M6 Materials and Hardware PDF

M6 Materials & Hardware
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AVIATION TRAINING GMBH

EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Materials and Hardware
6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous

6.1.I Materials
The right selection and proper use of materials require a fair knowledge of a
material's nature. This includes its structure, properties and behaviour under given
environmental conditions and for the respective technical application. Moreover, a
technician must be able to distinguish between the classes of materials and their
properties, as otherwise he could not assess and apply correctly the respective
treatment and processes.
Classifications of Materials
Refer to Figure 1
In the technical field raw materials like iron ore, coal, crude oil or wood are passed
through different processes before they are used for various purposes.
Metals (e.g. steel, cast iron, aluminium alloys) and non-metallic materials (e.g.
synthetic materials) are used to manufacture tools, machines and equipment,
whereas auxiliary materials are needed to produce them.
Ferrous metals contain iron (also called ferrite) and carbon up to 4 %. The amount of
carbon is important as it changes the properties of the metal. Ferrous metals
containing up to 2.06 % carbon are referred to as steel and those with a carbon
content of between 2.06 % and 4 % are called cast iron.
Non-ferrous metals contain either no iron or less than 50 %. They are used when
their properties (e.g, soft, ductile, corrosion resistant) meet the special needs of the
components being made. The two non-ferrous metals most commonly used are
aluminium and copper.
The most important material out of the non-metallic group is plastic. Plastic material
is produced by a chemical process. When compared with metals, plastics are poor
conductors of heat and not as strong or tough. They are, however, non-corrosive.
Characteristic Features of Materials
To compare materials it is important to know and to describe their characteristic

features:
Refer to Figures 2 and 3.

physical characteristics;
density, toughness, melting point (or range), magnetisability, electrical and
thermal conductivity
mechanical characteristics;
hardness, strength, ductility, brittleness, elasticity, heat resistance
U chemical characteristics;
corrosion resistance, combustibility, toxicity, reactivity
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
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EASA Part-66 T r a i n i n g H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
technological characteristics;
these cannot be defined by numbers and figures or be fixed in tables and dia-
grams, but must be described as 'good machinability, being good to weld or
cast, suitable for forging, not machinable' etc.
Apart from the type and the property of the material, the environmental conditions
encountered at the place, where the finished product is used, should be considered.
So will, for example, no wooden or plastic material be chosen for high-temperature
processes.
6.1 .1 .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n to Metals
Metal is the most commonly applied material for technical purposes
The Structure of Metals
Refer to Figure 4.
Superficially, metal looks like a solid, uniform and equal material. Under a micro-
scope, however, different crystalline grain structures are visible. A force holds the
atoms in typical crystal lattices. In a melting process the distance between the
individual atoms increases until they move freely.
Typical lattices configurations are:

o body-centered cubic lattice
the atoms are arranged in the form of a cube on the imagined lines between
the centres with one atom in the cube centre (chrome, tungsten, vanadium
and iron below 911 "C).
Face-centered lattice
cubic configuration with additional atoms in the centre of each cube face and
none in the cube centre (aluminium, copper and iron above 911 " C ) .
Hexagonal lattice
(magnesium and titanium).
The grain structure of metals is established in the process of chilling. When the
temperature drops below the respective solidification point, the grains start growing.
Where 2 grains meet, they form a visible boundary. The boundary of a finished grain
cannot be entered by the lattice from another grain. When all metal ions have found
their final allocation in a grain crystal the metal is solidified to its final structure.
-1 materials
Metals Non-metallic Auxiliary
1^_1 materials materials
Coolants
Lubricants
Cleaners
Synthetic
materials Gases, etc.
Wood Rubber
Leather Plastics
Asbestos Glass
materials metals metals Graphite Ceramics
C > 2.2 % p > 5 g/cm3 p < 5 g/cm
Construction Cast iron Copper Aluminium

steel Cast steel Zinc
-
Magnesium
High carbon Malleable iron Lead Titanium
steel
Alloy steel
Figure 1 Classification of Materials

lCrTj)J
a) Physical characteristics b) Mechanical characteristics
- - - -
Density Melting point Strength

Tensile force
1 Hardness
Burner Test pressure
1 cm Cross section
Indentation Test body
a v
e m
= ~ 1 cm
4
4 Tensile force
Material
i??5? Material
Thermal conductivity Magnetizability

I Elasticity
I Ductility
I
(
Magnet I r--'4Resilience I Permanent deformation 1
Material
I Brittleness I Heat resistance

I
Deformation
through heat
Figure 2 Characteristic Features of Materials

EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
c) Chemical characteristics
Uniform surface corrosion Local corrosion
c Corrosion layer
Material
Cornbustibility
A A
Warning sign
d) Technological characteristics
Warning sign
Castability Machinability
Material
Malleability Weldability
Figure 3 Characteristic Features of Materials
Fundamentals of Aircraft Ferrous Materials
6.1.2.1 Introduction
In the design and construction of aircraft of all types, many different types of
materials are used. For many years the most common types of materials used in the
construction of aircraft were steel, wood, fabric, aluminium and aluminium alloys.
Copper and brass were used for tubing and small fittings. More recently aluminium
alloys made up the major structural material for aircraft components because of their
strength and light weight.
With the start of the supersonic era, it has become necessary to develop metals that
are able to withstand both high stresses and high temperatures. To meet these
needs, stainless steels, titanium alloys and composite materials have come into
being and are now serving as structural materials wherever conditions require their
use.
In addition to the materials noted above, various plastics and synthetic material have
been developed for aircraft construction. Transparent plastics are used for wind-
shields and windows, while others are used for bushings, bearings, fairleads, tubing,
ducting and many other purposes.
Laminated plastics reinforced with glass fibre, fibrous graphite and other materials
are being used in various parts of aircraft because of light weight, ease of fabrication
and resistance to high temperatures.
Iron and Steel

