Viscosity

• Viscosity represents the internal resistance

of a fluid to motion.
• Thicker fluids have a higher viscosity.
• For example, the viscosity of oil is higher
than that of water, the oil is more viscous
than the water.
• Viscosity may be known as either dynamic
(absolute) viscosity or kinematic viscosity.
This discussion is limited to dynamic
viscosity. The symbol μ is used to represent
the coefficient of viscosity, also called the
viscous coefficient, dynamic viscosity of a
fluid, and absolute viscosity of a fluid. The
coefficient of viscosity is a proportionality
constant that is unique for each material.
Types of Viscosity

• There are two different measurements of viscosity used to describe

fluids, dynamic and kinematic viscosities.
• These describe the flow of the fluid in different ways related to the
way they are measured
Dynamic Viscosity

• Dynamic viscosity measures the ratio of the shear stress to the shear
rate for a fluid.

Unit: kg/m.s

Kinematic Viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity measures the ratio of the viscous force to the
inertial force on the fluid.

• Unit: m2/s
Air’s Viscosity

• Like air, water also has viscosity or stickiness. While you are moving your
rowboat through the water, the flow of the water creates skin-friction on
the wetted hull-surfaces. Thus while rowing you have to overcome two
different kinds of forces. There's the inertia, caused by the water's
density, and the friction, caused by its stickiness.
• Let's say you are moving the boat through the water at a speed of only
one mile per hour. So little water is now moving aside that most of your
energy goes to overcoming the skin-friction force of the water.
• Then you start rowing at a speed of ten miles per hour, the bow-and
stern-waves show that you are spending most of your energy moving the
water aside. You now have to overcome the inertia of the water caused
by its density rather than overcome the friction caused by the water's
stickiness. Thus when going slow, the ratio of friction-work to inertia-
work is high. When going fast, the ratio of inertia-work to friction-work is
high.
Air’s Density

• Now when you go out flying, you want your airplane to glide
smoothly through the air. The air should flow over wing- and fuselage
surfaces with a minimum of disturbance.
• While air is not nearly as dense as water, it does have a certain
density.
• Thus the air is also somewhat reluctant to move aside so your
airplane can get through.
• Thus with your airplane as in the row boat, you also find you are up
against the two important characteristics: density (inertia) and
viscosity (stickiness).
 Reynolds Number
• Mathematical Equation
𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑹𝒆 =
𝜇

Where,
ρ is the density of fluid
V is the velocity of fluid
D is the diameter of pipe (internal or external?)
μ is the viscosity of fluid

The British scientist and Engineer Osborne Reynolds discovered these two main parameters
(Density and Viscosity) years ago during his research into the flow of liquids in pipes.

He found that laminar flow or turbulent flow depends only on the ratio of the inertial forces
over the friction forces.

This ratio of viscosity over density scientists call the "kinematic viscosity."
• Reynolds also showed that we must take two other factors into
account.
• The first is the velocity or speed with which the air moves over the
surface.
• For your airplane, this is its flying-speed. The second factor is the
length dimension of the surface.
• For the wing, for example, this is the local chord-length. For other
parts, it is just their length dimension.
Density and Viscosity

• The density, viscosity, and the kinematic viscosity all have in some
way the unit (ft) in them. Therefore, in the formula, speed V and
length L are respectively in feet per second and in linear feet.
• For airspeed in miles per hour, because one mph = 1.46667 fps, we
use the number
• 6378 x 1.46667 = 9354.
• For airspeed in knots the constant is 10767. For the dimension in
inches, like for the chord-length of model airplane wings, the number
to use with speeds in mph is 9354/12 = 780.
• Here's a simple example for a wing with a 10 feet chord at 100 mph
• flying speed, at Sea Level and "Standard Day" conditions.
• Re = 9346 x 100 x 10 = 9346 x 1000 = 9,346,000.
• Per 100 mph of flying speed at sea level, the RN is roughly equal to 1 million
per foot of length.
• Thus we can calculate the Reynolds Number for any chordwise position on
the wing or any lengthwise point on the fuselage, and for any specific flying
speed and density altitude.
• In general, for full-scale airplanes the nearest 100,000 or even half million
figure will do.
• In flight the wing's Reynolds Number is of course continuously growing.
• It starts at zero at the stagnation point in front of the wing's leading edge.
While the air flows aft, the Reynolds Number continuously increases to its
maximum value at the trailing edge.
• With his famous formula, Osborne Reynolds gave us the master key to
practical aerodynamics.
• His work makes it possible for us to make a direct, practical comparison of
the boundary layer flow. On the wings and on other parts of our airplanes.
Without it, modern aerodynamics would not have been possible. Our hats
are off to him!
The Practical Significance of the Reynolds
Number
• The resistance experienced by a wing in flight is a function of the Reynolds
Number. Normally, the Reynolds Number is the decisive factor in the air-flow
in determining whether the inertial effect or the viscous effect wins. Let's
take a look at what the Reynolds Number values roughly tell us about airflow
and drag.
• If the Reynolds Number is large, the viscosity effect is small. For the for us
practical values the inertia or density forces dominate, and the parasite drag
increases with the square of the velocity. However, although the viscosity is
unimportant, it may still affect the very thin boundary layer, leading to the
creation of turbulent flow.
• Thus the importance of the Reynolds Number is that it tells us the type of
flow we can expect. It tells you whether you can hope for having laminar
flow over the wing and other parts of your airplane. A low Reynolds Number
gives laminar flow while a high Reynolds Number gives turbulent flow. For
both a laminar and a turbulent boundary layer increasing Reynolds Number
gives lower skin friction drag. However, because of the higher energy loss in
the boundary layer, a turbulent layer always has higher skin friction drag.
The Critical Reynolds Number

