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The difference between each column on table above must be noted (e.g., what is a physical
quantity, or what a derived unit is).
Derived units consist of some combination of the base units. The base units may be
multiplied together or divided by one another, but never added or subtracted.
(b) recall the following SI base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current
(A), temperature (K)
SI units is founded upon seven fundamental or base units.
Comment: You must memorize all of the SI base units above. All other units are derived
units (e.g., volt, pressure, force etc). Don’t be confused.
(f) use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of
both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (µ), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k),
mega (M), giga (G), tera (T)
Sometimes it is useful to estimate how big the number is. This process is called determining
the order of magnitude (the power of ten a number is raised). For example, 1.2 x 105 x (2.6 x
106) ≈ 1011. If the answer has a different order of magnitude, say, 1012 we know that it is
wrong
2 Measurement techniques
(a) Candidates should be able to use techniques for the measurement of length, volume, angle,
mass, time, temperature and electrical quantities appropriate to the ranges of magnitude
implied by the relevant parts of the syllabus.
Quantity Equipment
Length Meter rule, vernier caliper, micrometer screw gauge
Mass Top-pan balance, spring balance, lever balance
Angle Protractor
Time Stop watch, stop clock, digital timer, c.r.o
Temperature Mercury in glass thermometer, thermocouple thermometer
Current Ammeter (digital or analogue), multimeter
Voltage Voltmeter (digital or analogue), multimeter
Frequency c.r.o
(d) show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors (including zero errors)
and random errors
1. Systematic error
a) Will result in all readings being either above or below the accepted value OR the
average / peak is not the true value / the readings are not centred around the true
value – B1 (2011/Jun-P23/Q1bi)
b) Cannot be eliminated by repeated readings and averaging
c) Can only be reduced by improving experimental techniques (e.g., calibrate devices
before use, make sure no parallax error etc).
2. Examples of systematic errors:
a) Zero error – Scale reading not zero before measurements are taken. Check for zero
error before measurements.
b) Wrongly calibrated scale
c) Reaction time of experimenter – Delay between the experimenter observing the
event and starting the timing device. May be as long as 0.2 – 0.5s.
3. Random errors
a) Results in readings being scattered around the accepted/true value OR readings
have positive and negative values around the peak value / values are scattered /
wide range – B1 (2011/Jun-P23/Q1bi)
b) Can be reduced by repeating a reading and averaging OR
c) by plotting a graph and drawing a best-fit line.
4. Examples of random errors:
a) Incorrect reading of a scale
b) Inaccurate timing of a complete oscillation
c) Taking readings that changes with time, especially when two instruments have to be
read simultaneously.
d) Parallax error
5. State how the instrument is (2010/Jun-P22/Q1bi):
a) checked so as to avoid systematic error in the measurements
- look/check for zero error – B1
b) used so as to reduce random errors
- take several readings – M1
- to get an average value for the reading – A1
(f) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or
percentage uncertainties
1. Uncertainty indicates the range of value within which a measurement is likely to lie.
3 Kinematics
(a) define displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
1. Distance (scalar) is the actual path travelled – B1 (2011/Jun-P22/Q1ciii)
2. Displacement (vector) is the straight line distance between start and finish points (in
that direction) / minimum distance– B1 (2011/Jun-P22/Q1ciii)
3. Speed (scalar) = distance/time taken
4. Velocity (vector) = displacement/time taken
5. Acceleration (vector) = rate of change of velocity – A1 (2013/Jun-P23/Q2aii)
(h) recall that the weight of a body is equal to the product of its mass and the acceleration of
free fall
(i) describe an experiment to determine the acceleration of free fall using a falling body
The setup
a) Steel ball-bearing held by an
electromagnet
b) An electronic timer
c) A trapdoor/force sensor
Measurements
a) Record the time taken t for ball to drop at height h.
b) Repeat the experiment several times for different values of h.
c) Plot the graph of h vs t2
d) Good physics: the average time should be taken for each h to reduce random errors.
Data analysis to obtain free fall acceleration
a) Obtain the gradient of the graph
b) The gradient = ½ g
c) Free fall acceleration = gradient x 2
Sources of uncertainties
a) Electromagnet may retain some magnetic fields when turned off, delaying the complete
release of the ball (systematic error)
b) Measuring height h may be subjected to precision error of 1 mm when measured using
a meter rule/tape.
