Part 1: Chemistry

Chapter 1: Formation of Elements Found in the Universe

Lesson 1.1 The Big Bang Theory

In an expanding universe, the galaxies are moving away from one another. Astronomers and
thinkers in the ancient world thought that all the matter in the galaxies were once packed together
in a very dense mass. They thought that this mass exploded 15 billion years ago in a big bang
where a center cannot be determined since it occurred everywhere in space at the same time.

Questions regarding the beginning of the universe started to have answers when, in the early 20th
century, scientist and astronomers were puzzled by the fuzzy patches in the telescope
photographs of a distant universe. They started to find an explanation to their puzzlement. Most
of them thought these were clouds scattered among visible stars. Some even proposed that these
were “nebulae”. They thought that these nebulae were gravitationally bound containing billion of
stars and their distances from one another were unimaginable.

These issues were finally resolved when in 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble proved, using the
2.5-m telescope at California’s Mt. Wilson Observatory, that the nebulae were distant galaxies
containing 10^9 to 10^13 stars. This discovery led him to catalogue the distances of galaxies
from one another and observe their spectra. He deducted that galaxies are continuously moving
away from one another. At the time, he concluded that the universe is expanding and that the
distance between galaxies is continuously growing all the time.

Scientists and astronomers continued to find answers as to how the universe came into being. In
1948, the Russian-American physicist George Gamow, together with his student Ralph Alpher,
and the nuclear scientist Hans Bethe, put forward a paper hypothesizing that the universe burst
into being a gigantic explosion or a big bang several billion years ago. Before the explosion, the
universe occupied a very tiny volume and was unimaginably hot. This mixed with minute
particles of matter gradually cooled which allowed for the formation of atoms. These atoms
clumped together due to the influence of gravity to form billions pf galaxies. One of them is our
Milky Way Galaxy.

The idea of Gamow led other scientist to test it experimentally. The following pieces of evidence
were found to support his hypothesis:

1. Measurements showed that the universe is expanding and that galaxies are moving away from
one another at high speeds.
2. A cosmic background radiation was detected. The radiation observed was the same in all
directions and found by astronomers to be independent of direction.

3. The discovery of the primordial helium is consistent with the belief of scientists that the
lightest elements, helium and hydrogen, were the first to be formed in the early stages of the
evolution of the universe.

In 1995, astronomers analyzed the ultraviolet light coming from a quasar and found that helium
atoms absorbed this light in its path approaching Earth. A more abundant hydrogen atom was not
detected because it has only one electron which can be stripped off easily by the light from a
quasar through a process known as ionization. Ionized hydrogen atom cannot absorb any of the
light coming from a quasar. Since a helium atom has two electrons, radiation may strip off one
electron from a helium atom but not always both. Ionized helium atom with one electron can still
absorb light which is the reason why they can be detected.

In recognition of all the supporting evidence and the discovery of the primordial helium,
scientists now refer to Gamow’s hypothesis as the Big Bang Theory.

Lesson 1.2 Formation of Heavier Elements in the Evolution of the Universe

* How were the elements in the universe formed?

Few seconds after the big bang, protons, neutrons, and electrons consisted the universe. Universe
consists of mostly hydrogen and helium. The elements of the present universe were formed in a
process known as nucleosynthesis.

First step in the big bang nucleosynthesis involved the building up of complex atoms through the
formation of deuterium nuclei or deuterons.

n + p —> d + y

Deuteron has a binding energy of 2.2 MeV, the amount of energy of a gamma ray given off
during its formation. To break up a deuteron the nuclei apart into its components reverse action
process must occur.

d + y —> n + p

The two reactions will take place at the same rate if the universe were filled with energetic
photons, the deuterium will dissociate as quickly as its formed. If the universe were adequately
old enough, energy of the photons will not be sufficient to accomplish the dissociation teacyion
and deuterium will start to build up.
* Formation of Heavier Elements after the Big Bang

After the decoupling of matter and radiation, matter was subject only to gravitational force.
Matter consists of hydrogen and helium.

