EXERCISE 8 Protista & Fungi

The protists and fungi are extremely diverse groups of organisms that we present together in order to introduce a variety
of life cycles in addition to biodiversity. For each specimen we examine, pay close attention to the nucleus condition,
haploid (n) vs. diploid (2n); where in its life cycle does gamete production, fertilization, meiosis, and spore production
occur; and any specialized stuctures assiciated with the processes.

Kingdom Protista
The diversity of protists is so great that they posses few characteristics in common. They are eukaryotic and represent
the Þrst group to evolve intracellular structures such as the true nucleus, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, chlo-
roplast, and mitochondrion. Moreover, ancient members of this group gave rise to the plants, animals, and fungi. Other
characteristics common to the protists are: almost all are found aquatic or semi-aquatic environments, most require aer-
obic conditions, most possess ßagella or cilia at some point in their life history, many are unicellular, and most are capa-
ble of producing cysts at some point in their life cycle that are resistant to drought of freezing.

Phyllogenetic relationships among many members of this Kingdom are uncertain and the subject of much debate. At
present, inclusion in the Kingdom Protista is a matter of convenience rather than representing distinct evolutionary
lines. However, protists can be grouped into three basic catagories based on morphological and life cycle traits: the pro-
tozoans, algae, and fungus-like protists. It is important to note, however, there is no clear distinction among these
groups. As an example, many ßagellated protozoans are closely related to the algae and even members of the same
genus have both colorless and chloroplast-containing members.

Protozoa
The name ÒprotozoaÓ means ÒÞrst animalsÓ, attributed because most orgamisms of this group engulf their food.

TABLE 52. Summary of characteristics and examples of protozoan phyla.

Phylum Characteristcs Examples

Rhizopoda possess pseudopods (false feet); lack
meisois and sexual reproduction; naked
or have shells; unicellular
Actinopoda possess axopodia; usually have silica
skeletons and spines; unicellular
Foraminifera possess a calcareous shell; many with
commensal algae; unicellular
Apicomplexa (= Sporozoa) mostly parasitic; complex life cycle;
unicellular
Ameoba, Entamoeba histolytica (causes
amoebic dysentery) Entamoeba coli ( a
common gut commensal); Difßugia
heliozoans (mostly freshwater) and
radiolarians (mostly marine)
Plasmodium (causes malaria)

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TABLE 52. Summary of characteristics and examples of protozoan phyla.

Phylum Characteristcs Examples

Zoomastigina possess ßagella; unicellular or colonial
Ciliophora possess cilia for locomotion and feed-
ing; unicellular or colonial
Trypanosoma (causes African Sleeping
Sickness, ChagasÕ disease), Trichomo-
nas vaginalis; Giardia; ßagellates of
termite guts
Stentor, Paramecium, Vorticella;
rumen ciliates

Algal Protists
These are the eukaryotic algae, which form the base of the food chain for most aquatic habitats.

TABLE 53. Character summary and examples of the major algal divisions.

Division (= Food
Phylum) Pigments Cell Wall Store Flagella Body form Other Examples
Chrysophyta chl a, chl c , lorica of sil- lipids & 2; unequal unicellular, Fall dom- Dinobryon,
(Golden b carotene ica & cellu- lami- length colonial inant Mallomonas
Algae) lose narin

Bacillario- chl a, chl c , silica oils & none; unicellular, high centrics &
phyta (Dia- b carotene leucosin gametes Ð 2 Þlamen- diversity pennates
toms) unequal tous, colo-
nial
Euglenophyta chl a, chl c , reinforced paramy- 2(1,3) unicellular stigma; Euglena,
b carotene pellicle lon some col- Phacus
orless

Pyrrophyta chl a, chl c , internal cel- starch 2 unequal, unicellular red tides Ceratium,
(dinoßagel- b carotene lulose plates in grooves Gymnodiniun
lates)

Rhodophyta chl a, bilip- ÔagarÕ a glycan none unicellular, deep Batrachosper-

(Red Algae) roteins, a & Þlamen- tropical mum, Rhody-
b carotene tous, thal- marine menia.,
lus Polysiphonia
Phaeophyta chl a, chl c, cellulose, lami- none; thallus cold Laminaria,
(Brown Algae) b carotene other narin gametes Ð 2 marine Fucus, Sargas-
polysaccha- unequal sum
rides
Chlorophyta chl a, chl b, cellulose starch 0,2,4,many; unicellular, mostly Chlamydomo-
(Green Algae) b carotene equal Þlamen- freshwa- nas, Volvox,
tous, colo- ter desmids, Spir-
nial ogyra

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Fungus-like Protists
The slime molds and water molds resemble true fungi but they are not closely related to them. Slime molds are decom-
posers of rotten logs and leaf litter in forested ecosystems, while water molds decompose algae, leaves, and dead animals
in aquatic ecosystems. Some water molds are parasitic and grow on the skin of Þsh and amphibians or on plants.

