ADVANCED

COMMUNICATION LAB
MANUAL
10ECL67

13

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Table of Contents
Syllabus ............................................................................................................................................................. 3
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM).............................................................................................................. 4
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) generation and detection ............................................................................ 6
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION .................................................................... 8
PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION ........................................................................... 11
DIFFERENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYING (DPSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION ................................................. 14
QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION ................................................ 17
KLYSTRON MODE STUDY ................................................................................................................................ 21
STUDY OF PROPOGATION LOSS, IN OPTIACAL FIBER ..................................................................................... 26
STUDY OF BENDING LOSS ............................................................................................................................... 28
MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE .................................................................................................. 29
MICROSTRIP DIRECTIONAL COUPLER ............................................................................................................. 31
MICROSTRIP RING RESONATOR AND POWER DEVIDER ................................................................................. 33
Study Of Antenna Radiation Patterns (Simple, Folded Dipole) ...................................................................... 37
Measurement of directivity and gain of antennas: Standard dipole (or printed dipole), microstrip patch
antenna and Yagi antenna (printed). ............................................................................................................. 40

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 Syllabus

 TDM of two band limited signals.

 ASK and FSK generation and detection
 PSK generation and detection
 DPSK generation and detection
 QPSK generation and detection
 PCM generation and detection using CODEC chip
 Measurement of losses in a given Optical fiber (propagation loss, bending
loss) and numerical aperture.
 Analog and Digital (with TDM) Communication link using Optical Fiber.
 Measurement of Directivity and Gain of antennas: Standard Dipole (or
printed dipole), microstrip patch antenna and Yagi antenna (printed)
 Determination of coupling and isolation characteristics of a stripline (or
microstrip) directional coupler
 A) Measurement of resonance characteristics of a microstrip ring resonator
and determination of dielectric constant of the substrate
B) Measurement of power division and isolation characteristics of a
microstrip 3dB power divider.

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 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)

To design and demonstrate the working of TDM and recovery of two

band limited signals of PAM signals.
Components Required

Transistors-SL100, SK-100, Resistors- 1 kΩ, 1.5 kΩ, OpAmp, µA 741

Theory
TDM i s a technique used for transmitting several message
signals over a communication channel by dividing the time frame into slots,
one slot for each message signal. This is a digital technique in which the
circuit is highly modular in nature and provides reliable and efficient
operation. There is no cross talk in TDM due to circuit non-linearities since
the pulses are completely isolated. But it also has its disadvantages, which
include timing jitter and synchronization is required.
In pulse-amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a periodic train of pulses
is varied in pro- portion to a message signal. TDM provides an effective
method for sharing a communication channel.

Circuit Diagram

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Expected Waveforms

Procedure

 Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit-diagram for multiplexer.

 Feed the input message signals ml and m2 of 2 volts P-P at 200 Hz.
 Feed the high frequency carrier signal of 2V (P-P) at 2 kHz.
 Observe the multiplexed output.
 Rig up the circuit for demultiplexer.
 Observe the demultiplexed output in the CRO.
Results

Conclusion

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 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) generation and detection

To Design and verify the Amplitude Shift Keying generation and detection.
Components Required
Transistor SL100, Resistors-4.7 kΩ, 20 kΩ (pot), 10 kΩ (pot), OpAmp IC741,
Diode-OA79
Theory

Circuit Diagram

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Procedure
 Rig-up the modulator circuit as show in the figure.
 Set the message signal of amplitude 10 V (P-P) and frequency 500 Hz.
 Set the carrier signal of amplitude 2 V (P-P) and frequency 2 kHz.
 Observe the ASK waveform at the collector of transistor.
 Now connect the demodulation circuit.
 Observe the demodulated output on the CRO.
Tabulation
Amplitude and Modulating Signal Modulated signal Demodulated
frequency of Data Amplitude and amplitude and signal Amplitude
sent Frequency Frequency and Frequency.
1.
2.
3.

Expected Waveform

Result

Conclusion

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 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION

To design and verify the operation of FSK generator and detector

Components Required
Transistor-SL100, SK100, Resistors: 10K, 10K pot, Capacitors: 0.1µF, Opamp IC741, Diode OA79

Theory
FSK is one of the digital modulation techniques. Here frequency of the carrier is switched
between two values. A sinusoidal of amplitude' A' and frequency fc1 is used to represent a
binary '1' and frequency fc2 is used to represent binary '0'. FSK modulated waveform can be
represented as,

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Circuit Diagram

Procedure

 Rig up the modulator circuit as shown in the figure.

