A and B, in the same straight line are geared together
through an intermediate parallel shaft, C. The wheels connecting A and C
have a D.P. of 12, those connecting C and B a D.P. of 7. The speed of B
is to be about, but less than, yq that of A. If the two pinions have each 24
teeth, find suitable teeth for the wheels, the actual ratio and the corresponding
distance of shaft C from A. (I. Mech. E.)
X
Y
c s_-
.-
Fig. 13.5
N.
In Fig. 13.5, “ >10
Nb
and ra=Tv=2i
T T
i.e. ±J?..±± > 10
■TT
-‘-a J v
i.e. Tx.Tb >=5760 (1)
V+ rx=-rb + ry
i.e.
2 x 12
+2 x 12
X
2 x 7
+2 x7
or 1TX - 12 Tb = 120 (2)
Tx — 120 and Tb = 60
Nn 120 X 60
- = 12-5
Nb 24 X 24
24 120
Centre distance ra + rx =
2 x 12
+2 x 12
= 6 in.
2. A gear box is to be arranged for four speeds in approximate geometrical

progression, one of which is to be a direct drive. The driving shaft transmits
40 h.p. at 2400 r.p.m., the speed of the lay shaft is approximately 1600 r.p.m.
and the speed of the driven shaft in lowest gear is to be approximately 400
r.p.m. The distance between the axes of the driving shaft and the layshaft is
7'5 in. and all teeth are 4 D.P.
(a) Find the necessary numbers of teeth in each pair of gears.
(b) Find the torque on the driven shaft and the torque on the gear-box
frame in lowest gear, neglecting losses. (U. Lond.)
(a) Referring to Fig. 13.6,
Ta+Tb=Tc+Td=Te+Tf=Tg+Th=7ix 2P
= 7| X 2 X 4 - 60
Also TS=T*= 2400 =3
Ta Tj 1600 2
;.Ta=T,= 24 and Tb= Tk= 36
Td _ 400 _ i
Yc ~ 1600 ~ 4
Therefore the common ratio r of the geometrical progression is given by
-r3 = - from which r = ^/6 = 1*817

4 2
1-817 x - = 0-454
T 4
and ' ZA = 1-8172 x - = 0-825

T 4
Te = 41_ and T/=19
Tg = 33 and Th = 27
GEAR TRAINS 225
(b) Torque on driving shaft
h.p. X 33,000 40 x 33,000
87-4 Ib.ft.
N 2tz X 2400
2400
and torque on driven shaft = X 87-4 = 525 Ib.ft.
400
The torques on the unit correspond to those in Fig. 13.4 (a). Therefore,
if Cc is the torque on the frame,
87-4 -\- Cc — 525 = 0 from equation (13.6)
Cc = 437-6 Ib.ft. (in same direction as driving torque)
3. An epicyclic train has a sun-wheel with 30 teeth and two planet wheels
of 50 teeth, the latter meshing with the internal teeth of a fixed annulus. The
input shaft, carrying the sun-wheel, transmits 5 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The
output shaft is connected to an arm which carries the planet wheels. What
is the speed of the output shaft and the torque transmitted if the overall effi¬
ciency is 95 per cent ? If the annulus is rotated independently, what should
he its speed in order to make the output shaft rotate at 10 r.p.m. ?
(U. Lond.)
Referring to Fig. 13.3, ra = 2rP + rs
i-e. Ta = 2 Tv + Ts
= 2 x 50 + 30 = 130
L A P s
Give whole gear -fa rev. . . . -fa -fa -fa -fa
130 130
Hold arm L and give A +6 rev. . 0 +b
+ 50 6 ~ 3b"6
Add.-fa a + b 13z.
a + y6
13 ,
When the annulus A is fixed and the sun S rotates at 300 r.p.m.
Na= a-f 6 = 0
and Ns = a - ^6 = 300
900 , _ 900
hence a —- and b = —
16 16
900
speed of output shaft L = a =
16 "
= 56-25 r.p.m. (in same direction as input shaft)

2 nNlCl
Output h.p. = 0-95 X 5 =
33,000
Therefore torque transmitted, Ct = — — —-= 444 Ib.ft.