• Near the wing's leading edge the Reynolds Number is relatively low.
• Especially on a smooth wing surface, the boundary layer flow will be laminar at
first. With increasing Reynolds Number, further downstream at some chord-wise
location it reaches the local critical Reynolds Number.
• This is when and where the boundary layer transitions to turbulent flow. The
value at which it does so we therefore call the transition or critical Reynolds
Number. This is the most important factor in determining transition to
turbulence.
• The change from laminar-flow conditions to turbulent-flow conditions at the
critical Reynolds Number is not definite. The ranges of the Reynolds Number
under which laminar- or turbulent-flow conditions exist depends much on the
shape and (mostly) on the surface finish. It also depends on such factors as the
initial steadiness of flow, absence of vibration, etc.
• On the average (poor) wing surface usually it occurs at Reynolds Number values
of at least 100,000, and from there up to 500,000. Under ideal conditions it is
possible to maintain laminar-flow conditions for relatively very large values of
Reynolds Number. However, such boundary-layer flow conditions are unstable.
Keeping them stable is the big trick.
• The fastest homebuilt airplanes at present obviously have accomplished this, as
shown in their very high speeds on relatively low power.
Some Reynolds Number Figures

• The Reynolds Number for full-scale flight varies from about 2,000,000 for small slow-speed
airplanes to 20,000,000 for large high-speed airplanes. Here are some figures for a couple
of light airplanes, at 75% cruise speed. We use the formula Re = 9324 x V(mph) x
Av.chd.(ft).

•
• VP-2 9346 x 87 x 4.815 = 3 904 248
• BD-5 9346 x 200 x 2.235 = 4 167 828
• Cessna 150 9346 x 108 x 4.800 = 4 833 562
• Cherokee Cruiser 9346 x 124 x 4.857 = 5 615 547
• T-18 9346 x 173 x 4.130 = 6 661 905
• Questair Venture 9346 x 280 x 2.62 = 6 856 226
• Questair Venture 9346 x 345 x 2.62 = 8 447 850
• RV-4 9346 x 175 x 4.780 = 7 799 526
• Bonanza V35B 9346 x 181 x 5.400 = 9 113 278
• As you go up in altitude, the density of the air decreases. Because of the lower
temperatures, the viscosity increases. All this only slightly changes the Reynlds Number.
• Thus when calculating the Reynolds Number for flight at altitude, we must use the proper
figures.
 Classification of Fluid Flows
• There are variety of fluids whose flow depends upon various parameters e.g. viscosity, density,
molecular forces etc.

• : Carefully read the statement below:

When two fluid lay Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flowers move relative to each other, a friction
force develops between them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer. This internal
resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property viscosity, which is a measure of internal
stickiness of the fluid.

• There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous effects to some degree.
Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.

• However, in many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not close to solid
surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies the analysis without much
loss in accuracy.
Newtonian Vs Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Newtonian fluids are named after Sir Issac

Newton (1642 - 1726) who described the flow behavior
of fluids with a simple linear relation between shear
stress [mPa] and shear rate [1/s].
• This relationship is now known as Newton's Law of
Viscosity, where the proportionality constant η is
the viscosity [mPa-s] of the fluid:

• Some examples of Newtonian fluids include:

• Water
• All gases
• Gasoline
• For those fluids viscosity is only dependent on
temperature.
• Viscosity of Newtonian fluids remain
constant throughout flow
• In reality most fluids are non-Newtonian,
which means that their viscosity is dependent
on shear rate (Shear Thinning or Thickening)
• In contrast to Newtonian fluids, non-
Newtonian fluids display either a non-linear
relation between shear stress and shear rate
(see Figure 1), have a yield stress, or viscosity
that is dependent on time.
• Examples include:
• Glue
• Paint
• Ketchup
• Toothpaste
• Yoghurt
• Cornflour mixed with water
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

• Inviscid flow is the flow of an ideal fluid that seems to have no

viscosity .