 Apply carrier of amplitude 2 V(P- P) and frequency 1 kHz.
 Apply carrier of amplitude 2 V(P- P) and frequency 2 kHz.
 Apply message signal of amplitude 10 V(P - P) and frequency of 250 Hz. .
 Observe ASK outputs at each collector of transistor, and also observe FSK output at pin 6 of op-
amp.
 Connect demodulator circuit.
 Observe the demodulated output on CRO.
Tabulation
Amplitude and Modulating Signal Modulated signal Demodulated signal
frequency of Data Amplitude and amplitude and Amplitude and
sent Frequency Frequency Frequency.
1.
2.

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Expected Waveform

Results

Conclusion

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 PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION

To Study the operation of PHASE SHIFT KEY modulation and demodulation

Components Required
Transistor-SL100, SK100, Resistors: 100K, 2.2K,22K, 10K pot, Capacitors: 0.1µF, Opamp IC741, Diode OA79

Theory
Phase Shift Keying is one of the most efficient digital modulation techniques. It is used for very high bit
rates. In PSK, the phase of the carrier is modulated to represent the binary values. In BPSK the carrier phase is
used to switch the phase between 00 and 1800 by digital polar format. Hence it is known as phase reversal
keying. The modulated carrier is given by

Binary 1: S (t) = Acmax COS (2πfct)

Binary 0: S (t) = Acmax COS (2πfct + 180)

= -Acmax COS (2πfct)

Circuit Diagram
Modulation Circuit

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Demodulation Circuit

Procedure
 The Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
 A sine wave of amplitude 5V and 2KHz is fed to the collector of the transistor as carrier
 The message signal, a square wave of amplitude 5V and 150Hz is fed to the base of the transistor.
 The BPSK wave is observed at pin 6 of the Opamp IC741.
 The demodulation circuit is also connected
 BPSK wave obtained is fed as input to the demodulation circuit.
 The demodulated waveform is observed
 All the required waveform is to be plotted.

Expected Wave forms

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Tabulation
Amplitude and Modulating Signal Modulated signal Demodulated signal
frequency of Data Amplitude and amplitude and Amplitude and
sent Frequency Frequency Frequency.
1.
2.

Results

Conclusion

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 DIFFERENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYING (DPSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION

To Study the various steps involved in generating the Differential binary Signal and
Differential Phase Shift Keyed Signal at the modulator end and recovering the binary
signal from the received DPSK Signal.

Theory
The carrier wave signal is generated by a weinbridge oscillator around ***KHZ at ±5V P-P sine wave using
741 the sine wave is convert into square wave using TL084 in comparator mode. The Transistor BC107
converts the square signal to TTL levels. This is used as a basic bit clock or 180° for a mark and 0° for space.
This Square wave is used as a clock input to a decade counter(IC 7490) which generates the modulating
data outputs.

The modulation is performed as follows:

The Differential signal to the modulating is generated using an Exclusive-OR gate(7486) and a 1-bit delay
circuit using D flipFlop 7474 CD 4051 is an analog multiplexer to which carrier is applied with and
without 180°degrees Phase shift(created by using an operational amplifier connected in inverting amplifier
mode) to the input of the TL084.Differential signal generated by Ex-OR gate (IC 7486) is given to the
multiplexer’s control signal input. Depending upon the level of the control signal, carrier signal applied
with or without phase shift is steered to the output. 1-bit delay generation of differential signal to the
input is created by using a D-flip-flop(IC 7474).

The demodulation is performed as follows:

During the demodulation, the data and carrier are recovered through a TL084 op amp in comparator
mode. This level is brought to TTL level using a transistor and is applied to one input of an EX-OR gate. To
the second input of the gate, carrier signal is applied after conversion into a +5V signal. So the EX-OR gate
output is equivalent to the differential signal of the modulating data. This differential data is applied to
one input of an Exclusive-OR gate and to the second input, after 1-bit delay the same signal is given. So the
output of this EX-OR gate is the recovered modulating signal.