(Please see pg. 29 for other configurations)
(j) describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with air
resistance
1. The variation with time t of vertical speed v of a parachutist falling from an aircraft is
shown in the figure below (2012/Nov-P21/Q1bii):
Explain the variation of the resultant force acting on the parachutist from t = 0
(point A) to t = 15 s (point C):
a) resultant force = weight – frictional force – B1
b) frictional force increases with speed – B1
c) at start frictional force = 0 / at end weight = frictional force – B1
d) When resultant force is zero on the vertical direction, terminal velocity is reached.
2. A sky-diver jumps from a high-altitude balloon. Explain briefly (2009/Nov-P21/Q2a):
(a) why the acceleration of the sky-diver decreases with time
- (air) resistance increases with speed – M1
- resultant / accelerating force decreases – A1
(b) why the free-fall acceleration is 9.8 ms–2 at the start of the jump.
- (air) resistance is zero OR weight / gravitational force is only force – B1
(k) describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform
acceleration in a perpendicular direction.
Description
1. known as projectile motion.
2. applicable to objects moving at constant velocity, whilst acted upon by a force with
vector perpendicular to its velocity.
3. The force could be imparted by gravitational fields (e.g., golfball travelling in the air), or
electric field (e.g., electrons moving between parallel plates with uniform electric
fields.)
Assumptions
4. Zero frictional forces (e.g., no air resistance)
Motion
5. Horizontal axis OR axis with constant velocity:
a) Acceleration is zero
b) Displacement x after time t is x = xo + uxt
6. Vertical axis OR axis where force is acting:
a) Continuously acted upon by a constant force
b) The velocity v after time t is v = u + at
c) The displacement y after time t is given as y = yo + ut + ½ at2
7. The resultant velocity is computed by adding vx and vy
8. The trajectory of the object will result in a parabola
4 Dynamics
(a) state Newton’s 1st law of motion
A body continues at rest or constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant (external) force
– B1 (2012/Jun-P22/Q3a)
(b) show an understanding that mass is the property of a body that resists change in motion
(c) describe and use the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass
Weight is the force due to the gravitational field – B1 (2013/Jun-P21/Q2a)
(d) define linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity
(e) define force as rate of change of momentum
(g) state the principle of conservation of momentum
1. Stated as (2013/Jun-P23/Q3ai)
a) the total momentum of (an isolated) system (of interacting bodies) remains
constant – M1
b) provided there are no resultant external forces– A1
2. For the collision between a ball and a wall, state how the law of conservation of
momentum apply (2012/Nov-P22/Q2ci):
a) change of momentum of ball and wall is zero – B1
(i) recognize that, for a perfectly elastic collision, the relative speed of approach is equal to the
relative speed of separation
5 Forces
(a) describe the forces on mass and charge in uniform gravitational and electric fields, as
appropriate
(b) show an understanding of the origin of the upthrust acting on a body in a fluid
Upthrust is the pressure difference between the pressure at the bottom of the object and
the pressure at the top of the object immerse in a fluid.
(c) show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous forces including air
resistance
1. In describing the motion of a cyclist (2012/Nov-P23/Q3bi):
a) as the speed increases drag / air resistance increases – B1
b) resultant force reduces hence acceleration is less – B1
c) constant speed when resultant force is zero – B1 (allow one mark for speed
increases and acceleration decreases)
(e) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point
known as its centre of gravity
1. CoG defined as: (2013-22/6-3a)
a) the point where (all) the weight (of the body) – M1
b) is considered / seems to act – A1
2. In an experiment used to find the centre of gravity (2010/Nov-P22/Q3c):
(i) List the two forces, other than its weight and air resistance, that act on the card
during the time that it is swinging. State where the forces act.
(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces that tends to produce rotation only
(g) define the moment of a force and the torque of a couple
1. State the principle of moments (2013/Jun-P22/Q3bii)
The sum of the clockwise moments about a point equals the sum of the anticlockwise
moments (about the same point) – B1
2. moment of a force product of the force and the perpendicular distance (to the pivot)
(2011/Jun-P21/Q3b)
3. The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the (perpendicular)
distance between forces – M1 & A1
(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a
system is in equilibrium.
