AST-110 / Astronomy

The Solar System / Comparative Planetology

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second or two for the effects to play out, then click or press the right
arrow to proceed. Question slides or ones made up of just text will,
usually, require a number of individual clicks to read through. Click to
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Overview
You are a child of the universe, no less than the trees and the
stars; you have a right to be here. And whether or not it is clear
to you, no doubt the universe is unfolding as it should.
--Max Ehrmann (1872–1945), Desiderata
Since the beginning of the “Space Age” back in the mid-1950’s, we have learned
more about the solar system and its planets than in all of the centuries before.
Space missions have visited all the planets, including Pluto, in the Kuiper Belt and
Ceres in the Asteroid Belt.
Surprisingly, it is the well preserved debris of the solar system, the comets and
asteroids, that tells us the most about the origins and development planetary
neighborhood.
By studying the major and minor
components of the solar system,
from giant planets made of gas, to
the rocky and icy debris that orbit
The Sun, we have come to
understand and learn about the
origins and probable future of our
home in space.

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 Learning Goals
1. Describe the overall structure and scale of the solar
system.
2. Model the differences in sizes between the planets and
their various distances from the Sun.
3. Identify the differences between terrestrial and jovian
planets.
4. Categorize and distinguish the major nonplanetary
components of the solar system.
5. Outline the theory of solar system formation that accounts
for the properties and locations of the parts of the system.
6. Contrast the different theorized ways in which the
Terrestrial and Jovian planets are believed to have been
formed.

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The Solar System is Defined by Regions Click through

The Modern view of the solar system is made up of four different

regions surrounding the sun plus another region, much farther away.
Terrestrial (Earth-like) Planets: Mercury, Venus Earth and Mars
Asteroid Belt: Includes the Dwarf Planet, Ceres
Jovian (Jupiter–like) Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
Kuiper Belt: Includes the Dwarf Planets, Pluto and Eris
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Oort Cloud: Repository of comets beyond the Kuiper belt (not shown) Proceed
 Relying on Telescopic Observation Yields Basic Information

This is nothing to scoff at. Since Galileo, observations like these have
changed science and humanity’s outlook on the cosmos and itself. Proceed Click to
Visiting the Planets Up Close with Exploratory Probes has
Yielded a Treasure Trove of Data

This chart does not include the Juno probe to Jupiter or the Parker
Solar Probe designed to “touch the Sun” within 9 solar radii
Click to
(6.2 million km) Proceed
 Most Planets within the System Have their Own Sub-Systems

Major objects in the solar system are shown to scale, including

moons. Click to
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Inner Solar System Objects

Terrestrial Planets with major asteroids. Click to

Proceed
 Jovian System Objects

The large Galilean moons are some of the most fascinating objects
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in the entire solar system. Proceed
 Saturnian System Objects

As with Jupiter, the moons of Saturn are of great interest to

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astronomers. Titan, of course, but also, little Enceladus. Proceed
 Uranian System Objects

Uranus’ moons are not named for Greco-Roman mythological

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beings but, after characters in Shakespeare’s plays. Proceed
 Neptunian System and Trans-Neptunians

Little Pluto has its own mini-system,, with two of its small moons
besides its almost planetary counterpart, Charon. Other trans-
Click to
neptunians are also shown. Proceed
Orbital Characteristics of the Planets

All the planets revolve around the sun in a counter-clockwise direction

as seen from a viewpoint above the north pole of the Sun.

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Orbital Characteristics of the Planets

The angle between the axis of rotation for each planet and its plane of
revolution, its obliquity, is different for each (disregard the orbits, for
now).