H 1 27T X 56-25 -
When the output shaft L rotates at 10 r.p.m. and the sun S rotates at
300 r.p.m.,
Ns= a- -l-£b = 300
%
and Nt = a = 10
870
b= —
13"
870
speed of annulus A = a -f- b — 10 —
13 "
56-9 r.p.m. (in opposite direction to input shaft)
4. Fig. 13-7 shows an epicyclic gear train in which the wheel D is held
stationary by the shaft A and the arm B is rotated at 200 r.p.m. The wheels
E and F are fixed together and rotate freely on the pin carried by the arm. The
wheel G is rigidly attached to the shaft C.
Find the speed of the shaft C, stating the direction of rotation relative to
that of B.
The numbers of teeth are as follows : E 20, F 40, G 30.
If the gearing transmits 10 h.p., what will be the torque required to hold
the shaft A stationary if all frictional losses are neglected ?
(U. Lond.)
r* + U = r, +
T<x Te -- Tg + T, , assuming pitches are equal
i.e. Td + 20 = 30 + 40
Td = 50
B C, G F, E A, D
Give whole gear +1 rev. . . . +1 +1 +1 +1
50 x 40 ( 50
Hold arm B and give A — 1 rev. 0
20 x 30 +20 _1
Add . . . . +1
Multiply by 200 + 200 -466-7 0
GEAR TRAINS 227
.'. speed of C = — 466-7 r.p.m. (in opposite direction to B)

h.p. X 33,000
Applied input torque, Cb =
2nN
10 X 33,000
262-6 lb.ft.
27i x 200
Since nett work done is zero,
CcNc + CbNb = 0
X 262-6
= + 112-5 lb.ft. (in the same direction as Cb)

Since there is no acceleration,
Ca + Cc = 0
i.e. Ca-\- 262-6 + 112-5 = 0
.'. Ca = — 375-1 lb.ft. (in opposite direction to Cb)
5. In the gear drive shown in Fig. 13.8, the casing is fixed. Gear wheel
B rotates freely on shaft Q and carries a pin on which rotates the wheels C and
Fig. 13.8
D, which are fixed together. Wheels F and G are fixed together and rotate
freely on shaft Q. The pitch of the teeth is the same for all wheels, and the
numbers of teeth are shown for all wheels except E, which is fixed on shaft Q.
If shaft P rotates at 200 r.p.m., find the speed and direction of rotation
of shaft Q for the two cases : (a) shaft R is fixed, (b) shaft R rotates at
100 r.p.m. in the same direction as P. (U. Lond.)
Te = 28 + 16 - 20 = 24
The wheels A and H are not part of the epicyclic train and must
therefore be treated separately.
32
Nh=- = X 200 = - 80
80
,, Th AT 30 AT
Na = — —. Nh = — — X Nh -N,
’ Tg h 24 h
Wheel B is the arm of the epicyclic train.
B C, D E,Q F, G
Give whole gear -\-a rev. . 4a +a -\-a -f-a
28 28 x 20,
Hold arm and give F +b rev. 0 +b
-re6 1 16 x 24
7 35
Add. -\-a a — -b a + b
4 a + 246
(a) When R is fixed a = — 80
and a+ b = 0
.*. b = 80
35
Ng = - 80 + - X 80
== + 36-7 r.p.m. (in same direction as P)
(b) When R rotates at 100 r.p.m., Ng — — - X 100 = — 125 r.p.m.
a = — 80
and a + b = - 125
b=- 45
35
•
• •
Nn 80 X 45
24
145*6 r.p.m. (in opposite direction to P)
6. In the gear train shown in Fig. 13.9, the wheel C is fixed; X is the
driving shaft; the compound wheel BD can revolve on a spindle which can
turn freely about the axis of X and Y.
Show that (a) if the ratio of the tooth numbers Tb/Td is greater than
Tc/Te the wheel E will rotate in the same direction as wheel A, and (b) if
the ratio Tb/Ta is less than Tc/Te the direction of E is reversed.
If the numbers of teeth on wheels A, B, C, D and E are respectively 17,
60, 75, 19 and 25, and 10 h.p. is put into the shaft X at 500 r.p.m., what is
the output torque on the shaft Y, and what are the forces (tangential to the pitch
cones) at the contact points between wheels D and E and between B and C,
if the mean diameters of B and D are 15 0 in. and 4-75 in. (U. Bond.)
GEAR TRAINS 229
Arm E, Y c B, D A, X
Give whole gear +1 rev. . • +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
Te Td Te
Hold arm and give C — 1 rev. . 0 -1 —
~Tb’¥e + ¥a
Te Td Te
Add. . +1 0 "
1 ~TbTe 1 +Tl
If 1 — —.
rji
—
rp
is ±positive, E is of same sign as A,
1b 1e
T Ta
i.e. 1 > Af
Tb T
J e
t1>t1
i.e.
T T
If 1 — —fis negative, E is of opposite sign to A,
Th Te
i.e. i <
Tb Te
i.e.
Tb<Ti
Td T,
iTcT*
N, TbTe
NX T
1 + —
Ta
75 19
1 -
60 25
75 108-2
1 + 17
t ^ 10 x 33,000 ln- „ ,.
Input torque, Cx — -— 105 lb.ft
2jz x 500
Since nett work done is zero,
CyNy -f- CXNx — 0
i.e. output torque, Cy — — 108-2 X 105 = — 11,360 lb.ft.
Since there is no acceleration,
Cx "h Cc + Cy — 0
i.e. 105+ Cc- 11,360 = 0
Cc= 11,255 lb.ft.
T
Mean diameter of C = — X mean diameter of B
Tb
75
= — X 15 = 18-75 in.
60
Since whole torque Cc is taken by wheel C,
force between C and B = — = 11,255 x 12 x 2 = 14 420 lb.

