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Module 3

Earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground (earth crust); a shaking of the earth’s
surface caused by rapid movement of the earth’s rocky outer layer. Earthquakes occur when
energy stored within the earth, usually in the form of strain in rocks, suddenly releases. This energy
is transmitted to the surface of the earth by what we call earthquake waves. The destruction an
earthquake causes depends on its magnitude and duration, or the amount of shaking that occurs.
A structure’s design and the materials used in its construction also affect the amount of damage
the structure may incur. Earthquake vary from small, imperceptible shaking to large shocks felt
over thousands of kilometers. Earthquakes can deform ground, make buildings and other
structures collapse, and create tsunamis (large sea waves).
The hazards imposed by earthquakes are unique in many respects, and consequently planning to
mitigate earthquake hazards requires unique engineering approach. An important distinction of
the earthquake problem is that the hazard to life is associated almost entirely with man-made
structures. Except for earthquake triggered landslides, the only earthquake effects that cause
extensive loss of life are collapses of bridges, buildings, dams and other works of man.
Knowledge of string ground shaking is
now advancing rapidly large because of
the growth of appropriately sited
strong-motion accelerographs in seismic
areas of the world.
In earthquake-prone regions, structural
design of large or critical engineered
structures such as high-rise buildings,
dams, and bridges now often involve
quantitative dynamic analysis; engineers
ask penetrating questions on the likely
seismic intensity for construction sites
and require input motions or spectra or
defining parameters. Predicted time
histories for dynamic modeling in
structural design or vulnerability
assessments are often needed.

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3.1 Earthquake Engineering

The National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP), Volume I – Buildings, Towers and
Other Vertical Structures divides the Philippines into seismic zones, namely Zone 2 and
Zone 4 (Figure 3.6 of this manual or Figure 208-1 of NSCP Volume I, Seventh Edition, 2015)
(ASEP 2001, 2010). Generally speaking, the two zones are regarded differently in two ways.
First, the code prescribes basically twice as large seismic design load in Zone 4 than in
Zone 2. Second, certain structure types and heights are not permitted in Zone 4 that may
be allowed elsewhere.
Seismic Zone 4 predominantly covers the entire country except Palawan, Sulu and Tawi-
Tawi group of islands.
In earthquake engineering, the three main features of fault relevant to design of
earthquake-resistant structures are:
▪ Type of Fault. It appears that the characteristics of strong ground motion in the
general vicinity of the causative fault can be strongly influenced by the type of
fault.
▪ Fault Location. In most seismically active areas faulting is the main source of
information regarding seismic risk. This is partly because faults are relatively easy
to describe and sensitive to the measurement of movement, and partly because
they provide the focus of energy release in most earthquakes.
▪ Faulting Activity. Uppermost in the engineer’s mind is the question ‘Will this fault
move during the lifetime of my project?’ In some faults there is evidence that
continuous creep movement is taking place, and although this may mean that no
large earthquake will occur on that particular fault while strain energy is being
greatly released, it is clear that few structures should be built across the fault. In
most cases the best answer the geologist may be able to give is to estimate when
the most recent significant movements occurred. For faults which have not been
known to move in historical times, this is done by dating the youngest soil deposit
displaying a fault displacement by examining a section through the fault zone.
This module introduces the geological, seismological, and engineering background of
major earthquake zones in the Philippines, including so-called near-source factors that are
considered in the NSCP Volume I, Fifth Edition, 2001 in the structural design of structures
in Zone 4.

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3.2 Geologic Setting

The earth is covered by a solid layer of rock called the crust. The crust has built up over
time, so it is made up of layers of different kinds of rock and soil.
The earth’s outermost shell (lithosphere), which is about 80 km thick, is considered to
consist of a number of large blocks called tectonic plates, which drift on the supporting
layer (asthenosphere) and move with respect to each other at the rate of several
centimeters per year.

Figure 3.1. Cross section through the earth (after Plummer et al, 1997)

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The six-major continental-sized plates are Pacific, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Antarctic,

American, and African. Further there are about 14 other subcontinental-sized plates
including the Philippine Sea Plate (Kramer, 1996). See Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Major tectonic plates, trenches, and faults of the world (after Fowler 1990 as
cited in Kramer 1996)
The Philippine archipelago lies in the fringes of the Philippine Sea Plate, which in turn lies
between two major plates, the Pacific and Eurasian Plates. The Pacific Plate in the east of
the Philippines is moving northwestward and pushing the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the
eastern side of our archipelago at the rate of about 7 cm a year; while the Eurasian Plate
in the west is being subducted along the western side of Luzon and Mindoro at the annual
rate of about 3 cm a year (Punongbayan, 2000).
Figure 3.3 shows a block diagram showing
the Philippine archipelago and the relative
motions of the Eurasian Plate and
Philippine Sea Plate. The Philippine Trench
and Manila Trench in the east and the
west, respectively, are associated with
subduction zones where the plate edge
descends into the earth’s interior beneath
the Philippine archipelago. Meanwhile,
slip and thrust displacements along the
Philippine Fault Zone decouple the
northwestward motion of the Philippine
Sea Plate (and Pacific Plate) with the
Figure 3.3. The Philippine archipelago in a
squeeze

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southeastward motion of portion of the

Eurasian Plate.