Ferrous metals such as cast iron, steels and similar products are those whose main
content is iron. Because of the large number of different steels and steel alloys, only
a few of the most commonly used types will be described in the following.
A high percentage of the steels used for general aircraft work are of the wrought
type. They are shown in Figure 1.
In addition to the standard group of wrought-carbon and alloy steels, a large number
of heat- and corrosion-resistant steels are used in aircraft and missiles. The main
names of these steels are given in Figure 2.
In Figure 1, the first digit of each number indicates the general classification of the
steel, that is, carbon, nickel, etc. The number '1' indicates a carbon steel.
The second digit of the number indicates the approximate percentage of the main
alloying element. For example, a '2330 steel' contains more than 3 % nickel.
The last 2 digits of each number indicate the approximate amount of carbon in
hundredths of 1 %.
One of the most important considerations for ordinary carbon steel is the quantity of
carbon it contains. The higher the carbon content of a steel, the greater its hardness
and also its brittleness will be. High-carbon steels are used for cutting tools, springs,
etc. For general purposes, low- or medium-carbon steels are best because they can
more easily be worked, they are tougher and they offer a much greater resistance to
impact.
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Nickel steels, SAE 23xx and 25% contain between 3.5 % and 5 % nickel and a small
percentage of carbon. The nickel increases the strength, hardness and elasticity of
the steel without appreciably affecting the ductility. Nickel steel is used for producing
various aircraft parts including nuts, bolts, clevis pins and screws.
Nickel-chromium and chromium-vanadium steels are used where even greater
strength, hardness and toughness are required. Such steels are often found in highly
stressed machine parts such as gears, shafts, springs and bearings.
Corrosion-resistant (Stainless) Steels
Since the 1940s the term 'stainless steel' (also called 'corrosion-resistant steel
(CRES)') has become a very common word because of its many uses in consumer
items as well as in aircraft and missiles. The development of stainless steel has
made possible many of the outstanding advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines
and rockets.
The most important characteristics of stainless steel are:
its relatively light weight
its corrosion resistance
its strength
its toughness
its resistance to high temperatures.
Refer to Figure 3.
Stainless steels can be divided into 3 general groups according to their structures:
austenitic
ferritic
martensitic.
The austenitic steels are chromium (Cr)-nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manga-
nese (Mn) alloys. They can be hardened only by cold working. Heat treatment serves
only to anneal them. They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although
some may be slightly magnetic after cold working (carbon is also austenitic 0.05 %
by composition).
Austenitic steels are manufactured by heating the steel mixture above the critical
temperature of approx. 850 "C and maintaining this temperature to form a structure
called 'austenite'. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed, followed by a rapid
quench just above the critical temperature.
Ferritic steels contain a maximum of only 0.02 % carbon. They do not respond very
well to heat treatment. They contain a large amount of chromium and may have a
small amount of aluminium. They are always magnetic.
Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloys that harden intensely if they are
allowed to cool rapidly after having been heated to high temperatures. They differ
from the 2 other groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment.
The most widely used stainless steels for general use are those in the '300' series.
They are called '1 8-8' because they contain approx. 18 % chromium and 8 % nickel.
Common types are 301,302,321 and 347.
Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages
that must be faced by the manufacturer and designer:
Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many other materials.
Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels.
They conduct heat at a lower rate, which makes welding more difficult.
Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high tem-
peratures.
If corrosion-resistant steels are used for aircraft repairs, the technician must ensure that
the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft involved. In most cases a damaged
part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified by the part number. However,
there are situations where it is more economic and easier to repair a part by patching or
welding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant steel must be chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes
less deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation. The
expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than twice
as much as that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to be cut, formed, sheared,
machined or drilled than ordinary steel. For this reason the technician who is to work
with this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or
must be directed by an experienced technician.
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Carbon steels
1Oxx Non-sulfurised carbon steel (plain carbon)
Ilxx Resulfurised carbon steel (free machining)
12xx Resulfurised and rephosphorised carbon steel
Alloy steels
13xx Manganese 1.75 % (1.60 - 1.90 %)
23xx Nickel 3.50 %
25xx Nickel 5.00 %
31xx Nickel-chromium (Ni 1.25 %, Cr 0.65 %)
32xx Nickel-chromium (Ni 1.75 %, Cr 1.OO %)
33xx Nickel-chromium (Ni 3.50 %, Cr 1.50 %)
40xx Molybdenum 0.25 %
41 xx Chromium-molybdenum
(Cr 0.50 or 0.95 %, Mo 0.1 2 or 0.20 %)
43xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(Ni 1.80 %, Cr 0.50 or 0.80 %, Mo 0.25 %)
46xx Nickel-molybdenum (Ni 1.75 %, Mo 0.25 %)
(Ni 1.05 %, Cr 0.45 %, Mo 0.20 %)
48xx Nickel-molybdenum (Ni 3.50 %, Mo 0.25 %)
5Oxx Chromium 0.28 or 0.40 %
5Oxx Chromium 0.28 or 0.40 %
51xx Chromium 0.80, 0.90, 0.95, 1.OO or 1.05 %
5xxxx Chromium 0.50, 1.OO or 1.45 %, Carbon 1.OO %
61xx Chromium-vanadium
(Cr 0.80 or 0.95 %, V 0.10 or 0.15 %)
(Ni 0.55 or 0.05 or 0.65 %, Mo 0.20 %)
(Ni 0.55 %, Cr 0.50 %, Mo 0.25 %)
92xx Manganese-silicon (Mn 0.85 %, Si 2.00 %)
(Ni 3.25 %, Cr 1.20 %, Mo 0.12 %)
98xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum aD
2
(Ni 1.00 %, Cr 0.80 %, Mo 0.25 %) m
Figure 1 SAE Identification of Wrought Steels
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Chromium-nickel-manganese (non-hardenable,
austenitic, non-magnetic)
Chromium-nickel (non-hardenable, austenitic,

non-magnetic)
Chromium (hardenable, martensitic, magnetic)

4
v
Chromium (low chromium, heat-resistant)
Figure 2 AlSl Identification of Heat- and

Corrosion-resistant Steels
1 11495
: + liquid
1,147 "C
a (fet
Figure 3 Iron-carbon Phase Equilibrium Diagram

Ferrous Metals - lron and Steel

lron as a pure metallic element is not suitable for the use in industry. However, an
amount of the non-metallic element carbon is added to iron to produce cast iron and
steel. Other alloying elements, like manganese and chromium, give steel other
properties, such as corrosion resistance and strength.
6.1.3.1 The Production of Pig Iron
The first step in the production of pig iron, also called raw iron, is the mining of iron
ore.
lron ore is smelted in a blast furnace. The other raw materials needed to produce pig
iron are coke, limestone, and air. Coke, the fuel in iron making, is made from coal.
Limestone acts as a flux or cleaner to remove impurities from the iron ore. It takes
about 2 t of iron ore, 1 t of coke, 112 t of limestone to produce 1 t of pig iron.
Refer to Figure 1
The blast furnace consists of fire-brick linings and hot blast heaters. It may have a
height of 40 m and a diameter of 10 m. The furnace is covered and supported by an
outer framework made of steel.
It is charged from the furnace top with coke alternating with ore and fluxes. In this
system no blast furnace gas is wasted out to the atmosphere. The gas contains
combustible carbon and hydrogen components and is utilised to heat the hot blast
heaters, where the gas is ignited and heats the fire-brick linings.
In the reduction process the limestone (= flux) melts, combines with the iron
companions and forms a fluid slag with them, mainly calcium silicate. The coke is
only partially burnt down to supply the necessary heat for drying, heating and melting
of the charges. The remainder is utilised for the reduction process: The gas
associates with the oxygen, carburises ore and iron and reduces the melting point.
The hot combustion air from the burning coke rises to the top of the furnace, heats
and dries the charges and serves as furnace gas to heat the blast heaters.
With the charges heated up when coming down in the furnace, the ore is carburised
and thus the melting point is reduced to 1,400 to 1,500 "C. In the melting area (bosh)
the iron melts and the liquid iron sinks into the hearth, from where it is removed every
3 to 4 h. The slag floats on the iron, as it is lighter than iron and is thus easily
removed. During these operations, the iron has picked up 3 to 5 % carbon from the
coke. A modern blast furnace produces up to 5,000 t of steel daily in continuous
furnace operation.
Pig iron is an intermediate product that contains carbon as well as shares of silicon,
manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. It is brittle and is processed to cast iron or
steel.
The by-product slag is used in road construction, cement making and as fertilisers.
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6.1.3.2 Cast I r o n
The base metal for cast iron is the grey pig iron which contains more than 2.06 %
carbon. It is treated to
cast iron with a laminated graphite structure
cast iron with a sphero-graphite (globular) structure
black malleable cast iron.
Cast iron with a laminated graphite structure (grey cast iron) has a density of
7.25 g/cm3, a melting range of 1,150 to 1,250 "C and a tensile strength of 100 to
350 N/mm2.
Grey cast iron contains 2.06 to 3.6 % carbon (graphite) which reduces the tensile
strength. On the other hand, grey cast iron offers good machinability and is a good
vibration absorber with antifriction properties. It is used for frames and bedways of
machine tools, engine blocks, cylinder heads, brake discs etc.
Cast iron with a sphero-graphite (globular) structure has a density of 7.2 g/cm3 and a
tensile strength of 400 to 800 N/mm2.
Among the cast iron types it is nearest similar to steel. The sphero-graphite structure
is achieved by adding some magnesium to the liquefied cast iron. It is used for gear
wheels, crankshafts and housings as well as for pipelines.
Black malleable cast iron is a flaky structured metal having a tensile strength of
340 to 690 N/mm2.
This type of cast iron has been made malleable by annealing and therefore it is not
so brittle or hard. Many plumbing fixtures are made of malleable iron.
6.1.3.3 The Production of Steel