1. In addition, in certain systems are in equilibrium when the net / resultant moment is
zero OR sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments (2011/Jun-
21/Q3ci)
2. Three co-planar forces act on a body that is in equilibrium. State how the triangle
confirms that the forces are in equilibrium (2010/Jun-P23/Q2bii):
- if the triangle is ‘closed’ (then the forces are in equilibrium) – B1
3. Describe how to draw a vector triangle to represent these forces (2010/Jun-P23/Q2bi):
a) each force is represented by the side of a triangle/by an arrow – M1
b) in magnitude and direction – A1
c) arrows joined, head to tail – B1
a) elastic potential energy / strain energy to kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy
State the principle of conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another
(b) show an understanding of the concept of work in terms of the product of a force and
displacement in the direction of the force
(f) distinguish between gravitational potential energy, and
From (2011/Jun-P21/Q4a):
a) gravitational potential energy (stored) when mass moved – B1
b) due to work done in gravitational field – B1
(k) recall and understand that the efficiency of a system is the ratio of useful work done by the
system to the total energy input
1. On why certain systems are not 100% efficient (2013l/Jun-P22/Q1aiii)
a) Name the specific type of energy relevant to the question (e.g., kinetic energy) and
mention that is not fully converted as it is exchanged between two objects (e.g.,
kinetic energy of wind not fully converted to the kinetic energy of blades on wind
generators)
b) State why item (a) is true: e.g., heat produced, mechanical friction in bearings. (You
must mention specifically where and why loss occurred)
9 Phases of matter
(a) define the term density
density = mass/volume (2011/Nov-P21/Q1a)
(b) relate the difference in the structures and densities of solids, liquids and gases to simple
ideas of the spacing, ordering and motion of molecules
1. Spacing: how far apart are the atoms on average
(c) describe a simple kinetic model for solids, liquids and gases
1. General assumptions of the simple kinetic model:
a) Matter is made up of many tiny particles – atoms or molecules
b) These particles tend to move about (hence kinetic)
c) In solids, atoms are held together by strong interatomic forces, thus they are
movement are restricted to oscillations about their equilibrium positions.
d) Work must be done to break the rigid interatomic forces of solid to form liquid so
they can move freely.
2. Assumptions of the simple kinetic model of a gas (2011/Jun-P21/Q6a):
a) large number of molecules / atoms / particles – B1
b) molecules in random motion – B1
c) no intermolecular forces – B1
d) elastic collisions – B1
e) time of collisions much less than time between collisions – B1
f) volume of molecules much less than volume of containing vessel– B1
3. State the evidence for the assumption that (2010/Jun-P23/Q4ai):
a) there are significant forces of attraction between molecules in the solid state:
- solid has fixed volume and fixed shape/incompressible – B1
b) the forces of attraction between molecules in a gas are negligible.
- gas fills any space into which it is put – B1
(d) describe an experiment that demonstrates Brownian motion and appreciate the evidence
for the movement of molecules provided by such an experiment
1. Explain what is meant by Brownian motion (2008/Nov-P21/Q5a):
a) haphazard / random / erratic / zig-zag movement – M1
b) of (smoke) particles (do not allow molecules / atoms) – A1
2. Suggest and explain why Brownian motion provides evidence for the movement of
molecules as assumed in the kinetic theory of gases (2008/Nov-P21/Q5b):
a) motion is due to unequal / unbalanced collision rates(on different faces) – B1
b) (unequal collision rate due to) random motion of (gas) molecules / atoms – B1
3. Smoke from a poorly maintained engine contains large particles of soot. Suggest why
the Brownian motion of such large particles is undetectable (2008/Nov-P21/Q5b):
a) collisions with air molecules average out – M1
b) this prevents haphazard motion – A1
c) particle is more massive / heavier / has large inertia – M1
d) collisions cause only small movements / accelerations – A1
4. On describing the apparatus (2013/Jun-P22/Q4a)
a) cell with particles e.g. smoke (container must be closed) – B1
b) diagram showing suitable arrangement with light illumination and microscope – B1
5. On observations made from experiment (2013/Jun-P22/Q4b)
a) specks / flashes of light – M1
b) in random motion – A1
6. On conclusions about the properties of molecules of a gas (2013/Jun-P22/Q4c)
a) cannot see what is causing smoke to move hence (air) molecules smaller than
smoke particles – B1
b) continuous motion of smoke particles implies continuous motion of molecules – B1
c) random motion of particles implies random motion of molecules – B1
(e) distinguish between the structure of crystalline and non-crystalline solids with particular
reference to metals, polymers and amorphous materials
With regards to atomic arrangements (2010/Nov-P23/Q2):
a) Crystals/Metals: atoms / ions / particles in a regular arrangement / lattice long
range order / orderly pattern – B1 AND (lattice) repeats itself – B1
b) Polymers: long chain molecules / chains of monomers – B1 AND some cross-linking
between chains / tangled chain – B1
c) Amorphous solids: disordered arrangement of molecules / atoms / particles – B1
AND any ordering is short-range – B1
10 Deformation of solids
(b) describe the behavior of springs in terms of load, extension, elastic limit, Hooke’s law and
the spring constant (i.e. force per unit extension).
