GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC)

DOI: 10.5176/2335-6618_3.1.45
Print ISSN: 2335-6618, E-periodical: 2335-6626 ; Volume 3, Issue 1; 2016 pp 23 - 30
© The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access by the GSTF.

Citizen journalism: A South Asian

perspective
Nareshchandra Rai
Robert Gordon University, Scotland, UK.

Abstract – With the rise of internet literacy in the world,

ordinary people are increasingly participating in
the news media more than ever before. A common
conception of the influence of citizen journalism imbues
the news practice with an almost messianic ability to save
both journalism and democracy. Analyzing
characteristics of news by ordinary people, this paper
discusses the phenomenon of citizen journalism from
the perspective of South Asia. The paper reveals that, whist
their coverage of news includes a wide range of news issues,
citizen journalists from South Asia focus more on political
issues, and are determined to uncover misconduct by public
officials. There are also visible trends toward collective news
practices in the activities of marginalised groups. The main
focus of citizen journalism is on issues of public concerns,
promoting a diversity of political views.
Keywords: citizen journalism, citizen journalists, news sites,
news stories, news media, South Asia
Defining citizen journalism
We inhabit a world that has become radically
interconnected, interdependent, and
communicated in the information and flows of the
media (Allan and Thorsen, 2009,
p. ix). With the advent of the Internet, we are
witnessing a rapid broadening of ways in which ordinary
people, known as citizen journalists, communicate with
each other, sharing news and
information. Using modern technology, such as the
Internet, they are able to do essentially what professional
journalists do: they produce and distribute news and
information in many forms, from podcast editorials to
reports about council
meetings on a blog [or a website] (Cheri, 2014), on a
nearly global scale. As citizen journalism embraces all
forms of social-media platforms, ordinary people are
able to perform the roles once exclusively performed
the by the professional journalist.
Thus, the notion of citizen journalism has spread rapidly
in the contemporary media studies, and the concept is
often seen to challenge the central aspects of
traditional journalism, such as professional training
and recognition, paid staff, and professional behavior
that is politically neutral and unaffiliated (Khiabany and
Sreberny, 2009), as citizen journalists are often
untrained, voluntary and highly politicalized in their
news coverage (Gillmor, 2006).
Bowman and Willis (2003) define citizen
journalism as the act of a citizen, or a group of citizens,
playing an active role in the process of collecting,
reporting, analysing and disseminating news
information. The definition goes on to explain that
‘the intent of this participation is to provide
independent, reliable, accurate, wide-ranging and
relevant information that a democracy requires’ (p.
9). Therefore, citizen journalists are responsible
themselves for gathering news content, envisioning,
creating and publishing news content (Nip, 2010).
Now the role of citizen journalism has been firmly
established in the field of news media, particularly
after bloggers gained high profile after September 11
and during the 2003 Iraq war. The rise of citizen
journalism has led to changes in the mode of
journalism, allowing news

