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14-Item Resilience Scale (RS-14): Psychometric Properties of the Brazilian

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Journal of Nursing Measurement, Volume 19, Number 3, 2011

14-Item Resilience Scale (RS-14):

Psychometric Properties of the
Brazilian Version
Bruno Figueiredo Damásio, MPsy, PhDc
Juliane Callegaro Borsa, MPsy, PhDc
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre

Joilson Pereira da Silva, PhD

Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Itabaiana

The Resilience Scale (RS) was developed to evaluate the levels of resilience in the general
population. Its reduced version (RS-14) has presented reliable internal consistency and
external validity. However, its psychometric properties have not been systematically
evaluated. The objective of this study was to present the psychometric properties of the
Brazilian RS-14. A total of 1,139 subjects selected by convenience (62.9% women) from
14 to 59 years old (M 5 26.1, SD 5 11.61) participated in the study. Exploratory factor
analyses (EFAs) and parallel analysis were conducted in order to assess the factor structure
of the scale. A 13-item single-factor solution was achieved. Confirmatory factor analyses
(CFA) and multigroup CFA (MGCFA) corroborated the goodness of fit and measurement
invariance of the obtained exploratory solution. The levels of resilience correlated
negatively with depression and positively with meaning in life and self-efficacy.

Keywords: resilience; scale; validation; multigroup confirmatory factor analysis; parallel

analysis

I
n the last decades, there has been an increasing interest in understanding the strengths that
are associated with healthy adjustment trajectories, such as resilience (Campbell-Sills &
Stein, 2007; Ryan & Caltabiano, 2009; von Soest, Mossige, Stefansen, & Hjemdal,
2010). As a key factor in the process of overcoming and adapting from negative events,
resilience has become one of the most researched topics in the mental health field (Oshio,
Kaneko, Nagamine, & Nakaya, 2003).
The theoretical and empirical literature on resilience reflects little consensus about
its definition, with substantial variations in operationalization and measurement of key
constructs (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000). Some studies comprehend resilience as
an individual characteristic that moderates the negative effects of stress and promotes
positive adaptation (Charney, 2004; Wagnild & Young, 1993), whereas others explicitly
rejected this individual trait model (Masten, 2001; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990). This
latter perspective understands resilience as a dynamic process involving personal strengths
and capacities, external resources such as a healthy family environment, and presence of
external support systems that reinforce efficient coping and adaptive adjustment. In others

© 2011 Springer Publishing Company 131

http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.19.3.131

Copyright © Springer Publishing Company, LLC

132 Damásio et al.

words, resilience is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that varies with con-