NASA defines the north pole of a

planet and, therefore, its obliquity by
the “right hand” rule.
This makes Venus be ”upside down”.
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Obliquity of the Planets
A rough description of
the obliquity of the
planets would be as
follows:
- Mercury and Jupiter
are “upright”
- Earth and Mars have
similar obliquity and,
therefore, similar
seasons
(atmospheric events not
withstanding)

- Saturn’s and Neptune’s obliquities are even more pronounced

that Earth’s or Mars’
- Venus rotates “upside down”
- Uranus and Pluto rotate on their “sides” Click to
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Obliquity of the Planets
Latest, More
Precise
Numbers from
NASA
Planet Obliquity
to Orbit
Mercury 0.034
Venus 177.4
Earth 23.4
Mars 25.2
Jupiter 3.1
Saturn 26.7
Uranus 97.8
Neptune 28.3
Pluto 122.5

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The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (1 of 5)

The orbits of the inner planets are almost circular ellipses that
are spaced relatively closed together.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (1 of 5)
Planet Mean Distance Eccentricity
from Sun
Mercury 57 million km 0.206
Venus 108 million km 0.007
Earth 150 million km 0.017
Mars 228 million km 0.093
Ceres 414 million km 0.076

The orbits of the inner planets are almost circular ellipses that
are spaced relatively closed together.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (2 of 5)

Zooming out, we can see the outer planets and Pluto.

Pluto seems to cross into Neptune’s orbit!
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (2 of 5)
Planet Mean Distance Eccentricity
from Sun
Jupiter 779 million km 0.048
Saturn 1,430 million km 0.056
Uranus 2,880 million km 0.046
Neptune 4,450 million km 0.010
Pluto 5,910 million km 0.248

Zooming out, we can see the outer planets and Pluto.

Pluto seems to cross into Neptune’s orbit!
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (3 of 5)

A side view shows Pluto’s orbit as highly inclined to the others.

The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (3 of 5)

A side view shows Pluto’s orbit as highly inclined to the others.

An angled view shows Pluto’s orbit as distinct from Neptune’s.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (3 of 5)
Planet Inclination to the
Ecliptic Plane
Jupiter 1.31º
Saturn 2.49º
Uranus 0.77º
Neptune 1.77º
Pluto 17.15º

A side view shows Pluto’s orbit as highly inclined to the others.

An angled view shows Pluto’s orbit as distinct from Neptune’s.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (4 of 5)

Zooming in to the inner planets reveals their inclination.

Mercury and Ceres are not as close the ecliptic plane as the others.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (4 of 5)
Planet Inclination to the
Ecliptic Plane
Mercury 7.00º
Venus 3.39º
Earth 0.00º
Mars 1.85º
Ceres 10.59º

Zooming in to the inner planets reveals their inclination.

Mercury and Ceres are not as close the ecliptic plane as the others.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (5 of 5)

Speeded up inner planet motion shows Kepler’s Third Law in

action.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (5 of 5)

Speeded up inner planet motion shows Kepler’s Third Law in

action.
The Shape of the Solar System is defined by
Orbits of the Planets (5 of 5)
Planet Orbital Period
(Earth yrs)
Mercury 0.2408
Venus 0.6152
Earth 1.000
Mars 1.8809
Ceres 4.599
Jupiter 11.862
Saturn 29.458
Uranus 84.01
Neptune 164.79
Pluto 248.54

Speeded up inner planet motion shows Kepler’s Third Law in

action.
The Size of the Solar System is the Original,
Literal Definition of “Astronomically Large”.

Any attempt to incorporate the distances within the solar system in a

regular presentation fails to due to enormous numbers involved.
The Size of the Solar System is the Original,
Literal Definition of “Astronomically Large”.

Any attempt to incorporate the distances within the solar system in a

regular presentation fails to due to enormous numbers involved.
A graphic that uses a logarithmic scale is a good attempt to show as
many objects together as possible. But, as with all such attempts,
sacrifices the size of the planets for the sake of clarity and the distances
still seem very abstract.
The Size of the Solar System is the Original,
Literal Definition of “Astronomically Large”.