23 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
 Nareshchandra Rai
audience to engage in the news media.
As a result, some media houses, such as CNN the
BBC, have now begun to provide opportunities
to their audience to participate in the process of
news media. With increasing public participation in
the news media and the traditional media adopting
the idea of citizen journalism, the boundaries of
citizen journalism and traditional journalism are
blurring. Thus, fine lines between professional and
citizen journalism are now becoming harder to draw.
Gillmor (2006) describes this new model of news
practice as a process of media transition, whereby
citizen journalists have opportunities to address
democratic deficits inherent in the corporate media
system. He further suggests that citizen journalists not
only provide news information on social and
political issues, but also perform the role of watchdog
by monitoring the performance of politicians and
corporate houses, often promoting their own voice.
By engaging in the news media, citizen journalists
may provide alternative views, ‘addressing issues
that are largely ignored by the corporate media’ (Kim
and Hamilton, 2006 p. 541). These descriptions suggest
that journalism is shifting from the newsroom to the
audience and ordinary people are acting as news
providers and shaping the public opinion.
Citizen journalism has been practised in several
different ways for a variety of purposes
depending on political environments of
particular country. In countries, such as South Korea
and Malaysia, the governments continue to impose
strict media regulations and censorships,
discouraging citizen journalists to engage in the news
media (Kim and Hamilton, 2006; Steele, 2009), and
thus citizen journalism is relatively less active. In
countries, such as the Maldives, where religion is
regarded above the law, citizen journalism is often
viewed as a threat to the national security. Therefore,
citizen journalists are frequently harassed, targeted or
even killed for publishing news articles. As the
government controls the media, citizen
journalism in such countries has not matured to the
level of advanced countries, and citizens have not
fully realized the potential of citizen journalism.
24 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
On the other hand, in liberal countries,
particularly the West, citizen journalism is now part of
the mainstream media, where citizen journalists are
able to express their opinions, criticising politicians.
As a result, citizen journalists and professional
journalists often work collaboratively. Therefore, contrary
to the common perception in the West that citizen
journalism may provide the coverage of news without
editorial constraints, citizen journalism in non-Western
countries continues to face challenges.
History of the Media in South Asia
The history of the media in South Asian began from the
introduction of ‘the Bengal Gazette’ in 1780, which
contributed to the rise of a series of other publications in
different parts of the region. However, the motives to start
these publications were to promote patriotism and social
reforms rather than provide independent news, as
conservative South Asian society had a number of social
challenges: caste discrimination, idol worship, animal
sacrifice, child marriage, and other cultural practices.
The years that followed independence from the British in
1947 witnessed an unprecedented turn of events in the
socio-political climate of the region, bringing changes in
media systems (Rai, 2015). Privately owned media –
initially tabloids in various local languages –
emerged as alternative to English newspapers, although
the governments frequently introduced severe
censorship on the media for a number of reasons, including
a border conflicts (e.g., Sino-India war in 1962, the
Soviet war in Afghanistan 1979-1989, several Indo-
Pakistan wars 1947-1991) and civil wars and terrorism
in Sri Lanka and later in Nepal. Thus, the media in
South Asia somehow remained under the control of
the governments.
 Nareshchandra Rai

However, the early 1990s saw an In Nepal, politicians and their relatives own most
unprecedented growth of the media - first in media houses, including FM radio stations, which
India and then other member states of South are often used to promote the political views of owners
Asia – which coincided with the (Rai, 2015). Some international donor agencies,
introduction of the commercial model of including UNESCO and Danida, a Danish Development
television channels. Rupert Murdoch, whose Co-operation, have also shown interests in the Nepalese
Satellite Television Asian Region transformed media and have funded community radios across the
news and entertainment on television, country. Major political parties have their own
introduced the first music television channel in newspapers, which are used to promote the political
India (Channel [V]), the first 24/7 news network views of the political parties rather than independent
(Star News), and the first successful news. There are also a small number of media houses,
adaptation of entertainment game shows, such which are typically family-run enterprises. Some of
as Kaun Banega Karodpati? – an Indian version of these publications have been in operation for three
the British show Who Wants to Be a generations or more; however, the majority media
Millionaire? (Thussu, 2007), and other reality TV houses in South Asian countries have a short history
series, such as Nepal Tara – a Nepalese version (Smith, 1995).
of American Idol.
Growing literacy and economies have expanded
Today the South Asian media market reflects scopes of the press in different directions.
the broader picture of the regional Vernacular newspapers continue to grow in the region
political economy, having the largest news and have become an alternative source of news
consumers in the world, which is marked by the information for marginalized languages. Big media
presence of both large-scale, state-owned houses are now trying to reach this population by offering
corporate media houses and small enterprises. news on different native languages. In October 2013, the
Some of the examples of large-scale media publisher of The Hindu, a one hundred and thirty-
houses include the publishers of The Times of five year old English language newspaper from India,
India (India), The Dawn (Pakistan), The Divaina launched its Tamil edition for the Tamils. There are
(Sri Lanka), and The Kantipur (Nepal). Most South more than 26 ethnic languages in which news is
Asian media houses have direct links with the published or broadcasted from Nepal. Similar media
state and promote the governments’ policies. scenes may be observed in other South Asian countries,
Some of the large-scale media corporations having such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh.
a direct link with the powerful include The
Kuensel (Bhutan), The Arman-e Melli In addition, there is also an increasing trend towards
(Afghanistan), The Haveeru (Maldives), and English language newspapers and radio and television
The Bangla Daily (Bangladesh). programs, focusing on the young generation. In June
2011, Nepal Republic Media and The International
Herald Tribune entered into a publishing alliance to
The other model of ownership –
publish an Asia Pacific edition of The Tribune in
widely perceived as privately-owned independent
Kathmandu. The Himal Southasian, which covers
media houses – is the individual ownership of
mainly South Asian issues, is some of the English
news outlets. Again, some of these
language publications from the region, which targets
individuals are either politicians or influential
international readers. English language newspapers
individuals with close links with political parties
continue to grow both on and offline.
or religious groups who have turned to the
press market to promote themselves and their
political views through the media. In India
alone, politicians own at least seven top
television channels, including India News. More
than ten regional news channels – which are
owned by the relatives or family members of
politicians – broadcast news bulletins from different
states of India (Thakur, 2013).

