TR67 PDF

Licensed copy: chris.elsom@severntrent.co.
uk, Severn Trent Water Ltd, 11/07/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The
A single copy of this
Concrete Society
publication is licensed to
chris.elsom@severntrent.co.uk
on
11/07/2008
This is an uncontrolled copy - not for contract use

Severn Trent Water Ltd
This is an uncontrolled copy. Ensure use of the most current version of this document
by searching the Construction Information Service at http://uk.ihs.com
Licensed copy: chris.elsom@severntrent.co.uk, Severn Trent Water Ltd, 11/07/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concret
I
S
TR67 MOVEMENT, RESTRAINT AND CRACKING IN

CONCRETE STRUCTURES, 2008
Amendment No.1 May 2008
Page 72, Paragraph 4
Delete: “is presented in Section A.1 in Appendix A.”
Substitute: “has been presented by Alexander(39).”
Page 75, References
Delete: References 39, 40 and 41.
Substitute: “39, ALEXANDER, SJ. Axial shortening of concrete columns and walls,
Concrete, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 2001, pp. 36–38.”
Page 75, Further reading
Delete: “ALEXANDER, SJ. Axial shortening of concrete columns and walls,

Concrete, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 2001, pp. 36–38.”
Page 1 of 1
Licensed copy: chris.elsom@severntrent.co.uk, Severn Trent Water Ltd, 11/07/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete
Acknowledgements
The Concrete Society would like t o thank the members of the working party for their efforts
in preparing this report. The text in this report originates from guidance notes published
internally by WSP, extended and amended to represent a consensus of the main authors’
three firms (WSP, Arup and Buro Happold). Valuable help has also been provided by John
Forth of Leeds University, who contributed Chapter 7.
Published by The Concrete Society
CCIP-033
Published April 2008
ISBN 978-1-904482-42-0
0The Concrete Society
The Concrete Society

Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey CUI7 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 607140 Fax: +44 (0)1276607141 w.concrete,org.uk
CClP publicationsare produced by The Concrete Society (w.concrete.org.uk) on behalf of

the Cement and Concrete Industry Publications Forum - an industry initiative to publish technical
guidance in support of concrete design and construction.
CClP publicationsare available from the Concrete Bookshop at ww.concretebookshop.com

Tel: -1-44 (0)7004 607777
All advice or information fromThe Concrete Society is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its
contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from
such advice or information is accepted by The Concrete Society or its subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers should note
that publications are subject t o revision from time t o time and should therefore ensure that they are in possessionof the latest
version.
Printed by Alden Press, Witney. UK

I I . .
Movement, restraint and cracking in
concrete structures
Contents
Members of the Proiect Working Partv V
List of figures V
List of tables vi
Foreword vi i
Notation IX
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Types of movement 2
1.3 Sources of movement 2
1.4 Restraint to movement 2
1.5 Strain-induced forces 3
1.6 Cumulative effect 3
1.7 Why do cracks matter? 3
1.8 Avoiding cracking or controlling cracking? 4
1.9 Units of strain 5
1.10 Structure of the reDort 5
2. Magnitudes of free movements 6
21 Earlv-age contractions 6
2.1.1 Early thermal contraction 6
21.2 Autogenous shrinkage 7
2.1.3 Restraint and cracking due to early-age contractions 8
2.2 Effects of post-tensioning 9
2.3 Shrinkage 9
2.4 Choice of relative humidity 12
2.5 Temperature movement 12

2.51 General 12
2.5.2 Coefficient of thermal expansion 13
2.5.3 Tensile strength 13
2.5.4 Seasonal temperatures 13
2.5.5 Daily temperatures 14
2.5.6 Solar radiation 15
2.5.7 Temperature range 16
2.6 Linear contraction and expansion 17
3. Understanding creep 18
31 Estimation of creep 18
3.2 Effective elastic modulus 20
3.3 Relief of stress by creep 21
4. Avoiding cracking or controlling cracking? 22
41 Avoiding cracking 22
4.2 Cumulative contractions 22
4.3 Minimum reinforcement in direct tension 23
4.31 Restrained structures 23
4.3.2 Controlling cracking 23
4.3.3 Immature concrete 24
4.3.4 Mature concrete 26
4.3.5 Flow chart 27
5. Internal restraint 29
51 Restraint by reinforcement - symmetrical sections 29
511 Restrained shortening 29
51.2 Tensile stress 30
51.3 Horizontal cracks in columns and walls 30
5.2 Restraint by reinforcement - asymmetrical sections 31
5.21 Curvature and deflection 31
5.2.2 Tensile stress 32
5.3 Temperature differentials 32
6. Surface restraint 34
61 In-situ toppings 34
611 Method of analvsis 34
61.2 Curvature and deflection 35
6.2 Composite slabs on steel decking 36

6.21 Method of analvsis 36
6.2.2 Curvature and deflection 38
6.2.3 Codes and standards 38
6.2.4 Conclusions - deflection 38
6.2.5 Conclusions - cracking in the slab 39
7. Edge restraint 40
71 Control of cracking 40
7.2 Restrained strain 45
7.3 Sjmmary 45
L
8. End restraint 46
81 Minimum reinforcement 46
8.2 Superstructure slabs 46
8.21 Spacing of movement joints 46
8.2.2 Design methods 47
8.2.3 Frame action 52
8.2.4 Post-tensioning 52
8.3 Basement ground slabs 53
9. Calculation of crack widths 54
91 Principles 54
9.2 Minimum reinforcement content 54
9.3 Crack spacing 55
9.4 Edge restraint 56
9.5 End restraint 56
10. Mitigation measures 58
101 Planning requirements 58
10.2 Post-tensioned slabs 58
10.3 Reinforced slabs 59
10.4 Slab thickness 59
10.5 Aggregate selection 59
10.6 Cements 59
10.7 Control of pour sizes 60
10.8 Pour sequence 60
10.9 Pour strips 61
...
111
1010 Column erids 62

10.11 Structural stability 62
10.12 Modified concrete mixes 62
10.13 Curing 63
10.14 Cooling the concrete 63
11. Practical applications 65
11.1 Basements 65
11.11 Introduction 65
11.1.2 Types of movement 65
11.1.3 Degree of restraint 65
11.1.4 Thermal and shrinkage movements 66
11.2 Case studv - basement floor slab 66
11.3 General observations 68
11.3.1 Incorporate proprietary waterproofing admixtures? 68
11.3.2Why not use tanking? 68
11.3.3The amount of reinforcement is too exDensive? 68
11.4 Multi-storey car parks 69
11.5 Movement a t movement joints in finishes 70
11.6 Axial shortening of columns and walls 71
References and further reading 74
iv
Members of the Project Work ng Party

Full members
Stuart Alexander* WSP Group

John Clarke Concrete Society (secretary)
Tony Jones* Arup
John Morrison* Buro Happold
Corresponding members
John Forth** University of Leeds

Robert Vollum Imperial College
* Main Authors
** Author for Chapter 7
List of fieures
Figure 1 Example of the effect of early-age contractions on a car park structure.
Figure 2 Aesthetically acceptable crack widths.
Figure 3 Flow chart illustrating the consideration of movements in the design process.
Figure 4 Autogenous shrinkage with time.
Figure 5 Graphical representation of factors.
Figure 6 Graph showing multiplication factors (‘ratios‘) for minimum and maximum
temperatures for various return periods (R).
Figure 7 Relationship between predicted temperature difference due to solar gain and
slab thickness for different surfacing types for a specific location in the UK.
Figure 8 Graphs of effects of factors on the development of creep.
Figure 9 Reduction over time of restrained tensile stress due to creep.
Figure 10 Tensile strength and stress over time.
Figure 11 Control of cracking by reinforcement.
Figure 12 Comparison of surface zones in BS 8007 and BS EN 1992-1-1.
Figure 13 Flow chart showing possible outcomes in restrained sections subject to linear
tensile stress.
Figure 14 Representationof shrinkage restrained by symmetrical reinforcement.
Figure 15 Wall in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester.
Figure 16 Representationof shrinkage restrained by asymmetrical reinforcement.
Figure 17 Contraction of in-situ concrete.
Figure 18 Contraction of in-situ concrete slab on steel beam.
Figure 19 Notation used in Steel Designers’Manual.
Figure 20 End and edge restraint.
V
Figure 21 Approximate regions o f domination of end (zone 1) and edge (zone 2) restraint
in an infill wall.
Figure 22 Conditions in a base-restrained wall after initial cracking.
Figure 23 Cracking adjacent t o a primary crack (from Rawi and Kheder).
Figure 24 Analytical model of wall o n rigid base.
Figure 25 Primary cracks calculated at the free end.
Figure 26 Effect of reinforcement content o n maximum crack width.
Figure 27 Approach for determining restraint factor.
Figure 28 Stresses induced in slab by 10°C temperature drop:
Figure 29 Illustration o f frame deformation due t o slab contraction.
Figure 3 0 Percentage shrinkage related t o time for a C32/40 concrete slab 3 0 0 m m thick
at 50% RH.
Figure 31 Percentage creep related t o time for a C32/40 concrete slab 3 0 0 m m thick at
50% RH.
Figure 32 Deformed shape and cracking o f suspended basement slab.
Figure 33 General view o f a typical basement car park.
Figure 3 4 Close-up of cracks in Figure 33.
Figure 35 Section through floor construction of car park basement in Figure 33.
List of tables
Table 1 Typical early-age temperature rises.
Table 2 Relationship between Classes in BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS EN 197.
Table 3 Mean January and July temperatures for selected inland sites.
Table 4 Mean January and July temperatures for selected coastal sites.
Table 5 Design temperature range calculation for Stoke-on-Trent (example only).
Table 6 Characteristic values of tangent modulus.
Table 7 Minimum reinforcement contents in direct tension for immature concrete
related t o strength class (total in both faces).
Table 8 Minimum reinforcement contents in direct tension for mature concrete
related t o strength class (total in both faces).
Table 9 Values of modular ratio a, for concretes in indoor and outdoor environments.
vi
koreword
The greater parts of codes of practice and textbooks on reinforced concrete focus on design
to resist externally applied loads, deriving the reinforcement needed to resist axial loads,
bending moments and shear forces. However, many concrete elements are lightly loaded
or are affected principally by other actions, such as early-age contractions, temperature
and humidity effects, creep, and long-term drying shrinkage. These all generate movements,
and although they rarely determine the ultimate capacity they often affect serviceability,
particularly cracking.
The first step in understanding movement is to distinguish clearly between types ofmove-
ment and sources of movement. Types (or categories or forms) of movement include
deflection, shortening, sway, settlement, heave, and linear expansion and contraction.
Sources of movement include dead and imposed loads, early-age contractions, long-term
drying shrinkage, temperature variations, solar radiation, and post-tensioning.These all
take place over different timescales, and time is an important parameter in understanding
movement. It is also important to recognise that the sources act cumulatively, so that any
cracking or deformation is usually at least the result of shrinkage and temperature added
to early-age effects, and often with contributions from other sources.
The importance of movement is highly dependent on whether or not it is restrained.

Restraint occurs in many ways: internally, from reinforcement or temperature differentials;
at an interface, when fresh concrete is placed on an older substrate or acts compositely
with a steel beam; a t an edge, when a wall is poured onto a footing or a slab is poured
against a previous pour; and between ends formed by stiff points, such as a slab between
two cores or a basement floor between footings or pile caps. In practice, all restraint is
partial, as apparently unrestrained elements are usually connected to structure with some
stiffness, and very stiff restraints will usually ‘give’ under the huge forces that can be
generated.
There are two actions that alleviate the problems caused by restrained movement. The
first is creep. While creep has some bad effects - increasingdeflection and shortening, for
example - it is beneficial in reducingthe stresses induced by restraint, especially a t early
ages when a 50% reduction can be achieved in a few weeks. The second is recognisingthat
while the forces are potentially very large they are strain-induced, so that if the restraint is
removed they reduce or even disappear.
A final point is to understandcracking. Cracks occur in concrete when enough tensile stress
builds up to exceed the tensile strength, although some authors prefer to express this as
when enough tensile strain builds up to exceed the critical tensile strain. The likelihood of
this occurring is very difficult to predict, and the preferred strategy is to assume that cracks
will occur and to provide enough reinforcement to control them. However, there will be
situations when it is important to avoid cracking, and these need to be identified early
and the right precautions taken throughout the life of the structure.
vii
The rest of this report explains all these points in more detail. It shows how t o make
realistic estimates of the movements, the restraints and the resulting forces, and offers
guidance on accommodating them in the design. It applies principally t o building structures,
but special mention needs t o be made of the severe conditions encountered by open
parking structures: they are exposed t o the full range of temperature and humidity through-
out the year, and the top deck usually experiences solar radiation as well. However, although
building structures are ultimately enclosed and maintained at fairly constant temperature
and humidity, throughout the construction period they endure the same range of climate
as car parks.
Structural engineers are used t o estimating loads and resistances so as t o be on the safe
side, but the philosophy here is to make the best estimate; thus probable (usually average)
rather than minimum properties are used throughout. However, although the designer can
exercise some control through the construction specification, allowances will still need t o
be made for unknowns such as the vagaries of the weather and whether construction
takes place in winter or summer.
At the time of writing (2007), Eurocodes were being introduced but had not been generally
adopted by practitioners. However, it was decided t o base the guidance on Eurocodes
(mainly BS EN 1992-1-1(’))as they will supersede British codes during the life of this report.
Differences from British codes are not significant, particularly in the context of movements
where great accuracy is not expected to be achieved.
This report is not claimed t o be the definitive work on what is a very difficult subject with
a very limited research base. The text originates from guidance notes published internally
by WSP, extended and amended t o represent a consensus of the authors’ three firms
(WSP, Arup and Buro Happold). Valuable help has also been provided by John Forth of
Leeds University, who contributed Chapter 7,
I viii
Notation
cover t o longitudinal reinforcement
effective depth t o bottom reinforcement
specified characteristic cylinder strength
mean compressive strength (MPa)
10MPa (factor t o correct units and divide by 10)
mean value of tensile strength of concrete effective a t the time
when cracks first occur
h0
notional size of cross-section (mm)
k coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-
equilibrating stresses
kc coefficient which takes account of the stress distribution within the
section immediately prior t o cracking and of the change of the lever
arm
coefficient for effect of notional size
factor dependent on the duration of the load
coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the
bonded reinforcement
coefficient which takes account of the distribution of strain
maximum crack spacing
age of concrete a t time considered (days)
age of concrete (days) at beginning of drying shrinkage (usually end
of curing)
t0
age of concrete at loading (days)
X depth t o neutral axis
area of concrete
effective area of concrete in tension surrounding the reinforcement
area of concrete within the tensile zone
minimum area of reinforcing steel within the tensile zone
total area of reinforcement
tangent modulus of elasticity of concrete
modulus of elasticity at time t
effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete
modulus of elasticity of steel, usually taken as 200CPa
second moment of area of the concrete section
second moment of area of the gross cross-section
restraint factor
ambient relative humidity (%) (RH, = 100%)
net first moment of area of the reinforcement about the neutral axis
of the concrete section
ix
coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete

factor 3 for cement Class S , 4 for cement Class N, 6 for cement Class R
factor 013 for cement Class 5,012 for cement Class N, 011 for
cement Class R
modular ratio between the €-values for steel and concrete
coefficient for development of shrinkage with time
factor for concrete strength
coefficient dependent on relative humidity and concrete strength
coefficient for humidity of environment = 1.55 [I - (RH/RHo)3]
factor to allow for effect of concrete age at loading
mean strain in concrete between cracks
unrestrained (free) shrinkage
total free strain due to shrinkage and thermal effects
mean strain in reinforcement under relevant combination of loads
ratio of reinforcement area to concrete section, AJAc
minimum reinforcement ratio for immature concrete
minimum reinforcement ratio for mature concrete
A,lAC,,tt
stress in the tension reinforcement assuming a cracked section or
maximum stress in the reinforcement immediately before the
formation of the first crack
bar size
creep coefficient
1. Introd uction
Concrete structures are affected by a number of physical processes that change their
overall dimensions. This report discusses the nature, timescale and magnitude of these
movements in buildings and similar structures.
1.I O V e W k W The extent of the movements and the ways that they affect a structure depend on the
materials, environment and construction methods used. It is therefore important t o
estimate movements at the design stage and, where possible, restrict them t o acceptable
levels.
However, there are limits t o the extent t o which movements can be controlled, and one
of the objects of design is t o accommodate movements in the most successful way. This
report aims t o consider both the structural design and the construction sequence, with a
view t o improving the performance of concrete structures. The consequence of restrained
movements is often cracking which is the concrete’s way of accommodating the movement.
In accommodating the movement, cracks can either be few and large or many and small.
The latter is normally, but not always, preferred.
A simple illustration of the effects of movement is given by the car park structure shown
in Figure 1. Here storey heights are small and column spacing large, resulting in short
stocky columns and long-spanning beams. When the beam is cast it will contract due t o
early-age effects. If the beam is cast all at once the large forces generated will be restrained
by the columns. Assuming the columns are deemed to be infinitely stiff they will not deflect
elastically but will rotate about point R, which will produce cracks a t the base of the
columns as shown.
q q
Figure 1
Example of the effect of early-age
C o n t ractio-
contractions on a car park structure.
VlY
R R
I
Long span
t- 4
To avoid this, the beam could be cast leaving out a short section (a pour strip) initially,
thus eliminating any restraint t o longitudinal movement. The gap can then be concreted
after the initial shortening has occurred in the rest of the beam.
In practice such an approach has knock-on effects on the construction process and does
not relieve long-term movements. As the reinforcement cannot be continuous, the gap
needs t o be long enough t o accommodate a lap. Nonetheless this remains a valid option;
the alternative is t o design for the effects of the restrained movements.
1
1.2 Types O f movement A number of types of movement that may affect the structure can be identified, as follows:
0 Deflection. Vertical movement within the span of a beam or slab.