rc 18-75 —:-
T
Mean diameter of E = — X mean diameter of D
Td
25
= — X 4-75 = 6-248 in.
19
Since whole torque Ce is taken by wheel E,
force between E and D = = 11,360 x 12 x 2 = 43 600 lb.

rc 6-248 —-
7. In the train of gear-wheels shown in Fig. 13.10, the shaft X runs

at 2400 r.'p.m. and drives the bevel wheel B by the pinion A. The compound
wheel EC revolves freely on a spindle rigidly attached to B. Wheel C gears
with D, and E with F, both wheels D and F being concentric with wheel B.
Wheel F is held stationary and wheel K, solid with D, drives L on shaft Z.
There are three sets of the wheels CE carried on spindles equally spaced on
B. The tooth numbers are : A 18, B 60, C — D = 22, E 23, F 21, K 19,
L 64.
(a) Find the speed of shaft Z.
(b) If the gear is to be modified by simply substituting different wheels
of the same pitch for E and F, so that the speed of Z is to be reversed in direction
and is to be between 35 and 45 r.p.m., find the number of teeth on the new
wheels E and F. (U. Lond., modified)
GEAR TRAINS 231
The wheels A and L are not part of the epicyclic train and must
therefore be treated separately.
Nh -N.X
1Q
— — X 2400 = 720 r.p.m.
60
19
Also, Na Nh X
64
B E, C F D,K
Give whole gear +1 rev. . +1 +1 +1 +1
T_i Tf 22
Hold arm B and give F — 1 rev. 0 + Te -1
“TV 22
Tf
Add. +1 1 + Te 0
Multiply by 720 + 720 -

- 0
(a) When Tf = 21 and Te — 23
Nk = 7201 1 21 = 62-6 r.p.m.

23.
19
iV2 = 62-6 X — = — 18-6 r.p.m. (opposite in direction to B)
64 —-—-
, t \ IQ
(b) N„= — 720f 1 — — J X — = n where 35 < n < 45
TJ 64
Te
i.e. = 1 + 0-00468n (1)
Also Tf + Te = 23 + 21 = 44 . (2)
44
MT e =
2 + 0-00468w
44
When n = 35, T = = 20-3
2 + 0-164
44
When n — 45, T
-*■ e = = 19-1
2 + 0-211
Te = 20 and Tf = 24
8. In a simple epicyclic train there are N planet wheels symmetrically

arranged about a sun-wheel and gearing both with the sun-wheel and an annular
wheel. »
The number of teeth on the sun-wheel is S and the number of teeth on each
planet is P. Show that if the gear train can be assembled, the quantity
2{P + S)
-—- must be an integer. (U. Lond.)
Let A be the number of teeth on the annulus, Fig. 13.11.