1. Hooke’s Law state that extension is proportional to force / load (2012-22/11-6a)
*don’t mention that extension is proportional to mass (2012-21/6-3ci)
(c) define and use the terms stress, strain and the Young modulus
1. stress = force / cross-sectional area – B1 (2013-23/6-4ai)
2. strain = extension / original length – B1 (2013-23/6-4aii)
3. E = stress/strain – C1 (2013-23/6-4bi)
(d) describe an experiment to determine the Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire
From (2011-22/6-4a):
The Setup
a) clamped horizontal wire over pulley or vertical wire attached to ceiling with mass
attached – B1
b) details: reference mark on wire with fixed scale alongside – B1
Measurements
a) measure original length of wire to reference mark with metre ruler / tape – B1
b) measure diameter with micrometer / digital calipers – B1
c) measure initial and final reading (for extension) with metre ruler or other suitable scale
– B1
d) measure / record mass or weight used for the extension – B1
e) Marks for good techniques: measure diameter in several places / remove load and
check wire returns to original length / take several readings with different loads – B1
15 Waves
(a) describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes, springs and ripple
tanks
1. Wave motion is a means of moving energy from one point to another by particles that
vibrate in direction parallel (longitudinal wave) or perpendicular (transverse wave) to the
direction of energy transfer.
2. All waves exhibit common properties, where they can be reflected, refracted, diffracted,
and can interact to produce interference patterns. These properties can be observed on a
ripple tank.
3. Reflection: as waves strike a suitable reflective medium, they are reflected at an angle
similar to the angle of incidence. There is no change in the wavelength/wave front.
4. Refraction: The change in direction of a wave due to change in speed
5. Diffraction: defined as the spreading of wave into regions where it would not be seen if it
moved only in straight line (aka geometric shadow)
(b) show an understanding of and use the terms displacement, amplitude, phase difference,
period, frequency, wavelength and speed
1. From (2010-22/11-5ai,ii):
a) Displacement: distance (of point on wave) from rest / equilibrium position – B1
a) Amplitude: the maximum displacement of a particle in the wave.
b) Phase difference: the difference in the relative positions of the crests or troughs of
two waves of the same frequency expressed in radians or degrees.
c) Period: the time for a particle in the wave to complete one complete cycle
a) Frequency: number of oscillations per unit time (not per second) – B1 (2010/Jun-
P23/Q5ai)
b) Wavelength: distance moved by wave energy / wavefront during one cycle of the
source or minimum distance between two points with the same phase or between
adjacent crests or troughs. OR One wavelength is the distance between two
neighboring peaks or two neighboring troughs that are vibrating in-phase.
c) Speed: speed at which energy is transferred / speed of wavefront (2008/Jun-Q5aii)
2. The variation with distance x along a progressive wave of a quantity y, at a particular
time, is shown in the diagram below (2009/Nov-P21/Q5b):
4. When two progressive waves are in phase, they have a phase difference of 0 radians.
5. When two progressive waves are out of phase, they have a phase difference of π radians.
(i) show an understanding that polarization is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves.
1. Polarization is characterized by (2012/Nov-P23/Q5c):
a) vibrations are in one direction – M1
b) perpendicular to direction of propagation / energy transfer – A1
2. Illustrations for polarizations
(l) state that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in free space
1. The nature of EM waves
EM Wave Wavelength/m
Radiowaves >106 to 10-1
Microwaves 10-1 to 10-3
Infrared 10-3 to 7 x 10-7
Visible 7 x 10-7 (red) to 4 x 10-7 (violet)
Ultraviolet 4 x 10-7 to 10-8
X-rays 10-8 to 10-13
γ-rays 10-10 to 10-16
16 Superposition
(a) explain and use the principle of superposition in simple applications
1. Explained as: (2012/Jun-P22/Q6a):
a) two waves travelling (along the same line) in opposite directions overlap/meet –
M1
b) same frequency / wavelength – A1
c) resultant displacement is the sum of displacements of each wave / produces nodes
and antinodes – B1
(Some question use superposition and interference interchangeably 2011/Jun-P21/Q7a)
(b) show an understanding of experiments that demonstrate stationary waves using
microwaves, stretched strings and air columns
1. Standing wave setup and demonstration using microwaves.
a) List all apparatus in the diagram above, and identify their functions. Wave source
(microwave transmitter), reflecting sheet (to reflect wave), microwave probe and
meter to detected wave intensity.
b) Observations: Probe will detect alternating regions of high and low intensities as it
is moved from the source to the reflecting sheet. These regions are the antinode
and node respectively.
c) Analysis/conclusion:
- Node is detected on the surface of reflecting sheet
- Regions with the highest intensities are the antinodes
- Waves travelling towards the reflector and waves that are reflected interfere to
form standing wave patterns.