Distribution of matter during the decoupling time was a little bit non-uniform. Higher density
regions began to condense into clouds of ever increasing density.

Helium fusion reaction,

4^He + 4^He —> 8^Be

Net reaction,

4^He + 4^He + 4^He —> 12^C + y

Chapter 2: The Idea of the Atom

Lesson 2.1 Model of the Atom

* Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

Development of the atomic model of matter started from the early Greek concept of the atom.
Ancient Greek philosophers and thinkers were the first to suggest a concept of the atom.
Democritus, who was foremost among them, thought that the smallest piece of matter called the
atom was indivisible.

* Contributions of Alchemists to the Science in Chemistry

Chemists use symbols to designate the elements. The Greeks were the first to explain how
chemical changes occur.

Pseudoscience, called, alchemy, dominated 2000 years of chemistry history. Some alchemists
were mystics and some were serious scientists. Serious ones discovered several elements and
prepared mineral acids.

Robert Boyle carefully measured the relationship between the pressure and volume of air. He
viewed that a substance was an element if it could be further broken down into simpler
substances.

* Contribution of John Dalton toward the Understanding of the Concept of Chemical Elements
Elements are primary substances that compose all matters in our surroundings. In fact there are
118 of them. Eighty-eight of them are naturally occurring and the rest of them are produced
artificially and cannot be found in nature.

Atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element. The
idea of the atom id relatively new. It gained acceptance as a theory only in the early 1800s when
John Dalton, an English teacher and scientist, proposed an atomic theory:
1. All elements of matter are composed of atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical properties.

3. Compounds are composed of two or more elements.

4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms.

In 1803, John Dalton proposed an atomic theory that says:

1. Atom are indivisible particles and all elements are composed of atoms.

2. Same elements have exactly alike atoms.

3. Atoms of different elements are different.

4. Two or more atoms of elements can be combined to form compounds.

5. Atoms are units of chemical change.

* Atomic Models

In the early 1900s several scientists made experimental investigations that reshaped Dalton’s
idea of the atom.

* Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model of the Atom

In 1897, J.J Thomson, an English scientist, first speculated that the atom is made up of even
smaller particles. Since atom is known to be a neutral particle of matter, there must be something
that balances the negative electron. So, Thomson thought that positively charged particles existed
in the atom. In this model, the atom is made up of something like a positively charged pudding-
like material in which negatively charged electrons were scattered like plums in the pudding.
* Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

In 1908, Ernest Rutherford, an English physicist, was working on an experiment which was
remotely related to the unfolding of the mysteries of the structure of the atom. In his experiment,
he fired a stream of alpha particles, which are tiny positively charge particles, at a thin sheet of
gold foil.

Rutherford’s model is an atom where all of its positive charges are contained at its center in the
nucleus and the negatively charged electrons are contained outside the nucleus around the edge
of the atom.

* Bohr’s Model of the Atom

In 1913, Neils Bohr made an improvement on Rutherford’s model. In his model, he placed each
electron on a specific energy level. This electron moved in definite orbits, that were located at
certain distances, around the nucleus just like how the planets revolve around the Sun in our
solar system.

* The Wave Model of the Atom

The most recent atomic model was based on the principle of wave mechanics which involves
complex mathematical equations and are quite complicated. This is based on the findings of
Rutherford and Bohr and the principle of wave mechanics. It states that an atom is composed of
small positively charged nucleus, surrounded by a large region where there are enough electrons
surrounding the nucleus to make the atom neutral.

Lesson 2.2 Structure of the Atom

* The Nucleus

Found at the center of the atom. Ninety-nine percent of the mass of the atom is located in this
core. The two main sub particles of the atom are found in the nucleus, they are the proton and
neutron. Moving around the nucleus are the electrons.