Experimental Procedure:
 ‘Switch ON’ the experimental board.
 Check the carrier Signal and the data generator signals initially.
 Apply the carrier signal to the carrier input of the DPSK modulator and give the data generated to the
data input of DPSK modulator and Bit clock output to Bit clock input of modulator. Observe the DPSK
modulating output with respect to the input data generator signal of dual trace Oscilloscope (Observe the

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 DPSK modulating signal on channel 1 and the data generator signal on channel 2), and observe the DPSK
signal with respective to Differential data also.
 Give the output of the DPSK modulator signal to the input of demodulator, give the Bit clock output to
the Bit clock input to the demodulator and also give the carrier output to the carrier input of
demodulator.
 Observe the demodulator output with respect to data generator signal ( Modulating Signal)

Expected Wave form

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Tabulation
Amplitude and Modulating Signal Modulated signal Demodulated signal
frequency of Data Amplitude and amplitude and Amplitude and
sent Frequency Frequency Frequency.
1.
2.

Results

Conclusion

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 QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK) GENERATION AND DETECTION

To Study the generation and detection of Quadrature Phase Shift Keying.

Theory
Digital Phase Modulation (or Phase Shift Keying - PSK) is very similar to Frequency Modulation. It involves
changing the phase of the transmitted waveform instead of the frequency, these finite phase changes
representing digital data. In its simplest form, a phase-modulated waveform can be generated by using the
digital data to switch between two signals of equal frequency but opposing phase.
Taking the above concept of PSK one stage further, it can be supposed that the number of phase shifts is
not limited to only two states. The transmitted "carrier" can undergo any number of phase changes and
by multiplying the received signal by a sine wave of equal frequency will demodulate the phase shifts into
frequency independent voltage levels. This is, indeed the case in QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying,
Sometimes this is known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK). With QPSK, the carrier undergoes
four changes in 4 phases and can thus represent two bits of binary data. While this may seem insignificant
at first glance, a modulation scheme has now been supposed that enables a carrier to transmit two bits of
information instead of one, thus effectively doubling the bandwidth of carrier. QPSK has four phases and
for a given bit-rate, the QPSK requires half the bandwidth of PSK and is widely used for this reason.

Block Diagram

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Procedure
 Connect the power supply cable at the POWER IN connector and switch ON the power.
 Connect the QPSK-TX to QPSK-RX.
 Give the input through Dip switch S1 and observe the phase shift at QPSK-TX, compare the
waveform with fig.
 EX: Through the Dip switch select the bits as 11100100 (The switch is upper side=O, the switch is
lower side= 1)
 Change the bit pattern by using the Dipswitch and observe the corresponding changes at SLDATA-
TX.
 Demodulated output can be observed at SLDATA-RX at this point you will get the same pattern as
that at SLDATA-TX and you can see the same at the 8-LEDs.
 Ex: If your selected bit pattern is 11100100 then at the demodulation side LED D3, D4, D5 &D8
 Should be ON and D6, 07, 09 & 010 should be OFF,
 Note the delay between, SLDATA-TX and SLDATA-RX, There is 0.2 In sec delay. This is due to
the delay between LT6/5-6(ISIG-QSIG)and U6/ I(SH/LD). Here first data is shifting and after 0.2
m sec the data is loading. Refer the following Fig:

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
 If the LED's are not stable at the demodulator side then adjust the POT-P I(IPCK).
 After power on if you are getting the wrong display (LED) at demodulator side then press SWI once
you will get the same pattern as you set at the modulator side.

Expected Waveforms

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 Tabulation
Amplitude and Modulating Signal Modulated signal Demodulated signal
frequency of Data Amplitude and amplitude and Amplitude and
sent Frequency Frequency Frequency.
1.
2.