- The distance between two consecutive node is equivalent to ½ λ
- If two nodes are detected between the reflector and the source (one single
loop), the wavelength of the microwave is 2L, where L is the distance between
the two nodes (fundamental mode).
- If 3 nodes are detected between the source and the reflector (2 loops), then
the wavelength is equal to the distance between the first node and the last
node (second harmonic)
2. A string stretched between two fixed points P and Q based on the figure below.
A vibrator is attached near end P of the string. End Q is fixed to a wall. The vibrator has
a frequency of 50 Hz and causes a transverse wave to travel along the string at a speed
of 40ms–1 .
Explain how this arrangement may produce a stationary wave on the string. (2013/Jun-
P22/Q5aii)
a) waves (travel along string and) reflect at wall/fixed end – B1
b) incident and reflected waves interfere/superpose (to form standing wave patterns)
– B1
c) analysis of wavelength is similar to item (1) above
3. The figure below shows an arrangement for producing stationary waves in a tube that is
closed at one end (2012/Nov-P22/Q4a):
Dr. Lee Chong Yew v1.0
P a g e | 22
Explain how waves from the loudspeaker produce stationary waves in the tube.
a) waves (travels along tube) reflect at closed end / end of tube – B1
b) incident and reflected waves or these two waves are in opposite directions – M1
c) interfere or stationary wave formed if tube length equivalent to λ/ 4, 3λ/ 4, etc. – A1
4. Use the principle of superposition to explain the formation of a stationary wave
(2012/Jun-P22/Q6a):
a) two waves travelling (along the same line) in opposite directions overlap/meet – M1
b) same frequency / wavelength – A1
c) resultant displacement is the sum of displacements of each wave / produces nodes
and antinodes – B1
5. Describe an experiment to determine the wavelength of sound in air using stationary
waves. Include a diagram of the apparatus in your answer (2012/Jun-P22/Q6b):
a) apparatus: source of wave (speaker) + detector (microphone attached to a c.r.o) +
reflection system (wall) – B1
b) adjustment to apparatus to set up standing waves – consecutive nodes and
antinodes detected as microphone is moved from the source to the wall – B1
c) measurements made to obtain wavelength (c.r.o) – B1 (the distance between two
nodes is equivalent to ½ λ)
(c) explain the formation of a stationary wave using a graphical method, and identify nodes and
antinodes
1. The properties of nodes and antinodes (2012/Nov-P22/Q4bi):
a) Node: no motion (as node) / zero amplitude – B1
b) Antinode: vibration backwards and forwards / maximum amplitude along length –
B1 OR position (along wave) where amplitude of vibration is a maximum – B1
(2008/Jun-Q5bii)
2. On formation of standing waves:
3. When the waves that form the standing wave (see diagram above) are 90o apart (or
separated by a time equivalent to 25% of the period), destructive interference will
result. If they are 180o apart, constructive interference will result, but the amplitude
will flip to the other end. See the diagram below:
The diffraction pattern formed on the screen has white light, called zero order, and
coloured spectra in other orders.
(i) Describe how the principle of superposition is used to explain white light at the
zero order.
a) (The) displacements (of each wavelength) add to give resultant displacement –
B1
b) each wavelength travels the same path difference or are in phase – B1
c) hence a white maximum (is produced) – A0
(ii) Describe how the principle of superposition is used to explain the difference in
position of red and blue light in the first-order spectrum (2012/Nov-P21/Q4bi):
a) to obtain a maximum, the path difference must be (equivalent to the multiple
of) λ or (the) phase difference (equivalent to the multiple) of 2π rad – B1
b) (Since) λ of red and blue are different – B1
c) maxima (occurs) at different angles / positions – A0
Explain clearly all the apparatus needed and what each item is used for. For other EM wave,
just change the source to other emitters such as light bulb (add an extra slit) and laser.
3. Generalized Observation: on changes that can be observed as a detector is moved along
interference fringes formed by light, water or microwaves:
a) Explain how the intensity of light alternate between high intensity and low intensity
OR waves superimpose to form regions of constructive interference and destructive
interference.
b) Note that the intensity or amplitude of wave is maximum on the zeroth order (i.e.,
the perpendicular distance between the separation of two slits.