text, time, age, gender, social support systems, family environments, and cultural origins,
as well as individual capabilities (Luthar et al., 2000; Masten & Wright, 2010).
Because of the growing interest in this concept and the necessity of briefly evaluating the
ability to cope with different situations, some scales have been developed to measure the
resilience construct. Two examples of instruments for assessing resilience in children and
adolescents are the Adolescent Resilience Scale (Oshio et al., 2003) and the Resilience Scale
for Adolescents (READ; von Soest et al., 2010). Addressed to assessing adults resilience, a
greater number of instruments are available, as for example, the Resilience Scale for Adults
(RSA; Friborg, Barlaug, Martinussen, Rosenvinge, & Hjemdal, 2005), the Resilience in
Midlife Scale (RIM Scale; Ryan & Caltabiano, 2009), the Connor-Davidson Resilience
Scale (CD-RISC; Connor & Davidson, 2003), the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS; Smith et al.,
2008), and the Brief Resilient Coping Scale (BRCS; Sinclair & Wallston, 2004).
One of the most widely used instruments in resilience research is the Resilience Scale (RS)
by Wagnild and Young (1993). The RS is the first instrument developed to measure resilience
and can be applied in a wide variety of age groups, from adolescents to older people (Ahern,
Kiehl, Sole, & Byers, 2006). The RS was developed from a qualitative study of 24 women who
showed positive psychosocial adaptation from different life events (Wagnild & Young, 1990).
Each woman was asked to tell how they conducted a self-identified loss. According to their
narratives and followed by a review of the literature, the authors acknowledged five common
components identified to be personal constituents of resilience: equanimity, perseverance, self-
reliance, meaningfulness, and existential aloneness (Wagnild, 2010; Wagnild & Young, 1993).
Equanimity is referred as a balanced perspective of life and experiences and might be
viewed as sitting loose and taking what comes, thus moderating the extreme responses to
adversity, a construct often related to the sense of humor. Perseverance is the ability to
keep going despite setbacks, generally found in people who tend to recognize and rely on
their personal strengths and capabilities. Self-reliance is considered a self-efficacy belief
specially linked to problem-solving skills. In general, this ability is achieved with life
experiences and is most frequently encountered in people who comprehends and accepts
their own capabilities and limitations. Meaningfulness is the belief that life has a purpose
and recognition that there is a reason for which to live. Finally, existential aloneness is the
realization that each person is unique and that although some experiences can be shared,
others must be faced alone (Wagnild, 2009; Wagnild & Young, 1993).
The first version of the Resilience Scale (RS-25; Wagnild & Young, 1993) consisted in a
25-item instrument aiming to evaluate the individual resilience degree through the five personal
characteristics aforementioned. Used in a random sample of 810 North American older adults,
the authors found, through principal component analysis (PCA) and oblimin rotation, a
two-factor solution as the most reliable. The first factor, titled “Personal Competence,” was
composed of 17 items. The second factor, titled “Acceptance of Self and Life” was constituted
by eight items. The two-factor solution explained 44% of the construct variance.
After its original publication, the RS-25 has been translated and adapted for many
languages in several countries such as Brazil (Pesce et al., 2005), Argentina (Rodríguez
et al., 2009), Sweden (Nygren, Randström, Lejonklou, & Lundman, 2004), Japan
(Nishi, Uehara, Kondo, & Matsuoka, 2010), and Spain (Heilemann, Lee, & Kury, 2003).
The RS-25 has been consistently reliable with alpha coefficients ranging from .84 to .94.
Convergent validity as well as test-retest reliability has also been extensively presented in
these validation and adaptation studies.
Although many validation criteria have been consistently reported, the RS-25 factor
structure has not been stable and well clear, suggesting the need for further analyses,

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Psychometric Properties of Brazilian RS-14 133

as predicted in the original study (Wagnild & Young, 1993). Refinement studies led to
the construction of a shorter instrument (RS-14), consisted by 14 items from the original
RS-25 (Wagnild, 2010). The nine items excluded were those that showed an inter-item
correlation above .40 in the author’s previous studies (Wagnild, 2010).
The validation study of the RS-14 was conducted in a sample of 690 middle-aged
and older adults. The 14 items from the RS-14 were entered into a PCA using oblimin
rotation. A one-factor solution accounting for 53% of the total variance was found. All
items loaded higher than .40, ranging from .42 to .64. Cronbach’s alpha reliability was
.93. The RS-25 and RS-14 were strongly correlated (r 5 .97, p , .001). Additional
recent analysis of the RS-14 using the same extraction and rotation methods (PCA and
oblimin, respectively) in another sample of 1,161 individuals (average 36.4 years old)
strongly supported the one-factor solution (Cronbach’s a 5 .91, explained variance 5
46%; Wagnild, 2010).
Searching in the literature, only one study reporting the psychometric properties of the
RS-14 was found (Nishi et al., 2010). Conducting a PCA, as used in the original study,
Nishi et al. (2010) also found a single-factor solution. All items loaded onto the first
component and had factor loadings greater than .49. The total variance was 39.4%. In this
study, the RS-14 showed a negative correlation with depression symptoms (r 5 2.28,
p , .01) and social disability (r 5 2.32, p , .01) and positive correlations with self-
esteem (r 5 .28, p , .01) and social support (r 5 .38, p , .01).
By now, the RS-14 has shown a reliable convergent validity as well as an invariant
factor structure (Nishi et al., 2010; Wagnild, 2010). However, no confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) study has been reported testing the goodness of fit of the RS-14. Because
of its theoretical relevance and the need for a brief scale to evaluate the degree of people’s
resilience in the general population in Brazil, this study aimed to evaluate the reliability
and validity of the Brazilian RS-14.