Results

Conclusion

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 KLYSTRON MODE STUDY
Aim:

To Plot 2 or 3 modes of the given Klystron tube, Obtain its Electronic Tuning Range (ETR),
Obtain its Electronic Tuning Sensitivity (ETS) and Demonstrate the mode on a CRO

Experimental Setup:

Block Diagram:

KPS

2K25

Klystron Isolator Variable Frequency Detector CRO

Mount Attenuator Meter Mount

THEORY:

The reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continues electron beam
into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through
the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and finally, reflects the electrons
and the electrons turn back through the resonator, suppose an rf field exist between the resonators
the electrons traveling forward will be accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an the voltage
at the Resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an
increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The electrons leaving
the resonator will need different time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result, returning
electrons group together in bunches. As the bunches pass through resonator, they interact
with voltage at resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the electrons are
slowed down by the voltage then energy will be delivered to the resonator and Klystron will

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 oscillate.
The dimensions of resonant cavity primarily determine the frequency. Hence, by changing the
volume of resonator, mechanical tuning of Klystron is possible. Also a small frequency change can
be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is called Electronic Tuning.
For further details refer Microwave Devices and Circuits by Samuel Y.
Liao
Important: Firing the Reflex Klystron

Experimental Procedure:

1. Set the cooling fan to be blow air across the tube. Set Beam voltage control knob
fully anticlockwise (Off), Repeller voltage to 3/4 clockwise. Set modulation selector switch to AM-
MOD position. Keep AM-MOD amplitude knob and AM-FREQUENCY knob at mid-position.
Volt/Current switch of the display to current position. Set display to read Beam voltage.
2. Wait for some 10 seconds; let the tube warm up and power supply get properly
stabilized.
3. Slowly vary the beam voltage knob clockwise and set beam current to 19 or 20mA.
The corresponding beam voltage would be around +290v.
4. Observe the demodulated square wave available at the detector o/p using a CRO. By adjusting the AM-MO
During switch off power failure, bring down the beam current to 0 and follow steps 1&2 in
the reverse order.
Demonstrate the mode on a CRO: K P
S – Klystron power supply.
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the fig. Keep the position of the variable attenuator at the
minimum attenuation position.
2. Set the mode selector to FM-MOD position. Keep the beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise &
the reflector voltage knob fully clockwise.
3. Keep the time/division scale of the oscilloscope around 100Hz. Switch on the klystron power
supply.
4. Adjust the beam voltage position around 290Volts.
5. By changing the reflector voltage & amplitude of the FM modulation any mode of the klystron
can be seen on the oscilloscope.
6. Plot o/p signal voltage v/s repeller voltage. The same can be obtained by plotting the o/p power
v/s repeller voltage.

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I Mode:

Repeller Voltage (V) Output Signal amplitude p-p Frequency in GHz

60
47
6.7

II Mode:

Repeller Voltage (V) Output Signal amplitude p-p Frequency in GHz

95
89
99

Modes of klystron

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 Calculations:

1. Mode Number: Knowing mode top voltage of two adjacent modes, mode number of the modes
may be computed as given below.
 n 1 43
N2
N1
 V1
V 2
 n  43

2. ETR(Electronic Tuning Range): Electronic Tuning Range for a particular mode is the total
change in frequency from one end of the mode to the other.

  f max f min 


3. ETS(Electronic Tuning Sensitivity):

f 2  f1
ETS = vo 2 vo 1

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Where f1 & f2 are half power (3db) frequencies and Vo2 and Vo1 are repeller voltages corresponding to 3db
points.

Results:

Conclusion:

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 STUDY OF PROPOGATION LOSS, IN OPTIACAL FIBER

Aim

The objective of this experiment is to measure propagation or attenuation loss in optical fiber.
Block Diagram:

Theory:
Attenuation is loss of power. During transit light pulse lose of their photons, thus reducing their amplitude.
Attenuation for a fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. For commercially available fibers
attenuation ranges from 1dB/km for premium small-core glass fibers to over 2000dB/km for a large core
plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In common usage, discussions of loss omit the
negative sign. The basic measurement for loss in a fiber is made by taking the logarithmic ratio of the input
power (Pi) to the output power (Po)

 (dB)  10 log10 Pi
Po

Where  is Loss in dB/Meter

Experimental Procedure:
1. Connect power supply to board
2. Make the following connections (as shown in Diagram 7)
a) Function Generators 1Khz sinewave output to input 1 socket of emitter 1 circuit via 4mm lead.
b) Connect 0.5 optic fiber between emitter 1 output and detector 1’s input.
c) Connect Detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input Socket via 4mm lead.
3. Switch ON the power supply.
4. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5V/Div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by using X1 probe with the help
of variable pot in function generator block at input 1 of Emitter 1.
5. Observe the output signal from detector t p 28 on CRO.
6. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the help of gain adjust pot in
AC Amplifier block. Note this amplitude and name it V1.
7. Now replace the previous F.O. cable with 1m cable without disturbing any previous setting.