4. Generalized Conclusion:
a) The separation between each consecutive bright fringe/maxima is constant
b) Bright fringe/maxima is formed when the path difference between the two
coherent source is a multiple of wavelength (nλ)
5. Changes that can be made to the setup to observe properties of interference patterns
(2013-21/6-5d)
a) slits made narrower – B1
b) slits put closer together (not just ‘make slits smaller’) – B1
Additional comment: Increase the distance (D) between the source of interference and
the wall at which the interference image is formed. This all came from x = Dλ/a and
d sinϴ = nλ
6. Based on the diffraction setup below (2010/Jun-P21/Q4c):
(a) state what effect, if any, the rotation of the grating will have on the
interference patterns
- No change for the position for zeroth order diffraction – B1
- 1st and higher order diffraction rotated by 90o – B1
(b) suggest a reason why in certain experiments, the interference patterns are
not symmetrical about the centre (e.g., the angle between the two 1st order
diffraction is different)
- Symmetry broken because screen not parallel to grating OR grating not normal
to (incident) light – B1
(h) show an understanding of the conditions required if two-source interference fringes are to
be observed
1. Process for microwaves to form constructive interference patterns (2013/Jun-P21/Q5a)
a) waves overlap / meet / superpose – B1
b) coherence / constant phase difference (not constant λ or frequency) – B1
c) path difference = 0, λ, 2λ or phase difference = 0, 2π, 4π – B1
d) same direction of polarization – B1
2. General conditions for constructive interference to occur (2012/Jun-P21/Q6aii):
a) path difference is either λ or nλ -- B1
b) phase difference is 360°or n ×360° or n2π rad
3. General conditions for destructive interference to occur (2012-21/6-6aii):
a) path difference is either λ/2 or (n+ ½) λ
b) phase difference is odd multiple of either 180° or π rad
* State features of a stationary wave that distinguish it from a progressive wave (2010/Jun-
P22/Q4a):
a) stationary wave does not transfer energy (no energy transfer) – B1
b) the amplitude of standing wave varies along its length/nodes and antinodes – B1
c) neighboring points (in inter-nodal loop) vibrate in phase, etc. – B1
VERY IMPORTANT!
1. For standing waves, the terms in-phase and phase difference is different to that used
for progressive waves.
2. In standing wave, in-phase refers to the fact that all points reaches amplitude
simultaneously. Thus every particle along a standing wave is in-phase.
3. Phase difference is no longer the measure of difference in angle between consecutive
crest or troughs. It is measure in terms of the difference in position of oscillation. For
example, the phase difference in a standing wave between points A and B below.is 180o
17 Electric fields
(a) show an understanding of the concept of an electric field as an example of a field of force
1. State what is meant by an electric field (2010/Jun-P21/Q5a):
a) region/area where a charge experiences a force – B1
define electric field strength as force per unit positive charge acting on a stationary point
charge
(e) describe the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of charged particles
1. For a positive charge:
(a) positive charge attracted by the negatively charged plates
(b) force acting on the charged particle is in the same direction as the electric field
2. For a negative charge:
(a) negative charge attracted by the positively charged plates
(a) force acting on the charged particle is in the opposite direction of electric field
3. The force experienced by a charge in a uniform electric field is the same regardless of
where it is located between the plates.
19 Current of electricity
(a) show an understanding that electric current is the flow of charged particles
(b) define charge and the coulomb
1. charge = current x time – B1 (2013/Jun-P22/Q6a)
2. coulomb:
a) the SI unit of electrical charge
b) a charge of 1C passes a point when a current of 1A flows for 1s.
(i) sketch and explain the I-V characteristics of a metallic conductor at constant temperature, a
semiconductor diode and a filament lamp
1. Metallic conductor
2. Filament lamp
3. Semiconductor diode
(j)* sketch and explain the temperature characteristic of a thermistor (thermistors will be
assumed to be of the negative temperature coefficient type)
Ohm’s law states that, for a conductor at constant temperature, the current in the
conductor is proportional to the potential difference across it.-
(m) define e.m.f. in terms of the energy transferred by a source in driving unit charge round a
complete circuit
(n) distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d. in terms of energy considerations
From (2012/Nov-P23/Q4a):
a) e.m.f. = chemical energy to electrical energy – M1
b) p.d. = electrical energy to thermal energy – M1
c) idea of per unit charge – A1
(o) show an understanding of the effects of the internal resistance of a source of e.m.f. on the
terminal potential difference and output power.
1. A battery delivers the maximum power to a circuit when the load resistance of the
circuit is equal to the internal resistance of the battery.
2. When load resistance is zero, power dissipated by load is zero because P=I2R
3. When load resistance is very large, power dissipated gets very small as the current
through the load is reduced significantly.