The steelmaking process consist of refining white (magnesium) pig iron to remove
excess carbon and impurities. At the same time, the steelmaker controls the quantity
of alloying elements that are an essential part of steel.
The commonest purification processes are the
LD process
0 electric steelmaking process.
The LD process (named after the two Austrian towns Linz and Donawitz, where the
process was developed) is an oxygen blast process mostly used all over the world.
Refer to Figure 2.
In the LD process a tipping converter is fed with a liquid pig iron charge and a scrap
charge. An oxygen lance blows pure oxygen into the melting bath at a pressure of
8 to 12 bar. The chemical reaction (oxidation = combustion) of oxygen and steel
impurities brings the bath to boiling. Then lime is added. It forms a floating liquid slag
with solid residues of the steel impurities. Thus, almost all impurities are eliminated.
When the scrap and the alloy material is added, the bath cools down.
Finally, the converter is tipped to the slag side and the floating slag flows over the
converter's edge, until nothing but pure steel is left in the converter. Tilting the
converter to the other side makes the steel flow into the foundry ladle. Further
processing is done in rolling mills, forging plants etc.
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Refer to Figure 3.
The electric steelmaking process uses graphite electrodes, which are supplied with
electric power. They produce an electric arc to the raw material that has a tempera-
ture of 3,500 "C. The charge is pig iron, steel, scrap iron, iron ore, alloy materials and
limestone. On account of the very high temperature reached in this process, also
alloy metals having a high melting point are liquefied. This is why melting in the
electric furnace is a process primarily used to produce high-alloyed steels as, for
example, stainless steel.
6.1.3.4 Alloying E l e m e n t s
Steel is the common name for all iron materials with a carbon content between 0 and
2.06 %. Zero-carbon steel is soft, easily machinable and magnetisable. Steel is any
iron metal suitable for further treatment like forging and rolling without special
preparation. With any higher share of carbon the ductility, weldability and malleability
of the steel are reduced, while its hardness and strength increase.
Refer to Figures 4 and 5.
Beside different processes of manufacture and treatment alloying elements are used
to give to the steel the properties required for the intended specific application. The
alloys also influence the steel's density and melting range.
Kinds of Steel
Low carbon steels (up to 0.3 % C) are of medium strength, have toughness and good
ductility, and can easily be machined. Because of the small amount of carbon they
contain, they can only be case hardened.
Medium carbon steels (0.3 to 0.65 % C) can be hardened. They have high strength
and toughness but can be brittle after hardening. This material is used to make
crankshafts, axles and forgings.
High carbon steels (0.65 to 1.4 % C) can, because of their high carbon content, be
made extremely hard. After tempering they are used for metal and woodwork cutting
tools.
Alloy steels are made by adding metals, such as manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, silicon, tungsten and cobalt to the ferrite and carbon. Some of the most
commonly used alloy steels are listed below:
Chromium steels (0.5 to 1.2 % C, 0.3 to 0.8 % Mn, 0.5 to 1.6 % Cr).
These steels have very good wearing properties and can be made extremely
hard. The metal can be forged and gears, ball and roller bearings are made
from them.
Nickel steels (up to 0.16 % C, 0.2 to 0.6 % Mn, 2.75 to 3.5 % Ni, up to
0.3 % Cr).
This material can be forged and is used for components which need case
hardening.
Nickel-chromium steels (0.35 to 0.45 % C, 1.3 to 1.8 % Ni, 0.2 to 0.35 % Mo,
0.45 to 0.7 % Mn, 0.9 to 1.4 % Cr).
These steels have good ductility, toughness and strength. They are fairly
hard and can be made harder by heat treatment. Motor-car crankshafts, tur-
bine blades and aircraft fittings are made from them.
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o Chromium-nickel steels (12 to 20 % Cr, 1.O to 20 % Ni).

They are classified as stainless steels because they are corrosion resisting.
When the nickel content is above 6 %, the steel has acid resisting properties.
These steels are used for kitchen utensils, surgical instruments and for items
which have to be kept clean and free from rust.
High-speed tool steels.
These steels are composed of tungsten, chromium, vanadium, and cobalt.
These steels have the property of being able to cut other metals at fairly high
temperatures. A typical steel of this type contains: 0.6 % C, 1.0 % V, 18 % W,
58 % Co and 4 % Cr.
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Charge: Coke alternating with
burden (ore and fluxes)
Blast heaters I
Heating
Reduction
Carburi-
zing
Figure 1 Blast Furnace - Principal Arrangement

Alloy material
I Oxygen
lance
Foundary
ladle
Scrap charge
B
Filling Conversion Pouring the slag Pouring the steel 2
Figure 2 The LD Process

Connection to
three-phase transformer
Cover, removable
Furnace bowl
Steel container -
Charge: Pig iron, liquid steel, scrap iron,

alloy materials, limestone, iron ore
Figure 3 Melting of High-alloy Steel in the Electric Furnace

Example
Metal increases Reduces
(German standard)
Scale resistance, 34 Cr Al Mo 5
Aluminium penetration of Steel for nitriding,
Al nitrogen deoxidant in steel
manufacturing
Tensile strength, Ductility X5CrNi189
hardness, Stainless steel
Chromium
thermal stability,
Cr
wear resistance,
corrosion resistance
Hardness, thermal Growing of grain 30 W Co 36
Cobalt stability, preserving structures at higher Steel for hot-process
Co of keenness temperatures tools, e.g. injection
casting dies
Tensile strength, Machinability at chip- 37 Mn Si 5
hardening qualities, ping and cold trans- Steel for forging,
Manganese toughness forming processes, tempering
Mn
graphite separation
by cast iron
Tensile strength, Brittleness during 65 W Mo 34 8
thermal stability, tempering, forgeabil- Steel for hot-process
Molybdenum
hardening qualities, tools, e.g. extrusion
Mo ity
preserving of keen- pressing tools
ness
Strength, toughness, Heat ductility 666 Ni Cr 30 3
Nickel
corrosion resistance, Austenitic cast iron,
Ni
hardening qualities e.g. cylinder liners
Hardness, thermal Sensitivity against 115 Cr V 3
Vanadium
stability, endurance overheating Tool steel, e.g. thread
v strength cutters
Tensile strength, Ductility, chipping S6-5-2
Tungsten hardness, thermal machinability Quality for tool steel,
W stability, preserving e.g. broaching
of keenness needles
-
Figure 4 Alloying Elements for Cast Iron and