METHOD

Participants
The sample consisted of 1,139 subjects (62.9% women), from 14 to 59 years old (M
5 26.1, SD 5 11.61), residing at northeast of Brazil. Data were obtained from two
independent studies. The first sample was composed of 629 youngsters (252 males and
377 females; ranging in age from 14 to 29 years old, with a mean age of 17.4 years old;
SD 5 2.44), recruited to participate in this study as part of a larger research project
focused on psychosocial aspects related to young resilience levels. The second sample was
composed of 510 school teachers (171 males and 339 females; ranging in age from 18 to
59 years old, with mean age of 36.21 years old; SD 5 9.93), recruited to participate in a
previous study, which aimed to evaluate the levels of psychological well-being and per-
sonal and contextual characteristics related to the process of teacher’s resilience. For the
objective of this study, both samples were grouped together.

Procedures
For the first sample, participants were asked to respond to the instruments at different
scholarly contexts (schools and preuniversity courses), from 13 public and private
institutions. For the second sample, participants were asked to respond to the instruments
in their workplaces. Teachers from 57 public and private schools were assessed. Both data

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134 Damásio et al.

collections occurred after previous authorizations of the State University of Paraíba Ethics
Committee (Institutional Review Board). Participants provided written informed consent
before the data were collected.

Measures
14-Item Resilience Scale (RS-14). The Brazilian version of the RS-14 used in this
study was based on the adaptation process developed by Pesce et al. (2005), in which
the RS-25 was translated and validated to the Brazilian sample. For the objective of this
study, the nine items of the Brazilian RS-25 that did not compose the reduced version were
deleted. The current version of the RS-14 contains five items referring to “self-reliance”
(1, 5, 7, 12, and 14), three items referring to “meaningfulness” (2, 9, and 13), two items
referring to “equanimity” (3 and 10), two items referring to “perseverance” (6 and 8), and
two items referring to “existential aloneness” (4 and 11). The participants rate the items
on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
12-Item Purpose-in-Life Test (PILTest-12). The PILTest-12 (Aquino et al., 2009) is
a reduced version of the Purpose in Life Test, developed by Crumbaugh and Maholick
(1964). Composed of 12 items, the PILTest-12 evaluates, through a 7-point Likert scale
(1 5 totally disagree and 7 5 totally agree), the degree of one’s meaning in life. The
higher the score, the higher the sense of meaning in life. In previous studies (Aquino,
2009; Aquino et al., 2009), the PILTest-12 presented a reliable single-factor solution,
attested by Cronbach’s a 5 .83. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was .82.
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). The GHQ-12 is the reduced version of
the original General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg, 1972) and is one of the most
widely used instruments to evaluate the degree of one’s psychological well-being. The
respondents rate the questionnaire on a scale ranging from 1 (more than habitual) to
4 (less than habitual). Brazilian validation studies reported a two-factor solution as the
most reliable, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from .85 to .63 (Gouveia, Barbosa, Andrade,
& Carneiro, 2010; Sarriera, Schwarcz, & Câmara, 1996). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha
was .80 and .66, to “depression” and “self-efficacy” subscales, respectively.

Data Analysis
The total sample was randomly split in two halves to analyze the construct validity of
the RS-14. Different exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) were conducted with the first
half (n 5 567), using PCA, according to the previous studies, and maximum likelihood
(ML) extraction method. The first EFA was performed because of the importance on
conducting the analysis with the same methods used in the previous and original studies
(Nishi et al., 2010; Wagnild, 2010). However, considering that PCA is only a data-
reduction method, based on the linear correlation among the measured variables, and
it is not appropriate when the objective is to identify latent constructs underlying a set
of measured variables (Costello & Osborne, 2005), a second estimation method, ML,
was chosen. For all EFAs, the oblimin rotation was chosen because of the possibility to
allow factor correlations (Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999). The sample
adequacy was assessed by the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s sphericity test
measures. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha index. The number of factors
extracted in the EFAs was confronted with Monte Carlo parallel analyses, which was
used as the principal guideline to the factor retention, because of its better accuracy
(Hayton, Allen, & Scarpello, 2004).