TABLE 54. Summary of characteristics and examples of fungus-like protists.

Phylum Characteristics Examples

Myxomycota (Plasmodial ceonocytic, plasmodial feeding stage; Physarum, Stemonitus
Slime Molds) reproductive stage forms sporangia
Acrasiomycota (Cellular solitary cells in feeding stage; repro- Dictyostelium
Slime Molds) ductive aggregate forms sporangia
Oomycota (Water Molds) hyphae have cellulose cell walls; dip- Phytophthora (causes potato blight),
loid condition dominates ÔIckÕ infection on Þsh

Kingdom Fungi
The fungi are important decomposers of terrestrial environments as well as parasites of plants and animals. The basic
structure of multicellular fungi includes a thread-like net of hyphae (each thread), which collectively is called mycelium.
Hyphae of most fungi have cross walls, called septae, that divide the thread into cells. Other fungal hyphae are coeno-
cytic, i.e., they lack cross walls.

TABLE 55. Summary of characteristics and examples of true fungi.

Division Characteritics Examples

Zygomycota asexual spores on sporangia; sexual spores: Rhizopus
zygospores
Ascomycota asexual spores: conidia; sexual spores Ð 8 ascospores Morchella, yeast
in ascus; fruiting body: ascocarp
Basidiomycota sexual spores: basidiospores on basidium; friuting Agaricus, toadstools, shelf
body: basidiocarp mushrooms
Deuteromycota no sexual reproduction Penicillium

Lichens
Lichens are an integrated symbiotic relationship between a fungus, usually an ascomycete, and a green or blue-green alga.
They can live in some of the most inhospitable habitats because each supplies what the other canÕt obtain on its own. The
fungus-part may supply moisture and nutrients, while the algae-part supplies the food source via photosynthesis.

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Exercises

1. Examine the Mixed Protozoa culture under a compound microscope. Search for rhizopds such as Amoeba; ciliates
such as Paramecium, Vorticella, or Stentor; and ßagellates. Sketch and label your observations below:

2. Examine the prepared slide of Actinosphaerium, an actinopod. Sketch the organism and label the axopodia.

3. Examine the prepared slide of Trypanosoma lewisi, a parasitic ßagellate of rats. Sketch the ßagellate and a few blood
cells. How big are red blood cells and the trypanosome?

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4. View the demonstration of of termite gut ßagellates and rumen ciliates. Sketch two kinds of ßagellates and ciliate
from each sample.

5. Examine the living culture of Mixed Diatoms and Desmids. Diatoms are bacillariophytes and can be recognized by
their golden chloroplasts and glass cell walls; whereas desmids are chlorophytes and have bright green chloroplasts.
Each desmid is composed of two semi-cells conjoined at the center. Can you differentiate the two types of algae?
Sketch and label one or two individuals of each type.

6. Ask the TA to demonstrate a prepared slide of diatoms. Sketch several pennate and centric diatoms.

7. View the specimen of Ceratium, a dinoßagellate, on demonstration. Sketch and label the cell wall, grooves, and ßagel-
lae.

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8. Observe cultures of Chlamydomonas and Volvox. Also obtain a prepared slide of Volvox sexual stages and note the
zygotes. Sketch your observations and label the chloroplast, mother and daughter colonies,

9. Ask the TA to demonstrate various algae and protozoans in a pond water sample. (You may wish to observe the pond
water sample on your own too.) Be able to identfy the specimens to division and phylum levels. Sketch a few of the
organisms you Þnd.

10. View the live specimens of Rhodophyta: Batrachospermum, cold-water stream, Þlamentous algae, and Rhodymenia, a
tropical marine thallus. Sketch your observations.

11. View the specimens of marine Phaeophyta on demonstration: Laminaria (a kelp), Fucus (rockweed), and Sargassum
(gulfweed). Identify holdfasts, ßoats, blades, and reproductive structures.
12. View cultures of Physarium, a myxomycete, under a stereo microscope. Note plasmic streaming of the plasmodium
and the fruiting structures.

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13. Observe the moldy bread (Rhizopus) on display under the stereo microscope. Note the mycelium, sporangia, and spo-
rangiophores. Place a small amount of the Rhizopus culture on a slide and sketch and label your observations. See also
prepared slides of Rhizopus conjugation and note the zygospore.

14. Observe the Morchella, an ascomycete, on demonstration. Obtain a prepared slide of a Morchella cross-section and
sketch and label the mycelium, asci, and ascospores of the ascocarp.

15. Observe various specimens of basidiomycetes on demonstration. Obtain a prepared slide of a Coprinus section and
sketch and label the mycelium, basidia and basidiospores of the basidiocarp.

16. Observe the various lichen specimens on display. Obtain a prepared slide of a lichen section. Note the algal layer.

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