Steel (I)
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Non-metallic Example
Increases Reduces
elements (German standard)
Strength and hard- Melting point, ductil- C60
Carbon
ness (maximum at ity, fusionability, Steel for hardening
C
0.9 % C), hardening forgeability and tempering, e.g.
qualities chissels, punches
Brittleness Ageing resistance,
Nitrogen
ability for deep draw-
N
ing
Tensile strength, Notch impact Increases the viscos-
Phosphorus thermal stability, strength, weldability ity of liquefied steel
P
corrosion resistance or iron for casting
Chipping quality Notch impact 10 S Pb 20
Sulphur
strength, weldability Steel for automatic
S
tooling machines
Tensile strength, Breaking elongation, 67 Si Cr
ductility, corrosion notch impact Spring steel
Silicon resistance strength, ability for
Si deep drawing,
weldability, chipping
quality
Figure 5 Alloying Elements for Cast Iron and

Steel (11)
211495
6.1.4 Testing o f Materials
6.1.4.1 Introduction
The development of modern aircraft is associated with a vast increase in varieties of

materials and the necessity to make full use of their properties.
Destructive and non-destructive tests are necessary and have been proved to
provide reliable indications of the ability of materials to perform certain functions and
to meet the required specifications.
During destructive tests the materials tested will be affected in one way or the other,
depending on the method used. This means, they will be scratched, bent, strained,
pressed or deformed, i.e, they no longer possess their characteristics (form,
hardness, strength, dimensions) as before. The specimens are no longer usable after
the test and must be thrown away.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods do not affect the tested materials. The
advantage of these methods is that the parts can be re-installed (if they pass the
test) or that they can be repaired (if necessary). NDT methods can even be applied
to components which are still mounted in their original location. This saves time
and money for removal and refitting.
6.1.4.2 Destructive Material T e s t i n g M e t h o d s
Tension Test
The 2 methods of mechanical testing by which it is possible to maintain the strains

uniformly throughout the specimen over a considerable range are the tension (or:
tensile) test and the hardness (or: compression) test.
Refer to Figure 1.
The tensile testing machine essentially consists of 2 components: a device for
straining the specimen and a means of measuring the resistance of the specimen to
such straining.
Hardness Test
The property of hardness largely determines the resistance to scratching, wear,

penetration, machinability and the ability to be cut. There are 4 different hardness
tests.
The Brinell Test
Refer to Figure 2.
During the Brinell test, the surface of the metal to be tested is penetrated by a
hardened steel ball under a load. Then the average diameter of the impression is
measured with a low-power portable microscope fitted with a scale. The spherical
area is calculated from the diameter of the impression.
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The Brinell number 'HB' is calculated according to the formula
P with:
HB = - P = load (in kilograms (kg))
A
A = area of the impression.
Errors may arise when the Brinell test is used on very hard metals.
The Vickers Test
Refer to Figure 3.
The errors which may occur in a Brinell test are eliminated in the Vickers test by
using a diamond square-based pyramid. Such a pyramid does not readily deform but
gives geometrically similar impressions under different loads. The sides of the
pyramid-shaped tip of the penetrator are at an angle of 136". Loads ranging from
5 kg to 120 kg can be used. The load divided by the contact area of the impression
gives the Vickers pyramid number 'HV':
P with:
HV = - P = load (in kilograms (kg))
A
A = contact area of the impression.
Since the impressions are small, the machine is very suitable for testing polished and
hardened material.
The Brinell and Vickers hardness values are practically identical up to a hardness
number of 300.
The Rockwell Test
Refer to Figure 4.
The Rockwell test uses either a steel ball with a diameter of 1.58 mm which is loaded
with 100 kg (scale B for 'ball') or a load of 150 kg on a diamond cone having a 120"
angle (scale C for 'cone'). The penetrator is first loaded with a minor load of 10 kg to
take out any slack in the machine. The indicator (for measuring the depth of the
impression) is set to zero. Then, the major load (either 100 kg or 150 kg) is applied.
After its removal the dial gauge records the depth of the impression in terms of
Rockwell numbers: 'HRB' for scale B values and 'HRC' for scale C values.
The Rockwell test is particularly useful for rapid routine tests on finished products.
The SHORE Scleroscope
Note: A scleroscope is an instrument for determining the degree of hardness of a

material by measuring the rebound of a standard ball (or a hammer) dropped on
the material from a fixed height.
The SHORE scleroscope consists of a small diamond-pointed hammer with a weight
of 2.5 g. This hammer is allowed to fall freely from a height of 250 mm inside a glass
tube. The tube is graduated into 140 equal parts. The height of the first rebound is
taken as the index of hardness of the tested material.
This test is used to test casting. It does not cause any visible impression.
231495
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Figure 3 The Vickers Test

HV HRC HB HRB
(hardness (hardness (hardness (hardness
Vickers) Rockwell Brinell) Rockwell
cone) ball)
White cast 41 5 437 44 114 57

iron
Nitrided 745 1050 68 - 100

surface
Note: The Brinell number is not reliable above 600
Figure 5 Comparison of Hardness Values
291495
6.2.1 Fundamentals of Aircraft Non-ferrous Materials
6.2.1.1 Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Bauxite is an impure mixture of hydrous
aluminium oxides and hydroxides, caused by weathering.
The bauxite ore is given a caustic treatment, known as the 'Bayer process', which
reduces the ore to a powder called 'alumina' (or: aluminium oxide). The alumina is
mixed with a catalyst (called 'cryolite'), and the mixture is placed in carbon-lined
tanks which are equipped with large carbon anodes. A high level of electric current is
applied. This causes the carbon of the electrode to combine with the oxygen in the
alumina to form carbon dioxide (C02) gas. The electric current flowing through the
mixture generates a high temperature (approx. 1,038 "C) which is necessary for the
process. The metallic aluminium, which is left, settles to the bottom of the tank and is
drained off in the form of ingots.
The pure aluminium obtained from the refining process has various other metals
mixed with it to form the many alloys which are available.
Since the days of the 'stick and wire' aircraft, aluminium has been the principal
structural metal for aircraft. Pure aluminium was much too soft for structural use.
Therefore, alloys were developed to supply the required strength and stiffness. The
most widely used alloy was originally designated '24ST'. It is now named '2024-T3'.
For aircraft structural parts requiring exceptional strength, alloys such as 7075-T6,
7079-T6 and 7178-T6 are employed. The make-up of these materials is shown in
Figure 1.
Note: 'T3' and 'T6' are temper designations, which will be explained later.
When structural aluminium alloys first came into use, they were called 'duralumin' (or:
'dural'). These were bare alloys and were subject to considerable corrosion unless
specially treated. Eventually the corrosion problem was largely solved by the process
of 'cladding'. During this process, a thin layer of pure aluminium is rolled onto the
outer surface of both sides of the alloy sheet. Since pure aluminium is highly resistant
to corrosion (because of a very thin layer of oxide which forms on the surface
immediately upon exposure to air) the surface of the clad material is effectively
protected. The trade name for aluminium alloy sheets prepared in this manner is
ALCLAD.
Wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys are designated by a 4-digit system, with
the first digit of the number indicating the principal alloying element. Standard
aluminium alloys are shown in Figure 1. These alloys have a wide variety of
characteristics; hence each has particular applications.
Note: The list in Figure 1 does not include all known aluminium alloys, but the most
common ones.
Figure 2 shows the code numbering of aluminium alloys. The second digit of the
code number indicates any modifications to the original alloy.
In the numbers 2xxx to 8xxx, the last 2 digits identify the alloys and the sequence of
development. In the 1xxx-series the last 2 digits indicate the amount of pure aluminium
above 99 % in hundredths of 1 %.
301495
Example: Aluminium identified by the number 1240 would be aluminium which is 99.40%
pure with 2 modifications.
An example of an alloy in the 2xxx-series is shown in Figure 2, detail b).
Aluminium alloys are formed in one of 2 ways: cast and wrought. Cast aluminium
alloy is formed into a particular shape by melting and pouring it into a mold of the
required shape. Wrought aluminium alloy is made by mechanically working the metal
into the form desired by rolling, drawing, extruding, etc.
Complete information on aluminium alloys is published by the Aluminum Association,