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Psychometric Properties of Brazilian RS-14 135

Different CFAs with the second half of the sample (n 5 572), using ML estimation
method, were conducted in order to evaluate the goodness of fit of the exploratory models.
The ML estimation method was chosen, for both EFA and CFA, once our data presented
an acceptable (i.e., nonsevere) degree of normality deviation (Lei & Lomax, 2005; Olsson,
Foss, Troye, & Howell, 2000; West, Finch, & Curran, 1995).
The absolute fit indexes calculated were chi-square (x2), chi-square/degree of freedom
ratio (x2/df), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Parsimony fit was the
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The comparative indexes used were
comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI). These indexes were chosen
because of their favorable performance in Monte Carlo researches (Brown, 2006; Hu &
Bentler, 1999). According to many guidelines, x2/df might be less than 2 or 3; the closer
SRMR to 0 the better; RMSEA values less than .06 indicate a good fit, between .06 and
.08 a reasonable fit, between .08 and .10 a mediocre fit, and more than .10 a poor fit. CFI
and TLI must be higher than .90 or .95 or close to it (Brown, 2006; Byrne, 2010). Both
samples were appropriate to use the factor analyses according to multiple criteria: They
include more than 200 subjects; exceed the sample/item ratio of 10:1 for the EFA (Hair et
al., 2006); and exceed the ratio of 10 subjects for each parameter to be estimated, for the
CFA (Brown, 2006; Byrne, 2010).
Multigroup CFA (MGCFA) analyses were then conducted to evaluate measurement
invariance of the RS-14 through distinct age (youngsters: from 14 to 29 years old,
n 5 762; and adults: from 30 to 59 years old, n 5 377) and gender (male, n 5 423 and
female, n 5 716) groups. The age groups aforementioned were defined according to the
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistic (IBGE) guidelines (IBGE, 1999). Although
the range from 14 to 29 years old encompasses three different levels of youth (adolescent,
young, and mature-young), these subdivisions were not accessed in this study.
For both MGCFA (age and gender), four different models are presented. Model 1
(equal number of factors or configural invariance) is an unconstrained model and assesses
whether the number of factors and the pattern of fixed and free parameters are equal across
groups. Model 2 (equal factor loadings or metric invariance) analyzes if the factor loadings
are equal across groups (i.e., it determines whether the measures have the same meaning
and structure for different groups of respondents). Model 3 (equal latent variance or struc-
tural invariance) investigates whether latent (co)variance are equal across groups. Finally,
Model 4 (equal measurement residuals or strict factorial invariance) evaluates whether
the measurement residuals are equal across groups. The levels of assessment are ordered
hierarchically, from Model 1 to Model 4. Thus, each constrained model is nested within
a less restricted one (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). Differences between the models were
evaluated by the chi-square difference test (Dx2) and CFI difference test (DCFI; Cheung
& Rensvold, 2002; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). Significant differences (i.e., Dx2[df] sig-
nificant at p . .05 and DCFI . .01) observed between the goodness of fit indexes of the
models indicate that the factor parameters are not the same across the specified groups.
Convergent validity of the RS-14 was performed using the PILTest-12 and the GHQ-12
in a random sample of 250 subjects. We expected that the RS-14 correlated positively
with the PILTest-12 (meaning in life) and GHQ-12 (self-efficacy) and negatively with the
GHQ-12 (depression). Mann-Whitney tests with Monte Carlo simulations (99% confi-
dence interval; 10,000 random samples) were conducted to analyze the effects of age and
gender on the RS scores. The nonparametric tests were chosen instead of Student’s t test
because of the large nonequivalence on the group sizes, which could affect the obtained
results (Field, 2005; Markowski & Markowski, 1990).

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136 Damásio et al.