Settlement, heave. Downward or upward movement of a foundation or of a whole
building or structure.
0 Axial shortening. Vertical downward movement of columns or walls.
0 Linear expansion, linear contraction. Horizontal lengthening or shortening of members
such as beams and slabs. The behaviour of concrete is very different between expansion
(which causes compression) and contraction (which causes tension).
0 Sway (or drift). Horizontal movement within a storey height or of the whole building
or structure.
1.3 Sources O f movement A number of sources of movement can be identified, as follows:
0 Earlyage
0 Early thermal contraction and autogenous shrinkage.
0 Longterm
0 Drying shrinkage (often called just 'shrinkage').
0 Creep.
0 Seasonal
0 Seasonal temperature variations.
Shortterm
0 Daily/weekly temperature variations.
0 Solar radiation.
Load induced
0 Post-tensioning, which causes both immediate and long-term contractions.
0 Dead and imposed loads: in the context of this report these are generally only
relevant to axial shortening, except when applied to non-vertical members, e.g.
raking columns or transfer walls. Again these cause both immediate and long-
term contractions.
0 Soil pressures:these are generally not relevant, although they can counter
contractions in basement slabs.
0 Seismic loads: these are not considered in this report.
1.4 Restraint t o movement There are four basic types of restraint to movement:
1. Internal restraint may be provided by the reinforcement. This can resist shortening of
the concrete and occasionally leads to cracking. If the reinforcement is asymmetrical it
will lead to deflection. Temperature variations will not normally have a significant
effect as steel and concrete have similar coefficients of thermal expansion. Differential
movement may also occur when one part of the concrete section wants to expand or
contract more than another. Examples arise where temperature differentials exist, or
where differential drying shrinkage occurs, typically in thick sections.
2
2. Surface restraint. Typically this occurs when an in-situ topping is cast onto an older
substrate. It also occurs in composite floors because the contraction of the concrete
slab is resisted by the supporting steel beams. Surface restraint leads t o deflection and
cracking, especially in composite slabs.
3. Edge restraint occurs when a wall is cast onto an older and bulkier footing or when a
slab or wall panel is cast against one poured previously.
4. End restraint occurs typically in a structure linking two or more separated cores or
shear walls, but also in basement floors restrained by piles or pile caps or even by
friction with the soil.
1.5 Strain-induced forces Two points are important when considering the effect of movement on structures. The
first is that if the movements are restrained the magnitude of the resulting forces can be
enormous. So, for instance, the movements in the floors connecting two cores of a building
will generate forces which will either pull together or push apart the cores or result in
deflections or cracking in the floor. The abutments of an integral bridge will similarly be
affected by movements in the deck. The second point is that although the forces can
potentially be very large, they are strain induced. This means that if the restraint is reduced,
e.g. by cores deflecting or the concrete cracking, the forces reduce or even disappear.
1.6 CUmUkiVe effect It is common practice t o talk about cracks in concrete by referring t o their source, such as
‘early thermal cracks’ or ‘shrinkage cracks’.This ignores two important aspects. First, what
causes a crack is not temperature or shrinkage but simply that the tensile stress has exceeded
the tensile strength. Second, the stress in a restrained member such as a basement wall
or floor builds up over time from the cumulative effect of the contractions described
above, albeit relieved somewhat by creep.
1.7 Why do cracks matter? The short answer is ‘because people don’t like them’. Campbell-Allen(2)investigated the
relationship between crack width and the distance from the viewer for nine categories of
structure ranging from ‘little used buildings’ t o ‘monumental buildings’. His conclusions
are given in Figure 8 of Concrete Society Technical Report 22, Non-structural cracks in
concrete(3),which is reproduced here as Figure 2.
So-called ‘hairline’ cracks are generally no more than 015mm wide but are usually visible
from up t o about 2m away. Visibility is exaggerated if the cracks collect dirt or exude
accretions. Where the concrete can get wet, cracks become highly visible when the general
surface has dried but the cracks are still wet.
The generally accepted limit of 0.3mm is visible from 5m or more, and so represents the
structural engineering community’s idea of acceptability rather more than that of a lay
person.
3
Figure 2
Aesthetically acceptable crack widths. 9 , 1 BS 8110 limit
-
E6
W
c
2 5
O
M
g 4
>
2 1
0 I
0.1 0:2 0:3 0:4 0:s 0:6 0:7
Crack width (mm)
What about corrosion? It appears intuitive that cracks permit water and oxygen t o reach
the reinforcement and therefore promote corrosion. However, it is generally understood
that there is no direct relationship between long-term durability and surface crack width;
see for example Concrete Society Technical Report 44(4).So we have t o conclude that the
objection is principally aesthetic.
1.8 Avoiding cracking or It is important to realise that reinforced concrete will generally crack. It is only when cracks
controlling cracking? form that the reinforcement starts t o carry any appreciable load; prior t o that the concrete
is effectively behaving as unreinforced. When considering the effects of movement on a
structure, there are two approaches that can be adopted. The first is t o avoid cracking, by
limiting the stresses induced in the concrete by restricting the amount of movement and/
or the level of restraint. The second is t o assume that cracking will occur and t o control
crack widths by providing sufficient correctly detailed reinforcement. The former approach
will generally not be practicable and hence the design philosophy is t o ensure that there
is sufficient reinforcement in critical regions of the structure.
Avoiding cracking is difficult and risky; even with great care, any number of unforeseen
events can conspire t o cause sufficient contraction or sufficient restraint (or both) for the
tensile stress t o exceed the tensile strength so that the concrete will crack. Designing t o
control cracking is more reliable; if the reinforcement is stronger than the force which
causes the crack, any cracks will be controlled so that they will usually not be unsightly or
leak excessively.Also, the more reinforcement that is provided, the finer the cracks will be.
This report is generally based on the premise that concrete will crack but that cracking
should be controlled. However, some guidance on avoiding cracking is given where relevant.
4
1.9 Units Of Strain It is convenient t o measure strains in units of strain x 10-6.Theseunits are called 'microstrain'
and abbreviated t o the symbol F E . In numerical terms, 1 0 0 is~100mm/km
~ or Olmm/m.
1.10 Structure O f the report The structure of the report is illustrated in Figure 3, which shows the various aspects that
need t o be considered in the design process.
Figure 3
FLOW chart illustrating the consideration of START 1
movements in the design process. Deflection Technical Report 5 8
Settlement/heave N o t included
Axial shortening Section 11.6
occur in m y structure? Linear expansion Section 2.6
Linear contraction Section 2.6
Sway (or drift) N o t included
Seasonal temperatures Section 2.5.4

Estimate free movement
Short-term temperatures
(contraction, expansion) at each
(including solar radiation) Section 2.5.5
key stage - early-age, long-term
Shrinkage Section 2.3
I Post-teisioning effects section 2.2
free movement movements
Understanding creep Chapter 3
Contribution t o Alleviation of
I
shortenine restraint
Internal restraint
Shortening Chapter 5
Horizontal crackine
I Surface restraint
Contraction of toppings
Chapter 6
Slabs in composite
construction
Edge restraint
+ Successive pours Chapter 7
Walls on footings
End restraint
Superstructures between
stiff supports Chapter 8
Basement floor slabs
//.h. I Pour seauence
7 Modified concrete mixes
Accept kovements ) 1
5
r-
M,agnitiilidenof free movements
2. Magnitudes of free movements

In the design of concrete members, the following have to be considered in detail:
early-age contractions
long-term shrinkage
movement due to temperature variations
2.1 Early-age contractions

2.11 Early thermal Contraction The reaction of Portland cement with water is an exothermic process, i.e. one in which
excess heat is generated.The potential rise in temperature may be as high as 13°C per
100kg/m3of cement when using CEM I cement alone in thick sections; for typical structural
concretes (28/35 to 40/50MPa) the cement content may be 330-400kg/m3 and the
potential rise thus over 50°C. However, in practice the actual temperature rise is much
less because heat is lost through the surfaces, and is dependent on such factors as the
dimensions of the pour, the insulation provided by the formwork, and the placing and
ambient temperatures.
While the temperature is rising the concrete behaves in a relatively plastic manner so that
the only result is a small increase in volume. When the concrete starts to cool to ambient
temperature it has sufficient stiffness to develop tensile stress if externally restrained, and
may even crack.
The amount of contraction is calculated by multiplying the temperature drop by the

coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete. Methods of estimating the temperature drop
are given in a number of sources, e.g. ClRlA 660, Early-age thermal crack control in concrete(5),
and Coodchild(6);the latter shows that for slabs only 300mm thick the temperature drop
can be as much as 25"C, typically producing a free (unrestrained) early-age contraction
of 3 0 0 p ~ .
Replacing some of the Portland cement by ground granulated blastfurnaceslag (ggbs) or fly
ash (pfa or pulverised-fuelash) is an effective way of reducing the rate of heat generation
(see Table 1).The values have been derived from ClRlA 660(5)and are based on a 300mm
slab cast in the summer with a placing temperature of 20°C on 19mm plywood formwork
for a concrete specified as C32/40.
Table 1
Typical early-age temperature rises.
CEM I32,5N 340 31
50% ggbs 355 21
75% ggbs 410 18
30% fly ash 365 20
6
Embedded reinforcement follows the same temperature profile, and as the coefficient of
thermal expansion of steel is very similar to that of concrete there are usually no adverse
effects. However, in deep pours (over about 0.75m), differentials in temperature cause
internal restraints that can lead to cracking. This topic is examined in more detail in ClRlA
660(5)and is not covered further in this report.
21.2Autogenous shrinkage Autogenous shrinkage is an important phenomenon in concrete with a low waterkement
(w/c) ratio. In this context, cement means total cementitious material, i.e. including any
ggbs, fly ash or silica fume. Unless the concrete is cured early and thoroughly with water,
significant autogenous shrinkage (sometimes called chemical shrinkage or self-desiccation)
can occur during the first few days after casting. This can lead to cracking which may
negate the intended benefits of using high-performance concrete. It can also be important
when in-situ concrete is placed over older concrete as in various forms of hybrid construction;
see Chapter 6, Surface restraint.
Mechanism of autogenous shrinkage

The process of water combining chemically with cement is called hydration. At lower w/c
ratios all the water is rapidly drawn into the hydration process and demand for more water
creates very fine capillaries.The surface tension within the capillaries causes autogenous
shrinkage.
In thin sections, if the surface of the concrete is kept continuously wet, water is drawn
into the capillaries and the shrinkage does not occur. Indeed, a small amount of swelling
has been observed in tests on small specimens. Shrinkage-reducingadmixtures lessen the
surface tension thus reducing the shrinkage, but should still be used with thorough water
curing. However, curing may not be effective in eliminating autogenous shrinkage in
practice. In thick pours with low w/c ratio the zone of curing is limited to the surface few
centimetres of depth and autogenous shrinkage may still be significant within the bulk of
the section. Another suggestion is to use lightweight aggregates thoroughly pre-soaked
with water. This supports the process called ‘internal curing’ and may overcome the issue
of limited curing zones in thick sections. However,this has not yet been fully researched.
Note that autogenous shrinkage is separate from and additional to conventional drying
shrinkage, which will start when water curing ceases and may be estimated by the methods
described in Section 2.3.
Numerical evaluation
The only code of practice to cover autogenous shrinkage is BS EN 1992-1-1(’).This includes
a formula:
= 2.5 (tk- 10) (PE) (BS EN 1991-1-1 Expression 3.12)
where:
fck specified characteristic cylinder strength
7
Figure 4
Autogenous shrinkage with time.
Autogenous shrinkage with time
120
100
80
8 60
40
20
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (days)
The progression with time is also given and is shown in Figure 4
It can be seen that much of the autogenous shrinkage occurs very early in the life of the
concrete and is all but complete within 100 days. This is very different from conventional
drying shrinkage.
The assumption in BS EN 1992-1-1that autogenous shrinkage is directly related to specified

strength with no consideration of mix proportions is clearly an approximation. However, as
discussed above, early curing is also critical to the total autogenous shrinkage that occurs.
The values in BS EN 1992-1-1 are quite low (e.g. 5 5 for~strength
~ class 32/40) compared
to those given by Altoubat and Lar~ge(~), which suggests that water curing is assumed.
Curing
The requirements for water curing are quite onerous.The surface of the concrete must be
prevented from drying from the moment at which the concrete has been finished. As soon
as possible thereafter water must be applied to the surface and this must then be kept
continuously wet for several days. Side forms of deep members should be released so
that water can be fed to these surfaces also. The preferred method of applying water is by
mist spray; reports mention equipment used for bowling greens or plant nurseries. Failing
this, hessian can be used but should be continuously watered with hoses and covered
with polythene. This will not be practicable for most projects and so it is essential that
the effects of autogenous shrinkage are considered.
2.1.3 Restraint and cracking Early-age contractions all occur in the first seven days or so. If the contractions are
due to early-age contractions restrained, tensile stress builds UP and can lead to cracking.There are many potential
sources of restraint; the most common is adjacent elements poured earlier, especially
walls cast on substantial footings but also slabs cast against previous pours. Others include
toppings cast on older substrates, slabs in composite construction (see Chapter 6) and
ground slabs connected to footings or piles.
8
The risk of cracking is difficult t o predict with any great precision. If in doubt, the simplest
and safest policy is t o assume that cracking will occur and provide reinforcement to control
it. This is discussed in Section 4, leading to recommendations of reinforcement contents
higher than previously recommended (but comparable t o BS EN 1992-1-1).
2.2 Effects Of post- Post-tensioned slabs behave differently t o non-stressed reinforced concrete slabs in two
tensioning key ways:
1. The axial compression will cause a shortening of the slab in addition t o any shrinkage
or temperature effects. Initial elastic shortening can be controlled by the use of pour
strips (see Section 10.9) but it should be acknowledged that creep continues for a
significant period and there is likely to be further shortening after the concreting of
any pour strips. In particular, as for shrinkage, creep increases as the humidity of the
environment reduces, so may increase significantly once the slab is enclosed.
2. Because the concrete is in compression it is far less likely t o crack due t o any restraint
forces. This means that the axial stiffness of the slab will be greater than that of a
reinforced concrete slab due t o the lack of cracking. Therefore the forces that can be
exerted on any restraining structure will be that much greater.
These points apply to an extent to all slabs with an axial compression in them, thus including
slabs spanning between perimeter walls in basements. Where axial compression is present
in a slab, the consequences on the surrounding structure are likely t o be greater than for a
normal reinforced concrete. Nonetheless the effects can be calculated and accounted for
in the design; indeed the lack of cracking makes analysis easier. The axial compression in
the slab will either prevent or significantly delay cracking in the slab, which may be
beneficial from a visual or waterproofing point of view.
2.3 Shrinkage Strictly, shrinkage should be called long-term drying shrinkage but the one-word abbreviation
is common practice, although BS EN 1992-1-1 uses drying shrinkage t o distinguish it from
autogenous shrinkage, which is discussed in Section 2.1.2.
Drying shrinkage strain is a function of the migration of water through the hardened
concrete and therefore develops slowly. When concrete is placed it usually contains more
water than required for full hydration. Concrete which is buried may remain saturated but
usually concrete is exposed to drying conditions. Both the aggregate and the cement matrix
shrink as water is lost, resulting in overall shrinkage of the concrete. The rate of shrinkage
depends on the humidity of exposure and the section size, and decreases with age. The use
of good-quality aggregates and low w/c ratios will reduce the shrinkage. Although retention
of moisture by curing until the concrete is more mature is good practice for other reasons,
it has little effect on the final amount, but does delay the onset of drying shrinkage.
9
Magnitudes of free movements
BS EN 1992-1-1clause 3.1.4 gives a method for determining the strain.Thedrying shrinkage

strain (for unreinforced concrete) is calculated as a basic value dependent on relative
humidity and concrete composition modified by a factor for variation with time and a
factor for notional size, that is:
This can be rewritten to include the expression for the basic drying shrinkage, as follows:
where:
P,,(t, t,) coefficient for development of shrinkage with time (also size dependent), see
BS EN 1992-1-1clause 3.1.4,taken as 1.0 where t = 00 (when shrinkage is
complete)
= ( t - t, ) / [ ( -
t t,) + 0.04dh,3]
where:
t age of concrete a t time considered (days)
t, age of concrete (days) a t beginning of drying shrinkage (usually end of
curing)
h, notional size (mm) of cross-section = 2A)u where U = perimeter
k, coefficient for effect of notional size, ho,see Table 3.3 of BS EN 1992-1-1
ads, factor 3 for cement Class 8, 4 for Class N, 6 for Class R
adsZ factor 0.13 for cement Class 5, 0.12 for Class N, 0.11 for Class R
fc, mean compressive strength (MPa)
fcmo 10MPa (factor to correct units and divide by 10)
P,, coefficient for humidity of environment
= 1.55 [I- (RH/RH,)3]
where:
RH ambient relative humidity (%)
RH, 100%.
Similar to creep, shrinkage is not dependent on concrete strength as such, but f , , is included
in the calculation of shrinkage. This is to account for the w/c ratio since generally the
lower the w/c ratio, the higher the concrete strength. Shrinkage decreases with decreasing
w/c ratio and decreasing cement content. The type of cement and whether it is a slowly
hardening cement (Class S), has ordinary early strength development (Class N) or is a
rapidly hardening cement (Class R) is also taken into account in the calculation.
It is important to note that these designations (R, N and 8) are not the same as those in
the cement standard, BS EN 197(*).The BS EN 1992-1-1 Classes are related to the cement
designations as given in Table 2.
10
Table 2
Relationship between Classes in
BS EN 1992-1-1(') and BS EN 197(*). -_ - -r
CEM 42 5R, CEM 52 5N and CEM 52 5R
--- -
~ 1
- ~- -1
-__
1--
iL-.
--
1' CEM___
32 5N - - ~ ~ ---I
_ _ _ _
These designations are for factory-produced cements. There are no official general rules
for cements blended in the mixer. However, Chapter 8 of How to design concrete
structures using Eurocode Z(9)notes that:
"At the design stage it is often not clear which Class should be used. Generally
Class R should be assumed. Where the ground granulated blastfurnaceslag
(ggbs) content exceeds 35% of the cement combination or where fly ash (pfa)
exceeds 20% of the cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where
ggbs exceeds 65% or where fly ash exceeds 35% Class 5 may be assumed."
I
Figure The graphs in Figure 5 illustrate the factors described above. An approximate value of the
Graphical representation of factors. drying shrinkage strain can be found by multiplying the relevant values from the graphs.
Factor for concrete composition Factor for notional size and age
1.2
F
0 1
m
!.
- 0.8
m
._ 0.6
Y
-
Y
E
0
0.4
b 0.2
Y m
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 1 10 100 1000 10,000
Mean compressive strength,!,, (MPa) Age t-ts (days)
+ Cement Class R -A- Cement Class S t h, = 100 6 h, = 300

+ Cement Class N +h, = 200 ++ h, = 500
Factor for relative humidity

1.8
1.6
C
9 1.4
Y
g 1.2
'
8
b
+
b 0.6
1.0
0.8
Y
Y 0.4
LL
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity (%)
11
Magnitude5 of free movements
Most structures spend the early part of their lives in an external environment before they are
enclosed. As BS EN 1992-1-1 allows shrinkage to be calculated a t any time, it is possible
to calculate the shrinkage up to enclosure based on an external humidity; final shrinkage
can then be calculated based on the internal humidity. The principal effect will be to
reduce the early shrinkage rather than reducingthe overall shrinkage.
Although shrinkage is largely irreversible,clause 7.4 of BS 8110-2(’0)notes:
“Concrete exposed to the outdoor climate in the UK will exhibit seasonal cyclic
strains of 0.4 times the 30 year shrinkage superimposed on the average shrinkage
strain; the maximum shrinkage will occur a t the end of each summer.”
No similar guidance exists in BS EN 1992-1-1,presumably due to the variations in climate

across Europe. It would therefore seem appropriate to adopt similar values. Due to the fact
that the maximum shrinkage occurs a t the end of summer, it is unlikely to coincide with
the lowest temperature (or minimum shrinkage with maximum temperature), and as the
seasonal temperature effects are usually greater, the seasonal variation of shrinkage can
generally be ignored.
As mentioned previously, the above method is applicable to unreinforced concrete.