Inc. (USA), in a document titled 'Aluminum Standards and Data'.
A factor important for aluminium alloys is the temper (or: hardness value). The
designation of heat-treatable alloys is followed by the letter 'T' and a number to
indicate the type and degree of heat treatment.
Non-heat-treatable alloys are followed by the letter '0' to indicate soft or annealed
condition, or 'H'and a number to indicate the degree of work hardening. The temper
designation system is used for all forms of wrought and cast aluminium and
aluminium alloys except ingot. It is based on the sequences of basic treatments used
to produce the various tempers.
Basic temper designations are as follows:

F for wrought alloys: as fabricated (no treatment)
for cast alloy: as cast
0 annealed, recrystallised; softest temper of wrought products
H strain-hardened (wrought products only)
W solution heat-treated (this is a temporary condition because the material
ages spontaneously)
T thermally treated to produce tempers other than 'F','0' or 'H'(the 'T' is
always followed by one or more digits to indicate the process applied).
'H'tempers are further subdivided to indicate the specific combination of basic

operations. For example, 'HI'indicates that the material is strain-hardened only. 'HZ'
indicates that the material is strain-hardened and partially annealed. 'H3'indicates
strain-hardened and stabilised.
The number following the HI,HZ or H3 indicates the degree of strain-hardening of the
alloy. The number '8' indicates maximum degree of strain-hardening, and the number
'0' indicates no hardening. The number '2'indicates one-quarter hard, '4'indicates
one-half hard and '6'indicates three-quarters hard.
'H'temper designations are used only for non-heat-treatable alloys. These are
generally the alloys in the 1000,3000 and 4000 series.
The heat-treatable alloys contain elements such as copper, magnesium, zinc and
silicon. These are in the 2000,5000,6000 and 7000 series. The letter 'T' is used to
indicate a heat-treatable or thermally treated alloy. The letter 'T' is followed by a
number that indicates specific sequences of basic treatments.
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & L E A R N
Designations are as follows:

T I cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and naturally
aged to a substantially stable condition
n T2 cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold-worked and
naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
T3 solution heat-treated, cold-worked and naturally aged to a substantially
stable condition
T4 solution heat-treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condi-
tion
T5 cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and then artifi-
cially aged
T6 solution heat-treated and then artificially aged
T7 solution heat-treated and stabilised
T8 solution heat-treated, cold-worked and then artificially aged
T9 solution heat-treated, artificially aged and then cold-worked
TI0 cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold-worked
and then artificially aged.
The terms 'cold-working', 'solution heat-treating', 'ageing' and 'artificially ageing' refer
to the processing of the alloys before they are ready for use.
Cold-working is any process applied at room temperature that stretches, compres-
ses, bends, draws or otherwise changes the shape of the alloy to any appreciable
degree. Cold-working is the operation of shaping metals at or near atmospheric
pressure to produce strain-hardening.
Solution heat-treatment is accomplished by heating cast or wrought alloys to a
specified temperature, holding that temperature long enough to allow constituents to
enter into solid solution, and cooling rapidly enough (quenching) to hold the
constituents in solution.
Ageing (or: room-temperature precipitation) is a process that occurs after the solution
heat treatment of an alloy and upon quenching. At room (or elevated) temperatures the
alloys are not stable after quenching, and precipitation of the constituents from the
supersaturated solution starts. After several days, the alloy is considerably harder and
stronger than immediately after quenching.
Artificial ageing is an acceleration of the ageing process by subjecting the alloy to a
slightly elevated temperature for a prescribed period of time. Some alloys age very
slowly at room temperature because of the alloying constituents they contain.
Artificial ageing brings the alloy to a fully aged and stable condition in a minimum of
time.
The most commonly used aluminium alloys for aircraft structures are 2024-T3,
6061 -T6, 7075-T6, 7079-T6 and 7178-T6. Where elevated temperatures are
encountered, other aluminium alloys or other types of metal may be used.
Pure aluminium (1100) and the softer alloys 3003 and 5052 are generally used for
tubing, junction boxes, non-stressed panels, deep-drawn parts or other parts that
require considerable forming but are not subjected to high loads. These materials
can easily be worked and are readily weldable.
The alloy 2014 is particularly well adapted to the manufacture of forged parts
requiring high strength. The alloys 2117, 2024 and 7075 are all used for structural
rivets. The 2024 and 7075 rivets require heat treatment before driving.
321495
Refer to Figure 3.
Aluminium alloy sheet as it comes from the manufacturer is usually marked with
letters and numbers in rows approx. 6 inches (15.24 cm) apart. These identification
symbols may include a specification number, the alloy number with temper designa-
tion and the thickness of the material in thousandths of an inch. The rows of letters
and figures are parallel to the grain of the metal.
Methods for marking coiled sheet and other shapes are shown in Figure 4.
Items like rivets are too small for conventional markings. They are identified by
symbols and numbers in the metal. Typical identification markings are shown in
Figure 5.
6.2.1.2 Magnesium
Magnesium alloys are frequently used in aircraft structures in cast, forged and sheet
form. The greatest advantage of magnesium is that it is one of the lightest metals for
its strength. The disadvantages in the use of magnesium sheet are that it is more
subject to corrosion than many other metals, it is not easily worked at room tempera-
tures and if it becomes ignited, it is extremely difficult to extinguish.
When magnesium is used in an aircraft structure, it can often be recognised by the fact
that it has a yellowish surface due to the chromate treatment used to prevent corrosion
and to furnish a suitable paint base.
When technicians encounter magnesium in an aircraft, they must know that it cannot
be cut easily but is likely to tear. Additionally, it cannot be bent or otherwise worked
under normal temperatures. It is subject to corrosion and therefore should be treated
with the proper coating. Finally, it presents a certain degree of fire hazard as
magnesium dust and fine chips are easily ignited.
When standard parts are made of magnesium, this fact will usually be stated in the
manufacturer's overhaul and service manuals. Directions for proper treatment of such
parts will be laid down in the manuals as well.
Because of magnesium's tendency to corrode easily, the technician must ensure that
the correct hardware items, such as the correct rivets, bolts and screws, are used
with any magnesium parts. For example, rivets used with magnesium should be
made of 5056-H aluminium alloy. Any metal part used with magnesium should be of
a compatible metal, or a 'metal-to-metal' contact must be avoided as this will cause
dissimilar metal corrosion.
6.2.1.3 Titanium
The use of titanium as a structural material has become prevalent only during the
past 30 years. Before then, the methods for refining and working titanium had not
been developed to an extent which would have made the use of the metal economi-
cally feasible.
Titanium was discovered in 1790 in England by William Gregor who isolated the
oxide of titanium from black magnetic beach sand. A few years later, Gregor's
findings were confirmed by a German chemist, who named the new element 'Titan
metal' (in Latin: titanium).
331495
E A S A Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
The 'Kroll process', which has been widely used for extracting titanium metal, had
been developed in 1932 by Wilhelm Kroll, a Luxembourg scientist. This process was
improved and employed by the United States Bureau of Mines, which began to
produce titanium sponge in 100-lb batches in 1946.
Titanium is produced in relatively large quantities in rod, bar, sheet and other forms
for use in the manufacture of a wide variety of metal products.
Titanium and its alloys are used widely in the aerospace industry because of its high
strength, light weight, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance. The weight of
titanium is approx. 56 % of the weight of steel, but its strength is equal to that of
steel.
The strength of titanium is maintained even at temperatures of more than approx.

