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LECTURE 6
“Interfaces”
Interfaces
Assist Prof
Assist. Prof. Dr
Dr. Burak ÖZKAL
• Virtually all of the metals with which one comes
into daily contact are polycrystalline.Metallurgists
polycrystalline Metallurgists
refer to the small crystalline regions as Grains,
and the average Grain size in most metal objects
ranges from 0 0.015
015 to 0
0.24
24 mm
mm.
• Grains are frequently not perfect single crystals
but are divided into smaller subgrains that are
nearlyl perfect
f t single
i l crystals.
t l
• The grain boundaries and subgrain boundaries are
interfaces between crystals of different
orientation.
• Since the physical properties of metals are
dependent on the physical properties of these
interfaces, the study of the nature of metal
interfaces is very important in physical
metallurgy.
t ll
CLASSIFICATION, GEOMETRY, AND ENERGY OF INTERFACES
• In order to describe the ggeometryy of g
grain boundaries we begin
g by y
considering two dimensional lattices. Figure below shows two
lattices that are oriented at some angle to each other; that angle is
indicated as θ
• When these two lattices are brought together a grain boundary is
formed between them. There are two different ways in which the
boundary might form, depending on the angle between the boundary
and a plane in one of the lattices. To completely define the boundary
one must specify:
• 1. The orientation of one lattice with respect to the other, θ
• 2. The orientation of the boundary with respect to a lattice, Φ
• Small-angle
Small angle boundaries θ =0° - 3° to 10°
• Medium-angle boundaries θ =3° to 10° ---> 15°
• Large-angle boundaries θ =15° --->
Grain Boundary Energy
• There is a one-to-one
one to one matching of the lattice planes across the
boundary. This generally produces lattice strains around the
boundary where the lattice planes must be "bent" to give this one-to-
one matching.
• In an incoherent boundary there is no regularity of lattice-plane
lattice plane
matching across the boundary.
• High-angle boundaries are incoherent boundaries.
• We can also use the definitions of p
partially
y coherent or semicoherent
boundary terms.
Partially Coherent Grain Boundary
A perfect lattice matching occurs every six spacings of the β lattice. Notice also
that every six spacings one obtains a β plane situated directly between the two lower α
planes.
planes
In real crystals the boundaries relax under the forces between atoms into the
dashed positions, and this leaves an edge dislocation at the point where the β plane is
located symmetrically between two α planes
Twin Boundaries
• Twin
T i bboundaries
d i are perhaps h th
the simplest
i l t off allll grain
i bboundaries.
d i
One may classify twin boundaries as either coherent or partially
coherent. Notice that the twin boundaryis a symmetry plane, a mirror
plane Complete coherency at the boundary is obtained without any
plane.
straining of the lattices because a perfect registry of the lattices is
naturally obtained at these special boundaries. If the twin boundary
plane rotates off the symmetry plane as shown in obtains a partially
coherent twin boundary (usually called a non-coherent twin)
Coherent Twin
Boundary
Partially Coherent
Twin Boundary
Energy of Interfaces
The interface energy is a
measure of the energy per
area of the interface region
minus the energy per area
of that region without an
interface; that is the energy
is defined relative to a
perfect lattice.
SEM images of carbon nanotube forests (a) As-grown forest prepared by PECVD
with nanotube diameter of 50 nm and a height of 2 ím
ím, (b) PTFE
PTFE-coated
coated forest after
HFCVD treatment.
SEM images of an essentially spherical water droplet
suspended on the PTFE-coated forest.
Boundary
B d Mi
Migration
ti During
D i growth th off bubbles.
b bbl B
Bubbles
bbl presentt an
excellent model for grain boundaries.
For aliquid drop on a solid surface tension balance
No wetting condition
Complete wetting
Applications
• There are a number of cases where the
above ideas have direct practical
significance and three of them will be
discussed here.
1. Sintering There are many applications
in sintering. As an example consider
carbide tool bits.
bits In this case a
powdered carbide such as tungsten
carbide, WC, is bonded together with a
metal such as Co. To produce good
bonding one wants the bonding metal
to wet the carbides and microstructures
such as seen in Figureare desired.
Hence, one must be able to produce a
very low dihedral angle between the
carbide and the bonding metal.
• 2. Hot shortness in steel. Sulfur combines with Fe to
form FeS, which melts at 988°C. When the steel is hot
rolled this compound melts. Since it has a low value of δ
in steel it wets the grain boundaries and the steel
becomes brittle causing the failure known as hot
shortness.
• It takes only a very small quantity of liquid to cover the
grain boundaries and, consequently, only a small
amount of sulfur impurity is required to cause this
difficulty Hot shortness is overcome by the addition of
difficulty.
Mn to steel which causes MnS to form preferentially, and
this compound melts at 1610°C.
• 3. Soldering.
g A successful solder must wet the
surface of the metals to be-soldered. Hence, the
dihedral angle of a drop of liquid solder on the
metal must approach zero
zero. As pointed out
above this condition requires the surface
tensions to satisfyy
LOTUS - Effect
Microstructural
epidermal cells
N t t l
Nanostructural
wax-crystals
20 µm
W. Barthlott, C.
Neinhuis; 1997
The Lotus-effect :
Self-cleaning
1 µm 50 µm
• Driving Forces
• 1. Stored Energy
• 2. Elastic Strain
• 3. Interface Curvature
Grain Boundary Mobility
• 1.
1 Impurity Atoms
• 2. Presence of Second Phase Particles
• 3.Temperature
• 4. Orientation of Grains across
Boundary
Grain Growth
soylera@itu.edu.tr