In addition to the Philippine Trench in the east and the Manila Trench in the west – the
Philippines has five more trenches in its seas: the East Luzon Trench, the Negros Trench,
the Sulu Trench, the Cotabato Trench and the Davao Trench. There are also two collision
zones, or places where landmasses collide. One is between Palawan and Mindoro, and the
other is between the Zamboanga Peninsula and Western Mindanao.
The landmass of the Philippines is literally being squeezed and sheared, through the
opposing motions of tectonic plates that flank the archipelago.
Within this geologic setting, active faults transect the Philippine archipelago either inland
or offshore that occasionally move and cause earthquakes. The active faults in the
Philippines are presented in detail in a preceding section. Before that, past earthquakes
are summarized that may be clearly associated with the active faults and trenches in and
around the country. See Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4. Active faults and trenches in the

Philippines

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3.3 Seismological Setting

Over the past 400 years, hundreds of earthquakes were reported or recorded with
epicenters located in the Philippines.
Some specialists take magnitude 6.0 as the approximate threshold level of earthquake that
may cause damage to the built environment. As to focal depth, earthquakes with focal
depth between about 7 to 20 km are often more damaging than those with deeper focus,
considering all other factors being equal (Krinitzsky, 1993).
Note in Figure 3.5 that scores of earthquakes with magnitude 7.0 or bigger had occurred.
In the last 50 years alone, about ten such earthquakes happened (Punongbayan, 2000).
For example, in 1990, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake emanated from Rizal, Nueva Ecija inland
in Luzon and caused the death of over 1000 people. In 1976, a magnitude 7.9 earthquake
occurred with epicenter offshore in Moro Gulf, Mindanao and caused the death of nearly
4000 people, mostly due to the big tsunami waves that subsequently hit the coastal
villages.

Figure 3.5. Reported/recorded earthquakes in the

Philippines over the past 400 years

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Indeed, the recent seismicity, or seismic activity, of most of the Philippines (Figure 3.5) may
be correlated well with the simplified earthquake zone map of the NSCP Volume I, Seventh
Edition, 2015 (Figure 208-1) or Figure 3.6 of this manual, where only Palawan, Sulu, and
Tawi-Tawi are relatively quiet.

Figure 3.6. Seismic zone map of the Philippines

3.5 Active Faults and Trenches

Stress in the earth’s crust creates faults, resulting in earthquakes. The properties of an
earthquake depend strongly on the type of fault slip, or movement along the fault, that
causes the earthquake. Geologists categorize faults according to the direction of the fault
slip. The surface between the two sides of a fault lies in a plane, and the direction of the
plane is usually not vertical, rather it dips at an angle into the earth.
Faults are breaks or zones of weakness in rocks, along which displacements had occurred
or can occur. They may extend for hundreds of kilometers across the surface of the earth
in some cases, and tens of kilometers downward. Faults showing signs or documented

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history of recent displacements are called active faults, including the Philippine Fault Zone
(PFZ) (Punongbayan, 2001).
Faults are sometimes classified as active or inactive for
engineering purposes. Some faults may be unarguably
active, where several movements have been recorded in
recent times such as on the Valley Fault System traversing
from Rizal to Cavite.
They may be classified according to the orientation of the
plane of weakness and the nature of relative motion on
two sides of the fault. For so-called strike-slip faults, the
plane of weakness is nearly vertical, and one fault block
moves or may move mainly horizontally, either rightward
or leftward relative to opposite block.

When the rock hanging over the dipping

fault plane slips downward into the ground,
the fault is called a normal fault.

When the hanging wall slips upward in

relation to the footwall, the fault is called a
reverse fault.

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Strike-slip faults are those types that

produce horizontal displacement, or side-
by-side sliding movement of the fault.