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8. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1 socket t p 28. Note this value end
name it V2.
Calculate the propagation (Attenuation) loss with the help of following formula.
  (L1  L2)
V1/V2 = e

Where  is loss in nepers/meter

1 neper = 8.686 dB ,L1 = Length of shorter cable (0.5m), L2 = Length of longer cable (1m)

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 STUDY OF BENDING LOSS

Objective:

The Objective of this experiment in to study of bending loss.

Theory:
Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are
introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius
of curvature more is the loss.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Repeat all the steps from 1 to 6 of the previous experiment using 1m cable.
2. Wind the FO cable on the mandrel and observe the corresponding AC amplifier output on
CRO… it will be gradually reducing showing loss due to bends.

TABULAR COLUMN:

No of bends Output signal voltage in

volts
Without bending
1st bend
2nd bend
3rd bend

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 MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE

Objective:
The Objective of this experiment is to measure to the Numerical Aperture (NA) of the Fiber.

Theory:
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber end is totally
internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation of this
angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber
end within its cone of acceptance else it is refracted out of the fiber.
Consideration in NA measurement:
It is very important that the optical source should be properly aligned with the cable and the distance from
the launched point & cable be properly selected to ensure that the maximum amount of optical power is
transferred to the cable.
Equipments:
1. Numerical Aperture measurement Jig.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Connect power supply to the board.
2. Connect the frequency generator’s 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter 1 circuit. Adjust its
amplitude at 5V p-p.
3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter 1 circuit and the other end to the
Numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen facing the fiber such that its cut face is
perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
4. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25mm diameter) vertically at a suitable
distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with 10mm circle.

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5. Record the distance of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the spot.
6. Compute the numerical aperture from the formula given below,

N .A.  W
4 L2 W 2

 sin  max
7. Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with one of the
concentric circles. Note its distance.
8. Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen and compute the
numerical aperture from the formula given above.

Tabular Column:

Distance of the Diameter W of the Numerical Aperture

screen L in meters spot in meters (NA)

Results:

Conclusion:

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 MICROSTRIP DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

Objective:
To determine coupling and isolating characteristic of Microstrip Directional Coupler.

Components:
10dB directional coupler
Branch line directional coupler (3dB)
Parallel line directional coupler (15dB)
VSWR meter
Microwave source.

Theory:
Directional coupler is four port waveguide junction consisting of 2 primary waveguide1-2 and secondary
waveguide 3-4. When all ports are terminated in either characteristic impedance, there is free transmission
of power without reflection between port1 and port2 and there is no transmission of power between port1
and port3 or between 2 & 4. Because no coupling exists between these two pairs of ports. These are 3
directional coupler 3dB directional coupler, 10dB and 15dB branch line directional coupler.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Experiment set up as shown in fig 1.
2. Keep microwave source in internal AM mode.
3. Tabulate the direct power at frequencies 2.2GHz to 3GHz in steps of 0.1 GHz and note down
output power from VSWR meter.
4. Now experiment is setup as shown in figure 2.
5. Keep microwave source in Internal AM mode.
6. Apply RF signal to input port and vary the frequencies from 2.2GHz to 3GHz in steps of 0.1GHz
and note down coupling power in VSWR meter.
7. Terminate isolation port & direct port by 50  standard frequencies.
8. Repeat these steps to find the output power at direct port and isolating port.
9. Terminate unused ports by 50  .
10. Experiment is conducted for -3dB,-10dB,-15dB directional coupler.

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Block Diagram:
RF-OUT

Microwave Diode Detector VSWR Meter

Source

Fig.1

RF-OUT

Directional Diode Detector VSWR Meter

Microwave
Coupler
Source

Fig. 2

Direct Power & Coupling proof Power for -3dB Directional Coupler

RF Signal Direct Frequency Coupling Power Direct Power Isolator proof

Power

2.2GHz

3GHz

Results:

Conclusion:

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 MICROSTRIP RING RESONATOR AND POWER DEVIDER

Objective:
1. To measure resonance characteristics of Microstrip Ring Resonator and determine dielectric
constant of the substrate.
2. To measure power division and isolation characteristics of microstrip 3dB power divider.

