Carlos Dominico B.

Valdez

STEM11A6

Cell theory is the foundation of almost all sciences, including biological sciences, chemistry,
physiology and medicine.

Scientist
Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen invented the first microscope.
Robert Hooke called them “cells” from the Latin name cellula because they looked like the
tiny rooms, that monks lived in.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek) a Dutch scientist and the first person to see cells in a living
organism. Leeuwenhoek was the first one to propose the idea that all living things are made
of cells.
They concluded that cells are the “building
Matthias Schleiden (who studied plants) blocks” of living things. In other words, cells
are the smallest unit of life, and cells join
Theodor Schwann (who studied animals)
together to form larger organisms.

Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells (omni cellulae e cellula)

1. All living things are made of cells.

2. Cells are the basic building blocks of life.
3. Cells come from other cells.

Cell Structure and Functions

Cell membrane separates the material outside the cell. A double layer of phospholipid
molecules called phospholipid bilayer.

Cell Wall semi-permeable protective layer in some cell types. Cell Wall also contain small
holes called plasmodesmata.

Nucleus and Nucleolus It is the control center of the cell that contains chromosomes.

Protoplasm It is the colorless material comprising the living part of a cell.

Cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell.

Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 Examples of cytoplasmic organelles are:

Mitochondrion - any of various round or long cellular organelles which is a double membrane
found in most eukaryotes that are outside the nucleus. It has its own DNA called
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). It produces energy for the cell through cellular respiration by
breaking down fuel molecules. It is rich in fats, proteins, and enzymes. It releases energy in
the form of ATP.

Ribosomes – are any of the RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum – is a system of interconnected vesicular and lamellar cytoplasmic

membranes that functions especially in the transport of materials within the cell and that is
studded with ribosomes (Rough endoplasmic reticulum which manufacture or modify
proteins from ribosomes) or without (Smooth endoplasmic reticulum which have enzymes
that help build molecules like carbohydrates and lipids).
Golgi apparatus - it consists of a stack of smooth membranous saccules and associated
vesicles and that is active in the modification and transport of proteins.

Lysosome – is a saclike cellular organelle that contains various digestive enzymes to aid in
cell renewal, break down old cell parts and digests invaders.
Vacuole – is a membrane bound storage sacs that is more common in plants than animals. It
contains water, food and wastes.

Chloroplast – is derived from photosynthetic bacteria that serves as the solar energy
capturing organelle. It is found only in plant cells. The main role of chloroplasts is to conduct
photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from
sunlight.

Cytoskeleton - a network of filaments which not only supports the plasma membrane and
gives the cell an overall shape, but also provides tracks for the transport of vesicles, and (in
many cell types) allows the cell to move. This could be in the form of microtubules or
microfilaments.

Centriole – is a tube-like structure in the animal cells that aid in cell division which is why it is
Important in the positioning within the cell. It is generally found close to the nucleus and is
made up of nine tube-like structures that each have three tubules.

ONLY in Prokaryote Cells include:

Capsule -sticky and helps the cell attach to surfaces in its environment.

Flagella (Cilia) - are whip-like structures that act as rotary motors to help bacteria move. Bacteria
and sperm (3 days)
Cilia - lungs

Fimbriae- are numerous, hair-like structures that are used for attachment to host cells and other
surfaces.
THE TYPES OF CELLS IN THE HUMAN BODY & THEIR FUNCTIONS
• A Cell is the basic unit of life. It decides the type, nature and function of the tissues.
• ·A group of different types of cells form the tissues in the human body. And one or
more of these tissues form organs.
• ·These organs working in a mutual beneficial manner form the organ systems. If any
tissue is damaged, it actually means the cells and cell structure in the organ is
damaged.
• ·These damaged ones can decide the fate of entire tissue i.e. either to recover or die.
So, from the above it seems cell decides the whole life

Bone cells (Osteocytes)

They are mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts which
deposit collagen. The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium, magnesium, and
phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels and nerves are found at a central
canal surrounded by concentric circles of osteons or harversian system (the fundamental
functional unit of much compact bone). A mature osteoblast is known as an osteocyte.
While osteocytes are technically a different bone cell altogether, the osteoblast changes
into an osteocyte over time. On the one hand, the cells which are responsible for the
breakdown of bone tissue, which releases calcium, are known as osteoclasts. Osteoclasts
are larger than most bone cells because they are multi-nuclear and release and enzyme
that destroys the bone tissue when necessary. All in all, they are the toughest body cell systems
and are bound together by calcium and phosphate. As you know they give strength, support and
frame-work to the body by enclosing organs in skeletal system.

Cartilage cells (chondrocytes)

These cells are similar to bone cells but the surrounding material is just loose and flexible compared to
those of bone cells. Hence they are freely bendable. They are present in ear bone (hence ears are
fold-able), in between large bones to help them bend and move freely like in between two ribs,
spinal bones, joints. They are characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate.
Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage functions as
cushion between bones.