20 D.C. circuits
(c) recall Kirchhoff’s first law and appreciate the link to conservation of charge
From (2012/Jun-P23/Q5ai,ii)
a) Kirchhoff’s first law: sum of currents into a junction = sum of currents out of junction –
B1
b) KFL is linked to the conservation of charge – B1
(d) recall Kirchhoff’s second law and appreciate the link to conservation of energy
From (2012/Jun-P21/Q5ai,ii)
a) Kirchhoff’s second law: sum of e.m.f.’s = sum of p.d.’s around a loop/circuit – B1
b) KSL is linked to the conservation of energy – B1
(j) show an understanding of the use of a potential divider circuit as a source of variable p.d.
1. In using a potential divider to measure the R, I and V of a wire (2012/Nov-P21/Q2bi)
a) metal wire in series with power supply and ammeter – B1
b) voltmeter in parallel with metal wire – B1
c) rheostat in series with power supply or potential divider arrangement or a variable
power supply – B1
(k) explain the use of thermistors and light-dependent resistors in potential dividers to provide
a potential difference that is dependent on temperature and illumination respectively
27 Nuclear physics
(a) Infer from the results of the α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small size of
the nucleus.
The deflection of α-particles by a thin metal foil is investigated with the arrangement shown
in figure below. All the apparatus is enclosed in a vacuum. The detector of α-particles, D, is
moved around the path labelled WXY
1. Describe the two main results of the α-particle scattering experiment (2013/Jun-
P21/Q7a):
a) the majority (of alpha particles) /most went straight through or were deviated by
small angles – B1
b) a very small proportion/a few were deviated by large angles – B1
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c) small angles described as < 10° and large angles described as >90° – B1
2. Relate each of the results above with the conclusions that were made about the nature
of atoms (2013/Jun-P21/Q7b):
a) most of the atom is empty space/nucleus very small compared with atom – B1
b) mass and charge concentrated in (very small) nucleus – B1
c) the nucleus of an atom is positively charged, which causes the α-particles to deflect
due to repulsive force.
d) as atoms are neutral, the atom must contain negative particles.
Please take note that the experimental results provided the evidence for the physical
properties of atoms. For example, on the conclusion that atoms are mostly empty space is
deduced from the fact that the majority of α-particle went straight through the atom. Also,
it can be concluded that the mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small nucleus due to
the large deviations experienced by the α-particle (2010/Nov-P22/Q7a)
3. Explain why the apparatus is enclosed in a vacuum (2012/Nov-P21/Q6bi):
a) Vacuum is needed because α-particle travels short distance in air (energy loss from
collisions with air molecules) – B1
4. Gold foil is used in the experiment because it can be made very thin (only up to a few
hundred atoms thick).
5. The a-particles in this experiment originated from the decay of a radioactive nuclide.
Suggest two reasons why β-particles from a radioactive source would be inappropriate
for this type of scattering experiment (2010/Nov-P22/Q7b):
a) β-particles deviated by (orbital) electrons – B1
b) β-particle has (very) small mass – B1
c) β-particles have a range of energies – B1
* Do not allow β-particles have negative charge or β-particles have high speed
(b) Describe a simple model for the nuclear atom to include protons, neutrons and orbital
electrons (aka the nuclear model of an atom).
1. Describe in detail an atom of uranium-235 (2013/Jun-P23/Q7ai):
a) nucleus contains 92 protons – B1
b) nucleus contains 143 neutrons (missing ‘nucleus’ 1/2) – B1
c) outside / around nucleus (contains) 92 electrons – B1
d) most of atom is empty space / mass concentrated in nucleus – B1
e) total charge is zero – B1
f) diameter of atom ~ 10–10 m or size of nucleus ~ 10–15 m – B1
2. Scientist originally viewed atoms as a neutral particle made up of lumps of negative and
positive charges mixed together. This is known as the plum pudding model.
3. Rutherford later proposed and verified the correct structure of an atom, which consist
of
a) mostly empty space
b) has a dense nucleus with orbiting electrons around it
c) this is known as the nuclear model of the atom.