430 "C. It is useful in the cooler sections of gas-turbine engines, for cowling and
baffling around engines as well as for such skin parts of aircraft which are subjected
to elevated temperatures, i.e. where aluminium alloys would probably be damaged,
such as engine bay firewalls. Supersonic transport and military aircraft utilise titanium
extensively for the skin because of the atmospheric heating which occurs at high
supersonic speeds (caused by friction).
The production of titanium was developed to find a material for aircraft that was
lighter than steel but could withstand higher temperatures than aluminium alloy. Uses
to overcome high temperatures include exhaust shrouds, fire-proof bulkheads, gas
turbine ducts and hot-area skinning.
The important properties of titanium are:

high strength, approaching that of steel
good strengthlweight ratio (approx. 56 % of the weight of steel)
weldable in most forms
0 low thermal and electrical conductivity with a high melting point
excellent corrosion resistance.
The strength range of titanium is similar to that of stainless steel. Similar fabrication
methods can be used. When bending, the 'spring back' is greater than that of
stainless steel. This must be taken into account.
When working a titanium sheet it may be bent cold. But this is limited to simple
bends. Complex bending requires hot forming and heat treatment processes not
available at workshop level.
As with all materials, surface scribe marks should be avoided, all burrs are to be
removed and rough edges must be smoothed to prevent stress raisers.
Cutting of titanium is possible with hand shears as long as the blades are very sharp.
Sawing is possible by using a course-teeth, high-speed steel blade at slow speed

and heavy feed. Plenty of coolant should be used and the blade must be checked
regularly.
Drilling of titanium can be done with special cobalt drills. If these are not available
cobalt HSS drills with a cutting angle of 135" to 140" must be used. One motion is to
be drilled in not allowing the drill to rise. Slow speed, heavy feed and lots of coolant
should be used.
341495
EASA Part-66 T r a i n i n g H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Titanium can be heat-treated as follows: after forming, drilling or cutting, titanium

should be heated to stress relieve. Obviously, this is not possible if the material is
fixed to the aircraft. Stress relieving should be carried out at the following tempera-
tures:
unalloyed: 300 " C to 500 " C for 30 min
alloyed: 600 "C for 1 h.
The addition of 8 % manganese to the RS-11 OA titanium alloy brings about an
increase in tensile strength. The pure material may have a tensile strength of 50,000
to 90,000 psi. The addition of manganese will increase the strength to as much as
139,000 psi.
Aluminium in amounts of 3 % to 7 % is commonly used as an alloying element. Other
alloying elements include molybdenum, tin, iron, chromium and vanadium. Alloying
and heat treating allowed for the development of titanium products with a tensile
strength of more than 180,000 psi.
Two mainly applied titanium alloys are Ti-6A1-4V and Ti-8Al 1Mo-1V. The latter of
these (also called '8-1 -1') is employed to a large extent on supersonic aircraft. This
alloy was chosen because of its high creep resistance at high temperatures and its
stiffness. Because of these qualities, it is more difficult to be worked than many of the
other titanium alloys. However, its strength qualities outweigh the disadvantages of
its workability. Extensive research has been carried out to discover the best methods
for cutting, forming and drilling the material, and it is now reasonably economical for
the manufacturing of aircraft parts.
Refer to Figure 6.
Titanium has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, much lower than that of
other structural metals such as stainless steel. The thermal conductivity is approxi-
mately the same as that of stainless steel. The low thermal-expansion coefficient
simplifies the design of complex structures made with titanium because it is not
necessary to make such large allowances for expansion as those required for the
metals with high expansion coefficients.
Titanium is extensively used in both military and commercial aircraft, in missiles and
even in spacecraft because of its good strengthlweight ratio, its freedom from stress
corrosion and cracking, its ability to withstand high operating stress and its high-tem-
perature resistance. It is used for major aircraft structures, engines and numerous
small parts and components.
6.2.1.4 C o p p e r and C o p p e r Alloys
Copper is one of the comparatively plentiful metals and has been used by human
beings for thousands of years. It is easily identified by its reddish colour and by the
green and blue colours of its oxides and salts. It is very ductile in the annealed state
but hardens with cold-working. A primary use for pure copper is as an electrical
conductor. Because of its conductivity, copper is used extensively for electrical wiring.
Before the discovery and development of aluminium as a useful metal, copper was
used for tubing and in many other applications where aluminium is used today.
The principal alloys of copper are bronze, brass and beryllium copper. Bronze is a
blend of copper and tin, the tin content being between 10 % and 25 %. Brass is an
alloy of copper with 30 % to 45 % zinc plus small amounts of other metals. Beryllium
copper consists of approx. 97 % copper, 2 % beryllium and 1 % other metals.
351495
Bronze and brass are used for bushings, bearings, valve seats, fuel metering valves
and numerous other applications.
Copper can be alloyed with aluminium, manganese, silicon, iron, nickel and other
metals to make a variety of 'bronzes'. These are not true bronzes in the original
sense of the word because they do not contain tin. Among these bronzes are
aluminium bronze, silicon bronze and manganese bronze. These alloys are available
in sheet, bar, rod, plate and other standard shapes.
Beryllium copper is heat-treatable and can be brought up to a tensile strength of
200,000 psi. It is used for precision bearings, bushings, spring washers, diaphragms,
ball cages and other applications where its qualities of wear resistance, toughness,
strength and elasticity are desirable.
The alloys of copper are developed to increase strength, corrosion resistance and
other qualities not possessed by pure copper. Designers select the alloy best suited
for the purposes required, taking into consideration hardness, strength, wear
resistance and corrosion resistance. A technician needing a part to be made should
make sure to use the correct alloy as specified by the manufacturer.
6.2.1.5 Monel Metal
Monel metal (Cupro nickels) is a nickel alloy with approx. 2/3 nickel and 1/3 copper.
Small amounts of other metals such as iron and manganese may also be included.
Monel metal has good mechanical properties. It is very strong (similar to steel) and
corrosion-resistant. Additionally, it is non-magnetic under all conditions. Monel metal
can easily be worked in a similar way as steel.
K-Monel includes a small amount of aluminium and is heat-treatable to develop
maximum strength. It is particularly useful in manufacturing durable parts that are (or
may be) subjected to corrosive conditions.
6.2.1.6 High-temperature Alloys