RESULTS

Exploratory Factor Analyses

The first EFA, using PCA, presented a one-component solution, which accounted for
31.93% of the explained variance of the construct (KMO 5 .874; Bartlett’s test of
sphericity x2[91] 5 1,755.466, p , .001). All the 14 items loaded on the first component,
with satisfactory factor loadings (i.e., . .30). For this solution, Cronbach’s alpha was .82.
A second EFA using ML extraction method with oblimin rotation encountered a two-
factor solution with eigenvalue . 1 (Factor I: Eigenvalue 5 4.46; Factor II: Eigenvalue 5
1.13). The first factor was composed of 8 items (2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, and 13), whereas the
second factor was composed of 6 items (1, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 14). For both factors, Cronbach’s
alpha was .73. The adequacy of this two-factor solution was assessed through a parallel
analysis using marginally bootstrapped samples (PA–MBS; Lattin, Carroll, & Green,
2003). The results showed that a single-factor solution is the most appropriate (Figure 1).
When a single factor solution was forced, using the ML estimation method, item 3
(. . . Take things in stride) did not load significantly (i.e., . .30). For this model composed of
13 items, Cronbach’s alpha was .83, and the explained variance was 31.93% (Table 1).

Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Multigroup Comparisons

Different CFAs with the second half of the sample (n 5 572) were conducted in order
to assess the fit indexes of the obtained exploratory models. The goodness of fit using
absolute, parsimony, and comparative fit indexes, as recommended by Brown (2006), are
presented in Table 2.

4 Dataset Eigenvalues
Eigenvalues

Random Eigenvalues
3

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Factor Number
Figure 1. Parallel analysis using marginally bootstrapped samples.

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Psychometric Properties of Brazilian RS-14 137

TABLE 1. Exploratory Factor Analyses (PCA and ML) and Reliability Coefficients
of the Brazilian RS-14 (n 5 567)
Extraction Methods
Principal Maximum
Component Analysis Likelihood
Items (Short Content) Resilience Resilience
9 . . . Be interested in things .68a .64a
2 . . . Have accomplished things in life .66a .62a
6 . . . To be determined .64a .61a
14 . . . Find my way out of difficulties .63a .58a
4 . . . Friends with myself .63a .58a
11 . . . Belief on itself .60a .55a
13 . . . Meaning in life .58a .53a
12 . . . People can rely on me .57a .51a
8 . . . Be self-disciplined .56a .52a
5 . . . Handle many things .52a .46a
1 . . . Manage things one way or another .50a .44a
7 . . . Get through difficult times .49a .43a
10 . . . Find something to laugh about .45a .40a
3 . . . Take things in stride .31a .27
Eigenvalue 4.47 4.47
% explained variance 31.93 31.93
M 76.27 72.24
SD 12.71 10.20
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient .82 .83
aItems loaded significantly in the factor.

TABLE 2. Goodness of fit for the Resilience Scale

Goodness of Fit Indexes
Models x2 (df) x2/df SRMR RMSEA (90% CI) CFI TLI
RS-14 (PCA) 213.820 (77) 2.777 .042 .056 (.047–.065) .924 .910
RS-13 (ML) 192.180 (65) 2.957 .041 .059 (.049–.065) .928 .913
Note. SRMR 5 standardized root mean square residual; RMSEA 5 root mean square
error of approximation; CI 5 confidence interval; CFI 5 comparative fit index;
TLI 5 Tucker-Lewis index; PCA 5 principal component analysis; ML 5 maximum
likelihood.

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138 Damásio et al.