BS EN 1992-1-1 does not address the need to adapt this for reinforced concrete. However,
Section 4.1 of BS 8110-2 gives a reinforcement modification which is usually sufficiently
accurate to use with BS EN 1992-1-1 shrinkage predictions. It can be derived from first
principleswith appropriate assumptions on creep, see Section 5.1.1.
2.4 Choice O f relative Both creep and shrinkage are sensitive to the ambient humidity of the environment, so it
humidity is important to adopt realistic values.The indoor environment of offices is usually taken as
45%, although a higher figure, say SO%, could perhaps be taken where natural ventilation
is provided; 55% may be appropriate for dwellings.
The 12-month average outdoor humidity in Britain ranges from 75% in the drier South-East
and East Anglia to over 90% in the wetter North-West and the western side of Scotland.
However, humidity should not normally be taken higher than 85%. The seasonal variation
is significant, perhaps +IS%, but only needs to be taken into account in very sensitive
structures constructed in spring or early summer. BS 8110-2 recommends an outdoor
humidity of 85% for the UK which is reasonable for most locations, given the other unknowns;
however, more accurate historic data can normally be obtained from various sources.
2.5 Temperature movement

2.5.1Celleral Daily and seasonal temperature variations cause dimensional changes to outdoor structures
and to a lesser extent to indoor structures Solar radiation can raise the temperature
significantly above the shade temperature In reinforced concrete elements, temperature
affects concrete and steel alike, their coefficients of thermal expansion being similar
I 12
Because of the thermal mass of heavy structures such as bridges, diurnal temperature
changes (exacerbated by solar radiation) produce thermal gradients within the deck which
cause deflections as well as stresses if the movement is restrained. This aspect is not
considered further in this report, except in the case of car parks as discussed in Section 11.4.
2.5.2 Coefficient Of thermal Movements resulting from temperature effects are usually reversible. The coefficient of
expansion thermal expansion of concrete can vary significantly. BS EN 1992-1-1 suggests that if no
more accurate information is available a value of I O ~ E / " C(10 x 10-6/oC) should be used.
However it has been common practice within the UK t o use a value of 12pd"C which is
consistent with BS 8110-2 for gravel aggregate. BS 8110-2 also gives values of 10pd"C for
granite aggregates and 8.Opd"C for limestone aggregates. It therefore appears that the
BS EN 1992-1-1 value is a mean value independent of aggregate type. Generally, higher
coefficients of thermal expansion are more onerous and, unless the actual aggregate type
is known, i t is recommended that in the UK the value of 12pd"C be used. This report
adopts this value throughout.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for lightweight aggregates is normally lower but is
subject t o even greater variability. Further advice o n the appropriate choice of coefficient
of thermal expansion is given in ClRlA 660(5).
2.5.3 Tensile strength The tensile strength of concrete reduces from its short-term value if the tensile stress is
sustained; a reduction factor of 0.7 can be applied for stress sustained for more than 30 days.
This time period is much less than was previously thought, but has come out of research
into the loss of tension stiffening with time, see Concrete Society Technical Report 59(").
It is therefore important t o distinguish between daily and weekly fluctuations which can
be considered as short-term, and seasonal effects which should be treated as long-term.
2.5.4 Seasonal temperatures Tables 3 and 4 overleaf give the mean temperatures at sites in the UK forJanuary and July
averaged over the 30 years from 1971 t o 2000. For most sites in the UK, the mean
temperature difference between winter and summer is around 11-12°C. Note also that
city centres are hotter than their surrounding areas.
13
temperatures ("C) for London (Greenwich) 52 18 2 Lowestoft 42 16 6

selected inland sites.
Edinburgh 36 14 a Torbay (Teignmouth) 64 171
FarrightTabLe 4
Mean January and July Glasgow (Paisley) 40 15 7 Tenby 58 15 8
temperatures ("C) for
selected coastal sites. uponTyne (Durham) 34 15 3 Southampton (Everton) 53 16 7
Manchester (Airport) 42 16 3 Kirkwall 39 12 7
Birmingham (Sutton Bonnington) 3 8 16 6 Aberdeen (Craibstone) 31 13 a
Bristol (Lyneharn) 39 16 6 Newquay (St Mawgan) 62 161
Bury S t Edmunds (Wattisham) 35 16 6 Holyhead (Valley) 58 15 7
Cardiff 50 172 Hull (Cleethorpes) 43 16 2

Londonderry (Carmoney) 55 15 7 Blackpool 43 16 0
Belfast (Aldergrove) 42 15 2 Eastbourne 43 16 0
2.5.5 Daily temperatures Maps showing I-in-50years minimum and maximum shade temperatures are given in BS
5400-2(12)and in the UK National Annex t o EN 1991-1-5(13). Note that corrections need to
be applied for height above sea level by subtracting 0.5"C per 100m height for minimum
temperatures and 1.O"C per 100m height for maximum temperatures.
A graph showing correction factors for return periods other than 50 years is reproduced in
Figure 6. A return period of ten years is probably sufficiently onerous for typical movement
assessments; this is achieved by multiplying the 50-year minimum temperature by 0.72
and the maximum by 0.9. A map minimum of -14°C would then reduce to -10°C. The
50-year return period values should be considered for open structures and top storeys if
the consequences of movement could be damaging.
Figure 6
Graph showing multiplication factors ('ratios')
for minimum and maximum temperatures for 200
various return periods (R). 150
100
70
50
e 20
10 - /
I
5- /
21 /#
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Ratios
14
These temperatures are minima occurring in the early hours of the morning and maxima
during the afternoon, both lasting for a few hours a t most before easing off. Most structures
have sufficient mass to heat up or cool down more slowly than this. This 'thermal inertia'
means that the temperature to be used for movement calculations will be less extreme.
An exact calculation of this effect is quite complex, and a realistic estimate is all that is
required. For a 250mm thick slab in a multi-storey car park, an alleviation of extreme
temperatures by 2 - 3 O C seems reasonable.
2.5.6 Solar radiation Surfaces open to the sun experience a further rise in temperature due to solar radiation.
This produces two effects. The first is to expand the top surface relative to the underside,
leading to upwards deflection a t mid-span, often accompanied by rotation a t the
supports. The opposite effect in winter, of the exposed surface becoming colder than
ambient, is only minor and can usually be ignored. The second is to increase the average
temperature of the whole section, thus increasing the linear expansion above that from
ambient (shade) temperature.
These effects are particularly important in exposed structures, most notably multi-storey
car parks (see also Section 11.4) and should always be considered.The surface treatment
often includes a black top. The selection of surfacing is particularly important as shown in
Figure 7. This shows the predicted maximum temperature difference between the top
surface and soffit through slabs with different thicknesses and surfacing types modelled
using finite-element software for a specific location in the south of the UK. The soffit
temperature remains at ambient.
Figure 7
Relationship between predicted temperature
difference due to solar gain and slab thickness
1
25
for different surfacing types for a specific
location in the UK.
- t 50mm asphalt
E
W
t Bare concrete or light
grey membrane
5 20
+ Dark grey membrane
U
<
?!
W
Q
15
$
c
U
W
c 10
._
U
?!
n
5
100 200 300 400 500
Slab thickness (mm)
15
An estimation can also be made using BRE Digest 228(14)which gives minimum
temperature -2OoC, maximum +45OC for light colour and +6OoC for dark. Assuming the
maximum shade temperature is 35"C, the increases for solar radiation are 10°C and 25°C
respectively. Judged from -20°C, these are 1 in 120 years figures, so correcting the
increases t o 1 in 10 years reduces 10°C and 25°C t o 9°C and 22°C respectively. Bare
concrete is quite light in colour, so assuming it is one-third up from 'light' would give an
increase of 13OC. Dark finishes such as asphalt would have t o be treated as 'dark' but the
thickness of the asphalt will affect the temperature of the top o f the concrete beneath and
the insulation properties of the asphalt should also be taken into consideration. (Note
that Appendix C in BS 5400-2 indicates that an asphalt thickness of over 7 0 m m is
needed t o reduce the maximum surface temperature differential over the minimum
concrete temperature from that experienced by bare concrete, but these results were
based o n modelling the asphalt as having the same thermal properties as concrete and
underestimate the benefit of the insulation properties.)
The data in Figure 7 and BRE Digest 228 presumably allow for thermal inertia, so any
allowance made previously should be added back in.
2.5.7 Temperature range The final piece o f data needed t o calculate the likely temperature range is the casting
temperature. This must be expressed as a 24-hour mean ambient temperature, as the rise
above ambient and fall back t o it have been accounted for in early thermal contraction. For
design, it will usually be necessary t o assume casting could take place at any time of the
year and at any temperature, except that casting below 5°C is prohibited in most
specifications (and precautions taken t o prevent the concrete falling below this
temperature). However, extreme values are not required, as this would result in t w o
extreme values being taken together. A winter temperature of +5"C is probably
appropriate; for summer, a figure midway between the July mean and the daily maximum
calculated as above could be taken.
As an example, data calculated for Stoke-on-Trent could be assembled as in Table 5

Table 5
Design temperature range calculation for
Stoke-on-Trent (example only).
Shade temperatures -1 8 +34
Allow for city centre (estimated) -18 + 3 = -15 No change
Correct to ten-year return 0.72 x (-15) =-11 0.9 x (+34)= +30.5

Allow for thermal inertia (+3, -3.5) -11 + 3 = -8 +30.5 - 3.5 = +27
Seasonal means +3 +16
Casting temperatures (24-hour mean) (27 + 16)/2= +21.5 specification limit = +5
Range casting to seasonal +3 - (+21.5)= -18.5 (drop) +16 - (+5) = +11 (rise)
Range seasonal t o daily extreme -8 - (+3)= -11 (drop) +27 - (+16)= +11
Total range -29.5 (drop) +22 (rise)
Solar radiation (concrete surface) nla +13 i3.5 = +16.5
I 16
2.6 Linear COntraCtiOn and At any point in time, the combination of the movements discussed above will lead to
expansion linear contraction or expansion. In the early days, contraction will dominate. However,
this is quite rapidly partially relieved by creep (see Chapter 3), so that if the ambient
temperature rises - as is likely in the first summer of structures cast in winter - expansion
can occur. In practice, this is usually unimportant, as the movement is unlikely to be very
great and the resulting compression in the concrete will not produce any noticeable effects.
As the seasons progress, particularly in structures cast in summer, drying shrinkage will
set in, temperatures will drop, and the overall effect will be contraction. This is of more
concern because if restraint is present, tension is induced and cracking can occur. This is
discussed in more detail in Section 4.2.
17
3. Understanding creep
When concrete is subjected to long-term stress it gradually deforms with time; this
process is called creep. The amount of creep depends on the ambient humidity, the
dimensions of the element, the composition of the concrete, the maturity of the concrete
when the load is first applied, and the magnitude and duration of the loading. The ratio of
creep movement to initial elastic movement is known as the creep coefficient, q(t,to).
3.1 Estimation O f Creep The final creep deformation of concrete, a t time t = 03 for a constant compressive stress
applied a t age t = 0, is given by:
where:
q(w,to)creep coefficient as below
f, tangent modulus, which in accordance with BS EN 1992-1-1 may be taken as
1.05 times the secant modulus, Ecm.This is the value a t 28 days and should be
used rather than f,,(t), the value a t age t days, see Section 3.2.
BS EN 1992-1-1 can be used to give an approximate value of the creep coefficient, where
the compressive stress is not greater than 0.4Sfc,(t0)at an age to,the age of the concrete
a t the time of loading.
The creep coefficient at any time after loading can be calculated from:
where:
'p0 notional creep coefficient
= (PRH P(fJ Pko)
In the above equations:
P,(t, to) coefficient for development of creep with time after loading
= [ ( t - to)/(& +t- t0)p
where:
t age of concrete a t time considered (days)
to age of concrete a t loading (days)
0, coefficient dependent on relative humidity and concrete strength
= 1.5 [I + (0.012 RH)18] h, for fcmI 35
and 1.5 [I + (0.012 RH)18]h, + 250a, I 1500a, for fcm 2 35
where:
RH relative humidity (%)
a, concrete strength coefficient = (35/fCm)O5
h, notional member size (mm) = 2A)u
18
qRH factor t o allow for the effect of relative humidity

[I + (1 - RH/100)/(01 x 'dh,)] for fcmI35
and {I+ [(I - RH/100) a,/(Ol x 3dh,)]}a2for fcmz 35
P(f,) factor for concrete strength
= 16.8/dfcm
where:
fcm mean compressive strength (MPa)
P(t,) factor t o allow for effect of concrete age a t loading
= V(O1 + t , O 2 )
The effect of the type of cement on the creep coefficient may be taken into account by
modifying I, as follows:
where:
a -1 for cement Class 8
a 0 for cement Class N
a 1 for cement Class R
Be/ow/eft Figure 8a The graphs in Figures 8(a)-(e) illustrate the effect on the development of creep of varying
Effect Of timeon thedevelopment Of creep the cement class, the relative humidity, the notional size, or the duration of drying. The
(to= 90 days, R H = 50%, fc, = 40MPa,
ho=250rnrn,c[ass N). creep coefficient can also be determined graphically using the figures in BS EN 1992-1-1.
Figure 8b However, due t o the complexity of the relationships, this method is not easy t o use
Effect of relative hurnidityonthe accurately. It is probably more straightforward therefore t o calculate creep directly using
development of creep
(to= 90 days, t = m, f,, = 40MPa,
spreadsheets.
h, = 250mrn, Class N).
1.8
3.0
1.6
1.4 2.5
c c
E
._ 1.2
C
.$ 2.0
._
U
._
5 1.0 r
0.8
8 1.5
CL
a
E 0.6 $ 1.0
U U
0.4 0.5
0.2
0.0
0.0 100 80 60 40 20 0
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 Relative humidity (%)
Concrete age (days)
19
3.0 1 -
1.76
1.76
2.5
Y
..-E .-5 1.75

Y
2.0 U
= 1.5 1.75
1.74
n aJ
U
;1.0 $ 1.74
0.5 1.73
1.73
0.0 S N R
0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 Cement class
Mean concrete strength (MPa)
Above left Figure 8c

Effect of concrete strength on the 2.5
development of creep.
(to= 90 days, t = -, RH = 50%. h, = 250mm. 2.0
c1
Class N). aJ
c
Aboveright Figure 8d 2.-aJ 1.5
Effect of cement class on the development of 8
creep. e 1.0
(to= 90 days, t = m, RH = SO%, h, = 250mm, 2
U
fcm= 40MPa). 0.5
Rght Figure 8e
Effect of notional size on the development of 0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
creep.
Notional size (rnrn)
(to= 90 days, t = -, RH SO%, fcm = 40MPa,
Class N).
3.2 Effective elastic It is often convenient t o carry out calculations using an effective elastic modulus. The
modulus expression for stress-dependent strain can be written t o give the following:
Stress-dependent strain = initial strain at loading + creep strain at time t after loading
Dividing by ocand rearranging gives:
where:
EJt) modulus of elasticity at time t
E, tangent modulus as above.
20
However, it is often acceptable to assume that EJt) = E,; this simplification leads to the
commonly used form:
Typical characteristic values of the tangent modulus of elasticity, Ec, are shown in Table 6.
Table 6
Characteristic values of tangent modulus.
20 28 30 32
30 38 33 35
35 43 34 36
40 48 35 37
50 58 37 39
The relationships used to calculate the creep coefficient are empirical, calibrated on the
basis of laboratory tests. Only those parameters which are normally known to the designer
- characteristic compressive strength, dimensions of the member, mean relative humidity,
age a t loading, duration of loading and type of cement -are taken into account. However,
it should be noted that creep of concrete is not dependent on its compressive strength or
age at loading as such, but rather on its composition and degree of hydration. Creep of
concrete decreases with decreasing w/c ratio, decreasing cement content and increasing
degree of hydration. BS EN 1992-1-1 also allows for modifications of the equations to
take into account the type of cement and the effect of elevated or reduced temperatures
on the maturity of the concrete, but this is not discussed here.
3.3 Relief of stress by creep Some relief of sustained compressive and tensile stresses is provided by creep. Figure 9 shows
the reduction over time of both early-age contractions and shrinkage. Early-age contraction
stresses are reduced surprisingly rapidly.The figure is based on quite conservative assump-
tions (loading a t 3.5 days, section 300mm thick exposed on one side only, RH 80%), yet
the reduction (curve A) is estimated to be 30% at four months and 60% a t two years.
Shrinkage is different. Although each increment of shrinkage is lessened by creep, the
shrinkage builds up quite slowly (curve C) so the effect of creep (curve B) is even more
delayed. The figure shows that the effect is hardly significant up to one year, although
ultimately the reduction is about one-third.
Figure 9 100
Reduction over time of re! ,ainedtensile
90
stress due to creep
(Curve A early-age contractions, from loo%, 80
curve B shrinkage, from free shrinkage 70
curve C above.). 60
g 50
40
30
20
10
0
Days 1 2 3 5 7 1014 28 56 100 1000 10,000
Years 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50
21
Avoid
4. Avoiding cracking or controlling cracking?

Concrete cracks when the tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength. Thus the only way to
avoid cracking is to ensure that the restraint forces developed within the concrete do not
exceed the tensile capacity.
4.1 Avoiding cracking Cracking can be avoided in two ways:
1. Reduce the restrained contraction sufficiently so that the resulting stress can never
exceed the concrete tensile strength. Methods of reducing both the contraction of the
concrete and the effect of restraint are discussed below.
2. Introduce an axial compression into the concrete such that any subsequent tensions
are not sufficient to exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. An example of this is
post-tensioning of ground-bearing or suspended floor slabs.
In many cases option 2 is not practicable as the movements associated with the compression
cause further problems, and option 1 is not structurally or architecturally possible. Where
this is the case the emphasis must be on controlling cracking through the correct design
of the reinforcement.
4.2 CUmUkiVe The cumulative effect of the different contractions is illustrated in Figure 10.This is drawn
contractions for a typical basement ground slab, although the actual tensile stresses a t any point can
only be guessed. Line 1 is the tensile strength of the concrete, showing both the strength
under transitory stress (la) and the reduced strength (factor 0.7) under sustained stress
(Ib); in practice, a value between these two extremes is probably appropriate. Line 2
leading to 2a is the early-age contraction stress, showing the relief from creep (line A in
Figure 9). Line 2b shows the addition of long-term drying shrinkage.
Crackingwould be triggered if line 2 were to cross line 1. Stresses from neither seasonal
nor short-term temperature variations are shown, but it is clear that additional stresses
from temperature drop will increase the risk of cracking. However, it is important to note
Figure 10
Tensile strength and stress over time.
4.0
3.0
IT
% 2.0
1.o
0
Days
Years 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50
I 22
that if the critical early period of three t o ten days while the concrete is still immature
passes without cracks appearing, there is then a ‘honeymoon’ period of months or (more
usually) years before the risk reappears in concrete that is by then mature.
Furthermore, if the concrete is in a benign environment (such as a water storage tank),

the later stresses may never be enough t o exceed the creep relief of the early-age effects.
This explains why it is inappropriate t o rely on guidance for water-retaining concrete in
the design of basements, see Section 4.3.4.
4.3 Minimum reinforce-

ment in direct tension
4.31 Restrained Structures Many structural forms are such that there is no restraint that would cause significant
direct tensile stress. This is the case in most superstructures, where a core or shear walls
near the centre often provide the stability. However, structures such as basements in
contact with the ground, particularly if over about 30m long, tend t o behave as if
restrained. These are also structures which often need t o be watertight, or at least water-
resisting. The minimum reinforcement in these cases should usually be derived on the
assumption that contraction is fully restrained. This is also a sensible precaution if there is
doubt about the degree of restraint. The applicability of BS 8007(15) is discussed below.
4.3.2 Controlling cracking The principles of controlling cracking by reinforcement are illustrated in Figure 11. If concrete
tries t o contract but is restrained so that movement cannot occur, tensile stress gradually
builds up. When this reaches the tensile strength of the concrete section, a crack forms.
The movement at the crack relieves some of the stress but as the contraction continues,
the stress builds up again. If the reinforcement is weaker than the force which caused the
first crack, it will yield and all future contraction will be concentrated at the same point
so that the crack simply gets wider (Figure Il(a)). If the reinforcement is stronger than the
cracking force, it will remain elastic and as the contraction increases a new crack will form
at the next weakest cross-section. The process then continues with enough cracks forming
to absorb the total contraction (Figure Il(b)), or the cracks are so close together that no
- further cracks can be formed; this latter situation requires a total strain of around IOOO~E,
so is not likely t o be reached under normal movements.The crack in the first model
(Figure Il(a)) is uncontrolled while the cracks in the second (Figure Il(b)) are controlled.
Figure I1
Control of cracking by reinforcement.
b. Enough reinforcement
23
The amount o f reinforcement t o control cracking, A,, can be derived from first principles
by making the strength of the reinforcement, fs,greater than the strength of the concrete
in tension, F,.Applying this principle, the reinforced axial capacity is:
and the uncracked capacity is:
where:
Ac area of concrete
E, modulus of elasticity of steel
E, modulus of elasticity of concrete
The second term in brackets is quite small and is neglected at this point, although a
correction for i t is applied later. Putting f , 2 F, gives:
p 11.0(fc,/f)
where:
p AsJAc
A, total area of reinforcement, generally equally distributed between t o p and
bottom faces.
Two cases need t o be considered: early-age contractions in immature concrete and total
long-term contraction in mature concrete.
4.3.3 lmmatUre Concrete AppendixA of BS 8007(15)derives a similar expression for pcr1,,