The following pages show the latest updated maps (for NSCP 2015) of the distribution of
active faults and trenches in the Philippines by region as published by the Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS). According to PHIVOLCS (2000),
“information on these maps is based on data available and gathered by the Institute. Most
of the mapped features are plotted on larger scale (1:500,000, 1:250,000 and 1:50,000)
maps. Other features of these maps are based and correlated with published and
unpublished data. Additional basis of the fault map is historical data, although limited,
that described destruction of places near the mapped geologic structures. In some areas,
especially those without any aerial photograph coverage, mapping is based on
interpretation of topographic maps and satellite imageries. Offshore projections of active
faults are mainly based on limited bathymetric data set, published and unpublished
secondary data, historical events, seismic data, and trends of onshore extension.”
“Most of the active faults in the maps are strike-slip faults. Dashed line indicates the
location and projection of linear geologic features that are identified with less certainty
compared to other adjoining faults.” PHIVOLCS “denoted less certain linear features on
the map as lineaments together with their corresponding place names to differentiate
them from the mode definite active fault structures. Symbols representing the active faults
are signified for this version of the maps and generally denote strike-slip faults, although
the general sense of motion is omitted. Future revisions of the maps will incorporate other
type of faults (e.g. normal fault, reverse or thrust fault) together with the proper symbols
denoting their senses of direction, as these become available from future studies.”
(PHIVOLCS, 2000)
The 1,200-km-long Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ) is a major tectonic feature that transects
the whole Philippine archipelago from northwestern Luzon to southeastern Mindanao.
Other faults in the Philippines, to name a few, include the Digdig Fault, the Casiguran Fault,
the Lubang Fault, and the Mindanao Fault.
Within this general geologic setting, active faults transect the archipelago either inland or
offshore that occasionally move and cause earthquakes.

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3.6 Intensity vs. Magnitude

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) studies earthquakes
that occur throughout the country. To do this, the scientists at PHIVOLCS use
seismographs (instruments that record the vibrations caused by earthquakes).
Seismographs can also help the scientists locate the epicenter of an earthquake.
Earthquakes generate seismic waves which can be detected with a sensitive instrument
called a seismograph.
There are two ways to describe the strength of an earthquake.
▪ THE RICHTER SCALE: MAGNITUDE. The magnitude of most earthquakes is
measured on the Richter scale, invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. The Richter
magnitude is calculated from the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded
for the earthquake, no matter what type of wave was the strongest.
▪ THE MERCALLI SCALE: INTENSITY. Another way to measure the strength of an
earthquake is to use the Mercalli scale. Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, this
scale uses the observations of the people who experienced the earthquake to
estimate its intensity.
IS Rossi-Forrel PEIS

I Recorded by a single seismograph of

by seismographs of the same model,
but not by several seismographs of
different kinds: the shock felt by an
experienced observer.

II Extremely feeble shock. Recorded by

several seismographs of different
kinds; felt by a small number of
persons at rest.

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IS Rossi-Forrel PEIS

III Very feeble shock. Felt by several

persons at rest; strong enough for the
duration to be appreciable.

IV Feeble shock. Felt by person in motion;

disturbance of movable objects, doors
windows, cracking of ceilings.

Shock of moderate intensity. Felt

generally by everyone; disturbance of
furniture, beds, etc., ringing of some
bells

Fairly strong shock. General awakening

of those asleep; general ringing of
bells; oscillation of chandeliers;
stopping of clocks; visible agitation of
trees and shrubs; some startled
persons leaving their dwellings.

Strong shock. Overthrow of movable

objects; fall of plaster; ringing of
church bells; general panic, without
damage to buildings.

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IS Rossi-Forrel PEIS

Very strong shock. Fall of chimney;

crack in the walls of buildings.

Extremely strong shock. Partial of total

destruction of some buildings.

Shock of extreme intensity. Great disaster; ruins;

disturbance of the strata, fissures in the ground,
rock falls from mountains.

Notes:
IS – Intensity Scale
PEIS – PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale

3.7 Near-Source Factors for Use in Zone 4

The National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) Volume I – Buildings, Towers and
Other Vertical Structures, Seventh Edition 2015 considers the faults in the maps of active
faults and trenches shown Section 3.5 of this manual as significantly and moderately active
and capable (seismic source Types A and B, respectively), requiring the use of near-source
factors in the engineering of structures within 10 km. The approach adopted in the NSCP
gives due consideration to the nearness of a site to a seismic source, as described above,
is confined to faults, which are likely to be inland. Meanwhile, NSCP will require that
earthquake sources from the subduction zones, as may be associated with the active

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trenches, be evaluated on a site-specific evaluation basis. Subduction-related sources are

relevant to offshore and marine structures.