Then A = S + 2P . (1)
2jr
Angle between arms carrying two adjacent planets =
N
When the first planet has been assembled, let the arm rotate through
an angle 2n/N while s is held fixed. Then the
annulus rotates through an angle
^ !(■+5.
This angular movement of the annulus must corre¬
spond to a whole number of pitches of the annulus
teeth so that the next planet can be assembled.
Angular movement corresponding to one pitch
of the annulus teeth
_ 2n
~ A
number of pitches moved through by the annulus
'2 n
= -(i + -
N\ ^ A ~A
A + S
N
2 (P + S)
from equation (1)
N
This expression must therefore be an integer.

GEAR TRAINS 233
9. Two shafts A and B in the same line are geared together through an inter¬
mediate parallel shaft C. The wheels connecting A and C have a D.P. of 9 and
those connecting C and B a D.P. of 4, the least number of teeth in any wheel
being not less than 15. The speed of B is to be about but not greater than 1/12
the speed of A and the ratio at each reduction is the same. Find suitable wheels,
the actual reduction and the distance of shaft C from A and B. (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : A , 36 ; Cx , 126 ; C2 , 16 ; B, 56 ; 1 : 12*25 ; 9 in.)
10. Two parallel shafts X and Y are to be connected by toothed wheels;
wheels A and B form a compound pair which can slide along, but rotate with,
shaft X ; wheels C and D are rigidly attached to shaft Y, and the compound pair
may be moved so that A engages with C, or B with D.
Shaft X rotates at 640 r.p.m., and the speeds of shaft Y are to be 340 r.p.m.
exactly, and 240 r.p.m. as nearly as possible. Using a D.P. of 2 for all wheels,
find the minimum distance between the shaft axes, suitable tooth numbers for
the wheels, and the lower speed of Y. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : 12*25 in. ; A, 13 ; B, 17 ; C, 36 ; D, 32 ; 231*1 r.p.m.)
11. In the arrangement of gears shown diagrammatically in Fig. 13.12, the
driving shaft X runs at 1000 r.p.m.; the
compound gears D and F rotate with
the driven shaft Z, and can be moved
so as to engage D with C or F with E.
All wheels are to have a D.P. of 4, wheels
A and C have equal tooth numbers, and
the distance between the lay shaft (Y)
axis and the axis of X and Z is fixed at
5f in.
If shaft Z is to run at 640 r.p.m.
exactly, and 480 r.p.m. as nearly as
possible, determine suitable numbers of
teeth for all wheels and the actual lower Fig. 13.12
speed of Z. (U. Lond.)
(Ans. : A, 20 ; B, 25 ; C, 20 ; D, 25 ; E, 17 ; F, 28 ; 486 r.p.m.)
12. The first and third shafts of a double reduction spur gear box are in line
and a total reduction of approximately 10 : 1 is required. The D.P. of the high
speed pair is to be 8 and that of the low speed pair to be 5 and no wheel is to have
fewer than 20 teeth. Find suitable values of the centre distance between the
first and the second shafts and the numbers of teeth on the wheels so as to satisfy
the above conditions. What is the actual gear ratio ? (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans. : 8*5 in. ; A, 32 ; B, 104 ; C, 20 ; D, 65 ; 1 : 9*5)
13. An epicyclic gear has a fixed annular wdieel C concentric with a sun wheel
A. A planet wheel B gears with A and C and can rotate freely on a pin carried
by an arm D which rotates about an axis co-axial with that of A and C. If
Tv T2 are the numbers of teeth on A and C respectively, show that the ratio of
the speeds of D to A is T1/(T1 -f- T2). If the least number of teeth on any wheel
is 18 and Tx + T2 = 120, find the greatest and least speeds of D when the wheel
A rotates at 500 r.p.m. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 175 ; 75 r.p.m.)
14. In the epicyclic gear shown in Fig. 13.13 the pinion B and the internal
wheels E and F are mounted independently on the spindle, 0, while C and D
form a compound wheel which rotates on the pin P attached to the arm A. The
wheels B, C and D have 15, 30 and 25 teeth, all of the same pitch.
(a) If wheel E is fixed, what is the ratio of the speed of F to that of B ?
(b) If wheel B is fixed, what are the ratios of the speeds of E and F to that of
A ? (I. Mech. E.) (Ans. : 1 : 56 ; 6:5; 33 : 28)
Fig. 13.13
15. Fig. 13.14 shows an epicyclic gear in which the wheel P, having 45 teeth
of § in. pitch, is geared with Q through the intermediate wheel R at the end of the
arm A. When P is rotating at 63 r.p.m. in a clockwise direction, and A is rotating
at 9 r.p.m., also in a clockwise direction, the wheel Q is required to rotate at