* The Proton

A positively charged sub particle found in the nucleus. They are all identical, regardless of the
element in which they are found.
* The Neutron

All neutrons are identical. They are electrically neutral. They have no charge. They share the
nucleus with the protons. They are slightly more massive than a proton, but their mass is still
considered as a 1 a.m.u like the proton.

* The Electron

In an atom, the number of positively charged proton is equal to the number of negatively charged
electrons. The exact location of the electrons cannot be known. An electron with lower energy
level is located close to the nucleus while that with the higher energy level is located far from the
nucleus.

* How did the concept of atomic number lead to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory?

All atoms can be identified through the number of protons in their nucleus and the number of
electrons that move around the nucleus.

Atoms of the same element are not all identical because most elements have two or more
isotopes. Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass number. This is die
to their different number of neutrons.

* Nuclear Reactions Involved in the Synthesis of New Elements

Nuclear reactions are so much different from ordinary chemical reactions. Here, elements are
converted to other elements or isotopes while in ordinary chemical reactions atoms are
rearranged by the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.

To balance a nuclear reaction, the total of all atomic numbers must be balanced and the total of
all the mass numbers of the products and reactants must also be balanced.

Chapter 3: The Properties of Matter Relate to Their Chemical Structure

Lesson 3.1 Polar and Nonpolar Molecules

* Geometry of Molecules

One of the most important effects of molecular geometry is molecular polarity. In influences the
physical, chemical, and biological properties of substances.

Molecules of compounds are formed by chemical bonds. Either iconic(occur between a metal
and nonmetal) or covalent(occur between nonmetals). This two types of bonding are at the two
extremes of bonding spectrum. There are bonds lying in between the two extremes, called polar
or polar covalent bonds.

In a pure covalent bond, neutral atoms share electrons equally between them. In a polar covalent
bond, partially charged atoms are held together by unequally shared electrons.

Electronegativity, which is the ability of an atom to draw shared electrons toward itself,
determines the electron density of the shared electrons or the place where the electrons spend
most of their time.

* Polarity Related to Properties of Molecules

Molecular structure affects the properties of a substance and how it interacts with other chemical
substances. It also determines how a molecule interacts with other substances.

Several geometrical shapes of molecules are the following:

(a) AB2 molecules which are either linear or bent.
(b) AB3 molecules which can be trigonal planar, T-shaped, or trigonal pyramid.

Lesson 3.2 General Types of Intermolecular Forces

* General Types of Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces are attractive columbic interactions between molecules. One example is in
the form of ionic bonding, this attractive force is between two oppositely charged ions.

Neutral molecules with partial charges can also exhibit attractive forces. They are partly
responsible for the properties associated with particular substances. The attractive force between
two polar substances is called a dipole-dipole attraction.

The strength of intermolecular forces determines the state of a substance under a given set of
conditions. It also depends on the molar mass of the substance.

This discussion on intermolecular forces will revolve around attractive forces that act between
atoms or molecules of pure substances. They are collectively called van der Waals forces.

1. Dipole-dipole interactions
Attractive forces that act between polar molecules.

2. Hydrogen bonding
Occurs only between molecules that contain hydrogen bonded to small, highly electronegative
atoms like fluorine.

3. Dispersion forces
Attractive forces between gases like O2 and N2 which can be liquefied under correct conditions
of pressure and temperature.

4. Ion-dipole interaction
The force of attraction between ion and polar molecules like NaCl in water to form an aqueous
solution.

* Identifying the Type of Intermolecular Forces as Reflected by the Properties of Substances

Properties of substances depend upon the types of intermolecular forces that hold them together
like when molecules with dipole moment meet another molecule with dipole, too. The positive
end of the dipole gets attracted to the negative end of the other dipole.

Physical properties of covalent substances can be classified into molecular covalent type and the
network type species.

Lesson 3.3 Different Materials Have Different Used Depending on Their Properties

* Organic Compounds Have Plenty of Used in Daily Life

Organic compounds are substances that contain carbon, usually in combination with elements
such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and halogens.

Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen. These are:
1. Alkanes - only have single bonds.
2. Alkenes - contain one or more double bonds.
3. Alkynes - ones with triple bonds.
4. Aromatic - contain one or more benzene rings.
* Carbon’s Special Properties Enable it to Form Myriads of Compounds

Carbon has a special place in chemistry because of its ability to form many different compounds.
Its position in the periodic table gives it the following unique characteristics:
1. Its electronic configuration prohibits ion formation effectively.
2. Its small atomic radius allows the atoms to approach one another closely giving rise to a
stronger carbon-carbon bond and a stable compound.
3. Its valence electrons ate in the second shell where there is no d orbital that can be occupied or
attached by lone pairs from other substances resulting in a chemical reaction.

* Uses of Some Common Materials that Depend on their Properties

Organic compounds are used in medical implants, sports equipment, electronic devices,
construction supplies for buildings and furniture, and household gadgets.

* Structures of Biological Macromolecules Determine their Properties and Functions

Biomolecules are large molecules called macromolecules or polymers. Some of these biological
molecules are:

1. Carbohydrates - also called saccharides which means sugar.

2. Lipids - belong to the family of biomolecules. Common property is their being soluble in
organic solvents but not in water.
3. Nucleic acids - molecules in our cells that store and direct information for cellular growth and
reproduction.
4. Proteins - made of amino acids and provides structure in membranes, builds cartilages and
connective tissues, transports oxygen in blood and muscles, etc.

Chapter 4: Chemical Changes

Lesson 4.1 Rate of Reaction

* Collision Theory of Chemical Reaction

The general equation,

reactant —> product
represents a chemical reaction.

Chemical reaction happens when reactants collide with one another. According to the collision
theory of chemical kinetics, the greater the frequency of collisions, the higher the rate of
reaction. Which means reaction rate is directly proportional to the number pf molecular
collisions per second.

Collisions resulting in a reaction to form a product is called effective collision. A minimum

amount of energy called activation energy will initiate a chemical reaction.

Other factors to be considered in increasing the rate of reaction of the reactants are the following:
a. reactant concentration
b. increase in temperature
c. increase in the surface area of a solid reactant
d. properly oriented molecules at collision

* The Roles of Catalysts in Reaction Rates

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of reaction without itself being consumed.
Addition of catalyst in the reaction helps to facilitate the increase of reaction rate.

The types of catalysis are the following:

1. Heterogeneous Catalysis - reactants and catalyst are in different places. The catalyst is usually
solid and the reactant is either a liquid or gas.
2. Homogeneous Catalysis - reactants and catalyst are dispersed in a single phase, usually a
liquid.
3. Biological Catalysis - enzymes are biological catalysts.

Lesson 4.2 Chemical Change

* Physical and Chemical Changes

For every chemical change that occurs, a new substance with different chatacteristics are formed;
in a physical change no new substances are formed.

* Chemical Equation

In a chemical equation, the reactants are found on the left side of the equation while the products
are found on the right side of the equation.
* Balancing a Chemical Equation

In balancing a chemical equation, the number of atoms in the reactant side must be equal to the
number of atoms on the product side.

* Mole Relationships in Chemical Equations

The law of conservation of mass states that the mass of the reactants is equal to the mass of the
products in a chemical reaction.

* Limiting Reactants

The limiting reactants limit the amount of the product that can be formed by the reaction. After
all the limiting reactant is consumed, the product will stop to form.

* Reaction Yield

Theoretical yield is the amount of the product that you can obtain in a reaction when
stoichiometry is used to calculate it.

* Energy in Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction will proceed when the molecules of the reactants come in contact with one
another. In a chemical reaction, energy is either given off or absorbed.