3.8 References
ASEP, 2001, National Structural Code of the Philippines, Volume I – Buildings, Towers, and
Other Vertical Structures (Fifth Edition), Association of Structural Engineers of the
Philippines Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City.
ASEP, 1997, National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume II - Bridges (Second Edition),
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City.
Besana, G.M., J.A. Daligdig, M.D. Panol, E.S. Balbuena, B. Sikat, and R.S. Punongbayan, 2000,
“Active Faults in the Philippines”, Proc. 2000 Geological Society of the Philippines Annual
Conference, Pasig, Dec. 5-7, 2000, pp. 1-12.
Kramer, S.L., 1996. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Krinitzsky, E.L., J.P Gould, and P.E. Edinger, 1993, Fundamentals of Earthquake-Resistant
Construction, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
PHIVOLCS, 2000, Unpublished Notes by the Active Faults Mapping Group of the Geology
and Geophysics Research and Development Division, Philippine Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Quezon City.
Punongbayan, R.S. (ed), 2002, Earthquake, Earthquake Hazards, and Philippine Seismicity,
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Quezon City.
Pacheco, B.M., 1998, Major Earthquake Zones in the Philippines According to NSCP 2001,
Earthquake Quick Response Program (EQRP) Manual, Philippine Institute of Civil
Engineers (PICE) and Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP),
Quezon City.

3.9 Acknowledgement
The ASEP subcommittee on lateral forces (seismic and wind) was generously advised by
Dr. Renato U. Solidum, Jr., Mr. Ishmael Narag, Dr. Rhommel N. Grutas, and Mr. Henry
Peñarubia.

3.10 About the Author

Adam C. Abinales, M.ENG., F.ASEP, F.PICE, ISSEP runs his own professional partnership (structural) consulting firm as
Principal Engineer and Managing Partner of ABINALES ASSOCIATES Engineers+Consultants. He is an
accredited civil/structural engineer consultant of Bell Telecommunications, Smart Communications, Inc.

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(SMART), Globe Telecoms, Inc. (GLOBE), Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT), Digitel
Mobile Philippines, Inc. (SUN CELLULAR), Bayan Telecommunications (BAYANTEL), Ericsson
Communications, Inc. (ERICSSON), ABC Development Corporation (TV5), GMA Network (GMA7), Manila
Water Company, Inc. (MWCI), Phinma Property Holdings Corporation (PPHC), Global Savant Building
Technologies, Huawei Technologies, RDBTecson & Associates and some local construction companies.
He presently teaches in the Department of Civil Engineering of De La Salle University Manila as
Professional Lecturer. He served as Chairman of the Ninoy Aquino International Airport – IPT3 (NAIA3)
Commission from October 2009 up to 2012.

Engr. Adam C. Abinales served as President of the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
(ASEP) in 2009-2010. Likewise, he also served as National Director of the Philippines Institute of Civil
Engineers (PICE) from 2011 and 2012. He was the Chairman of the Earthquake Quick Response Program
(EQRP) of the Philippines Institute of Civil Engineers (PICE) for 2013 and led the EQRP team during the
aftermath of the 10/15/2013 Bohol Earthquake. In ASEP from fiscal year 2013-2016, he chaired the ASEP
Knowledge Committee and served as the chairman of the Membership Screening Board from 2013 to
2015. Presently, he is presently an ASEP board Director for fiscal year 2015-2018 and chairs the ASEP
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) since 2016 to present. He is a member of the International
Advisory and Scientific Committee of the Asia Conference on Earthquake Engineering (ACEE) for 3ACEE
2010 in Bangkok, Thailand, 4ACEE 2012 in Tokyo, Japan, 5ACEE 2014 in Taipei, Taiwan, 6ACEE 2016 in
Cebu, Philippines, and 7ACEE 2018 Bangkok, Thailand.

A graduate of BS Civil Eng and BS Environmental and Sanitary Eng from the Mapua Institute of Technology
(now Mapua University) in 1980 and 1984, respectively, Engr. Abinales is a recipient of the Most
Outstanding Alumnus in the field of Structural Engineering conferred by the MIT CE-EnSE Alumni
Association in November 20, 2009. Similarly, he was accorded as one of PICE 75 Filipino Outstanding
Civil Engineers (FOCE) in November 8, 2012 during PICE 75th Diamond Anniversary celebration at
Sofitel, Manila and as one of ASEP 50 Outstanding Structural Engineers in September 30, 2011 during
ASEP 50th Golden Anniversary celebration at Hotel Dusit in Makati City. He also received award of
Symbol of Excellence in Leadership citation by the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
in August 18, 2010. He was awarded as Achiever of the Year Award during the Caloocan High School
Alumni Homecoming in December 8, 2012. Recently, he received one of The Outstanding Mapuans
(TOM) 2014 award during the NAMA 80th Alumni Homecoming held in May 17, 2014 at the Manila
Hotel.

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