Theory:
The open-end effect encountered in a rectangular resonator of the feed long gaps can be minimized by
forming the resonator as a closed off. Such resonator is called as Ring resonator.
The Ring resonator find applications in the design of filters, oscillator and mixers.
Resonance is established when the mean circumference of the ring is equal to integral multiplies of guide
wave length.

nv o
2ro  n 
fo 
eff

Where ro = radius of the ring, n = mode number, eff = effective dielectric constant of the substrate.
Power Divider:
The function of a power division network is to divide the input power into two or more outputs. As an equal
split power divider, the power incident at port1 gets divided equally between the two output
ports 2 & 3.

Power at 2 & 3 is half power. i.e.-3dB down power.

Experimental Setup/Block Diagram:

RF UT
Microwave OU Ring Diode VSWR
Source T Detector Meter
Resonat
or

Fig.1
CRO

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 Experimental Procedure:
1. Experiment set up as shown in fig.1
2. Keep microwave generator in Internal AM mode.
3. Vary the RF out frequencies at 2.2GHz to 3GHz insteps of 0.1GHz and note down output detector
power in VSWR meter.
4. Note down/ tabulate these results & note down the resonant frequency at which the output power
maximum.
5. Plot the graph output power Vs frequency.
6. Determine dielectric constant of the substrate of Ring Resonator.

Power divider Characteristics:

1. Experiment set up as shown in fig.2
2. Apply RF power to input port and observe the half power at 2 output port.
E.g. – If input power is -20dB, Output power is -23dB at each output port.
Calculations:
Dielectric constant of substrate

 


2 eff  1  1
r  A
1 1
A
10h
Where A  1  area of
W
W = Stripline conductor width = 1.847mm
h = Height of substrate = 0.762mm

 nv o 
2

    = Effective Dielectric constant

2r f
eff
 o o 


n = 1, vo  3 108 m / s , ro  12.446mm radius of the ring

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f o  Resonance frequency

Expected Graph:

Table
Rf signal f (Ghz) Output power(Db)

Page 35
2.1Ghz

3Ghz

Results

Conclusion

Page 36
 Study Of Antenna Radiation Patterns (Simple, Folded Dipole)

Objective:
To determine Antenna Radiation pattern, Beam width and Front To back Ratio of Simple dipole and
Folded dipole antennas.
Experimental Setup/Block Diagram:

Theory:
Antennas can be broadly classified by the directions in which they radiate or receive electromagnetic
radiation. They can be isotropic, omnidirectional or directional. An Isotropic antenna is a hypothetical
antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions so that the electric field at any point on a sphere has the
same magnitude. Such radiation cannot be realized in practice since in order to radiate uniformly in all
directions an isotropic antenna would have to be a point source.
A directional antenna radiates most of its power in one particular direction examples of directional antennas
are Yagi UDA, log-Periodic and helical.

Experimental Procedure:
Experiment A
1) Arrange the setup as shown in figure.
2) Mount simple dipole (λ/2) on the transmission mask.
3) Bring the detector assembling near to main unit and adjust height of both transmitting and receiving
antenna same.
4) Keep detector away from main unit approximately 1.5 meter and align both of them.
5) Keep the RF level and FS adjust to minimum level and directional coupler switch to FWD.
6) Keep detector level control in the center approximately.
7) Increase the RF level gradually and see there is a deflection the detector meter.

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 8) Adjust RF level and detector level so that deflection in detector meter is approximately 30-35μA.
9) Align arrow mark on the disk with zero of the gonio meter scale.
10) Start taking the reading at the interval of 5 or 10degre.
11) Convert micro ampere reading into dB, with the help of conversion chart.
12) Plot the polar graph in degrees of rotation of antenna against level in the detector in dBs.
13) From the graph calculate: a) beam width
b) gain of antenna
14) To calculate these from the graph proceed as follows.

Beam width:
1. Look for main lobe
2. Draw bore sight maxima line AA’
3. Mark -3dB from maximum on the bore sight line point B
4. Draw an arc of radius AB
5. This arc will intersect main lobe at CD
6. Measure angle CAD. This angle is -3Db beam width.