the minimum reinforcement
ratio for the early thermal contraction case:
where:
f,, direct tensile strength of the immature concrete, usually taken at the age of
three days as 1.6MPa for C28/35A concrete.
Hughes(17)explains that f,, includes a hidden y, = 11, and quotes a more general value:
where:
f,, 28-day cube strength
with = 460MPa, P,,,~= 1.6/460 = 0.35%,the familiar value in BS 8007.
24
Serviceability calculations are normally carried out on mean values; however, controlling
restraint cracking should not necessarily be thought of as in the same category as most
other serviceability criteria. Mean values imply that some will be better and some will be
worse, but crack control is fundamental to the satisfactory behaviour of structures such
as basements and an uncontrolled crack could have significant consequences.Therefore
the rest of this section is formulated with the aim of achieving a 95% limit, i.e. only 1 in 20
failures. Lower amounts of reinforcement may be appropriate where the consequences of
an uncontrolled crack are less serious.
BS EN 1992-1-1 quotes the lower and upper characteristic tensile strengths of concrete as
O.7fc,, and 1.3fct,. Part of this range relates to the variation between different concretes of
the same specified strength but part of it relates to the variation between samples from
the same concrete. In a long structure the weakest concrete will crack first (i.e.the weakest
sample); similarly, stress concentrations will initiate cracks a t average stresses
significantly lower than the tensile strength. While it is not possible to quantify these
things exactly, a value of l.O[,, might be appropriate for a long slab with various
discontinuities such as columns, walls and small holes, while 1.3fct, might be more
appropriatefor a basement floor restrained a t close intervals by pile caps. It is also sensible
to allow not for the specified minimum concrete strength but for the average. BS EN
1992-1-1allows for a strength 8/10MPa (cylinder/cube) above that specified as the mean
value, although a higher strength may be delivered for other reasons, e.g. early striking of
formwork or concretes with fly ash or ggbs which gain strength more slowly, in which
case ,f should be based on this higher strength.
If the maximum concrete tensile strength is combined with the minimum reinforcement
yield strength, the resulting probability is 1 in 20 x 20, i.e. 1 in 400. This is not what is
intended, and the I-in-20 overall probability is achieved by combining the maximum
concrete tensile strength with the mean reinforcement strength. Since January2006, the
characteristic reinforcement strength has been 500MPa with the mean expected to be
approximately 550MPa, so if we wish to retain the characteristic reinforcement strength in
the formula a correction factor of 500/550 needs to be introduced.The other correction
introduced is 1.06 for the enhancement of tensile strength F, given by 0.6% reinforcement.
This leads to the minimum reinforcement content for immature concrete of:
P,,,~= [(1.0to 1.3) x 1.06 x (500/550)]

(fCt,,,,/tk), which approximates to:
1.00 to 1.25 (f,,,,mm/fyk) (note BS EN 1992-1-1 would give 1.00)
BS EN 1992-1-1gives the tensile strength of concrete before 28 days as:
where:
5 0.2 for Class R cements
0.25 for Class N and
0.38 for Class S
25
If it is assumed that the critical value for f,,,,,, occurs a t three days and Class R cements
are used then:
Values of f,,,,,, and p,,,, for a range of concrete strengths are shown in Table 7.It can be
seen that for all normal structural concrete classes, values are higher than the BS 8007
value of 0.35%.
Having controlled the cracking with this minimum amount, more reinforcement may need
to be added to achieve a desired crack width, see Chapter 9.
Table 7
Minimum reinforcement contents in direct
tension for immature concrete related to
strength class (total in both faces).
Immaturetensile strength, j,,,,, (MPa) 1.45 1.85 2.1 2.5
("/I
P,,,, = 1.0 Vct,,mm/fyk) 0.29 0.37 0.42 0.50
PCli,= 1.25 cVct,i,~fyk) (%) 0.36 0.46 0.53 0.63
4.3.4 Mature concrete Although referenced by documents such as BS 8102(16BS ),8007cannot be relied on for
designing basements to be watertight. BS 8007is written for reservoirs, i.e. concrete tanks
which in service will be full of water and usually embedded in soil, often with a covering of
soil on the roof. In these conditions, shrinkage is minimal and temperature variations small.
BS 8007assumes that if early-age contractions are controlled, subsequent movements will
be insignificant,or a t least less than the reduction from creep (although this is not stated).
In basements the internal faces are open to the atmosphere and therefore shrinkage will
occur. Temperature variations may also need to be considered.The worst case is basements
used for car parking, especially if they are naturally ventilated, as the concrete is then
exposed to near-ambient temperature and humidity all year round.
However for mature concrete a further adjustment to the calculation above should be
made. Under sustained loading, the tensile strength of concrete is understood to reduce by
around 0.7.The dominant cause of full-depth cracking is sustained contraction (long-term
shrinkage and seasonal temperature drops added to early-age contractions) although
more rapid temperature drops frequently contribute. Allocating these %:% suggests that
a reduction in f,,, for long-term effects of 0.8 can be applied.
Taking this into account, the minimum reinforcement content for mature concrete is:
fctm/Sk
p',,,,z (0.8 to 1.0) (BS EN 1992-1-1 uses 1.0; this is recommended)
where the prime (') is used to refer to mature concrete to distinguish it from the immature
stage.
This results in the minimum percentages in the bottom row of Table 8. A comparison can
be made with the design of continuous reinforced concrete pavements, for which the
Highways Agency specifies 0.6% reinforcement in a single layer at the mid-depth.
,- .
y o l y i m
Table 8 e , .
Minimum
tension
strength
reinforcement
for mature
class (total
concrete
contents
in both
related
infaces).
direct
to
Mean mature tensile strength,fctm(MPa) 22 28 32 38
P’,,,, = 1.00 V,,,~r,,, (“b) 0 44 0.56 0.64 0.76
BS EN 1992-1-1 makes an allowance in slabs over 300mm thick for ‘non-uniform self-
equilibrating stresses’ (i.e. a balance between high shrinkage near the surface and much
lower shrinkage in the interior).This is expressed as a multiplier ranging from 1.0 a t h = 300mm
down to 0.65 a t h = 800mm and over. This can also be thought of as defining surface
zones with thickness increasing from 150rnm a t h = 300mm to 260mm a t h = 800mm and
0.325h a t higher values of h; these can be compared with the zones defined in Figure A2
of BS 8007 (hl2 up to h = 500mm and Z50mm beyond that). Figure 12 compares the
approaches in BS 8007 and BS EN 1992-1-1; it is recommendedthat the guidance in
BS EN 1992-1-1 is followed.
Figure 12
Comparison of surface zones in BS 8007 and 1.0 -
BS EN 1992-1-1. 0.9 - \
\
0.8 -
0.7 - \ ..
.------________
-- BS EN 1992-1-1
0.6 - \
0.5
8s 8007
600
300
E
E o
300
300 I h
600
4.3.5 FlOW chart The analysis above for elements subject to direct tension has been consolidated into a flow
chart (see Figure 13).Working down from the top, stage 1 deals with early-age contractions,
stage 2 covers the relatively rapid increase of compressive and tensile strength, and stage 3
describes the subsequent behaviour of the mature concrete.The immature strength of the
concrete is denoted as fct,and the mature strength Ct2. The stresses a t the corresponding
stages are uct,and uctr.
In order to remain uncracked, the tensile strength must exceed both the tensile stress in
the immature phase and the accumulation of tensile stresses when the concrete is mature.
Unless there is very little restraint and care is taken to limit contraction throughout the life
of the concrete, cracking is likely, so that it is preferable to assume that cracking will occur
27
and provide sufficient reinforcement t o control it. The flow chart emphasises that, unless
the tensile stress in the mature concrete can be assured t o remain below the tensile strength,
reinforcement t o control cracking must be based on the strength of the mature concrete.
The key area not properly dealt with in any code of practice or industry-standard publication
is where p is greater than p,,,, but less than pLrl,.Then the cracks that were controlled for
early-age contractions become uncontrolled for all further contraction movements.
Providing sufficient cracks have opened during the early-age contractions, although they
will grow beyond their design values, the consequences may be minor. If however there is
little early age cracking, all the subsequent crack movement could be concentrated in one
or two cracks, leading t o much larger crack widths. If p is greater than pkr,,,new cracks
form in addition t o the original ones and both old and new cracks are controlled.
It is also clear that if the amount of reinforcement is insufficient t o control cracking,

whatever is provided is wasted as it achieves nothing - a classic case of false economy
The flow chart can also be used by an observer examining cracks for the first time. O f the
three different outcomes two are straightforward: a uniform pattern of controlled cracks or
a random array of uncontrolled cracks. The unusual one is the uniform pattern of initially
controlled cracks which have later become uncontrolled, the result of p being greater
than P,,,~but less than p;rlt. An example of this is described and illustrated in Chapter 11.
Figure 13
START
Flow chart showing possibleoutcomes in
restrained sections subject to linear tensile
stress.
No i ‘
15 act1 > f C t l ?
Yes
No
7
Sections remain
uncracked
1s P 2 Pcrit’
Yes
Multiple controlled
cracks form
I
Random wide
uncontrolled cracks
___________________________ ____________________-------- I
Stage
Compressive and tensile strengths increase
few weeks
I
Uncontrolled Incontrolled:jUncontrolled
existing new j existing
cracks random random
remain ;(in additior become wide j cracks
unaffected ;t o any wider cracks j become
I existing form ~ wider
j cracks)
20
5. Internal restraint
Internal restraint may be provided by the reinforcement. This can resist shortening of the
concrete and occasionally leads t o cracking. If the reinforcement is asymmetrical it will lead
t o deflection.
5.1Res,,aint by reinforcement
- symmetrical sections
51 1 Restrained shortening The restraining effect of reinforcement can best be visualised by considering a length of say
I m taken from a column and imagining first that the reinforcement is disconnected from
the concrete, for example by being greased. When the shrinkage takes place, the ends of
the reinforcement will be left projecting from the face. If the reinforcement is then pushed
back into the concrete and at the same time the concrete is pulled out so that the surface
is flush once again, this models the restraining effect of the reinforcement (see Figure 14).
Figure 14
Representation of shrinkage restrained by F = E, E,A,
symmetrical reinforcement.
a. Before b. After unrestrained c. Shrinkage restrained

shrinkage shrinkage by reinforcement
This gives the restrained shrinkage as:
where:
ae modular ratio €)Eeff where Eettisas defined in Section 3.2
E,, unrestrained (free) shrinkage
P reinforcement ratio A)Ac
This looks simple, but how is cp t o be evaluated when the shrinkage is progressive throughout
the life of the structure and each increment is subsequently relieved by creep? Examination
by a spreadsheet which applies the shrinkage in a number of stages suggests that the
equivalent result is obtained by applying the whole shrinkage at an age of 150 days and
calculating cp accordingly. Reassuringly, the result differs insignificantly over a considerable
variation in this age.
29
ical structure indoors (RH = 45%, concret

= 11.SCPa and a,= 17.5. Some values of a, calculated in this
Table 9, which suggests that t h es inTable 7.2 of BS 8110-2 are t o
Table 9 Concrete ttnngth class Envinmmant

Values of modular ratio a, for concretes in
indoor and outdoor environments.
32/47 0,=17
75/85 a, = 10
51.2 Tensile Stress Remember that although reinforcement reduces the contraction, it is at the penalty of
tension in the concrete. The average tensik stress can be calculated from.
As an example, the 30-year tensile stress from 3 0 0 of~ shrinkage

~ in CO
Wall in Piccadilly Gardens, Man&Wr.
30
Figure 16
Representation of shrinkage restrained by
asymmetrical reinforcement.
a. Before shrinkage b. After unrestrained

shrinkage ECS
c. Shrinkage restrained
by reinforcement
5.2 Restraint by
reinforcement -
asymmetrica1 sections
5.21 Curvature and deflection Unlike columns, beams and slabs are usually reinforced more heavily in the bottom than
the t o p at mid-span and vice versa over the supports, and the resulting asymmetry of
restraint causes curvature which leads t o deflection.
If we again imagine a length with the reinforcement disconnected from the concrete (see
Figure 16(a)), shrinkage of the concrete will then leave the reinforcement projecting from the
free end (Figure 16(b)). If the concrete is then pulled out and the reinforcement compressed
so that the ends are once again flush, the stresses and strains induced are those caused by
the restraint (Figure 16(c)).
The strain E~ in the reinforcement is used t o define the force, and the stress in the concrete
is calculated by the conventional formula FIA + My/I. The resulting strain at the level of
reinforcement is equated t o ( E , ~- E ) , giving the following formula for the uncracked
shrinkage curvature:
where:
Ecs free shrinkage strain
ae modular ratio €SI€,,
E,,, effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete; the creep coefficient cp can be
calculated assuming the shrinkage occurs at 150 days (as explained in Section
5.1 .1 above)
p ratio A,IAc of reinforcement area t o concrete section
5 8
net first moment of area of the reinforcement about the neutral axis of the
concrete section (i.e. deducting 5 of any compression reinforcement)
I, second moment of area of the concrete section
rg second moment of area of the gross cross-section, calculated as
Ic+ (ae- 1) I [ A 8( d - ~ , ) ~where
] , xc is the depth t o the centroid of the concrete
section
31
The deflection 6 is then given by:
6= 0125~~,,l*
where:
L span
The coefficient 0.125 is replaced by 0.5 for a cantilever, and can be adjusted for continuity
at the supports by the method of BS 8110 - 2 Table 3.1.
Guidance on shrinkage deflection in cracked sections is given in BS EN 1992-1-1, although

BS 5400-4(’*) and American guidance both recommend significantly lower deflections; this
is discussed by Alexander(lg).Research currently being undertaken at Durham University
(2007-2008) aims t o resolve the difference.
5.2.2Tensile Stress The ‘locked-in’ tensile stress at the extreme fibre from curvature is:
where:
xg depth t o the centroid of the gross cross-section
and using the same E,,, as used t o calculate K~,,
The total tensile stress is the sum uct,+ ucct2.

In the long term, this can be significant, typically
ranging from 0.3 t o 1.2MPa as the reinforcement increases from 0.25 t o 1.0%. It appears
t o be overlooked in codes of practice when ascertaining whether the section is cracked
under load.
Estimating shrinkage effects at intermediate ages is not easy. One way is t o recognise
that shrinkage curvature is only a small contribution t o the total curvature and t o make
an educated guess. It is also possible t o set up a spreadsheet that divides the shrinkage
into increments which add up t o the total curvature at the point in time required.
5.3Temperature Another form of internal restraint is that caused by differential strains within the concrete.
differentials For example it is known that as the concrete dries from the outside, more shrinkage occurs
t o the skin which is restrained by the core. In sections over about 5 0 0 m m thick, this can
cause surface cracking.
A more significant effect is that of differential temperature distribution, for example where
solar radiation raises the temperature of the top surface of a bridge or car park deck. In
principle if one side of an element heats, it tries t o expand, so if it is restrained by the rest o f
the element, curvature is induced. If the temperature profile across the element is linear
32
and there are n o other restraints, the curvature can be calculated simply from the tempe-
rature difference and the thermal coefficient of expansion for the concrete. However, in
reality, due t o the effects of solar radiation and the thermal mass of the element, linear
temperature distributions are often not achieved. Further information on the variation of
temperature through elements can be found in BS 5400-2(12).
Temperature differentials are only normally significant for structures directly exposed t o
the environment and particularly t o direct solar radiation. A typical structure that may be
exposed in this way is a multi-storey car park.This is discussed in more detail in Section 11.4.
33
6. Surface restraint
Casting an in-situ concrete topping onto a precast concrete substrate or base unit is a
common way of forming a homogeneousslab. Many types of hybrid construction are also
formed in the same basic way. However, the contraction of the topping (arisingfrom early-
age contractions and long-term drying shrinkage) produces internal stresses which lead
to shortening and deflection of the composite unit, and sometimes to cracking in the
topping. The same theory can be applied when the base unit is prestressed although
composite steel-concrete sections are considered in Section 6.2.
This section explains the theory and shows how to calculate the effects. A numerical
example and a case study are presented in Appendix A2.
6.1 In-situ toppings

611 Method of analysis Consider a topping cast onto a base section (Figure 17(a)),and firstly allow the contraction
of the topping to take place freely, as if the interface is greased (Figure 17(b)).Thenapply
a tensile force fl acting a t the centroid of the topping so that the relative movement at
the interface is eliminated (Figure 17(c)). At this point the topping and the base are joined
to form a composite section, and finally an equal and opposite force f , is applied to the
composite section (Figure 17(d)).
Figure 17
Contraction of in-situ concrete. Contraction of in situ toppings
I&
L a. Before contraction b. After unrestrained contraction
f T r F l T7TF2
_ _ _ _ I __:_
_. ___
c. Force F, t o overcome contraction d. Force F2 on composite section
The stresses in the topping are the sum of the effects of forces F, and F,, giving the
expected tension. This can be calculated as o, + U, where:
34
where:
F, = -F, = E, E, Aa
E,, E~ contraction of topping and base in same time period
En net contraction = E, -E,
aab ‘,IE,
where:
Ea effective elastic modulus of topping
E, effective elastic modulus of base
Aa transformed area of topping (i.e. allowing for any reinforcement)
e distance between centroid of transformed topping and centroid of transformed
composite section
y distance between required stress location and centroid of transformed
composite section
Ag transformed area of composite section
4 transformed moment of inertia of composite section
The properties of the composite section should take into account the extent t o which it is
(or may become) cracked.
61.2Curvature and deflection The curvature is obtained from the generic formula M/EL that is:
6= 0.125~L’
where:
L span, assumed simply supported, i.e. ignoring any continuity a t the supports.
The coefficient 0.125is replaced by 0.5 for a cantilever.
Note that the method can be used over any period of time. For instance, the effects of
early-age contractions are virtually immediate, so that short-term values would be used
t o give the immediate stresses, curvature and deflection. Long-term values can be used
t o give the long-term effect, although splitting the behaviour into three or more time
intervals with a spreadsheet will be more accurate as F will decline with time. The same
spreadsheet approach may be necessary t o find the point at which E, overtakes E, if the
base is prestressed.
35
6.2 Composite slabs on

steel decking
6.21 Method O f analysis Concrete shrinks but steel does not, so in composite construction shrinkage contraction of
the in-situ concrete slab induces deflection in the composite section. More importantly,
composite floors are prone to cracking. Due to the fact that most floors are covered by a
raised floor or other finishes, cracks on the top surface are not normally visible, and the
metal deck means that cracks are also not visible from below. However, if the slab is left
uncovered, and especially if it is finished smooth, any cracking can become a significant
problem.
Cracking can be largely explained by the contraction of the concrete. For simplicity, the
scope of this section is limited to simply supported beams in buildings in indoor conditions.
The form of restraint is very similar to that in the previous section and the calculation using
the principle of superposition is explained diagrammatically in Figure 18
Figure 18
Contraction of in-situ concrete slab on steel
beam.
f I f
U
a. Before contraction b. After unrestrained contraction
T m r F l T T \ - j Z 2
-- - -- -- -- r
c. Force F, t o overcome contraction d. Force f , on composite section
The concrete slab is allowed to contract independently of the steel beam as before. A force
F, is applied at the centroid of the slab to stretch it back to its original position (Figure 18(c)).
At this point, the slab is ‘glued’ to the beam to form a composite section. An equal and
opposite force F2 acting at the centroid of the slab is now applied to the composite section
(Figure 18(d)).
The stresses in the slab are the sum of the effects of forces F, and F2, giving the expected
tension. This can be calculated as U, + a2where:
36
where:
4 = -F, = E,, E, Aa
contraction of slab in time period considered (reduced for internal restraint o f
reinforcement and metal deck)
at- ESIEC
where:
fc effective elastic modulus of transformed slab
E, elastic modulus of steel
Ac transformed area of slab (i.e. allowing for reinforcement and metal deck)
e distance between centroid of transformed slab and centroid of transformed
composite section
y distance between required stress location and centroid of transformed
composite section
A, transformed area of composite section
I, transformed moment of inertia of composite section
There are t w o potential sources of contraction: early-age contractions and long-term