25 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
 Nareshchandra Rai
However, South Asian politics has badly
impacted in the development of the media. The
governments frequently control the news media for a
number of reasons, and publishers and journalists
are often arrested for publishing news articles that are
critical of the governments. In countries, such as
Pakistan and the Maldives, religious leaders
continue to promulgate blasphemy laws that
control the media. The military regimes have also
special interests in controlling the press and been
behind many of the press laws used to censor the
media.
South Asian governments have imposed strict
media regulations during civil wars. In 1979, Sri Lanka
introduced the Prevention of Terrorism Act, giving
the government unlimited power to control civil
liberties. Similar regulations were imposed during
the civil war of Nepal. Thus, despite the fact that the
media continues to grow, private and regimes’
interests have impacted in the development of the
media.
History of citizen journalism
South Asia is frequently described in Western press
accounts as the next economic success story
because of several factors, including the region’s
commitment to democracy, a growing middle-class,
its reputation as an information-technology hub
(Sonwalker, 2009), and a relative proportion of
young people making up its population (World
Bank, 2014). With the rise of literacy, South Asia
today offers a variety of media and news sites
ranging from political blogs to diaspora news
sites. And, citizen journalism has become a
platform for many people to tell their news stories,
expressing their political views and discussing social
and political issues from South Asian perspectives. In
other words, citizen journalism has changed the mode
of news discourses, breaking through the
limitations of the traditional media and providing a
new form of political expression and
empowerment.
Yet, these are early days for citizen journalism. The
history of citizen journalism in South Asia is relatively
short, which began perhaps from the publication of a
popular political pamphlet The Indian Home Rule
by Indian political
26 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
activist Mahatma Gandhi in 1909 (Gandhi, 1965). The
Indian Home Rule – which played an important role in the
process of independent movement – is widely praised for
shaping the public opinion against the regime during
the time of British rule in India. Gandhi himself has
admitted that his pamphlets had been very effective to
spread political views in the public (Gandhi, 1965).
Similar pamphlets were sporadically published from
several other South Asian countries in the course of time
(Global Security, 2014). In the early 1930s, Pakistani
political activist Choudhry Rahmat Ali published an
influential pamphlet entitled The Pakistan Declaration,
demanding recognition of national status of Muslims
living in the northern areas of India. The pamphlet
advocated for establishing a separate Federal
Constitution on religious, social history of Muslims
in India. Rakta Mandal – a dissident group
active in Kathmandu during the Second World War –
published similar propaganda pamphlets, claiming
that the oppositions had been running a government in
exile (Whelpton, 2005).
During the civil war of Sri Lanka (i.e., 1983–2009),
pamphlets were among the most widely used printed
materials by the Tamil Tigers to share their political
views in the country (Mohan, 2014). Leaflets and
pamphlets played an important role in driving public
opinion during the Liberation War of Bangladesh in
1971 (Rahman et al.,2014). These pamphlets – in most
cases, published anonymously from various unknown
locations – not only challenged regimes that
represented a small group of elite class, but also played a
vital role in changing systems in the countries. The
publication of these materials suggests that political
pamphlets were among the first printed materials that
citizen journalists used to raise awareness about their
political rights in their countries.
 Nareshchandra Rai