Nerve cells

These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and glial cells that function as support cells.
These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electric signals throughout the animal body. Neurons
connect to other neurons to send signals. The dendrite is the part of the neuron that receives impulses
from other neurons while the axon is the part where the impulse is transmitted to other neurons.
Epithelial cells

These cells are very simple cells which form covering of other cells. These cells form covering layers of
all the organs and hence are preset in skin, scalp, respiratory tract, in the buccal cavity surface etc.

Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:

• • cuboidal - for secretion

• • columnar - brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption

• • squamous - plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion

Muscle cells (Myocytes)

They are present in muscle tissue. They are rich in proteins actin and myosin, mostly long,
large and have ability to contract and relax providing movements.
They are of three types:

• Skeletal / voluntary / striated muscles cells are attached to long bones and assist in their movement (by muscle
contraction).

• Cardiac / involuntary-striated muscles cells are present only in heart muscle and responsible for heart beats.

• Smooth muscle / involuntary / non-striated cells are flexible yet, can contract and relax and are present in stomach,
intestine, blood vessel walls (vascular tissue) etc. helping in the movement of food through the gut.

Secretory cell

These cells as name indicates are secretory in nature. They form glands and secrete something important ex; pancreatic
cells which secrete insulin and glucagon; salivary gland secretes salivary amylase; sebaceous gland secrete oil on the
skin. They are found in all secretory organs.

Adipose cells (Adipocytes)

These are fat cells and are storage in nature to store fat. Especially seen in the soles, palms, bums etc. They reduce
friction to the body.

Blood cells

These cells include RBC’s, WBC, and Thrombocytes etc. They are always motile and never stay in one place. They have
limited life span and they never multiply to form new cells. Instead new cells are formed from other cells.

TYPES OF CELLS IN HUMAN BODY (BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION)

• ·Conductive cells: Nerve cells, muscle cells come under this category. They have internal ability to conduct an electric impulse from
region to other distant region in the body.

• ·Connective cells: Bone cells, blood cells come under this category. They help connect other cells and tissues.

• ·Glandular cells: These cells secretory cells. They form glands like pancreas, salivary glands and help in the production of enzymes and
hormones.

• ·Storage cells: Adipose cells and some liver cells act to store materials like fat for later use. This fat is consumed in times of starvation
and also in extreme cold temperatures.

• ·Supportive cells: These are the cells which are present as support to adjacent cells. Ex: Glial cells in the brain and spinal cord help
provide nourishment to the nerve cells and also protect them from shocks and trauma.
Cell division

is at the heart of reproduction. It involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA
to two daughter cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next. Cell Division functions in
reproduction, growth, and repair. Multicellular organisms originate from a rapidly dividing
fertilized egg (cell); eggs and sperm are themselves created from a special type of cell
division.

Haploid cell - contains only one set of chromosomes. They are produced by meiosis. During
meiosis, the chromosome number is halved from the diploid number to the haploid number.

Diploid cell - contains two sets of chromosomes of which one is maternal, and the other is
paternal. They are produced by mitosis.

Cytokinesis – means the division of the rest of the cell.

Somatic cells – are body cells that are diploid in humans. They’re going to have 2 copies of
every gene and chromosome.
Gametes/ sex cells – refer to sperm for males and ovum for females. It only includes one
copy of each gene and chromosome.
Karyotype – a picture of all your chromosomes in your body.

Interphase

The beginning of the cell cycle consisting of a growing stage and the actual cell division, called the
mitotic phase

Prophase:

Chromosomes condense

Nuclear envelope disappears

centrosomes move to opposite sides of the cell

Spindle forms and attaches to centromeres on the chromosomes

Metaphase:
· Chromosomes lined up on equator of spindle
· centrosomes at opposite ends of cell

Anaphase:
Centromeres divide: each 2-chromatid chromosome becomes two 1-chromatid
chromosomes.
Chromosomes pulled to opposite poles by the spindle.

Telophase:
· Chromosomes de-condense
· Nuclear envelope reappears
· Cytokinesis: the cytoplasm is divided into 2 cells

CANCER

• Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle.

• Cancer cells divide uncontrollably and do not respond normally to the cell cycle control
system.
• Cancer begins when a single cell undergoes transformation from a normal cell to a cancer
cell.
• Cancer cells may proliferate into a tumor, an abnormally growing mass of body cells.
• Benign tumors remain at the site and can usually be removed easily with surgery
• Malignant tumors spread into neighboring tissues and other parts of the body, interrupting
organ function as it goes.
• Cancer cells may secrete molecules that cause blood vessels to spread toward the tumor,
and allow proliferation of the cancer cells via the circulatory system (metastasis).
• Chemotherapy is used to treat metastatic or widespread tumors; involves the use of drugs
that disrupt cell division (some drugs prevent the mitotic spindle from forming in the first
place); however side effects are seen in normal, rapidly-dividing cells.
Causes of cancer
1. Genetics d. Cigarette smoke
2. Environmental Factors e. Air and water pollution
3. Exposure to UV radiation

Cancer prevention

1. Healthy Lifestyle d. Exercise

2. Low fat, high fiber diet e. Not smoking
3. Taking daily vitamins and minerals Carotenoids, Vitamins A, C, E, and calcium