Any attempt to incorporate the distances within the solar system in a

regular presentation fails to due to enormous numbers involved.
A graphic that uses a logarithmic scale is a good attempt to show as
many objects together as possible. But, as with all such attempts,
sacrifices the size of the planets for the sake of clarity and the distances
still seem very abstract.
In the next few slides, we give other attempts to help you visualize andClick to
“feel” the size of the solar system. Proceed
Relative Sizes of the Planets (1 of 4)
Relative Sizes of the Planets (2 of 4)
Relative Sizes of the Planets (3 of 4)

Diameter of Planet (km)

Mercury 4,880
Venus 12,100
Earth 12,760
Mars 6,790
Ceres 950
Jupiter 142,980
Saturn 120,540
Uranus 51,120
Neptune 49,528
Pluto 2,370
Eris 2,330
- 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000
Relative Sizes of the Planets (4 of 4)
Assuming that we
reduce the Sun to the
Size of a basketball.
Then the diameters of
the planets would be:
Mercury ~ Grain of
sugar
Venus and Earth ~ Half
of a pea’s width
Mars ~ Sesame seed
Jupiter ~ US Quarter
coin
Saturn ~ US penny coin
Uranus and Neptune ~
Width of a pencil
Pluto ~ Half a grain of
sugar
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 Scaling The Solar System within the Confines of Paramus

• Let’s start by looking at BCC’s Tec Building and using a scale model of the Sun.
 Scaling The Solar System within the Confines of Paramus

• Let’s start by looking at BCC’s Tec Building and using a scale model of the Sun.
• Place a 9.5 inch (24 cm) basketball where the metal sculpture is. That’s your Sun
• Let’s zoom out to Pluto. How far do you think that it will be?
 Scaling The Solar System within the Confines of Paramus

• Let’s start by looking at BCC’s Tec Building and using a scale model of the Sun.
• Place a 9.5 inch (24 cm) basketball where the metal sculpture is. That’s your Sun
• Let’s zoom out to Pluto. How far do you think that it will be?

• Pluto would be more than a kilometer away. Here, it is a couple of blocks from Route 4
• Remember that Pluto would be the size of a single small grain of sugar.
• Light would take five hours to cover this distance, not five seconds as shown here. Click to
• The New Horizons probe took 9 years to get from Earth to Pluto. Proceed
Orbits of the Inner Planets

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Orbits of the Outer Planets
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Com
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Ha

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Satu Mars

Ura Jupiter
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Video: Light Moving away from Sun in Real Time (45 mins)
by Alphonse Swineheart
The speed of light seems incredibly fast. But as soon as you view it against the vast
distances of the universe, it seems very slow. This animation illustrates, in real time, the
journey of a photon of light emitted from the surface of the sun and traveling across a portion
of the solar system, from a human perspective.

The filmmaker took certain liberties with things like the alignment of planets and asteroids, as well as
ignoring the laws of relativity concerning what a photon actually "sees" or how time is experienced at the
speed of light, but overall kept the size and distances of all the objects as accurate as possible. The
animation ends just past Jupiter at 45 minutes but would have taken over 5 hours if it was shown all
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the way to Pluto.. Click on image to view on a browser. Then come back. Proceed
Web Site: “A Tediously Accurate Map of The Solar System”.
by Josh Worth
This incredible, to scale, web page shows the full extent of the solar system in an
interactive manner. It allows the user to travel all the way to Pluto by scrolling the
image! The scale is based on the Moon as one pixel.

If traveling to Pluto one pixel at a time sounds very boring, the author has added controls at the top of the
page that will accelerate the trip to each planet or to his entertaining comments, placed in interplanetary
space. Otherwise, one can travel by holding down the left or right arrow keys.