* How Energy is Harnessed from Different Sources

Energy causes matter to do work, change position, or move. It can be harnessed from the
following sources:
1. Fossil fuels
2. Biogas
3. Geothermal
4. Hydrothermal
5. Batteries
6. Solar cells
7. Biomass
Chapter 5: Household and Personal Care Products

Lesson 5.1 Common Examples of Cleaning Materials for the House and for Personal Care

* Saponification It is the process of making soap. Soap is the most common household cleaning
material. Today soaps are prepared from oils and fats from vegetables and plants like coconut
oil. In a soap molecule, there is a polar end and a nonpolar end. The polar end is hydrophilic or
“water loving” while at the the other end, is a long, nonpolar hydrocarbon chain that is
hydrophobic or “water fearing”. When soap is mixed with dirt or grease, the nonpolar bonds are
attracted to the nonpolar pill and grease particle.

* Other Cleaning Agents Cleaning agents are substances which are usually liquids, powders,
sprays, or granules. They are used to remove dirt and usually used for health purposes. Other
cleaning agents are:
1. Borax - strong cleaner and water softener.
2. Lysol - household disinfectant spray.
3. Rubbing alcohol or Isopropyl - used as an antiseptic.
4. Waxes - used as protective coatings for furniture, cars, and floors.

Lesson 5.2 Personal Care Products

* Emulsions Are colloidal dispersion of liquids in liquids.

An emulsifying agent is needed for the formation of an emulsion and for maintaining its stability.

* Some Common Personal Care Products

These products are used to enhance one’s appearance in order to gain more confidence.
1. Cosmetics - typical organic compounds that are modified natural pills and fats as well as a
variety of petro chemically-derived agents.

2. Lotions and creams - lanolin extracted from waxes obtained from woll is used in the
manufacture of hand and face lotions. Shaving creams are emulsion of oils, soaps or surfactants,
and water.

3. Deodorants - zirconium tetrachlorohydrex is the active ingredient of a deodorant.

In the production of their derivatives
b. Aliphatic alcohols
c. Ethyl Acetate
d. Fragrant esters
e. Aliphatic hydroxyl acids

Part 2: Physics Chapter

Chapter 6: Earth Is not the Center of the Universe After All

Lesson 6.1 The Greek’s Three Types of Terrestrial Motions

The Greeks considered three types of terrestrial motions:

1. Natural motion - was the result of the movement of the things trying to get to where they
belonged.
2. Forced motion - was motion that required intervention of an outside mover.
3. Rest - objects not allowed to follow their natural motions would just sit still or would take a
rest.

There were also the so-called diurnal motion which was the apparent daily motion of the sky
from easy to west. Another motion observed by the early people was the one called annual
motion, which referred to the events or phenomena that came annually or once a year. Lastly is
the precession of the equinoxes that refers to the gradual shift in the orientation of Earth’s axis of
rotation.

* Concept of the Spherical Earth

Aristotle supported this idea wherein he provided physical and observational arguments
regarding this matter. He observed that every portion of Earth tends toward the center until, by
convergence or compression, they form a sphere. This led the ancient Greeks to believe that
Earth is a sphere.

* Plato’s Problem of “Saving the Appearances” Constrained Greek models of the Universe

It was the job of a philosopher to “save the appearances” by connecting reality with truth using
logic. Plato observed that the planets do not move at a constant rate and moved in irregular
retrogade loops.
Lesson 6.2 Models of Astronomical Phenomena

* Models of the Universe by Eudoxus, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus

Aristotle’s model of the universe was constructed in layers with Earth located at the center. In his
model, Earth itself was layered with earth, water, air, and fire. The Ptolemaic model saw Earth
lying stationary at the center of the celestial sphere. Aristrachus, a Greek mathematician
presented the first known model of the universe placing the Sun at its center. Copernicus
formulated a moving Earth revolving around the Sun. Galileo was the first to recognize the
heliocentric model of the universe by Copernicus. His observations weakened Ptolemic’s
geocentric model.