(d) show an understanding that an element can exist in various isotopic forms, each with a
different number of neutrons
1. With reference to the two forms of uranium (uranium-235 and uranium-238) explain
the term isotopes (2013/Jun-P23/Q7aii):
a) Nucleus must have the same number of protons – B1
b) Nuclei have different number of neutrons (list down the respective nucleon
number) – B1
(f) appreciate that nucleon number, proton number, and mass-energy are all conserved in
nuclear processes
1. Explain why mass seems not to be conserved in the reaction below (2013/Jun-
P22/Q7aii):
(h) show an appreciation of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay
1. State the experimental observations that show radioactive decay is spontaneous
(2011/Nov-P22/Q7ai):
a) the half life / count rate / rate of decay / activity is the same no matter what
external factors / environmental factors – B1
* other environmental factors include chemical / pressure / temperature / humidity
(2012/Nov-P23/Q6aiii)
2. State the experimental observations that show radioactive decay is random:
a) the observations of the count rate / count rate / rate of decay / activity /
radioactivity during decay shows variations / fluctuations – B1 (2011/Nov-
P22/Q7aii)
b) time of decay (of a nucleus) cannot be predicted OR nucleus has constant
probability in a given time – B1 (2009/Nov-P22/Q7bii)
3. Explain what is meant by radioactive decay (2010-23/11-9a).
a) Nucleus emits α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation – B1
b) to form a different / more stable nucleus – B1
4. Suggest why some radioactive sources are found to contain traces of helium gas
(2010/Nov-P23/Q9biii):
a) if the source is an α-emitter – B1
b) α-particles stopped within source (and gain electrons) – B1
5. When unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive decay, the atom will be affected as
follows:
a) α-decay, the nucleon number decreases by 4 and the proton number decreases by
2.
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b) β-decay, the nucleon number is unchanged and the proton number increases by 1.
c) In γ-emission there is no change in nucleon or proton number.
(i) show an understanding of the nature and properties of α-, β- and γ- radiations
1. State what is meant by an α-particle (2010/Jun-P23/Q7ai):
(d) either helium nucleus OR particle containing two protons and two neutrons – B1
2. β-particles are fast moving electrons.
3. γ- radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 10-11 m
and 10-13 m.
4. Radioactivity can be detected using a Geiger counter, photographic plates, and a
scintillation counter
5. State the properties of α radiation (2012/Jun-P21/Q7aii):
a) Can be deflected in electric/magnetic fields – B1
b) absorbed by thin paper or few cm of air (3cm → 8cm) (not low penetration) – B1
c) mass 4u (1u ≈ 1.66 x 10-27 kg) – B1
d) highly ionizing – B1 OR causes dense ionisation in air (2010/Jun-P22/Q7aii)
e) contains 2 protons + 2 neutrons – B1 (2008/Jun-Q7a)
6. Explain the process by which α-particles lose energy when they pass through air
(2011/Nov-P22/Q7c):
a) collision with molecules – B1
b) causes ionisation (of the molecule) / electron is removed – B1
7. State two properties of β-radiation (2012/Nov-P23/Q6aii):
a) can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields or negatively charged – B1
b) absorbed by few (1 – 4) mm of aluminum – B1
c) 0.5 to 2m for range in air – B1
d) speed up to 0.99c – B1
e) it is an electron – B1 (2008/Jun-Q7a)
8. Distinguish between an α-particle and a β-particle (2008/Jun-Q7a):
a) α –particle is a helium nucleus or contains 2 protons + 2 neutrons BUT β-particle is
an electron – B1
b) α-particle’s speed < β-particle’s speed – B1
c) α-particle has discrete values of speed/energy BUT β-particle has continuous
spectrum of energy – B1
d) α-particle’s ionising power >> β-particle’s ionising power – B1
e) α-particle’s range << β-particle’s range – B1
f) α-particle has positive charge, β-particle has negative charge – B1
g) α-particle’s mass > β-particle’s mass
9. Summary of properties of α-, β- and γ- radiations from (2011/Nov-P22/Q7b):
Property α-particle β-particle γ-radiation
charge 2e -e 0
mass 4u 9.11 x 10-31 kg 0
speed 0.01 – 0.1 c Up to 0.99 c c
nature helium nucleus electron short-wavelength
EM wave
penetrating power few cm of air few mm of few cm of lead
aluminium
relative ionizing 104 102 1
power
12. Two horizontal metal plates are separated by distance din a vacuum. A potential
difference V is applied across the plates, as shown in figure below.
A horizontal beam of α-particles from a radioactive source is made to pass between the
plates. State and explain the effect on the deflection of the α-particles for each of the
following changes: (2011/Nov-P23/Q6a):
a) The magnitude of V is increased.
(e) greater deflection – M1
b) The separation d of the plates is decreased
(j) infer the random nature of radioactive decay from the fluctuations in count rate
1. State how the random nature of radioactive decay may be inferred from observations of
the count rate (2010/Nov-P23/Q9bi).
a) fluctuations in count rate (not ‘count rate is not constant’) – B1