reported that tweets had been posted on Twitter at a

South Asian people, particularly dissident
rate of around seventy tweets every five seconds
groups, continued to publish similar printed
when the tragedy first broke. People regularly
materials in the form of pamphlets until the
followed and updated social media posts,
1990s. As these pamphlets were used only for a
discussing the tragedy and sharing developing
specific political purpose, they short-lived and
information. Although the initial circulation of news
ceased to exist upon the fall of regimes or
included little detail of news events, they provided a
political reforms, however. The use of these
wide array of news perspectives, giving a strong
printed materials are some of the examples how
sense of what was going on during the attack
citizen journalists used pamphlets to educate
(Herrmann, 2008).
people for a political change in their homelands and how
citizen journalism played an important role in the
South Asian citizen journalists are more active in
dissemination of political ideas and the formation
providing political news, often criticising
of radical public opinion in the region.
politicians and governments. They are
determined to uncover political corruption and
misconducts by public officials and to address issues
Going beyond the traditional media? Citizen
journalism as an alternative source of news not covered by the traditional media (Noor, 2012).
information Having said that, there are also a significant number of
news sites dedicated to promoting the
However, with the introduction of the Internet, aspirations, thoughts and sentiments of individual
South Asian people are now experiencing a citizen journalists who express their personal views
growth of online news media, and in particular, (Rai, 2015). Whilst they remain individualized, their
recent decades have seen the communication private form of expressions and opinions are also
industry emerge as one of the fast-growing considered as part of a wider community interest due to
economic sectors. In other worlds, the impact of the their political views.
Internet is real: online news sites continue to
proliferate as have websites about sports and There is also a visible trend towards collective news
entertainment, music, and women and youths’ practice, involving marginalised groups, such as a
issues. Today most South Asian groupings have their own Lhotshampa minority from Bhutan and a group of
websites covering their interest of areas and issues. Hazara people from Afghanistan, who are politically and
culturally isolated in their own homelands or are living in
As people are actively engaging in a various different parts of the world for political reasons. Both
forms of news media, most South Asian people of these groups have their news sites – the
perceive citizen journalism as an alternative Lhotshampa runs bhutannewsservice.com from the
source of news information or a way of telling US and the Hazara people update their
news stories (Mishra et al., 2009; Noor, 2012; Rai, news on hazarapeople.com from the West. Both of
2015). This assertion is evident from the coverage of these groups regularly publish news articles and
the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks to the opinions on their news sites and criticise
devastating earthquake of Nepal in 2015, during governments and politicians in their homelands,
which citizen journalists offered news stories in discussing their own situations in host nations.
many different ways. Mere moments after the
Mumbai attack in 2008, Indian citizen journalists –
who were witnessing the unfolding drama – posted
messages on micro- blogging sites, such as Twitter and
Facebook, offering live news. Footage captured on
mobile phones by guests trapped in the hotels was
shown on national and international news channels.
The Telegraph, a British broadsheet newspaper,