Because of the need for metals that can withstand the extremely high temperatures
found in gas turbine engines, afterburners, thrust reversers etc. and because of the
high temperatures generated by air friction at high supersonic speeds, it has become
necessary to develop metal alloys which retain their strength even though hot.
The products of high-temperature metal research have led to the development of
'superalloys', which utilise combinations of a wide variety of metal elements to
produce the desired results.
High-temperature superalloys are those containing high percentages of nickel,
cobalt, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and other alloying elements that make them
particularly resistant to heat and corrosion and retain high tensile strength at elevated
temperatures of approx. 530 "C to 1,200 "C. The qualities given consideration in the
selection of high-temperature alloys for use in the hot parts of gas turbine engines
include thermal stability, tensile strength at elevated temperatures, low-cycle fatigue
strength, stress rupture properties, hot-corrosion resistance and oxidation resis-
tance.
Hundreds of high-temperature alloys have been developed and tested. However,
relatively few of these are in extensive use.
361495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & L E A R N
Corrosion-resistant Alloys
Nickel is a principal constituent of many corrosion-resistant alloys. Many of these

alloys are tough and ductile as well as being corrosion-resistant. Thus, 'Corronel 5'
(66 % nickel (Ni), 28 % molybdenum (Mo), 6 % iron (Fe)) is particularly resistant to
mineral acids and acid-chloride solutions. It can be produced in the form of tubes and
other sections for use in several industrial areas.
'Hastelloy D' (85 % Ni, 10 % silicon (SI), 3 % copper (Cu), 1 % Al) on the other hand
is a tough, very hard casting alloy which is particularly resistant to hot concentrated
sulphuric acid.
High-temperature NiCr Alloys
Nickel-chromium alloys are particularly suitable for high-temperature working.

Chromium imparts a low rate of oxidation at all temperatures whilst nickel limits grain
growth and the brittleness arising therefrom at high temperatures. Since these alloys
also have a high specific resistance they are particularly suitable for resistance wire
used in heater elements of electric fires, immersion heaters, toasters, etc. A grade of
'Brightray' containing 80 % Ni and 20 % chromium (Cr) has a maximum working
temperature of 1,150 "C.
The best known of the nickel-chromium base high-temperature alloys are those of
the 'Nimonic' series which played a leading part in the development of the jet engine,
but are now used for a large number of applications where a high creep strength at
elevated temperatures is required.
Most 'Nimonic' alloys contain approx. 75 % Ni and 20 % Cr to form a tough oxida-

tion-resistant matrix at temperatures sometimes in excess of 1,000 "C. The alloy is
stiffened for use at high temperatures by small additions of titanium, cobalt,
zirconium, aluminium and carbon in suitable associations. These elements help to
raise the limiting creep stress at high temperatures by the formation of dispersed
particles of carbides or compounds such as NiAI3.
The alloys mentioned above are used primarily for hot parts made of sheet alloy. In
addition to these there are alloys developed especially for casting to manufacture
turbine blades and nozzle vanes.
371495
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Flat sheet and plate greater in thickness and size than shown above.
Figure 3 Identification Markings of Aluminium

Alloy Sheet
401495
Spot marking, coiled sheet
ontinuous marking rod,

bar, shapes, and tube
Figure 4 Markings for Coiled Sheet and other

Shapes
4 1I495
Head marks
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7075
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Shank marks
Raised numbers on shank ends
Figure 5 Identification of Rivets

1,000 psi % E.
Specification No. Producers (6.89 MPa) in
2 in
AMS Military Crucible M- STC Republic TMCA Composition, Forms* Y.S. T.S. (5.08 cm)
% max. (Bal. Ti)
4900A ... A55 MST-55 RS-55 TO0025 Unalloyed S,6 ,E, W 55 65 18
4901B (MIL-T-7993-CLI) A70 MST-70 RS-70 TO0035 Unalloyed S,B,E,W 70 80 15
4902 ... A40 MST-40 RS-40 TO0020 Unalloyed S,B,E,W,T 40 50 20
4908A (MIL-T-9046-CLI) C I 1OM MST-8Mn RS-IIOA ... 8Mn S 110 120 10
4911 (MIL-T.009046-CL2) C120AV MST-6AI -4V RS-120A T34615 6A1-4V S,B,E,W 120 130 10
4921A (MIL-T-9047-CLI) A70 MST-70 RS-70 TO0035 Unalloyed 8 ,F 70 80 15
4923 (MIL-T-9047-CL4) ... ... ... T96035 2Fe-2Cr-2Mo S,B,E,W,F 120 130 15
4925A (MIL-T-9047-CL6) C130AM MST-4AI -4Mn RS-130 . ,. 4A1-4Mn B,WF 130 140 10
4926 ... A l l OAT MST-5AI -2.5Sn RS-I1 OC TO0820 5A1-2.5Sn s,B, w 110 115 10
4927 (MIL-T-9047-CL3) ... MST-3A1-5Cr ... ... 3A1-5Cr B,F 135 145 10
4928 (MIL-T-9047-CL5) C120AV MST-6AI -4V RS-120A T34620 6A1-4V 6 ,F 120 130 10
4929 ... ... ... ... T94520 5A1-1.5Fe-l.5Cr-1.2Mo B,F 135 145 10
4941 ... A40 ... ... TO0020 Unalloyed T (welded) 40 50 20
4951 ... A40 MST-40 RS-40 TO0020 Unalloyed W ... 50
4953 ... A1 IOAT ... RS-IIOC TO0820 5A1-2.5Sn W ... 115
... ... ... ... RS-140 ... 5A1-2.75Cr-1.25Fe B 140 150 10
... ... ... ... RS-I10 ... 3Mn-1.5AI s,B,w 100 110 12
... ... ... ... RS-IIOB ... 3.25Mn-2.25AI S,B, w 110 120 10
... ... C105A MST-2.5A1-16V ... ... 2.5AI-16V s,B, w 55 90 12
... ... C115A ... ... Ti-4A1-3Mo-lV 4AI-3Mo-1V S 90 125 16
... ... ... ... ... Ti-6.5A1-3Mo-1V 6.5AI-3Mo-1V B 150 155 17
... ... Cl3OAMO ... ... ... 6.5AI-3.75M0 B 152 162
... ... ... MST-821 ... ... 8AI-2Cb-1Ta s ,B 120 127 16
... ... ... ... ... Ti-8AI-1Mo-IV 8AI-1Mo-IV B 132 137 18
... ... C120VCA ... ... Ti-13V-11Cr-3AI 13V-11Cr-3AI s,B, w 120 125 lo ,
... ... ... MST-881 ... ... 8AI-8Zr-1 (CB + Ta) s , 8 ,F 125 135 16 2
... ... ... ... ... ... 7AI-4Mo 8 ,F 130 140 2
10 m
I?
ru. *S: rolled flat products-sheet, strip, plate E: extrusions T: tube B : bar and billet W : wire F: forgings
2.
3
(0
0
z
I Figure 6 Titanium Alloy Properties
6.2.2 Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals are all pure metals except iron and all alloys with an iron content
of less than 50 %. Non-ferrous metals are classified in
O coloured metals
white metals
n alloying metals
noble metals
heavy metals: density, p 2 5 g/cm3
light metals: density, p < 5 g/cm3.
The majority of pure non-ferrous metals are soft and their strength is low. But the
purer the metal is the higher is the melting point and the better is the metal's
electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance and formability. The property of a metal is
tailored by adding appropriate alloying metals.
6.2.2.1 Heavy Metals
Coloured Metals
Copper (p = 8.93 g/cm3, melting point: 1,083 "C, tensile strength: 200 to 360 N/mm2)
is soft, tough, very tensile and corrosion resistant. It is a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
Copper is used for pipes and electric wires.
Brass is an alloy of copper (60 to 70 %) and zinc (30 to 40 %).
It is used for bearings, bushings, housings and precision mechanics.
Bronze is an alloy of copper (85 to 90 Oh) and tin. It is stronger than brass and has
better corrosion resisting properties.
It is used for bushings, ship propellers etc.
Copper-aluminium alloys are corrosion resistant and have high toughness and
tensile strength.
They are used for ship propellers and turbine blades.
Nickel (p = 8.9 g/crn3, melting point: 1,455 "C, tensile strength: 400 to 500 N/mm2) is
a silver-white, corrosion resistant metal.
Nickel is used as alloy in galvanizing processes.
Zinc (p = 7.1 g/cm3, melting point: 419 "C, tensile strength: 30 to 110 ~ / m m is
~ a)
blue-white metal.
Zinc is used in alloys for anti-corrosive plating of ferrous metals.
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E A S A Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
White Metals
Lead (p = 11.3 g/cm3, melting point: 327 "C, tensile strength: 15 to 20 N/mm2) is one
of the heaviest metals. It is very soft and has acid resisting properties.
It is used in lead-acid batteries and as an alloy for bearing materials.
Tin (p = 7.3 g/cm3, melting point: 232 "C, tensile strength: 40 to 50 N/mrn2) is a
silver-white, nonpoisonous and corrosion resistant metal.
Tin is used with copper to produce bronze and with lead to make soft solder or as a
coating material for food containers.
Alloying Metals
Figure 1 describes a number of heavy metals and how their properties influence
iron, steel and non-ferrous metals.
Noble Metals
Silver (p = 10.5 g/cm3, melting point: 961.5 "C, tensile strength: 160 N/mm2) is an
excellent conductor of electricity and heat.
It is used for fuse wires and as plating material for electrical contacts.
Gold (p = 19.3 g/cm3, melting point: 1,064 "C, tensile strength: 140 N/mm2) is a soft
heavy metal.
Gold is used for anti-corrosive plating of electronic circuit boards, for electric
contacts etc.
Platinum (p = 21.5 g/cm3, melting point: 1,769 "C, tensile strength: 200 N/mrn2) is not
affected by any acid or lye. It is oxygen resistant even at high temperatures.
It is used only for special applications in electronics and chemical industry.
6.2.2.2 Light Metals