The goodness of fit for the different models were quite similar. As it can be seen in
Table 2, the ratio x2/df and the RMSEA indexes of the PCA model are slightly better than
the ML one-factor model. However, the SRMR, CFI, and TLI indexes of the ML one-
factor model are better than the PCA one. The overall good fit of the models suggested
the possibility of conducting measurement invariance analyses (Brown, 2006). For the
measurement invariance and subsequent analyses, the RS-13 was chosen, considering the
better adequacy of the extraction method.
MGCFA were then conducted in the RS-13 to assess whether the parameters of
this obtained factorial model were invariant across gender (male and female) and age
(youngsters and adults) groups (Table 3). The first MGCFA was conducted in the gender
group. The goodness of fit of Model 1 (equal number of factors) demonstrated, by the
acceptable goodness of fit indexes, that the posited exploratory model is plausible for
both men and women (i.e., same items measuring the same latent construct), matching
the criteria of configural invariance (Byrne, 2010; Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). Model 2
(equal factor loadings), which evaluated the assumption of metric invariance, also had an
overall good fit to the data and did not significantly degrade fit relative to the first model,
Dx2(12) 5 19.750, ns (critical value for x2[12] 5 21.03, a 5 .05), and DCFI , .01. More
than that, the second model demonstrated a slight improvement in the RMSEA and TLI
goodness of fit indexes, comparing to the first one. Because the constraint of equal factor
loadings did not significantly degrade the fit of the RS-13, it can be concluded that the
indicators (items) evidence comparable relationships to the latent constructs for both male
and female (Brown, 2006; Byrne, 2010).
Considering the same criteria aforementioned (Dx2, DCFI), the fit of Model 3 (equal
latent variance) presented contradictory findings. Although the Dx2 indicates significant
changes in the model, Dx2(1) 5 19.830 (critical value for Dx2[1] 5 3.84, a 5 .05), the
DCFI indicate that the models did not change significantly (DCFI 5 .006). Model 4 (equal
measurement residuals) presented a significant degradation of the model as evaluated by
the chi-square distribution, Dx2(13) 5 57.009, p , .05 (critical value for Dx2[13] 5 22.36,
a 5 .05) and by the CFI difference test (DCFI 5 .013). In other words, the assumption of
equal measurement residuals could not be achieved.
A second MGCFA was conducted in order to evaluate the RS-13 measurement
invariance across two different age groups: youngsters and adults (Table 3). Model 1
(equal number of factors) presented acceptable goodness of fit indexes, suggesting that
the factor structure of the RS-13 is equal for both youngsters and adults groups. Model
2 (equal factor loadings) showed an overall good fit to the data and did not significantly
degrade fit relative to the first model, Dx2(12) 5 12.014, ns (critical value for x2[12] 5
21.03, a 5 .05), and DCFI , .01. Relative to Model 3 (equal latent variance), once again,
contradictory results were found: The Dx2 indicated significant changes in the model,
Dx2(1) 5 8.605 (critical value for Dx2[1] 5 3.84, a 5 .05), but the DCFI indicated
that the model did not change significantly (DCFI 5 .002). Finally, regarding Model 4
(equal measurement residuals), the assumption of invariance over again could not be
achieved, neither by the chi-square difference tests, Dx2(13) 5 376,607 (critical value for
Dx2[13] 5 22.36, a 5 .05) nor by the CFI difference test (DCFI . .01).

Convergent Validity
Pearson’s correlations among the RS-13 with the meaning in life (PILTest-12) and depres-
sion and self-efficacy (GHQ-12), in a random sample of 250 subjects, were performed.

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 TABLE 3. Fit Indexes for Gender and Age MGCFA for the RS-13
Goodness of Fit Indexes
RS-13 x2 df x2/df Dx2 Ddf RMSEA (90% CI) SRMR CFI TLI
Gender measurement invariance
Equal number of factors 416.609 130 3.189 - - .044 (.039–.049) .041 .915 .894
Equal factor loadings 434.359 142 3.059 19.750 12 .043 (.038–.047) .046 .913 .904
Equal latent variance 454.189 143 3.176 19.830 1 .044 (.039–.048) .069 .907 .899
Psychometric Properties of Brazilian RS-14

Equal measurement residuals 511.198 156 3.277 57.009 13 .045 (.040–.049) .066 .894 .894
RS-13
Age measurement invariance
Equal number of factors 381.449 130 2.934 - - .041 (.036–.046) .046 .925 .910
Equal factor loadings 393.463 142 2.771 12.014 12 .039 (.035–.044) .048 .925 .917
Equal latent variance 402.068 143 2.812 8.605 1 .040 (.035–.045) .063 .923 .915

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Equal measurement residuals 778.675 156 4.992 376.607 13 .059 (.055–.063) .058 .814 .814
Note. RS 5 resilience scale; MGCFA 5 multigroup confirmatory factor analysis; SRMR 5 standardized root mean square
residual; RMSEA 5 root mean square error of approximation; CI 5 confidence interval; CFI 5 comparative fit index;
TLI 5 Tucker-Lewis index.
139
140 Damásio et al.