27 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
 Nareshchandra Rai

Online news sites, particular blogs, are the most key source of breaking news about the
visible area of growth and have rekindled links earthquakes was no longer the radio, television, or
between political activists and intellectuals in newspapers but citizen journalism (Rai, 2015). Agency
home countries and abroad, enabling a flow of France-Press reported that even the government of
information. An example of this was in 2012 Nepal got in on the social media act, pushing
June when Sri Lankan citizen journalists communications online, tweeting updates and
published news articles, highlighting how Sri creating its own online news portal. For those living
Lankan government violated human rights in the out of the country, citizen journalism was the
country. The articles also demanded a ban of the main source of communication about the
delegation who were scheduled to arrive in the UK developing situations in Nepal. Some scholars
to attend the London 2012 Summer and commentators described the coverage of
Olympics. The Sri Lankan government strongly earthquakes news by ordinary people as the
reacted these news articles and sealed off two pro- beginning of real citizen journalism in Nepal (Nagarik
opposition news sites published from Sri Lanka, News, 2015).
arresting nine staffs and seizing computers
and office documents. This action of Sri Lankan During the crisis, citizen journalists also formed
government prompted international condemnation, volunteer groups from different parts of the
including a statement from the European Union world and campaigned for relief funds as well as
Head of Mission. humanitarian assistances using social-media tools.
Websites dedicated to the earthquake victims
This rapid growth of citizen journalism sites is were set up from different parts of the world,
helped by a desire for greater democracy, the calling for immediate humanitarian assistance.
presence of a significant number of South Asian On 20 June 2015, two bloggers, Bouncy Mehta
diaspora in different parts of the world, and the and Rohan Shrestha, who uploaded photos of
existence of an already-dissatisfied young donations being distributed to the victims in the
population challenging the governments and affected areas, stated that they had successfully
seeking a new order in their homelands. As a collected a total of 9,04,500 rupees in donation
result, news sites operated by citizen journalists from around the world. This may be evidence that, by
have emerged as part of the economic providing the coverage of news while participating in
liberalisation of communication industries. relief campaign, South Asian citizen
Online news sites, including merinews.com journalists demonstrate a unique news practice,
(India) and groundviews.org (Sri Lanka), both of adding a new dimension to the area of citizen
which have won the Manthan South Asian award for journalism.
publishing the e-news content, are now
recognised as some of the most influential Another most visible dimension of South Asian
citizen journalism sites from the region. citizen journalism is the participation of the
South Asian diaspora in the news media from
The high-water mark in the history of South
around the world. With the increasing trend in the
Asian citizen journalism is perhaps the reporting of
world towards globalisation, South Asian diasporas are
recent earthquakes in Nepal, in which citizen
now living in many different parts of the world, and
journalists provided news stories in a variety of
they are actively engaging in news discourses on a
ways. Just hours after the 7.8 magnitude
wide range of issues, enhancing knowledge and
earthquake devastated the country, Nepalese
sharing experience they have had in both
citizen journalists posted live footage of
homelands and host countries. Moreover, citizen
earthquakes and crying victims on social media
journalism is helping these people to educate
platforms, and tweeted messages, coordinating
themselves about the culture and political systems of
volunteers and calling for friends to mobilise
their host countries while also forming their
quickly to help relief efforts. Some influential
own community online (Rai, 2015). Using minimal
Nepalese blogs, including mysansar.com,
resources, they are able to engage in an activity that
published eyewitness accounts of aftershocks,
has the potential to create changes in a restricted
regularly updating readers with news and
political environment in homelands.
appealing for immediate help. As a result, the

28 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
 Nareshchandra Rai
Citizen journalism has thus further widened the
parameter of public participation in news
discourse on issues of public concern by
enabling activism, sparking public debates and
offering critical perspectives on governance,
democracy and other social issues.
Citizen journalists from South Asia frequently
reflect media culture and political atmosphere of their
homelands. In contrast to the traditional media,
which is often seen to promote the political
views of the governments and elite groups,
citizen journalists aim to offer news coverage,
ensuring citizens are aware of their rights and that
news deficits in the mainstream media are
addressed well. Thus, in spite of state censorship
on the news media and poor technological
infrastructures, South Asians are now some of the
most successful practitioners of citizen journalism in
the world for advocacy, driving social and political
discourses on human rights and democracy.
Citizen journalism in South Asia thus
constitutes a space where informal channels of
communication take place for a change to establish a
new order.
Conclusion
The history of citizen journalism in South Asia is
linked to the notion of active citizenship and the need
to strengthen democratic governance. Pamphlets
were among the first printed materials that citizen
journalists used to spread political awareness in
society.
One of the most significant changes in South
Asian citizen journalism in recent decades is the
growth of online news production and
distribution, with citizen journalists providing news
coverage on a wide range of issues. Having said that,
not all South Asian countries promote the idea of
citizen journalism. In countries, such as Afghanistan
and Bhutan, citizen journalism continues to face
challenges because of repressive regimes and
poor technological infrastructures. Yet, citizen
journalism is perceived as an alternative way of
telling stories and has played a significant role in the
process of educating the population. To conclude,
citizen journalism in South Asia continues to
engage citizens in news discourse on issues of
public
29 | GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC) Vol.3 No.1, August 2016
concern, promoting a diversity of political views.
When looking at coverage of news
characteristics, citizen journalism is basically
similar to what we know from the traditional
media.
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