21 r.p.m. in an anticlockwise direction.
Find the necessary numbers of teeth in Q and R, and the P.C.D. of Q.
(TJ. Lond.) (Ans. : 81 ; 18 ; 16-12 in.)
16. In the epicyclic gear shown in Fig. 13.14, the P.C.D. of the internally
toothed ring Q is to be about 10^ in. and the teeth are to have a D.P. of 6. The
ring is stationary but the spider A carrying the planet wheels R is to make one
rev. for every 5 rev. of the driving spindle carrying the wheel P and in the same
direction. Find suitable numbers of teeth for all the wheels. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 64 ; 16 ; 24)
17. If, in the epicyclic gear train
shown in Fig. 13.15, gear A rotates at
1000 r.p.m. clockwise, wdiile E rotates at
500 r.p.m. anti-clockwise, determine the
speed and direction of rotation of the
annulus D, and of the shaft F. All gears
are of the same pitch, and the number
of teeth in A is 30, in B is 20 and in E
is 80. (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 372 r.p.m. anti-clockwise ;
40 r.p.m. clockwise)
18. In an epicyclic gear of the sun and planet type, the P.C.D. of the internally
toothed ring is to be as nearly as possible 9 in., and the teeth are to have a D.P.
of 6. When the ring is stationary, the spider, which carries three planets of
equal size, is to make one rev. for every five of the driving spindle carrying the
sun wheel. Determine suitable numbers of teeth for all the wheels and the exact
diameter of the pitch circle of the ring.
If a torque of 12 lb.ft. is applied to the spindle carrying the sun wheel, what
torque will be required to keep the ring stationary ? (TJ. Lond.)
(Ans. : 56, 21, 14 ; 9^ in. ; 48 lb.ft.)
19. An epicyclic gear consists of two sun wheels, Sx and S2 with 24 and 28
teeth respectively, engaged with a compound planet wheel with 26 and 22 teeth.
Sx is keyed to the driven shaft and S2 is a fixed wheel co-axial with the driven
shaft. The planet wheel is carried on an arm from the driving shaft. Find the
GEAR TRAINS 235
velocity ratio of the gear. If 1 h.p. is transmitted, the output speed being
100 r.p.m., what torque is required to hold S2 ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : — 2-64 : 1 ; 72-4 lb.ft.)
20. An epicyclic gear consists of a sun wheel which has 24 teeth, planet
wheels which have 28 teeth, and an internally toothed annulus which is held
stationary. Neglecting friction, find the torque required to hold the annulus at
rest when 12 h.p. is being transmitted, the sun wheel rotating at 700 r.p.m.
If the teeth have a D.P. of 6, what is the diameter of the circle traced out by the
centres of the planet wheels ? (U. Lond.) {Ans. : 300 lb.ft. ; 8-67 in.)
21. In the epicyclic train shown in Fig. 13.16, shaft A rotates at 1000 r.p.m.
in a clockwise direction while shaft B is driven at 500 r.p.m. in an anticlockwise
direction. The torque input at shaft B is 50 lb.ft. Determine (a) the speed and
direction of rotation of the shaft C, (b) the torques in shafts A and C, stating
whether these torques are inputs to the system or outputs from the system.
All teeth are of the same D.P. and the numbers of teeth in the various gears
are as follows : D, 16 ; E, 24 ; F, 43 ; H, 35 ; K, 30. (U. Lond.)
{Ans. : 2060 r.p.m. clockwise ; A, 22-9 lb.ft. input; C, 23-25 lb.ft. output)
Fig. 13.16
22. In the epicyclic gear shown in Fig. 13.17 the driving wheel A has 14 teeth
and the fixed annular wheel C, 100 teeth ; the ratio of tooth numbers in wheels E
and D is 98 : 41. If h.p. at 1200 r.p.m. is supplied to the wheel A, find the
speed and direction of rotation of E, and the fixing torque required at C.
{U. Lond.) {Ans. : 3-99 r.p.m. in same direction as A ; 3282 lb.ft.)
23. In the epicyclic speed reducing gear shown in Fig. 13.18 the input shaft A
runs at 12,000 r.p.m. and the annular wheel B is fixed. Find the speed of the
output shaft Z and the speed of the planet wheels relative to the spindle on which
they are mounted. The numbers of teeth in the wheels are : A, 15 ; C, 41 ;
Cx , 25 ; B, 81.
If there are three planet systems and the teeth have 20° involute profiles,
find the tangential and radial forces at the tooth contacts of C and Cx when the
gear transmits 2600 h.p. {I. Mech. E.)
{Ans. : 1216 r.p.m. ; — 3946 r.p.m. ; 2130 lb., 775 lb., 3490 lb., 1270 lb.)
24. In the epicyclic gear shown in Fig. 13.19, the gear B has 120 teeth ex¬
ternally and 100 teeth internally. The driver A has 20 teeth and the arm E is
connected to the driven shaft. Gear D has 60 teeth. If A revolves at +100