• Regions where frictional effects are significant are called Viscous

Regions. They are usually close to the solid surface.

• In simple words, they have significant frictional effects

• Regions were frictional forces are small as compared to inertial or

pressure forces are called Inviscid Regions.

• In simple words, they have negligible viscous forces.

 Internal v/s External Flows
• A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the
fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or over a surface.
• External flows are flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid. Flat plate,
cylinders, spheres, airfoils, etc.
• Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal flows.
• The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces. Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow.
 Compressible v/s Incompressible Flow
• A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible,
depending on the level of variation of density during flow.
• Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to be
incompressible if the density remains nearly constant throughout.
• Compressible flow means a flow that undergoes a notable variation
in density with trending pressure.
• Compressible flow = variable density = gases
• Incompressible flow = constant density = liquids (even though they
are very slightly compressible in the real world, this is negligible
from an educational standpoint).
• Mach number (which is the ratio of the speed of the flow to the
speed of sound at a particular temperature) must be greater than
0.3 before significant compressibility occurs.
Can you Compress Water?

• Suppose you soak your sponge in the water. Then you squeeze the sponge
hard. Have you compressed the water?
• Probably yes. But then, no.
• If you apply 14.7 psi, you will compress the water only by 0.000053%
• Imagine an ocean. The water one mile underneath the ocean has got 150
times high pressure than the normal atmospheric pressure.
• Even at that pressure, the water compresses less than 1%.
• In industrial applications water can be tremendously compressed and used
to do things like cut through metal.
• Water jet cutting machine works at around 160,000 psi.
• At that pressure water compresses around 16% by volume.
• As water requires very high pressure to get compressed by a very little
volume, therefore water is essentially believed to be incompressible,
especially under normal conditions.
• When analyzing rockets, spacecraft, and
other systems that involve high speed gas
flows, the flow speed is often expressed in
terms of the dimensionless Mach number.
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑉
𝑀𝑎 = =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑐

• ‘c’ is the speed of sound whose value is 346

m/s in air at room temperature at sea level.
• Gas flows can often be approximated as
incompressible if the density changes are
under about 5 percent, which is usually the
case when Ma < 0.3. Therefore, the
compressibility effects of air can be
neglected at speeds under about 100 m/s.
 Laminar v/s Turbulent Flow
• Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar.

• The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities

is typically laminar. The highly disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called turbulent.

• A flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent

is called transitional.

• But, how can we know in calculations the flow regime?

✓It is done by Reynolds number (dimensionless)

 Natural vs Forced Flow
• A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated.

• In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump
or a fan.

• In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect.
Accuracy vs Precision

•Often we come across the words “Precise” &

“Accurate”..
•Or “Precision” & “Accuracy”.
•Can anyone define me what Precision &
Accuracy is?
Accuracy vs Precision

Precise

Accurate
Quick Question

• What is the difference between

the two figures?
• A quick hint… Newton’s Third Law
of Motion
• In figure (1), the air comes straight Figure (1)
at the wing, bends around it, and
then leaves straight behind the
wing. We have all seen similar
pictures, even in flight manuals.
• In other words, the air leaves the
wing exactly as it appeared ahead
of the wing. Figure (2)

• For Figure 2, it is the opposite.

• As Newton’s Third laws suggest, the wing must change something of
the air to get lift.
• Changes in the air’s momentum will result in forces on the wing. To
generate lift a wing must divert air down ……. lots of air.
• The lift of a wing is equal to the change in momentum of the air it
diverts down.
• Momentum is the product of mass and velocity (Momentum = Mass
x Velocity).
• The lift of a wing is proportional to the amount of air diverted down
X the downward velocity of that air….. Its that simple.
• Here we have used an alternate form of Newton’s second law that
relates the acceleration of an object to its mass and to the force on it,
F=ma
Air has Viscosity .. Coanda Effect
• The natural question is "how does the wing divert the air
down?“
• When a moving fluid, such as air or water, comes into
contact with a curved surface it will try to follow that
surface.
• To demonstrate this effect, hold a water glass horizontally
under a faucet such that a small stream of water just
touches the side of the glass.
• Instead of flowing straight down, the presence of the glass
causes the water to wrap around the glass, as shown in the
Figure.
• This tendency of fluids to follow a curved surface is known
as the Coanda effect.
• From Newton’s first law we know that for the fluid to bend
there must be a force acting on it.
• From Newton’s third law we know that the fluid must put
an equal and opposite force on the object that caused the
fluid to bend.