Front to Back Ratio

1. Look for main lobe
2. Draw bore sight maxima line AA’
3. Look for back lobe if any (at 180deg)
4. If no back lobe then front to back ratio =AA’/1 dB
5. If there is back lobe then measure AE, where E is the maxima of back lobe then
6. front to back ratio = AA’/AE dB

GAIN OF ANTENNA = Maximum radiation intensity

= AA’/1 dB
Experiment B

Replace λ/2 antenna with λ/4 antenna and follow the steps given in Experiment A.

Table

ANGLE IN DEGREES GAIN IN dB

0
20
40
.
.
.
360.

Simple dipole radiation Pattern

Page 38
Folded Dipole radiation Pattern

Results

Conclusion

Page 39
 Measurement of directivity and gain of antennas: Standard dipole (or printed dipole),
microstrip patch antenna and Yagi antenna (printed).

Objective:

To find the directivity and gain of Antennas.

Apparatus required:

1. Microwave Generator
2. SWR Meter
3. Detector
4. RF Amplifier
5. Transmitter and receiving mast
6. Mains cord
7. Antennas

o Yagi Antenna (Dielectric Constant : 4.7) - 2 no.

o Dipole Antenna (Dielectric Constant : 4.7) - 1 no.
o Patch Antenna (Dielectric Constant : 3.02) - 1 no.

Theory:

If a transmission line propagating energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation from this end. The
Radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength or more often the power intensity as a function
of the aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern is of course three
dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented as a two dimensional pattern in one or several
planes. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main lobe, side lobes and the back lobe. The major
power is concentrated in the main lobe and it is required to keep the power in the side lobes arid back lobe as
low as possible. The power intensity at the maximum of the main lobe compared to the power intensity
achieved from an imaginary omni-directional antenna (radiating equally in all directions) with the same
power fed to the antenna is defined as gain of the antenna.

As we know that the 3dB beamwidth is the angle between the two points on a main lobe where the power
intensity is half the maximum power intensity.

When measuring an antenna pattern, it is normally most interesting to plot the pattern far from the antenna.
It is also very important to avoid disturbing reflection. Antenna measurements are normally made at
anechoic chambers made of absorbing materials.

Antenna measurements are mostly made with unknown antenna as receiver. There are several methods to
measure the gain of antenna. One method is to compare the unknown antenna with a standard gain antenna

Page 40
with known gain. Another method is to use two identical antennas, as transmitter and other as receiver. From
following formula the gain can be calculated.

Where, Pt is transmitted power

Pr is received Power,

G1, G2 is gain of transmitting and receiving antenna

S is the radial distance between two antennas

o is free space wave length.

If both, transmitting and receiving antenna are identical having gain G then above equation becomes.

In the above equation Pt, Pr and S and o can be measured and gain can be computed. As is evident from the
above equation, it is not necessary to know the absolute value of Pt and Pr only ratio is required which can be
measured by SWR meter.

Setup for Directivity measurement

Page 41
Procedure:

Directivity Measurement:

1. Connect a mains cord to the Microwave Generator and SWR Meter.

2. Now connect a Yagi antenna in horizontal plane to the transmitter mast and connect it to the RF
Output of microwave generator using a cable (SMA to SMA).
3. Set both the potentiometer (Mod Freq & RF Level) at fully clockwise position.
4. Now take another Yagi antenna and RF Amplifier from the given suitcase.
5. Connect the input terminal of the Amplifier to the antenna in horizontal plane using an SMA (male)
to SMA (female) L Connector.
6. Now connect the output of the Amplifier to the input of Detector and mount the detector at the
Receiving mast.
7. Connect one end of the cable (BNC to BNC) to the bottom side of receiving mast, and another end to
the input of SWR meter.
8. Now set the distance between Transmitter (feed point) and the receiver (receiving point) at half
meter.