r.p.m. and D revolves at +27 r.p.m., find the speed of the arm E.
If D is now fixed and A transmits a torque of 10 lb.ft. at +100 r.p.m., what
will be the available torque at the arm E, assuming 96 per cent efficiency of
transmission ? (U. Lond.) {Ans. : — 7/24 r.p.m.; 92 lb.ft.)
25. In the Humpage gear shown in Fig. 13.20, the wheel C is fixed and shaft X
rotates at 650 r.p.m. Determine the speed of shaft Y.
If the numbers of teeth on all wheels except E remain unaltered, find the
minimum change in the number of teeth on E to cause Y to rotate in the opposite
direction to shaft X, wheel C remaining fixed. What will then be the speed of
shaft Y if shaft X rotates at 650 r.p.m. ? (U. Lond.)
{Ans.: 9-75 r.p.m.; 2; —1-05 r.p.m.)
26. An epicyclic gear consists of bevel wheels arranged as shown in Fig. 13.21.
The driving pinion A has 20 teeth and meshes with the wheel B which has 25 teeth.
The wheels B and C are fixed together and turn freely on the shaft F. The shaft F
can rotate radially about the mam axis XX. The wheel C has 50 teeth and meshes
with wheels D and E, each of which has 60 teeth.
Find the speed and direction of E when A rotates at 200 r.p.m., (a) if D is
fixed, (6) if D rotates at 100 r.p.m. in the same direction as A.
In both cases, find the ratio of the torques transmitted by the shafts of the
wheels A and E, the friction being neglected. {U. Lond.)
{Ans. : {a) 800 r.p.m., opposite to direction of A ;
(b) 300 r.p.m. opposite to direction of A ; 4 ; 4)
APPENDIX
Solution of Differential Equations

The differential equations occurring in this book are of the form
d^x
-j- co2x = c, where co and c are constants.
dt2
d2x
The equations may be written as — ± co2x = 0 -f- c and the solution
dt
consists of two parts :
d2x
(a) the value of x which satisfies the equation — ± m2x — 0, this being
dt2
called the complementary function ;
d2x
(ib) the value of x which satisfies the equation — ± co2x = c, this being
dt2
called the particular integral.
(a) Complementary Function :—
Assuming a solution of the form x = Cemt* the equation
d2x
— i co2x 0 becomes
dt2
m2Cemt ± co2Cemt = 0
If —- — co2x = 0, m = ±oo
dt2
x= + C2e~wt
— C1(cosh cot + sinh cot) + C2(cosh cot — sinh cot)
= A cosh cot ± B sinh cot

where A = Cx ± C2 and B = C1 — C2
if dH -j- co2x = 0, m — ±ico

dt2
x = Cpe™1 -f- C2e~uot
— C1(cos cot -|- i sin cot) + C2(cos cot — i sin cot)
= A cos cot ± B sin cot
where A = C± ± C2 and B = i(C1 — C2)
* This is the only type of function which can be differentiated any number of
times without change of form.
237
(6) Particular Integral :—

Assuming a solution of the form x — lc* the equation
d^x
-—- 4- co2x = c becomes
dt2
0 i co2k = c
h =
±(o2
d2x
Thus the complete solution of the equation — oj2x — c is
dt2
x — A cosh cot 4- B sinh cot — — o

CO
d2x
and the complete solution of the equation — -f- co2x — c is
dt2
x — A cos cot + B sin cot -f- —.