For technical applications light metals are used pure and as an alloy. The commonest
ones are
aluminium
(p = 2.7 g/cm3, melting point: 658 "C, tensile strength: 65 to 230 N/mm2)
magnesium
(p = 1.75 g/cm3, melting point: 650 "C, tensile strength: 100 to 245 N/rnm2)
titanium
(p = 1.75 g/cm3, melting range: 1,650 "C to 1,700 "C; tensile strength: 290 to
740 N/mm2).
Aluminium
Pure aluminium is soft, light, non-magnetic and ductile. Alloyed with copper or
manganese, its strength, toughness and hardness is improved to almost the level of
low carbon steel. It is a good electrical and thermal conductor and offers good
corrosion resistance. When exposed to the atmosphere or oxygen a thin, but tight
and hard, oxide film forms on the surfaces of aluminium and its alloys. If necessary,
the film thickness can be increased in a process called 'anodizing'.
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Aluminium can be formed to bars, pipes, sheets, foils and wires. When aluminium
gets in wet contact with copper or ferrous metals it corrodes rapidly.
Some of the foremost aluminium alloy metals can be described in brief as follows:
duraluminium
- consists of aluminium, copper, magnesium, manganese and silicon
- is nearly as strong as mild steel
- requires heat treatment and age-hardening
- is used for aircraft sheets and tubes, structural parts of engines and air-
frames
alclad
- is sheet duraluminium with a pure aluminium coating on both sides
- combines the good duraluminium properties with the corrosion resistance
of pure aluminium
- used for aircraft structures, fuselage and wing covering and fairing
(stressed skin)
alpax
- consists of aluminium, silicon, iron, manganese and zinc
- has fair corrosion resistance properties
- is stronger than aluminium
- has excellent casting qualities
- is used for intricate castings, aircraft and engine components
alloys without any iron
- provide good seawater resistance
- are used for shipbuilding and ship's equipment.
Magnesium
Magnesium is a very light and soft metal with poor corrosion resistance. In form of
chips and powder it is easily combustible. It serves as a deoxidant for steel, as anode
for steel tanks and boilers and as solid fuel for lighting and signal ammunition.
Alloys of magnesium are processed to bars, sheets and pipesltubes and used for
machinery components. Housings of optical and photographical equipment are
produced from magnesium alloy castings.
Titanium
It is a very desirable metal because it is light and strong and resistant to corrosion.
Therefore, it is used for high-performance aircraft and space vehicle components, on
jet engines, gas turbines and chemical industrial equipment, such as acid pumps.
Titanium can be alloyed with aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, tin, copper and
iron. Such alloys are applied in the production of components requiring very high
strength and low weight at the same time (undercarriages, jet engine pylons,
helicopter rotor heads and the like).
461495

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Materials and Hardware

6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous

Characteristic Features of Materials

To compare materials it is important to know and to describe their characteristic

Refer to Figures 2 and 3.

Metal is the most commonly applied material for technical purposes

The Structure of Metals

Typical lattices configurations are:

Metals Non-metallic Auxiliary

1^_1 materials materials

Construction Cast iron Copper Aluminium

Figure 1 Classification of Materials

Density Melting point Strength

Thermal conductivity Magnetizability

I Brittleness I Heat resistance

Figure 2 Characteristic Features of Materials

Uniform surface corrosion Local corrosion

Figure 3 Characteristic Features of Materials

Fundamentals of Aircraft Ferrous Materials

Iron and Steel

Corrosion-resistant (Stainless) Steels

Figure 1 SAE Identification of Wrought Steels

Chromium-nickel (non-hardenable, austenitic,

Chromium (hardenable, martensitic, magnetic)

Chromium (low chromium, heat-resistant)

Figure 2 AlSl Identification of Heat- and

Figure 3 Iron-carbon Phase Equilibrium Diagram

Ferrous Metals - lron and Steel

6.1.3.1 The Production of Pig Iron

6.1.3.3 The Production of Steel

o Chromium-nickel steels (12 to 20 % Cr, 1.O to 20 % Ni).

Figure 1 Blast Furnace - Principal Arrangement

Figure 2 The LD Process

Charge: Pig iron, liquid steel, scrap iron,

Figure 3 Melting of High-alloy Steel in the Electric Furnace

Figure 4 Alloying Elements for Cast Iron and

Figure 5 Alloying Elements for Cast Iron and

6.1.4 Testing o f Materials

The development of modern aircraft is associated with a vast increase in varieties of

6.1.4.2 Destructive Material T e s t i n g M e t h o d s

The 2 methods of mechanical testing by which it is possible to maintain the strains

The property of hardness largely determines the resistance to scratching, wear,

The Brinell Test

The Brinell number 'HB' is calculated according to the formula

The Vickers Test

The Rockwell Test

The SHORE Scleroscope

Note: A scleroscope is an instrument for determining the degree of hardness of a

Figure 3 The Vickers Test

White cast 41 5 437 44 114 57

Nitrided 745 1050 68 - 100

Note: The Brinell number is not reliable above 600

Figure 5 Comparison of Hardness Values

6.2.1 Fundamentals of Aircraft Non-ferrous Materials