drying shrinkage. Temperature variations can usually be assumed t o affect the concrete
and the steel equally.
In composite slabs the heat of hydration can escape from both the top and bottom
surfaces of what is a relatively thin member and so the early thermal temperature rise
will be very small - a few degrees at most.
Autogenous shrinkage and other early shrinkage effects are discussed in Chapter 2. For the
strength classes of concrete commonly used in composite slabs, a small allowance should
cover most situations, including using lightweight aggregate concrete. This suggests that a
nominal overall allowance of say 1 5 0 p will be appropriate for early-age contractions. As
the steel beam provides virtually full restraint, this can then be reduced by 50% for creep,
i.e. t o 7 5 p .
At this point some assumptions need t o be clarified. The first is that because the metal
decking is bonded continuously t o the concrete, i t can be treated in the same way as
embedded reinforcement. Also, because the slab is attached t o the steel beam which
forces it t o contract linearly it does n o t matter whether the decking (or for that matter
the reinforcement) is not concentric in the section. For typical slab profiles with steel
decking 0.9-1.2mm thick and A142 fabric reinforcement, p ranges from 1.0 t o 1.4%.
Section 2.3 goes on t o show that the shrinkage occurs continuously, that each increment
is subsequently relieved by creep, and that this can be modelled by applying the total
shrinkage in one step at age 150 days. This gives a typical value of the modular ratio a, of
17.5. Thus the effect of the internal restraint is a factor of 0.80-0.85.
37
6.2.2 Curvature and The curvature is obtained from the generic formula M/€I, that is:
deflection
K = F, e I E, I g
= Ac e I a, Ig
The Steel De~igners’Manual(~’)

adapts this so as t o be expressed in terms of more familiar
parameters (see Figure 19):
K= (D + D, + DP) AS/ [2 (1 + a,p) Ip]
Figure 19
Notation used in Steel Designers’ManuaL
6 = O.l25~1*
where:
L span, assumed simply supported, i.e. ignoring any continuity at the supports
6.2.3 Codes and standards BS EN 1994-1-1(2’)states that:
“Unless specifically required by the client, the effect of curvature due t o shrinkage
of concrete need not be included when the ratio of span t o overall depth of the
beam is not greater than 20.”
The risk of cracking in the slab is not specifically mentioned
6.2.4 Conclusions - Parametric studies suggest that the shrinkage deflection can be significant, and should
deflect ion probably be included as part of the total long-term deflection. Interestingly, shrinkage acts
on the shear connectors in the opposite direction t o applied loading, which suggests that
increasing load deflection for partial shear connection is over-conservative,
A simple rule would be t o assume shrinkage deflection is equal t o span11000 unless it is

estimated by a more accurate calculation, in spite of the let-off in BS EN 1994-1-1.
38
6.2.5 COnClUSiOnS - cracking Tensile stress is induced in the slab in four ways. First is the internal restraint of the rein-
in the slab forcement and the metal deck.Taking typical long-term values of = 400p, Eb= 200CPa
ttl
and ae= 17.5 gives = 0.7 to 0.9MPa for p = 1.0 to1.4%.
Second is the restraint of the steel beam itself.This produces a tensile stress a t the centroid
of the slab = u1+ o2as defined in Section 6.31. This varies with the size of the steel section
but is typically from 0.25MPa for a shallow light section to 0.9MPa for a deep heavy section.
Third is the restraint of the surrounding structure. This will usually be a t least O.25MPa.
This suggests that the resulting tensile stress will be at least 1.2MPa and could be over
2.OMPa. However, these are mean values and ignore the fourth factor: the differential
caused by the concrete near the top drying out faster than the concrete near the bottom
(which will dry slowly owing to the metal deck). If the concrete adjacent to the metal deck
did not shrink a t all, these values could double a t the surface. While the effect in the early
months might be close to this, in the critical period around one to three years the ratio
will probably drop to around 1.25 to 1.5. Assuming 85% of the final shrinkage has occurred
by this time, this effect will increase the values above to at least 1.3MPa and as much as
2.6MPa.
All of the above assumes that the deck is acting in a simply supported manner and this is
normally the design assumption; however, the slab is continuous, normally in both directions
and this will induce further tension in the hogging zones.
For the strength classes of concrete normally used in composite construction, the tensile
strength of concrete under sustained loading is probably in the range 1.5-2.25MPa. It is
clear that the possibility of the concrete cracking is very real and should be considered,
particularly where composite slabs are to be left exposed to view. This is endorsed in
Concrete Society Concrete Advice Sheet 13(22).
Cracking could theoretically be controlled by providing a minimum reinforcement content

in accordance with Section 4.3. It might be thought that the metal deck would perform
this function, at least a t right angles to the corrugations, but evidence from sites suggests
otherwise.
7. Edge restraint
This document splits external restraint into two cases Edge restraint and Endrestraint (see
Chapter 8).These two types of restraint are really limiting forms of restraint. In practice, the
situation is somewhat more complicated and the actual restraint is either a combination
of these two forms or, more likely when early thermal movements are being considered,
one of edge restraint. This is inconsistent with the basic structural model from which the
British and European approaches are derived which is one of a member restrained at its
ends against overall shortening. Figure 20 illustrates the two forms of restraint.
Figure 20
End and edge restraint.
a. Restraint of a wall at its ends b. Restraint along one edge
An example of where both forms of restraint exist can be found by considering a new
section of concrete cast between two pre-existing concrete wall sections and onto a pre-
existing concrete base. At the base, edge restraint will dominate (see Figure 21). However,
further up the wall away from the base, edge restraint will become less significant and end
restraint will become more influential. At a point within the height of the wall, end restraint
will dominate and edge restraint becomes insignificant. The position and significance of the
two restraint conditions is obviously dependent on the height, cross-section and length
of the concrete section as well as the concrete base.
,
Figure
- 21
Approximate regions of domination of end
(zone 1) and edge (zone 2) restraint in an infill Zone 1 _ / _ _ - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _
wall.
Zone 2
End restraint, which has been researched extensively over the last 30 years and is reasonably
well understood, will be considered in Chapter 8. The current section will concentrate only
on edge (base) restraint which in comparison has been studied very little. In fact only two
investigations can be cited where base restraint has been researched, namely AI Rawi and
Khede~(*~) and S t ~ f f e r s ( ~Unfortunately
~). the experimental materials, approach and scarcity
of reported information mean it is difficult draw any meaningful conclusions from these
investigations.
7.1 Control O f cracking This section considers edge restraint in terms of its influence on cracking and the size of
the cracks (crack widths) and the effects it will have on the design and detailing of the
cross-section in terms of the steel reinforcement it uses t o control cracking and crack
widths.
40
With end restraint conditions, the crack width will depend on the tensile strength of the
concrete.
For edge-restrained situations, the crack width depends on the restrained imposed strain
and not the tensile strength of the concrete. The amwnt of horizontal reinforcement is
ed to control both early thermal cracking (restraintto early thermal
movement), and in some situations such as a thin slab cast against an existing massive
differentialshrinkage and in-use temperature movements.
about 0.2% of anti-crack reinforcement whereas BS 8007(15)
requires nearly twice this amount (because of the intended use of the structure and the
better control of crack widths required in water-retaining structures).The Eurocodes require
between 0.3 and OS%, see Chapter 4. These all relate to restraint of early thermal move-
ment based on end-restraint condition and not edge restraint.The question is one of
whether this amount of steel is actually necessary.
Factors which influence cracking in base-restrained w ifferent from those in end-

restrained sections. Consider first the way a base-rest llwill crack and the size of
the crack widths Figure 22 illustrates the conditions in a wall after initial cracking.
Figure 22
Conditionsin a base-restrainedwall after
initial cracking.
Initially consider a wall completely restrained along its base and with no reinforcement.
Once sufficient contraction has occurred, cracks will form. At the primary crack (which will
be the full height of the wall) the stress in the concrete is zero. However, with increasing
distance from the crack, stress is transferred to the wall by shear at the interfacewith the
base until, at some distance I, from the crack, the stress distribution is unaffected by the
crack. In the end-restrained case (Chapter 8),the crack reduces the stiffness of the whole
system and hence reduces the stresses throughout. This is fundamentally different from
the edge-restrained case considered here where the relief of stress caused by the crack is
purely local. Stresses are not relieved beyond I, from the k and further cracks may
form in the unrelieved areas. These cracks will have no influence on the first crack.
Figure 23 illustrates a simplified version of the poTential cracking behaviour i

adjacent to the primary crack as concluded by A1 Rawi and KhedeP).They found that the
stress relief provided by the crack varied throughout the height of the wall, being much
greater at the top of the wall than at the base.
41
Figure 23
Cracking adjacent t o a primary crack
(from A1 Rawi and Kheder("1).
Referring to Figure 23:
0 Zone A. No further cracks will occur within this zone.

0 Zone B. No new cracks will initiate within this zone but cracks initiating in zone C may
pass into zone B. These cracks will generally be relatively small, reducingto zero width
on reaching the boundary of zone A.
0 Zone C. New cracks may initiate within this zone as the stresses in the concrete are
only minimally relieved by the primary crack. If a crack forms beyond 2H from the
primary crack, the new crack will be a primary crack. If the crack forms a t a distance
less than 2H from the primary crack, the crack will reach a maximum width close to
the boundary with zone B. If the crack reaches zone A, the width a t this point will be
zero. If the crack lies a t a distance greater than H from the primary crack, it will reach
the top of the wall but the width will be relatively small and certainly not greater than
the width at the zone B-C boundary. Thus, though more cracks may form, the cracks
initiating in zone C will not significantly affect the width of the primary crack, which will
remain the largest crack and therefore the critical crack from the design point of view.
This variation in stress relief through the height of a wall was also found by Beeby and
Forth(2S)who carried out a finite-element analysis to assess the width of a crack for a given
strain and also looked a t the influence of secondary cracking in areas away from the primary
crack (in equivalent zones to C and B above).The elastic analysis was performed on an
idealised structure as shown in Figure 24. The unreinforced wall dimensions of I m high by
10m long were chosen to ensure that the deformations and stresses near the free vertical
end were independent of the wall length. Initially, the crack width for a wall without any
secondary cracking was considered.
Figure 24
Analytical model of wall on rigid base.
Location of 'crack'
I
t Axis of symmetry - no deformation
I
I
I Fixed base - no deformation in
x ory direction along this line
I 42
As the material is assumed t o be elastic, the deformations will scale and therefore the
deformations of the free vertical end (equivalent t o half the crack width) will be propor-
tional t o the height of the wall and the imposed strain,
\
Figure 25 illustrates the primary crack widths calculated a t the free end of the base-
restrained wall. In addition, the influence of secondary cracks on the primary crack width,
located at a distance of 1.2H from the primary crack, was considered in the analyses.These
cracks had a height of 0.4H, 0.6H and 0.8H. Figure 26 shows the widths of the primary
crack and the secondary cracks for these cases as well as the case of no secondary crack.
It will be seen, first, that the secondary cracks have minimal effect on the widths of the
primary crack and, second, that the widths of the secondary cracks are always smaller
than the primary crack. This suggests the tentative conclusion that, from the design point
of view, only the primary crack needs t o be considered and that the width of the primary
crack can be calculated ignoring the presence of any secondary cracking.
Figure 25
Primary cracks calculated at the free end.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

wI(EimpH)
Now consider what happens when horizontal reinforcement is provided in the wall. From
the discussion above, it will be seen that it is only necessary t o consider the primary cracks.
The effect of reinforcement must be t o improve the transfer of stress t o the concrete with
increasing distance from the crack and thus t o reduce the crack width to below that obtained
for the situation with no reinforcement. It will also provide a force across the free end
surface which will act t o reduce the deformations below that calculated for zero reinforce-
ment. Using the finite-element model described above, the reinforcement can be modelled
by springs applied at the face of the ‘crack’. The stiffness of these springs may be estimated
by assuming a transfer length over which force is transferred t o the concrete from the bars
with a uniform bond stress over the transfer length. Two possibilities were considered:
first BS EN 1992-1-1[’) which gives:
L, =1 . 7 +~ 0.17# /pp,eff
43
and second, a paper by Beeby and Scott(26)

which gives:
I, = 3c
where:
C cover
bar diameter
pp,efi effective reinforcement content
It is less easy to produce parameterisedvalues of crack widths in this case and analyses
were carried out for a 1000mm high wall reinforced with bars at 250mm centres in both
faces with a cover of 35mm. An imposed strain of 100 x 10-6was applied and the elastic
modulus of the concrete allowing for creep was assumed to be 14CPa.Various bar sizes
were considered and Figure 26 shows the calculated crack widths at the position of the
topmost bar for each bar size calculated using the crack width formulae in BS EN 1992-1-1
and Beeby and Scott to estimate the spring stiffnesses.
Figure 26
Effect of reinforcement content on maximum 3.5
crack width.
3
2.5
F - 2
E
._
5
3 1.5
0.5
These calculations show that the effect of reinforcement is considerable, as one would
expect. The sensitivity of the results to the relationship chosen for L, is interesting. BS EN
1992-1-1gives substantially greater lengths for L, than Beeby and Scott and hence much
lower spring stiffnesses.This leads to roughly halving the influence of the reinforcement on
the crack width and a very much lower steel stress. The two relationshipsare compared
with data obtained by S t o f f e r ~ (in~ Figure
~) 26.
So far only the case where the base is completely rigid has been considered. However, this
is unlikely in practice as a base will not provide total restraint of the type assumed in the
analysis. Two effects become apparent once it is assumed that the base is not completely
rigid. First, the shortening of the wall will lead to some contraction of the base. This can
easily be dealt with by considering the restrained strain, as the difference between the
free strain that the wall would have achieved if unrestrained and the strain that it
did achieve, in this case the shortening of the base.
44
Second, a more complex effect will arise. Shortening of the wall relative t o the base will
result in an in-plane moment in the combined wall and base which will try t o lift up the
ends of the wall. This will result in the stresses and strains in the wall being rather different
from those calculated. In fact, the top of the wall will shorten rather more than the analysis
above will suggest, resulting in larger primary cracks. An analysis of a complete wall plus a
base supported on soil was carried out t o gain an impression of the likely effect.The analysis
did indeed result in substantially larger primary cracks where the wall was unreinforced
but the effect of reinforcement in reducing the crack width is more dramatic than in the
cases where in-plane curvature is not modelled. This is a complex problem which needs
further extensive analysis. Stoffers considered this problem both theoretically and with
three wall tests. His results also show an increase in primary crack widths.
7.2 Restrained strain From the mechanisms discussed in Section 71 i t will be seen that the calculation o f the
restrained movement is required t o calculate the likely crack width. In practical terms this
is calculated by multiplying the free strain by a restraint factor Rax.Annex L of BS EN 1992-3
provides values for the value of Raxfor typical conditions of restraint. A value of Rax= 1
corresponds t o total restraint and Rax= 0 corresponds t o zero restraint. As Raxincreases then
the crack width also increases; for example, if Rax= 0 the movement is totally unrestrained
and therefore no stresses develop and so likewise no cracking.
7.3 Summary Many of the comments presented in this section are based on a finite-element analysis and,
where possible, findings were validated with current theories and practice as well as by
reference t o the work by AI Rawi and Kheder(23)and S t ~ f f e r s i ~It~is) .clear that crack widths
in edge-restrained walls are proportional t o the imposed strain whereas crack widths in
end-restrained walls are proportional t o the tensile strength of the concrete. It appears
that with practical amounts o f reinforcement, steel stresses and crack widths are likely t o
be smaller for edge restraint than for end restraint. Further, the lower steel stresses could
suggest that the concept of minimum steel percentage t o avoid yield of the steel on first
cracking is not applicable t o edge-restrained conditions. However, for many elements some
zones will be subject t o end restraint and others t o edge restraint; in addition, elements
that initially have edge restraint due t o early thermal movements will eventually develop
end restraint due t o long-term shrinkage. lit is therefore recommended that the minimum
steel t o prevent yield at first crack is always provided, although where edge restraint is clearly
dominant the calculation of crack width should take this into account (see Chapter 9).
45
-
._
I
8. End restraint
There are two commonly occurring applications of end restraint: superstructure slabs
between widely spaced cores or shear walls; and basement floor slabs between piles or
pile caps - o r even restrained by friction with the soil. As explained in Chapter 7, portions
of edge-restrained walls and slabs which are remote from the restrained edge also tend
t o behave as end restrained, and it is conservative t o treat them in this way.
8.1 Minimum reitlfOrCe~etlt The explanation of cracking and derivation of minimum reinforcement given in Chapter 4
relates principally t o end restraint. It is important t o recognise that all theories of end-
restraint behaviour make the assumption that the reinforcement is acting in its elastic range,
and that for this t o be true the minimum content derived in Chapter 4 must be provided.
8.2 Superstructure slabs

8.21 Spacing O f movement In the past reinforced concrete floor plates tended t o be regular beam-and-slab
joints structures, and good practice and rules of thumb indicated that if movement joints were
provided not more than 30-40m apart, cracking could be controlled.
Flab slab construction, often in a free-form layout, has become the norm. This factor,
combined with the desire by engineers and architects t o avoid movement joints due t o
complications with finishes, appearance and stability, has led t o more ambitious spacing
of movement joints. Lengths of 80m between movement joints are now not unusual.
This desire t o eliminate movement joints has been met with varying degrees of success.
Slabs up t o 70-80m long have been cast without any signs of undue stress, while other
slabs even less than 30m long have cracked. A review of the main reasons for success has
shown some consistent factors, which are in a way self-evident, as follows:
1. The slabs are reinforced uniformly and usually with reinforcement above the values
previously adopted.
2. The columns are small and flexible and offer little restraint t o lateral movement.
3. The slabs are properly cured.
4. Construction joints are carefully planned t o eliminate areas of stress concentration
and t o limit the size of pours.
5. In summer, large areas of slab are avoided or are protected from sudden temperature
drops a t night.
6. Careful mix design in terms of selection of appropriate aggregates and cement types
has been adopted.
46
.... .. .... ..- - .. ___ -. . ... __ . . .
The structures most at risk are open car parks, structures cast in the summer, lightly
reinforced slabs, structures with stiff columns or shear walls, and slabs with atria or large
holes or other sudden changes in plan form. In addition, this includes structures where
the strength of concrete has greatly exceeded the design strength resulting in an increase
in tensile capacity of the concrete and therefore insufficient reinforcement t o comply
with As,,,,,,,.
Over recent years a greater understanding of both early-age and shrinkage cracking has been
developed. Much of the early work (e.g. by hug he^(*^)) was concentrated on early thermal
contraction as this was a serious problem for leak-resistant water storage structures. Early
thermal cracking of thick walls and basement slabs greater than 500mm thick was also
carefully researched by Bamforth(28)and others. Early thermal shrinkage of slabs was clarified
and explained by the Reinforced Concrete Council in large areapoursfors~spendedslabs(~~).
This document pulled together the current thinking into a workable form for engineers t o
apply t o designs. More recently ClRlA Report C660 Earlyage thermal crack control in con-
cretei5)has been published, which updates the current research and recommendations for
design.
However, the concentration of effort into the important topic of early thermal cracking has
meant that long-term shrinkage cracking has tended t o be overlooked. This has not been
a serious omission provided that movement joints were located following good practice,
i.e. 30-40m spacing. This section looks at some of the implications of large floor plates
and discusses methods of checking the effects of long-term shrinkage in conjunction with
expansion or contraction due t o temperature effects.
8.2.2Design methods Various methodologies have been suggested for the behaviour of restrained slabs. The
Reinforced Concrete Council publication large area poursf~rsuspendedslabs(~~) adopted
the concept of a restraint factor R t o modify the effect of early-age contractions. Similar
factors for restraint have also been adopted in PD 6687t30),the background paper t o the
, .
UK National Annexes t o BS EN 1992-1-1.
The following method, which has been developed using the principles of BS EN 1992-1-1(’)
and BS EN 1992-31’1, takes the basic formulae for crack width and spacing t o build them
into a coherent design method which can be adopted and modified t o suit site conditions.
The basic equation for the restrained strain in a slab is defined in Equation 3.2 of ClRlA 660(5)
as follows:
47
where:
T, difference between the peak temperature Tp and the mean ambient
temperature T,
Tz long-term fall in temperature which takes into account the time of year at which
the concrete was cast
ac coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
E,, autogenous shrinkage
E,, drying shrinkage
R, restraint factor that applies during the early thermal cycle
R,, R, restraint factors applying to long-term temperature movement and drying
shrinkage respectively
K, coefficient for the effect of stress relaxation due to creep under sustained
loading (taken as 0.65)
The first part of this equation represents the basic early thermal strain, which is usually
based on three-day values and with restraint factor R, based on the restraint due to the
adjacent slabs, walls and formwork. Values between 0.2 and 0.4 are commonly adopted.
The second and third parts of the equation are long-term components of shrinkage strain.
Part two expresses the strain which can occur if slab is subject to solar gain followed by
rapid night cooling. For slabs which are to be enclosed, the greatest risk is likely to occur
during construction and is therefore unlikely to coincide with ultimate shrinkage strains.
However, special care needs to be taken with car parks and similar structures which can be
exposed to temperature effects for the life of the structure. Part three of this equation
relates to the ultimate shrinkage.
In both of these later stages the restraint factors are different from those adopted for part
one of the equation. An expLanation of these follows later in the method.
Step 1 - Minimum area of reinforcement