TABLE 4. Means, Medians, Standard Deviations, Reliabilities, and Correlation

Matrix of Measured Variables
1 2 3 4
1. Resilience (.83)
2. Meaning in life .55** (.82)
3. Self-efficacy .46** .41** (.66)
4. Depression 2.47** 2.37** 2.46** (.80)
M (possible range) 74.5 (7–91) 68.9 (7–84) 15.7(5–20) 16.2 (7–28)
Mdn 76.0 71 16.0 19.0
SD 8.94 10.47 4.80 2.30
Note. 1 5 Resilience (RS-13); 2 5 Meaning in life (PILTest-12); 3 5 Self-efficacy
(GHQ-12); 4 5 Depression (GHQ-12). Values in parenthesis along the diagonal
represent internal consistency estimates (Cronbach’s alpha).
** p , .001.

As expected, the RS-13 correlated positively with meaning in life and self-efficacy and
negatively with depression (see Table 4).

Effects of Age and Gender on the RS-13

Performance differences on the RS-13 were compared between two different groups
(gender, men and women; and age, youngsters and adults) using Mann-Whitney test
with Monte Carlo simulations. No differences between males (Mdn 5 73) and females
(Mdn 5 74) were found (U 5 143618.50, z 5 21.458, p . .10). However, the youngsters
group presented a lower level of resilience (Mdn 5 72), when compared to the adults
group (Mdn 5 76, U 5 121524.00, z 5 24.236, p , .001).

DISCUSSION

Initially, we conducted two different EFAs, with the first half of the sample, in order to
evaluate the possibility of different factor solutions for the RS-14. The first EFA, using
PCA, was conducted according to the guidelines presented in a previous (Nishi et al.,
2010) and original validation study (Wagnild, 2010). The results presented a one-factor
solution, with a Cronbach’s a 5 .82. All 14 items loaded higher than .30. When a second
extraction method (ML with oblimin rotation) was chosen, the RS-14 presented initially
a clear two-factor solution (i.e., without cross-loadings). However, parallel analysis
presented a single-factor solution as the most reliable. When a single-factor solution was
forced, using the ML extraction method, the Item 3 (. . . Take things in stride) did not load
significantly. It is important to consider that PCAs does not differentiate the common and
unique variance of the items, which tends to increase the component loadings (Fabrigar
et al., 1999). Probably because of this, Item 3 loaded significantly in the PCA solution
but not on the ML one. Considering that the previous reported studies (Wagnild, 2010;
Nishi et al., 2010) used only PCA, we do not know if the nonsignificant loading of Item
3, using a factor analytic method is a peculiarity of our sample or not. Although Item 3

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Psychometric Properties of Brazilian RS-14 141

loaded well in Wagnild’s study (factor loading 5 .46), further studies (Brazilians and
internationals) considering different extraction methods are encouraged to better clarify
this initial finding.
For the 13-item model, Cronbach’s a 5 .83, whereas the 14-item model presented
a Cronbach’s alpha of .82. Both PCA and ML single-factor solutions presented a poor
amount of explained variance (Peterson, 2000), similar to the results found by Nishi et al.
(2010).
In order to identify the better fit to the Brazilian RS-14, two different CFAs were
conducted, testing the exploratory models. The results presented good indexes for both
models, suggesting similar plausibility. However, MGCFA were conducted in the factor
analytic model (i.e., the ML 13-item solution) in order to evaluate measurement invariance
on age and gender groups.
For the gender and age groups, the assumptions of “equal number of factors”
(configural invariance) and “equal factor loadings” (metric invariance) were totally
accepted, suggesting that the structure (number of factors and disposition of the items) and
the factor loadings were similar for male and female, as well as for youngsters and adults.
The assumption of “equal latent variance” (structural invariance) presented contradictory
findings in both groups. The chi-square difference test (Dx2) indicated significant changes
in the model, whereas the CFI difference test (DCFI) attested the contrary. It is known,
however, that chi-square difference tests between nested models are sample size dependent
(Brown, 2006; Meade, Johnson, & Braddy, 2006) and sensitive for models with several
constrained parameters (Marsh, Balla, & McDonald, 1988; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).
In turn, the DCFI metric is considered a robust fit statistic when testing MGCFA models
(Cheung & Rensvold, 2002; Meade et al., 2006). So, considering the DCFI results, it is
possible to argue that the assumption of equal latent variance was achieved for both groups.
Finally, the assumption of “equal measurement residuals” (strict factorial invariance)
could not be achieved neither for the gender nor for the age group. However, it is widely
accepted that testing measurement residuals invariance represents an overly restrictive test
of the data on psychological research and does not compromise the conclusions about the
measurement invariance (Byrne, 2010).
Regarding the convergent validity, the Brazilian RS-13 correlated positively with meaning
in life (PILTest-12) and self-efficacy (GHQ-12) and negatively with depression (GHQ-12).
These results are consistent with previous studies. Nishi et al. (2010), for example, found
that the RS-14 was negatively correlated with depression (r 5 2.28) and positively cor-
related with self-esteem (r 5 .28). As largely discussed, meaning in life, self-efficacy, and
self-esteem are positive dispositional aspects that are associated with higher likelihood of
resilient responses to a variety of life stressors (Masten & Reed, 2002; Moskowitz, 2010).
Depression, in turn, has been considered a vulnerability factor that is generally negatively
correlated with resilience (Zautra, Hall, & Murray, 2010). Thus, the Brazilian RS-13 pre-
sented a significant convergent validity.
Consistent with previous studies using the RS, the levels of resilience increased with
age and presented no relation with gender (Lundman, Strandberg, Eisemann, Gustafson,
& Brulin, 2007; Nishi et al., 2010; Portzky, Wagnild, De Bacquer, & Audenaert, 2010;
Wagnild, 2010). Lundman et al. (2007) argued that resilience is not static and probably
is a process developed during the life span. According to these authors, despite the fact
that old age has been described as a period of physical, functional, and social losses,
other age groups as youngsters and adults might have an increasing resilience levels with
age, probably influenced by individual and contextual factors. One important aspect to