* Kepler’s Discovery of His Laws of Planetary Motion Johannes Kepler obtained all recorded
data and analyzed them. He formulated the three laws of planetary motion based on the vast
amount of data gathered by Tycho Brache. Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion are as
follows:

1. The planets move in elliptical orbits.

2. An imaginary line from the planet to the Sun sweeps equal areas in equal time intervals.
3. The ration of the squares of the periods(T) of the planets is proportional to the cubes of their
mean distance(R) from the Sun.

Chapter 7: The Laws of Physics are Universal

Lesson 7.1 Aristotelian versus Galilean Views of Motion

* Aristotle’s Ideas of Motion

The viewpoint of Aristotle regarding freely falling objects was that heavier objects fall faster
than lighter objects.

* Galileo’s Thought Experiment About Motion For many centuries nobody seemed to be
successful in challenging the ideas of Aristotle. Twenty centuries later, Galileo challenged
Aristotle’s theories concerning motion. He argued that objects released at the same time from the
same height, regardless of their weight, will fall at the same time. Galileo simply showed that it
is natural for a moving body to do so, just as it is for a stationary body to remain at rest. This
natural tendency of the body is called inertia. Inertia is the tendency of a body to maintain its
state of rest or of uniform speed along a straight line.
* Acceleration due to Gravity
If air resitance is negligible, a body falls freely under the influence of gravity with uniform
acceleration. The standard value is 9.8 m/s^2. Lesson 7.2 Graphical Representation of Motion

* Speed and Velocity

Speed is the measure of how fast an object moves. If an object moves from one position to
another in a measured time, its average speed v is obtained by dividing the distance traveled by
the time taken to cover the distance. The SI unit for speed is meter per second or m/s.

In physics, the speed of the body at a certain instance of time is called instantaneous speed. If
this speed does not change at any moment, then the object is said to move at constant speed.
Speed in a given direction is called velocity.

Velocity is a vector quantity and is defined as the rate of change in displacement.

* Acceleration
When the velocity of an object is changing, we say that the body is experiencing acceleration. It
is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. When the object slows down, it is said to
have a negative acceleration which is called deceleration.

* Distance-Time Graph
Motion graphs are useful tools that can tell you how far a body has travelled, how fast it is
moving, and all the speed changes that take place.

* Velocity-Time Graph The slope of the graph gives the acceleration of the moving object.
Average velocity is the rate of change in displacement per unit time interval.

Lesson 7.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

* Newton’s First Law of Motion

Law of Inertia: An object at rest remains at rest or if it is in motion continues to be in motion
with a constant speed along a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.

* Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Law of Acceleration: The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force acting on it, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.

* Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Law of Interaction: When two bodies interact with one another, the forces they exert on one
another are equal magnitude and opposite in direction.

Lesson 7.4 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of the
mass of the objects.

Lesson 7.5 Mass, Momentum, and Energy Conservation

* Mass and Inertia

Recall that inertia of the resistance of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion. The
mass of an object is a measure of inertia.

* Mass and Weight

Mass is more fundamental than weight. Mass is a measure of the actual material present in a
body and weight is the gravitational force that acts on the material of the body.

* Momentum
Momentum of a body is the product of the mass of the body and its velocity. The greater the net
force applied on an object, the greater will be the change in velocity, and hence, the change in
momentum.

* Conservation of Momentum
States that the net momentum of the system before an event is equal to the net momentum of the
system after an event.

* Conservation of Energy
Law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It may be
transformed from one form to another, but the total amount remains the same.

Chapter 8: Light Acts as a Wave and a Particle

Lesson 8.1 Reflection and Refraction of Light

* Reflection of Light
The bouncing of light upon striking a smooth and shiny surface. Laws of Reflection states:

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal line perpendicular to the reflecting surface
at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection or i = r.

In reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

* Refraction of Light
The bending of light beam when it passes from one medium to another. Refraction is the change
in velocity of light as it enters another medium. Refraction, n, is thus defined as the ratio of two
speeds of light between two media.

* How does light interact with matter?