The concept of minimum reinforcement is discussed extensively in Section 4.3
This leads to:
2 (0.8 to 1.0) fctmlfyk
This is the minimum area of reinforcement for simple direct tension. In reality there will
always be a combination of flexure and direct tension, in which case AS,,,, should be adopted,
see Chapter 9. The reinforcement should be distributed evenly between top and bottom
faces, preferably no more unevenly than 60:40.
It is not necessary to superimpose the effects of bending and direct tension. This is
because once a crack forms it has done its job, and - provided the reinforcement remains
elastic - further contraction strain from whatever cause will not widen the first crack but
will produce another crack. The greater amount of reinforcement required for either
bending or direct tension will therefore be enough to cover the other case also.
End restrai
- L
Provided the reinforcement exceeds A5,m,n,the crack width will depend on a number of
factors:
1. percentage of reinforcement
2. cover to reinforcement
3. strength of concrete
4. relative influence of flexural and direct forces
5. aggregate selection and cement class.
Thus in a typical slab the pattern and width of cracking will vary throughout the top and
bottom surfaces dependent on the above factors.
holes and local rigid restraints can further influence these initial crack patt
f finite-element programs can give an indication of where cracking is likely t
It must be remembered that most p ms treat concrete as an elastic material and the
stresses shown will not be achieved, as once the tensile capacity is exceeded the forces
w i11 redI s t ribut e
Step 2 - Determine the restraint factor

If the slab were supported by columns of negligible stiffness there would be no restraint to
movement and hence little or no stresses to cause cracking. On the other hand if a slab is
attached to 100% rigid cores, the contraction is completely restrained. Between these
two conditions intermediate cases can occur where the restraint factor will be less than 1.
A simple chart can be established for each slab to calculate the degree of restraint (see
Figure 27).
Figure 27
Approach for determining restraint factor.
Deflection
of column
Free
or wall
shrinkage
due to full
movement
restraint
of slab
of free
(mm) slab
movement
(mm)
0 t
Restraint
49
The net shrinkage movement allowing for internal restraint from reinforcement is
determined in Section 5.1.1 as:
The deflection of the restraint elements is determined from:
6= N h3/3Eef1
where:
h height above the fixed base level
feK effective modulus of elasticity of concrete, i.e. adjusted for long term effects
I second moment of area for the restraint; where axial compression in the
restraint is low the effects o f cracking should be considered
Having calculated the restraint factor, the restrained contraction, i.e. that part of the
contraction that has been prevented from occurring, can be found from:
E, = RE,,
And the stress developed in the slab can be found from:
Assuming long-term shrinkage dominates, as in enclosed structures, f,,can be taken as

0.8fct,. However, in exposed structures temperature will probably dominate, and fct
should be taken as 1.0 f,,. If or is greater than f,, the slab may crack, the calculated stress
will n o t be realised, and the actual stress will be limited t o f,,. If U, is less than f , then the
slab will behave essentially in an elastic manner. (In calculating U, i t may be necessary t o
consider other locked-in stresses, see Section 1.6.)
Step 3 - Modify for local effects

Modify the total force acting on a slab for the effect of the local nature of the restraint
attachment together with holes and the width o f the restraining elements. In complex
situations, this can be achieved by a finite-element model (see Figure 28). An initial
tensile strain should be applied t o the model (this may be achieved in some software by
considering an equivalent temperature drop). The strain applied will depend on the
modelling of the restraint. If the restraint is rigid then a strain E, should be applied;
however, if the flexibility of the restraint is modelled then E,, should be applied. Again it
will generally be appropriate t o use the long-term stiffnesses of both the slab and the
restraints.
50
Figure 28
Stresses induced in slab by 10°C
teqperatwe drop.
Lighter shading represents areas of high stress.
Where the slab has been determined as uncracked due to restraint in Step 2, the stresses in
the slab and the forces in the restraint can be determined directly from the finite-element
model. It can be seen that the zones remote from the core are unlikely t o contribute to
the slab restraint.
re the slab has been determined as cracked, the slab stresses should be inspected for
areas where the stress exceeds f,. In these locations the stresses should be reducedto fc,,
either by hand and the revised reactions calculated manually, or by reducing the stiffness
of the areas such that the stress reduces below 0.8ft,. The latter approach is more
appropriate where the structure is complicated and the opportunity exists for stresses to
redistribute around the slab.
Step 4 - Crack spacing

If the restraints provided by the support structures are such that the stress induced in the
slab does not cause cracking, it can be assumed that the slab will deform by free
contraction. Alternatively, once the restraints generate forces which exceed the tensile
capacity of the slab, subsequent cracking will maintain the deformed condition without
further movement. In this case full restraint may be assumed and the equations for
cracking in Chapter 9 apply.
51
8.2.3 Frame action Provided that each successive floor is of the same layout and slab depth, then the ultimate
contraction of each slab will be the same. In simple terms this implies that a structure
would shrink to the form as shown in Figures 29a and b (or intermediate between the
two) and that bending is only induced in the ground-first floor columns.
The effect is a reduction to the risk of shrinkage cracking in floors that are essentially the
same as the floor below. Only where significant changes to layout and stiffness occur will
it be necessary to recalculate the reinforcement required for shrinkage control. In reality
the ground-floor restraints are unlikely to be infinitely stiff and if necessary this factor can
be taken into account to reduce the tensile stress.
Figure 29
Illustration of frame deformation due to slab a. Symmetrical stiffness
contraction.
A
Y A
Y A
Y A
I A
I A
Y
A
YA A
I b. Asymmetrical stiffness
Y Y Y 8
A A A A A A A A A
8.2.4 Post-tensioning Unlike reinforced concrete, post-tensioned concrete slabs are likely to be stressed up to
an average value of 1.5-2.OMPa and added to this is the tensile capacity of the concrete
itself. This means that initially the slab behaves as a homogeneous elastic plate.
Thus the supporting members have to deflect to suit both the initial elastic shortening and
the subsequent creep and shrinkage phase.The absence of cracking in the slab means that
there can be no relief from the build-up of the tensile forces until both the initial prestress
and the tensile capacity are exceeded. Thus the force generated in restraining members
can be as much as twice that of a reinforced concrete slab.
If the level of restraint proves to be significant and/or the losses of prestress due to cable
wobble and curvature are underestimated,there can be a risk of a small number of signi-
ficant shrinkage cracks occurring due to the low level of bar reinforcement and wide
tendon spacing.
52
Alternatively unstressed reinforcement could be provided which would permit

controlled cracking t o occur at more frequent intervals and thus relieve the stress. It
should be noted that t o cause multiple cracking the capacity of this reinforcement (and
any bonded post-tensioning crossing the initial crack) is required t o be greater than the
tensile strength of the concrete plus the initial prestress.
8.3 Basement ground slabs Basement floor slabs - which can include raft foundations - are often restrained by footings
or piles and pile caps, sometimes even by friction with the soil. The application of end
restraint principles t o this situation is best illustrated by a case study, see Chapter 11.
53
9. Calculation of crack widths

The crack width in any concrete element can be best thought of as the average strain at the
surface, less the actual strain in the concrete multiplied by the crack spacing. This requires
an estimation of both the average elongation/deflection, and an estimation of the
tension stiffening which is needed t o estimate the strain in the concrete between cracks.
On top of this, the crack spacing needs t o be estimated. Given the number of factors
involved, crack width calculations should be considered a t best as reasonable estimates.
In addition most crack width calculation methods make a number of approximations
based on empirical data often obtained from specimens significantly smaller than real
structures.
9.1 PrinCipkS Calculation of crack widths in elements undergoing restrained movements can be separated
into two cases, i.e. elements that are restrained along their edge (Chapter 7) and elements
that are restrained at their ends (Chapter 8).
The calculation of crack widths for the two cases is somewhat different. For elements
restrained along their length the crack pattern is defined by the restraint along the edge
and individual cracks are all formed early on. In this case, the crack width is related t o the
restrained strain. With a slab restrained at each end, when a crack forms it opens t o its
design value then, when the force in the reinforcement at the crack increases sufficiently
another crack is formed. This continues with the number of cracks being related t o the
total movement that has taken place. The maximum crack width is unaffected by the
overall movement and thus crack width calculations that relate the crack width t o the
restrained strain are flawed.
9.2 Minimum All crack width theories first assume that the reinforcement is in the elastic range, i.e. that
reinforcement content the cracks are controlled by the reinforcement; this defines the minimum reinforcement
required (see Chapter 4). Chapter 7 discusses whether this minimum is strictly necessary
for the edge restraint condition, however it is generally recommended that it is provided.
BS EN 1992-1-1 sets the minimum steel as follows:
(BS EN 1992-1-1 Expression 7.1)
where:
AS,,, minimum area of reinforcing steel within the tensile zone
Act area of concrete within the tensile zone. The tensile zone is that part of the section
which is calculated to be in tension just before formation of the first crack
U, absolute value of the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement imme-
diately before the formation of the first crack. This may be taken as the yield
Sk.
strength of the reinforcement, A lower value may, however, be needed t o
satisfy the crack width limits according t o the maximum bar size or spacing
fct,efi mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when
the cracks can first be expected t o occur
= fctmor lower (fc,, ( t ) )if cracking is expected earlier than 28 days
54
k coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating

stresses, which lead t o a reduction of restraint forces
= 1.0 for webs with h I 300mm or flanges with widths less than 300mm
= 0.65 for webs with h 2 800mm or flanges with widths greater than 800mm.
Intermediate values may be interpolated. It should be noted that ClRlA Report
660(5)provides slightly modified values for deeper sections
kc coefficient which takes account of the stress distribution within the section
immediately prior t o cracking and of the change of the lever arm. For pure
tension kc = 1.0, and it is recommended that this value is used for all cases of
restraint. BS EN 1992-1-1 provides alternative values for bending or bending
combined with axial forces
Depending on the consequences of cracking, Section 4.3.3 notes that it may be appropriate
t o increase this area of steel by 25% for early-age effects on immature concrete.
9.3Crack Spacing Having ensured that the minimum steel is provided, the crack width can be calculated
from the crack spacing multiplied by the strain absorbed by the cracking. BS EN 1992-1-1
defines this as follows:
wk = ’r,rnax (s‘m - ‘crn) (BS EN 1992-1-1 Expression 7.8)
where:
sCrnax maximum crack spacing
mean strain in the reinforcement under the relevant combination of loads,
including the effect of imposed deformations and taking into account the
effects of tension stiffening
qrn mean strain in the concrete between cracks
The appropriate value of ( E ~ ,- zCm)will depend on the form of restraint but the maximum
crack spacing can be determined as:
Sr,rnax = ‘3‘ + k,k$,# 1 Pp,eff (BS EN 1992-1-1 Expression 711)
where:
# bar diameter
Pp,eff As’Ac,eff
where:
effective area of concrete in tension surrounding the reinforcement of
depth hc,ef. For restraint forces where the complete section is in tension
hc,ef is 2.5(h - 4, where h is the thickness of the section and d the effective
depth of the reinforcement. Separate values of hc,efshould be calculated
for each face
c cover t o the longitudinal reinforcement
55
k, coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bonded

reinforcement
= 0.8 for high bond bars
= 1.6 for bars with an effectively plain surface (e.g. prestressing tendons)
It should be noted that ClRlA 660(5)recommends increasing k, for early-age
effects due t o concerns about bond. However for mature concrete, and
particularly for slab-type elements where bond is likely t o be better, this is n o t
considered necessary.
k, coefficient which takes account of the distribution of strain
= 1.0 for pure tension; for other cases refer t o BS EN 1992-1-1
The values of k, and k, for use in a country may be found in its National Annex;
in the UK they are 3.4 and 0.425 respectively.
As discussed in Section 9.1 in the edge restraint situation cracks are likely t o appear at the
defined spacing and then open t o their design value, whereas cracks from end restraint will
open t o their design value before another crack forms and will only achieve the design
spacing once stabilised cracking is reached. Stabilised cracking is unlikely t o be achieved due
t o restraint effects from normal shrinkage and thermal movements. In the end-restrained
condition crack spacing is likely t o be larger than calculated, although the derived crack
widths should be reasonably approximated.
9.4 Edge restraint The value t o take for (E~,,,- EJ for edge restraint depends o n the restrained strain. This
can be calculated from:
(Esm - E m ) = 'ax Eiree (BS EN 1992-3 Expression M3)
Rax restraint factor (0 I RaxI I), which can be found from Annex L of BS EN 1992-3.
For most practical situations of edge restraint a value of 0.5may be taken, in
some limited locations lower values may be appropriate
total free strain due t o shrinkage and thermal effects at the time considered
9.5 End restraint For a member restrained at its ends the value o f (E~,,, - EJ can be calculated from:
where:
os stress in the tension reinforcement assuming a cracked section. For restrained
cracking this can be found by replacing As,m,, with As,provin BS EN 1992-1-1
Expression 7.8 and solving
ae ratio fjf,,
k, factor dependent on the duration of the load
= 0.6 for short-term loading
= 0.4 for long-term loading
56
In BS EN 1992-3 (and ClRlA C660), the above equation has been modified to:
E,, - E,, = P . 5 a, kc k fCt,df(1 + l/a,p)l/ E, (BS EN 1992-3 Expression M I )
where:
kc and k are as defined in Section 9.2
In fact if the simplification is made that:
k, = 0.5 k, k
and
P = Pelf
then the equations can be shown t o be very similar to Expression 7.9 containing one extra
term related t o the elongation of the concrete between cracks. Practically, the equations
give similar results although Expression M.1 will generally yield lower crack widths in thicker
sections when peffis significantly bigger than p. Both approaches are considered appropriate
for calculating crack widths for conditions of end restraint.
57
10. Mitigation measures

For the achievement of high-quality concrete structures, design for movement cannot be
left as an afterthought as it is an essential aspect of the design process.
10.1 Phlning requirements The planning of a building t o accommodate movement must be considered at the earliest
possible stage of the design process. Key decisions must be made about the degree of
cracking which will be acceptable. This should either be specified by the client or the
achievable design standard should be defined by the designer. Concrete structures have
t o fulfil many important roles ranging from domestic t o laboratories and may include
radiation protection, waterproof basements and fair-face concrete.
Key decisions have to be made about whether t o provide movement joints and their location
depending on the lateral stiffness of the structure and the effect of restraint. The effect
that large holes in the structure might have on the flow of forces needs t o be understood.
Having decided on the quality of finish and crack widths which will be acceptable, then a
range of actions become possible. Some decisions will be in the control of the designer, and
may require a tighter control of the specification. Other areas will be in the control of the
contractor and here it might be necessary t o carry out studies t o understand the influences
of strength, aggregate, blends of cement, formwork, curing, time of casting, shrinkage-
reducing admixtures, and size and sequence of pours.
10.2 Post-tensioned slabs One solution that is often proposed is the use of post-tensioned concrete. In the initial
stage the axial compression in the concrete can be augmented by the PIA term. This can
work reasonably well when the slabs are partially restrained or restrained at one end only.
Where significant restraint can occur it might be necessary t o decouple the slab t o ensure
that the prestress takes full effect.
For general flexural design the PIA term tends t o be small and in many cases post-tensioned
slabs tend t o be constructed using high-strength concrete. In the majority of cases this is
good as f,,, + P/A is unlikely t o be exceeded in a low-restraint condition. However, where
significant restraint can develop there is a risk of major cracking unless the slab has sufficient
reinforcement t o control crack widths once fCtm + PIA is exceeded.
If post-tensioned concrete is t o be adopted solely t o control cracking, careful consideration

needs t o be given t o the degree of restraint and the provision of anti-crack reinforcement.
10.3 Reinforced slabs Where a structure is relatively flexible and not subject to significant restraint, early thermal
shrinkage is likely to be the controlling condition. Conversely it can be see that for high-
restraint conditions the long-term shrinkage is likely to be the critical case. It is recommended
that the lowest practicable concrete strength, fck, should be adopted consistent with
durability etc. as high-strength concrete has a higher demand for reinforcement once
cracks occur.
This has an important bearing on the specified strength of the concrete compared to the
strength that is delivered to the site. Normally the engineer is only concerned to ensure that
the only concrete has a guaranteed minimum strength.Thedesign should be based on a
reasonable margin of exceedance, generally taken to be 8/10MPa, and the ASmlnshould be
determined with this in mind. Consideration should be given to specifying an upper limit
on strength, say fck+ 16/20MPa, where crack control is important.
10.4 Slab thickness For a basement ground slab, the case study in Section 11.2 shows that the preferred
approach is to make the slab as thin as will perform the structural function, and then
provide the percentage of reinforcement that will control the cracks adequately. BS 8102
recommends a minimum thickness of 250mm for slabs and walls, and this will be
sufficient. The same applies to superstructure slabs, although the requirements for
controlling deflection often limit the extent to which the thickness can be reduced. To
give a simple example, if a 300mm thick slab with 0.67% reinforcement is reduced to
250mm but with the same reinforcement, now 0.8%, the crack widths will reduce by
25%, demonstrating the importance of the percentage of reinforcement.
10.5 Aggregate SekCtiOn It is not always possible or economic to specify the aggregate type, but as can be seen from
BS EN 1992-1-1,the choice of aggregate can have a significant effect on the modulus of
and hence the tensile strain capacity of the concrete, E,'". In the long-term
elasticity, fcm,
restrained condition, the benefit of the tensile strain capacity is unlikely to be sufficient
to prevent cracking. When cracking occurs in concretes of similar strength and humidity,
the variation in crack widths for a range of aggregates is in the order of 10%.
For thermal movements, the choice of aggregate can be highly significant with coefficients
of expansion ranging from 14pd"C for quartzite to 9pdOC for limestone.
10.6 Cements BS EN 1992-1-1distinguishes three cement classes, namely 8, N and R, which are under-
stood to mean Slow, Normal and Rapid hardening.A basic definition is given in clause 31.2 (6)
of BS EN 1992-1-1 but, apart from this, little guidance has been provided in respect of this
important clause. As indicated in Section 2.3, it is important to note that these designations
are not the same as those in the cement standard, BS EN 197(*).The Eurocode Classes are
related to the cement designations as discussed in Section 2.3.
59
10.7 Control Of pour Sizes The larger the area of the pour, the greater the risk of cracking if there is significant restraint.
The layout of bays and construction joints and the construction sequence should be
arranged wherever possible to:
have straight construct ion joints