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142 Damásio et al.

consider, however, is that none of these reported studies, including this one, evaluated
the levels of resilience in at-risk populations but only in healthy or general citizens.
Moreover, resilience as measured by the RS-14 is conceptualized as a personality trait
(Wagnild & Young, 1993), and maybe this specificity of the instrument is influencing the
observed results regarding age and resilience levels. So, these results must be cautiously
interpreted.
Two main limitations of this study are pointed out. First, the sample was not paired
by age, and this can be seen as a limitation for group comparisons. Although the groups
of youngsters and adults were based on a very clear Brazilian criterion, the range from
14 to 29 (youngsters) and 30 to 59 (adults) is very large and probably specificities on the
degree of resilience according to developmental characteristics could not be well accessed.
Other important aspect to highlight is the fact that our sample was composed by a general
population. To include and to identify groups in at-risk situations is a very important
issue for further studies, especially considering the construct that the scale is proposed to
measure (resilience).

CONCLUSIONS

The objective of this study was to present the factor structure and the psychometric
properties of the RS-14 in the Brazilian context. EFAs and CFAs presented a reliable
and plausible one-factor solution. The one-factor solution using PCA presented a similar
structure as reported in previous studies. However, using a true factor analysis extraction
method (ML), Item 3 did not load significantly.
MGCFA with the ML one-factor solution presented satisfactory results, testifying that
the factor structure (number of factors and items) and some measurement parameters
(i.e., factor loadings and latent variance) were invariant across gender and age groups.
These results suggest that the Brazilian RS-13 seems to be a reliable measure to be used
in the Brazilian general population.
Convergent validity was also satisfactory evaluated. The RS-13 correlated negatively
with depression and positively with meaning in life and self-efficacy. Mann-Whitney’s
test replicated previous findings, suggesting that resilience, as measured by the RS-13,
increases with age. However, studies with different subjects (e.g., at-risk populations,
different socioeconomic status) are necessary to better understand these results. The fact
that the level of resilience increased with age is not a contradictory finding related to the
measurement invariance of the instrument, once the scores and means of the items were
not evaluated by the MGCFA. Finally, it is suggested that further investigations should be
conducted in other regions of the country, considering also sociodemographic, economics,
familiar, and other contextual aspects, in order to replicate or not these findings.

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Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to Bruno Figueiredo Damásio, MPsy,
PhDc, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Ramiro Barcelos Street, 2600/104, Porto Alegre,
RS 90035-003. E-mail: brunofd.psi@gmail.com

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