Antenna Under Tes t

RF Amplifier

Detec tor

Yagi Antenna

SW R Meter

Rec eiv er

Mic rowav e G enerator

Trans mitter

Page 42
9. Now set the receiving antenna at zero degree (in line of Transmitter) and Switch on the power supply for
Microwave Generator, SWR Meter. Also connect DC Adapter of RF Amplifier to the mains.
10. Select the transmitter for internal AM mode and press the switch “RF On”.
11. Select the range switch at SWR meter at – 40dB position with normal mode.
12. Set both the gain potentiometers (Coarse & Fine) at fully clockwise position and input select switch
should be at 200 Ohm position. In case if reading is not available at – 40dB range then press 200
kOhm (Input Select) to get high gains reading.
13. Now set any value of received gain at – 40dB position with the help of -

o Frequency of the Microwave Generator.

o Modulation frequency adjustment .
o Adjusting the distance between Transmitter and Receiver.

14. With these adjustments you can increase or decrease the gain.
15. Mark the obtained reading on the radiation pattern plot at zero degree position.
16. Now slowly move the receiver antenna in the steps of 10 degree and plot the corresponding readings.
17. This will give the radiation pattern of the antenna under test.
18. Directivity of the antenna is the measures of power density an actual antenna radiates in the direction
of its strongest emission, so if the maximum power of antenna (in dB) is received at  degree then
directivity will be ....................dB at ........................Degree.
19. In the same way you can measure the directivity of the Dipole antenna.
20. For directivity measurement of the transformer fed Patch antenna connect transmitter Yagi antenna
in the vertical plane (Patch Antenna is vertically polarized). Since it is comparatively low gain
antenna distance can be reduced between transmitter and receiver.

Gain Measurement:

1. Connect a power cable to the Microwave Generator and SWR Meter.

2. Now connect a Yagi antenna in horizontal plane to the transmitter mast and connect it to the RF
Output of microwave generator using a cable (SMA to SMA).
3. Set both the potentiometer (Mod Freq & RF Level) at fully clockwise position.
4. Now take another Yagi antenna from the given suitcase.
5. Connect this antenna to the detector with the help of SMA (male) to SMA (female) L Connector.
6. Connect detector to the receiving mast.
7. Connect one end of the cable (BNC to BNC) to the bottom side of receiving mast, and another end to
the input of SWR meter.

Page 43
8. Now set the distance between Transmitter (feed point) and the receiver (receiving point) at half
meter.
9. Now set the receiving antenna at zero degree (in line of Transmitter) and Switch on the power from
both Generator & SWR Meter.
10. Select the transmitter for internal AM mode and press the switch “RF On”.
11. Select the range switch at SWR meter at – 40dB position with normal mode.
12. Set both the gain potentiometers (Coarse & Fine) at fully clockwise position and input select switch
should be at 200 Ohm position. In case if reading is not available at – 40dB range then press 200
kOhm (Input Select) to get high gain reading.
13. Now set the maximum gain in the meter with the help of following -

o Frequency of the Microwave Generator.

o Modulation frequency adjustment .
o Adjusting the distance between Transmitter and Receiver.

14. Measure and record the received power in dB.

Pr = ..................dB

15. Now remove the detector from the receiving end and also remove the transmitting Yagi antenna from
RF output.
16. Now connect the RF output directly to detector without disturbing any setting of the transmitter
(SMA-F to SMA-F connector can be used for this).
17. Observe the output of detector on SWR meter that will be the transmitting power Pt.

Pt = ..................dB

18. Calculate the difference in dB between the power measured in step 14 and 17 which will be the
power ratio Pt/Pr .

Pt/Pr = ........................

Pr/Pt = ........................

19. Now we know that the formula for Gain of the antenna is:

Page 44
Where :

Pt is transmitted power

Pr is received Power,

G is gain of transmitting/receiving antenna (since we have used two identical antennas)

S is the radial distance between two antennas

o is free space wave length (approximately 12.5cm).

20. Now put the measured values in the above formula and measure the gain of the antenna which will
be same for both the antennas. Now after this step you can connect one known gain antenna at
transmitter end and the antenna under test at receiver end, to measure the gain of the antennas.
21. Gain can be measured with the help of absolute power meter also (Recommended Model NV105).
for this detector will not be used and directly the power sensor can be connected to both the ends as
described earlier.

Radiation Patterns of Different Antennas:

90
90

-60 -56 -52 -48 -44

0

-60 -56 -52 -48 -44

0

Yagi Antenna Patch Antenna

90

-60 -56 -52 -48 -44

0

Dipole
Antenna

Page 45
Table

ANGLE IN DEGREES GAIN IN dB

0
20
40
.
.
.
360

Results

Conclusion