reduce the size of a pour t o a practical minimum
have regularly shaped bays (ideally with a length-to-width ratio less than 2)
avoid long, thin or irregularly shaped bays
cast bays se q ue nt ially rather than h it-and - m iss
work away from areas of greatest restraint, e.g. core areas
minimise the time interval between successive (adjacent) pours for edge restraint;
maximise the time interval for end restraint
corners with angles less than 60" are vulnerable and wherever possible 90" or more
should be provided
avoid re-entrant corners and forming holes close t o the edge of the slab.
Construction joints are beneficial as they are the equivalent of the first controlled crack;
however, once all construction joints have opened t o form another crack the reinforcement
across the construction joints must be sufficient t o act against the full tensile capacity of
the concrete. This means that the designed reinforcement should be continued across
construction joints.
For large-area pours consisting of many deliveries of concrete, delays and variability of
concrete strength throughout the slab can occur. The first crack will occur at the weakest
point, not necessarily at the mid-point between two restraints. If there is a large area of
sub-standard concrete, the second crack could occur close t o the first.
The design of a slab t o accommodate movement derives the minimum amount of rein-
forcement in the cross-section. In the initial stage the reinforcement has no influence on
where the cracks will occur. However, if the percentage of reinforcement is not constant
along the total length of the slab, cracks that form in zones of high reinforcement content
will be finer and less noticeable than those in minimum reinforcement zones. Sudden
changes of reinforcement in the cross-section should be avoided.
For large holes in slabs, special consideration should be given t o the increase in tension
which can result as restraint forces are diverted. In many cases a crack will result and it
might be preferable t o provide a construction joint in these locations. Take special care
where changes in level occur.
10.8 Pour Sequence Early-age contractions are a significant source of movement in concrete. However, they are
complete once the concrete temperature has fallen back t o ambient, usually within seven
t o ten days. The time lapse between successive pours is usually of this order (or longer), so
it makes sense t o plan the pouring sequence so that the cumulative effects are minimised.
60
When a pour is cast against a section of concrete which has completed its early-age cycle,
it can be difficult t o understand how and where the contractions in the new concrete will
occur. It can best be understood by thinking of the movement in two separate stages which
are then added together using the principle of superposition:
1. Estimate the movements that will occur with the pour standing on its own unconnected
t o any other structure.
2. Calculate the effect of translating the pour t o close the gap or gaps against previously
cast structure.
10.9Pour strips Another way of reducing the restraint forces is t o introduce pour strips.This allows some
of the movement t o occur in the slabs before they are locked together or t o cores or shear
walls. This is a valid approach but the real benefits need to be considered carefully. Early
thermal effects can often be reduced significantly by sensible pour strategies without the
use of pour strips. Therefore the main benefits of pour strips are in reducing the forces due
to shrinkage (and creep in the case of prestressed slabs).
Total shrinkage related t o time is shown in Figure 30 for a 300mm deep C32/40 slab a t
50% RH, calculated in accordance with BS EN 1992-1-1. It should be noted that actually
during construction the slab will be in an external environment for some time and the initial
rate of shrinkage may, therefore, be even slower. Hence it is likely that a pour strip left
open for only 28 days will have completed less than 15% of its shrinkage and significantly
longer periods are required to get any real benefit, this in turn may affect the construction
programme.
Figure 30
Percentage shrinkage related t o time for a Shrinkage with time for slabs
C32140 concrete slab 300mm thick a t 50% RH.
loo
80
d
60
s
40
20
0
1 100 10,000
Time (days)
For post-tensioned slabs the creep that occurs before the pour strip is completed also
reduces subsequent restraint forces. The development of creep with time is shown for the
same concrete in Figure 31. It can be seen that at 28 days about one-third of the creep
has occurred. Again if the slab is in a more humid environment typical of UK construction
conditions, less of the creep will have occurred.
For these reasons it is usually too restrictive t o provide pour strips to relieve anything other
than early-age contractions, and there is little benefit in leaving them open beyond ten
days or so.
61
Figure 31
Percentage creep related to time for a C32140
concrete slab 300mm thick a t 50% RH.
Creep with time for slabs
90
80
70
60
50
s 40
30
20
10
0
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Time (days)
10.10 Column grids Special care needs to be taken with the selection of rectangular grid layouts for flat slabs,
especially where the minor span and hence least reinforcement are in the same axis as
the major contraction. The minor span reinforcement is usually in the second layer which
in turn means extra cover and hence this could result in wider cracks.
10.11 Structural stability Avoid the provision of rigid cores at each end of long slabs. If necessary provide movement
joints to relieve the stress. Be prepared to accept large movements in the end bays of long
structures and to design the columns and infill wall panels with appropriate details to deal
with the expected movement.
10.12 Modified concrete Shrinkage in concrete occurs due to the loss of water.This is mostly through drying (drying
shrinkage, see Section 2.3) but in very low water/cement ratio concrete the consumption
mixes
of water by hydration can become significant (autogenous or hydration shrinkage -
Section 2.1.2). There are two main approaches to reduction of drying shrinkage:
1. reduction of free water content within the concrete mix

2. reduction of the surface tension within the pores.
Reduction of free water content in a concrete mix can be achieved by the use of plasticising
and superplasticising admixtures to provide the required workability and by minimisation
of the cement (paste) content. The use of fly ash within the cement can help reduce water
demand because of the lubricating effect of its spherical particle shape. Maximisation of
coarse aggregate size can help minimise cement content through the reduction in the
quantity of cement paste required.The extent to which free water content can be reduced
will depend on various factors including aggregate surface texture, sand grading, cement
type and fineness, and practical requirements for workability. Some low water content
62
mixes can tend towards thixotropy in their rheological behaviour, particularly a t low free
water/cement ratios (i.e. relatively high cement content). While it is well known that
reducing the water content will reduce the drying shrinkage, quantification of the benefit is
more difficult and reference should be made to specialist publications or past experience.
10.13 Curing Water curing of slabs for a minimum of seven days or longer is most important. Curing
does not reduce the ultimate shrinkage but instead allows the tensile strength of the slab
If possible
to develop and relaxes the surface shrinkage strains (see Altoubat and Lar~ge(~)).
the use of mist sprays is an effective method for maintaining high levels of humidity.
Humidity is a key factor in the reduction of shrinkage stresses.The final use and humidity
level of the building can have an important bearing on the shrinkage design. In the United
Kingdom, slabs cast in the winter have a slower build-up of shrinkage than those cast in the
summer months. This can be advantageous as it allows appreciable build-up of strength.
However it must be accepted that in the long term the ultimate shrinkage will be the same.
10.14 Cooling the concrete In some circumstances it may be necessary to cool the concrete to reduce early thermal
effects. There are various methods available for achieving a reduced concrete temperature,
including reductions in the temperature of the constituents, the use of ice in the mix water
and the use of liquid nitrogen to cool the concrete immediately prior to placing. Spraying
the formwork with water before commencing concrete placement or commencing con-
creting in the late afternoon is also beneficial.
The most common methods involve cooling one or all of the individual mix constituents.
This can be achieved with relatively simple and cheap techniques which include the
following:
U Shading the aggregate stockpiles from the direct rays of the sun or controlled sprinkling
of the aggregate stockpiles.
Cooling the mix water. The specific heat of water is about five times that of the aggregate
and cement. In addition, water is much easier to cool and the temperature can be con-
trolled more accurately. As it is practicable to cool water to about 2OC, this is a very
effective method of cooling the concrete.
Cooling the concrete using ice. Note that 1kg of melting ice is equivalent to cooling 1kg of
water through about 8OoC or Ikg of aggregate through 445°C. Hence, a relatively small
volume of ice can have a significant cooling effect. Ice is usually added to the mix in the
form of crushed or shaved ice as it is important to avoid incorporating larger fragments
of ice that melt slowly, leading to the formation of voids in the hardened concrete.
Cooling the aggregate using liquid nitrogen.The method involves spraying a mist of liquid
nitrogen into the mixer a t a controlled rate. This is achieved with a customised lance
which is inserted into a mixer truck. As the cooling is achieved immediately prior to
placing the concrete, concerns about the concrete warming up during transportation
are avoided.
63
0 Cooling the concrete in situ. There are two approaches: either casting a network of
cooling pipes within the core of the pour or attempting to reduce the core temperature
rise by surface cooling with water. Either method may be appropriate when the speci-
fication prevents the use of concrete with low heat generating characteristics. An
embedded cooling system has the advantage that it can be designed to accommodate
any mix type but the system must be an integral part of the design. Pumping chilled
water or air through these pipes absorbs the heat of hydration of the cementitious
materials and thereby reduces the temperature rise. The system must be designed to
remove heat at the required rate without inducing excessive internal temperature
differentials. For this reason, plastic pipes may be preferred to metal pipes as the heat
flow into the coolant is limited by the conductivity of the pipe itself.
These practices to cool the fresh concrete are more commonly used in climates that are
hotter than the UK. In the UK very few producers have installed the equipment needed
for these techniques and, in most cases, they are unlikely to be cost-effective. However,
there are situations where it may be needed technically or as a cost-effective option on a
large project. In these situations, it is better to specify the maximum concrete placing
temperature required (with a note reminding the producer that this is likely to require the
application of special techniques) than to specify the method. One should also check the
producer’s proposals for achieving the specification and make arrangements for checking
the temperature of concrete a t delivery.
64
11. P ract ica I applications
This chapter considers various applications in which movements and the resulting
cracking are particularly significant.
11.1 Basements
11.11 Introduction The provision of movement joints in underground structures should be avoided wherever
possible. Sometimes this is not possible, for example a basement common to buildings of
significantly different height and subject to different settlements. However, generally the
difficulties in detailing the joint, particularly where it is required to be waterproof, will be
more severe than designing it out. Engineers are generally familiar with the design of long
continuous lengths of concrete retaining wall and base slab: the design of other elements
is less clear.
113.2 Types of movement The various types of movement have been discussed earlier. In a reinforced concrete
element with no restraint, a thermal movement will result in an overall change in length
of the element with little residual stresses. Shrinkage of the concrete, however, will cause
an overall shortening of the element, creating a residual compression in the reinforcement
and a corresponding tension in the concrete. ClRlA Technical Note 107, Design for
movement in buildings(31), provides information on the detailing of joints should they be
required.
111.3 Degree of restraint An element undergoingthermal or shrinkage movements is restrained by:
the concrete it is cast against

fixity a t its ends
friction, where it is cast against ground.
Friction is worth further consideration in that, following the logic of Deacon(32), relatively
short lengths of wall or slab can be shown to be fully restrained against movement parti-
cularly where thickening such as pile caps or pad foundations exist. As the age and hence
tensile strength increase, the frictional force required to restrain the shrinkage (i.e. cause the
section to crack) increases. This increases the length of the element required before full
fixity is reached; however, the additional weight of the building once complete will add
significantly to the frictional resistance. It is difficult to calculate exact values but it is likely
that the walls and slabs in the centre of many commercial building basements are fully
restrained by friction. This is important as once the section is fully restrained its behaviour
will be independent of further increases in the length of the structure. Providing the section
is detailed correctly, the performance of a very long element of substructure without joints
should be no worse than the performance of a similar fully restrained section in a much
shorter element.
65
111.4 Thermal and shrinkage The temperature of retaining walls and base slabs will be moderated significantly by
movements contact with the ground. At depths greater than about 4m the temperature of the soil
remains sensibly constant and ‘coolth’ is radiated in through the perimeter walls and
ground slab, to achieve a steady state for the life of the building. Drying shrinkage will
also be reduced when there is contact with wet ground or where waterproofing systems
prevent drying.
Where long-term movements are expected, for both walls and ground slabs the design is
controlled by the end restraint case, see Section 9.5.
The longtitudinal stiffness of the retaining walls provides restraint to the shrinkage of
suspended basement slabs which will tend to dry out more quickly and be subject to
temperature variations. As the slab contracts, it attempts to pull in the opposite
perimeter walls. Remote from return walls the perimeters walls are free to move in,
indeed earth pressure may push the wall in and maintain an overall compression in the
slab. However, a t return walls, including corners, the slab can prop across onto the return
walls and the perimeter walls are no longer free to move. Further contraction of the slab
leads to tension and possible cracking.This is shown in Figure 32.
&A
Generally it is not practicable to include movement joints in basement slabs as these can
conflict with the requirement to provide continuous propping or the facility for the outer
perimeter slabs to act as horizontal beams in the form of an annulus. It is therefore
preferable to ensure that sufficient reinforcement is available to control cracking.
11.2 Case study - basement Basement floor slabs - which can include raft foundations - are often restrained by footings
floorslab or piles and pile caps, sometimes even by friction with the soil. A typical example is
illustrated by the following case study.
66
Practica I applications
Aoove reir Figure a3

General view of a typical basement car park.
Above nght Figure 34
Close-up of cracks in Figure 33.
Rlght Figure 35
Section through floor construction of car park
basement in Figure 33.
Figures 33 and 34 show the floor slab of a single-level basement 215m x 70m used for
car parkingwhich has cracked extensively. The slab is 350mm thick, designed as a flat slab
on pile caps at two-way centres varying between 5.5m and 6.5m. The section (Figure 35)
shows that full restraintwould be a realistic assumption. Total reinforcement content p is
0.38% in the middle strips, 0.60% in the column strips, average 0.49%. Concrete strength
class was specified as 28/35, although no actual cube test results were made available.
The structure was built in the mid-I990s, although the cracks were only observed around
2000. They are roughly parallel, at right angles to the long dimension.They start about 27m
from each end and are in groups of two to four spaced at 500 to 1100mm, roughly centred
in each bay.They grew to around 0.5mm wide, and became filled with a dark grey precipitate,
having leaked extensively over the three winters from 2000-2001 to 2002-2003 and been
below the water table for at least part of that time.
It is believed that a t the immature stage p was greater than P,,,~(see Table 7), and that
controlled cracks initially formed as predicted for early-age contractions; the presenceof
groups of parallel cracks is evidence for this. However, after five years and with a plentiful
supply of water the concrete strength increased, p became less than p:, and with cold
temperatures and shrinkage the cracks widened uncontrollably rather than addit
cracks forming.
67
The absence of cracks at each end probably shows the distance needed for full restraint
to develop, perhaps aided by the inward pressure of the soil on the perimeter walls. The
absence of cracks parallel to the long sides (and of any movement a t the construction
joints, one of which can be seen in Figure 33) could be for the same reason: the width is
not much more than twice 27m. However, the slab was constructed in longitudinal strips
generally 5-6m wide containing only one line of columns, so an alternative explanation is
that the early-age contraction cycle passed without restraint inducing any significant
tensile stress, and that subsequent contractions have been within the remaining tensile
strain capacity.
11.3 General observations

11.31 InCOrpOrate proprietary A number of products are marketed as admixtures to make concrete watertight.The
waterproofing admixtures? mechanism is typically that the key ingredient blocks the microcracks and pores SO making
the concrete impermeable, although ‘integral crystalline waterproofing’ products claim
to form crystals which block cracks up to typically 0.4mm wide. However, making the
concrete itself impermeable does not stop leaks through cracks so the need to control
cracks is not diminished.
11.3.2 Why not use tanking? In theory, an external membrane can be provided to keep the basement watertight and
the concrete then be designed solely for resistance to loads. However, such membranes
are expensive to apply, demand the highest quality of materials and workmanship, and
can delay the construction process. Many basements are constructed within embedded
pile walls, which are particularly difficult to protect in this way.
More importantly, the principle is flawed, as explained in the Institution of Structural

Engineers publication Design andconstruction ofdeep This points out that
membranes prevent autogenous healing of early-age cracks and encourage drying shrinkage
cracks. For these reasons, it is generally better to avoid tanking and instead to rely on a
properly reinforced concrete structure with a drained cavity where greater assurance is
required.
11.3.3 The amount O f When it was first published some 35 years ago, the method in BS 8007(15)took the reinforce-
reinforcement is too ment from around 0.2% to 0.35% - a significant increase.The approach currently
promulgated (2008) increases it to over 0.6% in some situations - a further very
expensive? substantial increase. However it is based on a sound theoretical approach, and is backed
up by the evidence of the large numbers of newly constructed basements which still crack
and leak. Furthermore,if cracking is not controlled, all the reinforcement that is in the
concrete has been wasted.
68
In the past, the approach has been to choose the concrete thickness first, usually on the
basis of the thicker the better. Reinforcement has then been provided, generally as little
as permitted by codes of practice. In future the approach should be the opposite.The
concrete thickness should be the minimum needed to provide the required structural
capacity; the minimum of 25Omm from BS 8102(17)will often be enough. Then sufficient
reinforcement to control cracking should be provided (see Table 7), depending on whether
the only restraint is to early-age contractions or if the mature concrete will be restrained.
I
11.4 Multi-storey car parks It is important to recognise that multi-storey car parks differ in many ways from enclosed
building structures such as offices or apartments. Most importantly, they are open to the
climate allyear round, and so are subject to the full range of ambient humidity and tem-
perature.The higher humidity is beneficial, in that both shrinkage and creep (e.g.of post-
tensioning stresses) are less than in the lower humidity of enclosed buildings. However, the
benefits stop there, as the range of temperature is far higher. Furthermore,the top deck is
heated by solar radiation, made worse if it has a dark-coloured thin-layer waterproof coating
(see Section 2.5.4).
Evans and Clarke(34)give details of monitoring carried out on a three-storey in-situ concrete
car park in the 1980s.The structure was approximately 100m x 50m in plan, divided in
two by a movement joint. Cracks had formed at a number of locations near the tops of
the columns a t their junctions with the main beams supporting the top deck. Concrete
temperatures and strains were recorded over a period of about 18 months. Differential
temperatures of up to 15°C were recorded between the upper surface of the top deck and
the soffit of the supporting beams, broadly in line with those suggested by BS 5400-2(12).
It was concluded that the stresses induced a t the supports by the resulting rotations would
have been sufficient to cause the observed cracks in the columns. Once cracks formed, the
top of the column acted as a hinge, providing significantly less restraint than previously.
Measurement of the movements across the cracks in the columns closely mirrored the
changing differentialtemperatures.Similar results were reported by Williams and clement^(^^)
who monitored a precast car park. Again the columns were cracked due to temperature
variations through the thickness of the top deck.
While in the cases reviewed above, the thermal movements did not lead to particular
problems beyond cracking, this is not always the case. For example the bowing of precast
planks can cause the bottom of the plank to move on its bearing; this in turn can lead to
spalling of the bearing. It is therefore essential that thermal bowing is considered, and
accounted for. This could be by acknowledging the formation of a hinge in the structure,
by accommodating movement of the elements via slip bearings, or by ensuring that the
elements are sufficiently tied to the support so that any rotation leads to distributed
cracking rather than unintended sliding.
When the car parks discussed above were constructed, there was no guidance on designing
for thermal movements.The third edition of the Institution of Structural Engineers guide
to the design of car parks(36)has a section dealing with design for movements and an
appendix based on Part 2 of BS 5400 covering design for temperature effects.
69
I
The plan dimensions are often large and movement joints are frequently needed The
Institution of Structural Engineers Manualfor the design ofconcrete building structures t o
Eurocode 2(37)published in September 2006 recommends that for reinforced concrete
frame structures in UK conditions, movement joints at least 25mm wide should normally
be provided a t approximately 50m centres both longitudinally and transversely. In the
top storey with an exposed slab and for open buildings such as car parks, joints should
normally be provided to give approximately 25m spacing. Where any joints are placed a t
over 30m centres, the effects of movement should be included in the global analysis. It
also recommends that joint spacing in exposed parapets should be approximately 12m.
Stair and lift cores are usually needed a t the perimeter - the worst place for structural
design. So it is usually best to ignore their contribution to stability and separate them
from the deck structure with local movement joints.
The stability bracing system needs to be near the centre of the plan or a t least to be sym-
metrical in location and stiffness. In split-level designs the ramps frequently provide the
stability bracing. In the direction as used by the vehicles they can act as diagonal bracing,
although paired up and down ramps are needed. Transversely, they are just sloping shear
walls. If the ramps are not available for stability, it is usual to provide braced bays or shear
walls on the perimeter (located centrally between ends or movement joints), or to rely on
frame action for low-rise structures.
Post-tensioning is becoming more common, and brings with it the additional contractions
arising from both initial stressing and long-term creep. Control of the construction sequence
is an important way of limiting early-age linear horizontal movements, particularly when
post-tensioning is used. Pours should generally be isolated from any fixed structure such
as ramps or cores for as long as possible to allow the early-age effects to pass without
locking in any movements or restraints (see Section 10.9).The sequence of connected
pours should be planned to minimise the movement a t the free edges; for instance, three
pours should be cast in the sequence 2-1-3 not 1-2-3. If this is inconvenient, pours can be
separated by 'pour strips' -gaps with discontinuous but overlapping reinforcement - left
open as above.
11.5 Movement a t Once construction is complete, incorporating movement joints into the finishes can be
movement joints in finishes considered.This usually takes place several months after the concrete has been placed SO
that the expected movement can be calculated rather differently. first, all the early-age
movements will have passed, so can be ignored. Second, it will be known when the pours
were cast and what the ambient temperature was, so this can be used as the starting
point. The season when the joint is to be installed will probably also be known, and it will
usually be practicable to specify a limiting temperature range. So the actual movement
a t a joint will be very much less than the structural movement calculated above.
70
11.6 Axial shortening Of Reinforced concrete columns and walls shorten owing to elastic compression, creep and
columns and wa[[s shrinkage, although the effect is not significant for buildings less than about 10-15 storeys.
The following should be considered:
0 The compressive stress is not constant but is relieved by creep; the reduced stress in the
concrete is matched by a corresponding increase in the stress in the reinforcement.
0 The load is applied incrementally over an extended period, inevitable during the
construction of a multi-storey building. This also needs a spreadsheet approach.
Columns and walls in multi-storey buildings therefore shorten by different amounts and
at different times.
Analysis of vertical shortening in a typical concrete-framed multi-storey building has to