CO2
* No function of x can lead to a constant when substituted in the L.H.S. of the

given equation.
ff

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1.1 Velocity and acceleration. 1.2 Equations of uniformly accelerated

CHAPTER 2. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ... 45

2.1 Simple harmonic motion. 2.2 Angular simple harmonic motion.

CHAPTER 3. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ... 60

3.1 Velocities in mechanisms : relative velocity diagrams. 3.2 Velocities

Worked examples in velocity diagrams, 1-6 ..... 68

CHAPTER 4. VALVE DIAGRAMS .... 94

5.1 Cams and followers. 5.2 Specified motion of follower; uniform

CHAPTER 6. CRANK EFFORT DIAGRAMS . . .120

6.1 Crank effort diagrams. 6.2 Fluctuation of speed and energy.

7.1 Function of a governor. 7.2 Dead weight governors ; Watt, Porter

8.1 Static and dynamic balance. 8.2 Balancing of masses rotating in

9.1 Friction between unlubricated surfaces. 9.2 Motion on an inclined

CHAPTER 10. FRICTION CLUTCHES .... 175

10.1 Cone and plate clutches. 10.2 Centrifugal clutches.

CHAPTER 11. BELT DRIVES AND BAND BRAKES . . 187

11.1 Ratio of belt tensions. 11.2 Modification for V-grooved pulley.

CHAPTER 12. SPUR GEARING.205

12.1 Definitions. 12.2 Condition for transmission of constant velocity

CHAPTER 13. GEAR TRAINS.220

13.1 Simple trains. 13.2 Compound trains. 13.3 Epicyclic trains.

1.1 Velocity and acceleration. The velocity of a body is the rate

1.2 Equations of uniformly accelerated motion. Let a body

and aq2 4~ 2a0 • (1-6)

1.3 Force, mass, weight and momentum. Force is that which

1.4 Newton’s Laws of Motion. (1) Every body continues in its

(2) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied

1.5 Impulse. The impulse of a constant force P acting for a time

1.6 Relative velocity. If two bodies A and B are moving with

If oa and ob represent the velocities of the same body at different

1.7 Circular motion. Consider a body of weight W moving in

Thus change of velocity = v dd

A common concept of centrifugal force in engineering problems is to

1.8 Principle of conservation of linear momentum. The total

1.9 Collision of elastic bodies. Let a body of mass m1, moving

1.11 Energy. Energy is the capacity to do work, mechanical energy

1.12 Principle of conservation of energy. Energy can neither

1.13 Moment of inertia. If the mass of every particle of a body is

The moment of inertia of a particle of mass dm, Fig. 1.4, at a distance

j' dm.r2 ... . (1.13)

If the total mass of the body is m, this

1.14 Theorem of parallel axes. The moment of inertia of a body

Moment of inertia of particle about 0

Values of I for some simple cases

moment of inertia of body about 0,

I0 = dm. r2 -f- dm.h2 -f- 2h dm.y

= 7G + mh2 -j- 2h X (total moment of the mass about XX).

Iq = Ig~\~ mh2 .... (1.14)

1.15 Torque and angular acceleration. Let the body shown in

Then acceleration of particle of mass dm at

the body = dm. car2 Fig. 1.6

1.16 Angular momentum or moment of momentum. The

If the body shown in Fig. 1.7 is rotating about an axis through 0

momentum of body about 0 = j* dm.cor2

1.17 Principle of conservation of angular momentum. The

1.18 Angular impulse. The angular impulse of a constant torque

1.19 Sudden meshing of rotating wheels. If two rotating gear

1.20 Work done by a torque. If a constant torque T moves

If the torque varies linearly from zero to a maximum value T,

work done = \T0.

Then K.E. of particle

= \mv2 -j- %Ico2 ..... (1-20)

— = 542 sinh 01184*