Several factors determine what happens when the ray of light encounters a surface. These factors
include:
a. Nature of the material
b. Smoothness of the material
c. The angle at which the ray of light is incident on the surface

* How the wave model and the particle model of light explain the propagation, reflection, and
refraction of light?
Many phenomena observed in everyday life are explained using the particle theory and the wave
theory of light. Some of these are the following:
1. Reflection can be explained using the wave nature of light.
2. Refraction of light is explained using the wave nature of light.
3. The propagation of light was explained by both the wave theory and the particle theory.
Lesson 8.2 The Photon Theory of Light

* Photon Theory of Light Accounts for Atomic Spectra

Albert Einstein stated that light consists of discrete units of energy called photons. The energy of
photon is directly proportional to the frequency of vibration.

* The Photon Concept and Its Applications

A photon is a particle of light. A higher frequency light has more energy than a lower frequency
light. Light is a stream of moving photons.

The number of photons in a stream determines if the light is dim or intense. Intense light has a lot
of photons while dim light has only a few photons.

* Wavelength-Speed-Frequency Relation
The speed of a wave is determined by the number of waves passing through a point at a certain
time interval and the length of the wave of the wavelength.

The speed of the wave is the product of its frequency and its wavelength.

* Contributions of Galileo and Roemer to the View that the Speed of Light is Finite
Galileo and Roemer were the first to speculate that the speed of light was finite. Galileo made an
interesting attempt to determine the speed of light. He did this by sending signals to his assistant
on a nearby mountain.

While Roemer concluded that if the radius of the Earth’s orbit could be determined, the speed of
light could be calculated.

Lesson 8.3 Electrons Can Behave Like Waves

* How are dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction different from one another?
The index of refraction of a transparent material is related to the speed of light in that material.
When light encounters a transparent material it bends depending on the angle by which it
encounters the material.
Since white light is composed of different colors of different wavelengths, the colors bend at
different angles thus separating white light into different colors. This path separation among the
colors results in the phenomenon called dispersion of light.

Scattering of light is the phenomenon that occurs when light is absorbed and reradiated by
particles in the air which are about the size of gas molecules.

Interferences is the phenomenon that can be explained in terms of the wave properties of sound.
To observe the interference effects of light, the following conditions must be met:
1. The sources must be coherent.
2. The sources must be monochromatic or a single wavelength.
3. The principle of superposition must apply.

Diffraction is the bending of light around corners of obstacles or barriers. It occurs when light
waves pass through these obstacles or barriers or through small particles.

Chapter 9: Physics Helps Us Understand the Cosmos

Lesson 9.1 Special Theory of Relativity

Einstein’s special theory of relativity is about the observation of events from different viewpoints
which is based on two principles:
1. Consistent law of principle The laws of physics are the same in all frames of reference that are
moving at a constant velocity with respect to one another.
2. Constancy of speed principle The speed of light in empty space has the same magnitude for all
observers regardless of their velocity.

* Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity

Also called Einstein’s geometric theory of relativity. He maintained that gravitational interaction
does not come from gravity. He explained that the interaction is between a mass and the time-
space geometry where the mass is located.

Einstein’s general theory of relativity has two postulates.

1. All laws of nature have the same form for observers in any frame of reference whether it is
accelerated or not.
2. In the vicinity of any point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated frame of
reference in the absence of gravitational effects.

The general theory of relativity predicted the existence of gravitational waves. Some of the
consequences of the theory is that time is altered by gravity.

Lesson 9.2 We Live in an Expanding Universe

* We are living in an expanding universe

The evidence that the universe expands come from the studies of the red shifts of the Doppler
effects in the lights of the galaxies. The presence of extra solar planets can be detected using the
Doppler shift method and transit method.

In measuring the distance of far-off objects, the change in the wavelength of the objects is
determined using the spectrum that shows that light of shortened wavelength means an object is
moving toward Earth while that of a lengthened wavelength shows that an object is moving away
from Earth.

Pluto is no longer considered a planet, because it does not clear its orbital zone. It is now
considered a dwarf planet.
Physical
Science