take account of the following:
0 Axial strain. Each increment of load causes an initial elastic strain which increases over
time by creep.
0 Shrinkage. Shrinkage starts immediately the early thermal contraction cycle has passed
(it is assumed that this is too rapid to affect any supported structure), and then continues
a t a decreasing rate.
U Construction sequence. Each new floor is cast at a level which overrides all the
shortening which has taken place beneath it. Fintel call this pre-installation
shortening, and the movement occurring after that point post-installation shortening.
0 Loading sequence. After a floor is constructed,the remaining load is added incrementally,
usually in the following sequence: screed or raised floor; walls and partitions; ceilings
with lighting and other services; furniture and occupants.
0 Time-dependent effects. The overriding problem is that creep and shrinkage are both
very much dependent on the age of the concrete, and with each storey cast a t a different
time the total shortening a t any one time is the sum of movements which all started
a t different times and have progressed to different stages.
0 Differential shortening. Generally it is the differential shortening between neighbouring
columns and walls that is important, particularly between columns, which are generally
heavily loaded, and core walls, which are usually more lightly loaded. Cores are often
constructed ahead of the frame, in which case their shortening will be out of phase
with that of the surrounding columns.
0 Shortening in a single-storey height is important for added elements which are not
flexible. In particular, cladding must be detailed to allow for the movement, the worst
case being clay brickwork which expands. Allowances should also be made for tempera-
ture movement.
The modern answer to dealing with these issues is a spreadsheet. It is not difficult to set
up a spreadsheet to represent the actions described above, but it is difficult to keep it to a
manageable size and to get it to produce the information needed for design.
71
Elastic and creep strains

The initial elastic strain from vertical load depends primarily on the proportions of the
section, although the €-value of the concrete increases with age. The creep strain depends
mainly on: the age a t loading; the humidity of the environment; the composition of the
concrete; and the thickness of the section. The effect of creep is to shed stress from the
concrete onto the reinforcement.This effect is termed relaxation in textbooks, which go to
considerable lengths to model it mathematically, usually incomprehensibly if not actually
incorrectly. Using a spreadsheet which divides the process into a minimum of four to five
steps is a better way.
The principle of superposition means that the creep arising from individual applications
of load (and the shrinkage) can all be considered separately as if no other actions were
taking place and the resulting movements can then be added together. It is acceptable to
group the structure into units of several storeys each effectively constructed a t the mid-
time, and similarly to simplify the loading into the three main steps of self-weight, finishes
and occupation.
5hrinkage
As shrinkage progresses, restraint of the reinforcement creates internal stresses: tension
in the concrete, compression in the steel. As described above, the stress in the concrete is
gradually relieved by creep. In the spreadsheet each step of shrinkage is applied at the mid-
time to a structure whose properties are derived for that same point in time. Alternatively,
the final movement can be approximated by applying the total free shrinkage in one step
at age 150 days.
Controlling shortening
Can anything be done to control shortening? In designing a reinforced concrete column
or wall, the two main choices are the strength of the concrete and the percentage of
reinforcement. To show how these decisions affect the amount of shortening, a simple
example is presented in Section A I in Appendix A. The following tentative conclusions
can be drawn from the study:
Maximum shortening of 1.4mm/m is possible, i.e. 4-5mm in a typical storey height.

The higher the concrete area, the less the shortening; this is because the stiffness-to-
strength ratio of concrete is higher than that of steel.
Reducing the section size by increasing the reinforcement from 0.5% to 6% increases
the shortening by 11-20%.
U Reducing the section size by increasingthe concrete strength from 40 to 85MPa
increases the shortening by 2-11%.
The shortening of two columns of the same size but different concrete strengths and
reinforcement contents differs by less than 10%.
The wall section shortens 15% less than the comparable column.
U Deliberately over-designing the section by 25% reduces the shortening by only 17%.
U The concrete stress in highly reinforced sections reduces by as much as 50% (35%
creep plus 15% shrinkage) in the long term.
72
Better control is achieved where the initial elastic shortening is a higher proportion of
the total; this can be achieved by increasing the reinforcement content.
The amount of shortening occurring after 500 days is the opposite way round from
the total amount, i.e. higher-strength concrete and more reinforcement both reduce
the late shortening.
The overall conclusion is that it is difficult to reduce the shortening significantly. A better
strategy is to limit the differential shortening by designing all columns to the same criteria,
and by keeping long clear spans between different structural types, i.e. between interior
columns and cores and shear walls on the one hand and perimeter columns on the other.
73
References and further readinp U
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1992.Eurocode2, Designofconcretestructures, Part 1-1,

General rules andrulesforbuildings, Part 1-2, Generalrules - Structuralfire design, Part 3: liquid
retaining and containmentstructures, BSI, London, Various dates.
2 CAMPBELL-ALLEN, D. The reduction ofcracking in concrete, University of Sydney and Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia, Sydney, 1979.
3 CONCRETE SOCIETY. Non-structuralcracks in concrete, Technical Report 22, The Concrete Society,
Camberley, 1982.
4 CONCRETE SOCIETY. The relevance ofcracking in concrete to corrosion ofreinforcement, Technical
Report 44, The Concrete Society, Carnberley, 1995.
5 BAMFORTH, P. Early-age thermal crack control in concrete. Publication C660. CIRIA, London, 2007.
6 GOODCHILD C. Design guidance on large area pours for suspended slabs, Concrete, Vol. 38, No. 6,
June 2004, pp. 19-22.
7 ALTOUBAT, SA and LANCE, DA. Creep, shrinkage and cracking of restrained concrete a t early age,
ACI Materialslournal,July-August 2001, pp. 323-331.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION,BS EN 197. Cement, Part 1, Composition, specification and
conformity criteria for common cements, Part 2, Conformity evaluation, BSI, London, 2000.
9 BOND, AJ et al. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2, The Concrete Centre,Camberley,
2006.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8110. Structuraluseofconcrete, Part 1, Codeofpracticefor
design andconstruction, Part 2, Code ofpracticeforspecial circumstances, BSI, London, 1997 and 1985.
11 CONCRETE SOCIETY. lnfluence oftension stlffening on deflection ofreinforced concrete structures,
Technical Report 59, The Concrete Society, Carnberley, 2004.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 5400. Steel, concreteandcomposite bridges, Part 2, Speci-
fication ofloads, Part 4, Code ofpractice for design ofconcrete bridges, BSI, London, 2006 and 1990.
13 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1991. Eurocode 7:Actionsonstructures-Generalactions,
Part 1-5, Thermalactions, and UK National Annex, BSI, London, 2003.
14 BUILDI NC RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Estimationof thermal and moisture movements in
structures, Digest 228, BRE, Carston, Watford, 1979.
15 B R IT1S H STANDARDS INSTlTUTlON, BS 8007. Design of concrete structuresfor retaining aqueous
liquids, BSI, London, 1987.
16 HUCHES, BP. A new look a t rigid concrete pavement design, Proceedings ofthe lnstitution ofcivil
Engineers.Transport, Vol. 156, No. 1, February 2005, pp. 29-36.
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION,BS 8102. Code ofpracticeforprotection ofstructures against
waterfrom theground, BSI, London, 1990.
18 CONCRETE SOCIETY. Self-compacting concrete: a review, Technical Report 62, The Concrete
Society, Carnberley, 2005.
19 ALEXANDER, SJ. Understandingshrinkage and its effects, Part 1, Concrete, Vol. 36, No. 9, October
2002, pp. 61-63, Part 2, Concrete, Vol. 36, No. 10, November/December 2002, pp. 38-41.
20 DAVIDSON, B and OWENS, CW. Steel designers’manual,Steel Construction Institute,Ascot, 2005.
21 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION,BS EN 1994.Eurocode 4. Designofcompositesteeland
concretestructures. Part 1-1, General rulesandrulesforbuildings, BSI, London 2004.
22 CONCRETE SOCIETY. Crackingin composite slabs, Concrete Advice Sheet 13, the Concrete Society,
Carnberley, 2006.
23 A t RAWI, R. and KHEDER, CF. Control of cracking due to volume change in base restrained concrete
members,ACI Structuresjournal, July-August 1990.
24 STOFFERS, H. Cracking due to shrinkage and temperature variation in walls, Heron, Vol. 23, No. 3,
Delft, 1978.
25 BEEBY,AW. and FORTH,JP. Control of cracking in walls restrained along their base against early
thermal movements, Concretefor Transportationlnfrastructure (Dhir, RK, McCarthy, MJand
Caliskan, S,Eds.),Thomas Telford, London, 2005, pp. 123-132.
26 BEEBY, AW and SCOTT, RH. lnsights into the cracking and tension stiffening behaviour ofreinforced
concrete tension members revealedby computer modelling, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 56,
No. 3, April 2004, pp. 179-190.
27 HUGHES, BP. Contra/ ofthermal andshrinkage cracking in restrainedreinforcedconcrete walls,
Technical Note 21, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, 1971
28 BAMFORTH, PB. Concretingdeep liftsandlarge volumepours Report 135, Construction Industry
Research and Information Association. London, 1995.
29 REINFORCED CONCRETE COUNCIL. Large area pours for suspended slabs: a design guide, Reinforcing
Links, Issue 3,1993 (availablefrom www.concretecentre.com).
30 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, PD 6687. Backgroundpapertothe UKNationalAnnexesto
BSEN 1992-1, BSI, London, 2006.
31 ALEXANDER SJ and LAWSON RM. Designfor movement in buildings, Technical Note 107,
Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, 1981.
32 DEACON, RC. Concretegroundfloors their design, construction andfinish, Cement and Concrete
Association (now British Cement Association), Camberley, 1987.
33 INSTITUTIONOF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS. Design andconstruction ofdeep basements including
cutandcover tunnels, The Institution, London 2004.
34 EVANS, DJand CLARKE,JL.Thermal movementsin a multi-storeycarpark, Technical Report 563,
Cement and Concrete Association (now British Cement Association), Camberley, 1986.
35 WILLIAMS, A and CLEMENTS, SW. Thermalmovementsinthe upperfloorofa multi-storey carpark,
Technical Report 539, Cement and Concrete Association (now British Cement Association),
Camberley, 1980.
36 INSTITUTIONOF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS. Design recommendationsfor multi-storeyandunder-
groundcarparks (Third Edition), The Institution, London, 2002.
37 INSTITUTIONOF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS.Manualfor the design ofconcrete buildingstructures
to Eurocode 2, The Institution, London, 2006.
38 FINTEL, M, GHOSH, SK and IYENGAR, H. Columnshortening in tallstructures-predictionand
compensation, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA, 1987.
39 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION,BS 6399-1. Loadingforbuildings. Part 1: Code ofpracticefor
deadandimposedloads, BSI, London, 1996.
40 CONCRETE SOCIETY. Designguidanceforhighstrength concrete, Technical Report 49, The Concrete
Society, Camberley, 1998.
41 LAWSON, RM. Design ofcompositeslabsandbeams with steel decking, Publication 055, Steel
Construction Institute, Ascot, 1989.
Further reading
0 ALEXANDER, S.Contraction of in-situ concrete toppings, Part 1: Concrete, Vol. 40, No. 4, May
2006, pp. 45-46, Part 2: Concrete, Vol. 40, No. 5, June 2006, pp. 28-29.
0 ALEXANDER, SJ. Axial shortening of concrete columns and walls, Concrete,Vol. 35, No. 3, March
2001, pp. 36-38.
0 ALEXANDER, SJ. Why does our concrete still crack and leak?, The StructuralEngineer,Vol. 84, No.
23/24,5 December 2006, pp. 40-43.
0 AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE.ACI209R. Predictionofcreep, shrinkageandtemperature
effects in concretestructures, ACI, Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA, 1992 (reapproved 1997).
75
BEEBY, AW and SCOTT, RH. Cracking and deformation of axially reinforced members subject to
pure tension, Magazine ofConcrete Research,Vol. 57, No. 10, December 2005, pp. 611-621.
U CONCRETE SOCIETY. The relevance of cracking in concrete to corrosion ofreinforcement, Technical
Report 44, The Concrete Society, Camberley, 1995.
0 CONCRETE SOCIETY. Deflections in concreteslabsandbeams,Technical Report 58, The Concrete
Society, Camberley, 2005.
0 FORTH, JP and BROOKS, JJ. Movement in a seven storey reinforced concrete frame, Proceedingsof
the institution ofCivilEngineers, StructuresandBuildings, No. 156, Paper 12831, Issue SB2, May 2003,
pp. 131-139.
CILBERT, RI. Time effects in concrete structures, Elsevier, 1988.
0 CILBERT, RI. Shrinkage cracking in fully restrained members,ACI Structuraljournal,Vol. 89, No. 2,
March-April1992, pp. 141-149.
U CILBERT, R.I. Time-dependent deflection and cracking of reinforced concrete flat slabs. In Code
Provisionsfor Deflection Control in Concrete Structures (Nawy, EC and Scanlon, A, Eds.), Special
Publication SP 203, ACI, Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA, 2001, pp. 157-178.
0 CILBERT, R.I. Time-dependent cracking and crack control in reinforced concrete structures. In
ServiceabilityofConcrete (Barth, F, Ed), Special Publication SP225, ACI, Farmington Hills, Michigan,
USA, 2005, pp. 223-240.
U CILBERT, RI and CUO, XH.Time dependent deflection and deformation of reinforced concrete flat
slabs - an experimental study, AQStructuraljournal, Vol. 102, No. 3, May-June2005, pp. 363-373.
I 76
-1 1
4,
666.98.015.8:624.041.6
House, 4 Meadu , Business Park,

mh, Blaekwater,Carnberley, Surrey, CUI7 9AB
276 607140 F.x: +44 @)I276 607141
k.arg.uk
8
s

TR67 PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

TR67 PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Licensed copy: chris.elsom@severntrent.co.

uk, Severn Trent Water Ltd, 11/07/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The

A single copy of this

This is an uncontrolled copy - not for contract use

TR67 MOVEMENT, RESTRAINT AND CRACKING IN

Amendment No.1 May 2008

Page 72, Paragraph 4

Delete: “is presented in Section A.1 in Appendix A.”

Substitute: “has been presented by Alexander(39).”

Page 75, References

Delete: References 39, 40 and 41.

Page 75, Further reading

Delete: “ALEXANDER, SJ. Axial shortening of concrete columns and walls,

Published by The Concrete Society

The Concrete Society

CClP publicationsare produced by The Concrete Society (w.concrete.org.uk) on behalf of

CClP publicationsare available from the Concrete Bookshop at ww.concretebookshop.com

Printed by Alden Press, Witney. UK

2.5 Temperature movement 12

6.2 Composite slabs on steel decking 36

1010 Column erids 62

Members of the Project Work ng Party

Stuart Alexander* WSP Group

John Forth** University of Leeds

The importance of movement is highly dependent on whether or not it is restrained.

coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete

0 Deflection. Vertical movement within the span of a beam or slab.

1.3 Sources O f movement A number of sources of movement can be identified, as follows:

Seasonal temperatures Section 2.5.4

free movement movements

Understanding creep Chapter 3

//.h. I Pour seauence

7 Modified concrete mixes

M,agnitiilidenof free movements

2. Magnitudes of free movements

2.1 Early-age contractions

The amount of contraction is calculated by multiplying the temperature drop by the

Mechanism of autogenous shrinkage

= 2.5 (tk- 10) (PE) (BS EN 1991-1-1 Expression 3.12)

The progression with time is also given and is shown in Figure 4

The assumption in BS EN 1992-1-1that autogenous shrinkage is directly related to specified

Magnitudes of free movements

BS EN 1992-1-1clause 3.1.4 gives a method for determining the strain.Thedrying shrinkage

+ Cement Class R -A- Cement Class S t h, = 100 6 h, = 300

Factor for relative humidity

Although shrinkage is largely irreversible,clause 7.4 of BS 8110-2(’0)notes:

No similar guidance exists in BS EN 1992-1-1,presumably due to the variations in climate

As mentioned previously, the above method is applicable to unreinforced concrete.

2.5 Temperature movement

temperatures ("C) for London (Greenwich) 52 18 2 Lowestoft 42 16 6

Bury S t Edmunds (Wattisham) 35 16 6 Holyhead (Valley) 58 15 7

Cardiff 50 172 Hull (Cleethorpes) 43 16 2

As an example, data calculated for Stoke-on-Trent could be assembled as in Table 5

Allow for city centre (estimated) -18 + 3 = -15 No change

Correct to ten-year return 0.72 x (-15) =-11 0.9 x (+34)= +30.5

qRH factor t o allow for the effect of relative humidity

..-E .-5 1.75

Above left Figure 8c

Dividing by ocand rearranging gives:

4. Avoiding cracking or controlling cracking?

4.1 Avoiding cracking Cracking can be avoided in two ways:

Furthermore, if the concrete is in a benign environment (such as a water storage tank),

4.3 Minimum reinforce-