Similarly to the video linked in the previous slide, there’s another button on the bottom right that will
automatically scroll the image at a scaled light speed. Again, to scroll from the Sun to Pluto will take over
five hours. Click to
Click on image to view on a browser. Then come back. Proceed
The Major Planets are Categorized into two
different groups

In a previous slide, we pointed out two of the major regions of the solar
system.
Terrestrial (Earth-like) Planets: Mercury, Venus Earth and Mars
Jovian (Jupiter–like) Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
We will now discuss the differences between these regions.
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The Terrestrial Planets

• Four small terrestrial planets “Like Earth”

– Relatively close to the Sun
• Relatively warm
– Relatively high density (hydrogen-poor)
• Materials that form solid surfaces
– No ring systems
• Too warm for ices to exist under direct solar radiation
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The Jovian Planets

• Four large Jovian planets “Like Jupiter”

– Relatively far from the Sun
• Relatively cold
– Relatively low density (hydrogen-rich)
• Materials that do not form solid surfaces
– Ring systems
• Primarily H2O & CO2 ices
Click to
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Planetary Survey - Diameters

Mean Diameter of Planet (km)

Mercury 4,880 Terrestrial Planets
Venus 12,100
Jovian Planets
Earth 12,760
Mars 6,790
Ceres 950
Jupiter 142,980
Saturn 120,540
Uranus 51,120
Neptune 49,528
Pluto 2,370
Eris 2,330
Click to
- 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 Proceed
Planetary Survey - Mean Distances from the Sun

Mean Distance from the Sun (106 km)

Mercury 57.9 Terrestrial Planets
Venus 108.2
Earth 149.6 Jovian Planets
Mars 227.9
Ceres 414.0
Jupiter 778.6
Saturn 1,433.5
Uranus 2,872.5
Neptune 4,495.1
Pluto 5,906.4
Click to
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 Proceed
Planetary Survey - Masses

Mass of Planet (1024 kg)

Mercury 0.33 Terrestrial Planets
Venus 4.87
Jovian Planets
Earth 5.97
Mars 0.64
Ceres 0.00
Jupiter 1898.00
Saturn 568.00
Uranus 86.80
Neptune 102.00
Pluto 0.01
Eris 0.02
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Click to
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Planetary Survey - Densities

Water Mean Density of Planet (g/cm3) Iron

Mercury Granite 5.43
Venus 5.24
Earth 5.51
Mars 3.93
Ceres 2.16
Jupiter 1.33
Saturn 0.69 Terrestrial Planets
Jovian Planets
Uranus 1.27
Neptune 1.64
Pluto 2.10
Eris 2.52
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Click to
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Planetary Survey - Gravities

Surface Gravity of Planet (m/s2)

Mercury 3.7
Venus 8.9
Terrestrial Planets
Earth 9.8 Jovian Planets
Mars 3.7
Ceres 0.3
Jupiter 23.1
Saturn 9.0
Uranus 8.7
Neptune 11.0
Pluto 0.7
Eris 0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 Click to
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Planetary Atmospheres

• Basic physical processes

– Outgasing Volcanic activity produces gases
• ~1% to 10% the mass of erupting magma is gaseous
– Mostly water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) & sulfur dioxide (SO2)
– Gravity Strong enough to retain gases
• A function of the mass & diameter of the celestial object
– Low -mass molecules are most likely to escape (H2)
– High-mass molecules are least likely to escape (N 2, O2, CO2)
– Temperature Low enough to retain gases
• Temperature is a measure of average molecular speed
• Molecules statistically have a range of speeds
– Low -speed molecules are least likely to escape (N 2, O2, CO2)
– High-speed molecules are most likely to escape (H2)
• Some effects
– Mercury is too small & hot to retain an atmosphere. Outgasses only
Click to
– Most moons are too small to retain an atmosphere Proceed
Terrestrial Planets Atmospheres Click to
Proceed

Essentially,
No Atmosphere
Jovian Planets Atmospheres Click to
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Planetary Magnetic Fields
• Jupiter
–Approx. 320 Earth masses → high
pressures → Large metallic hydrogen
region → strong magnetic field
–Internal heat source (from
formation and differentiation) → heat
output ~2 solar input

• Saturn
–Approx. 90 Earth masses → lower
pressures → moderate metallic
hydrogen region → moderate
magnetic field
–Internal heat source (from
formation and differentiation) → heat
output ~2 solar input
• Uranus
–Tilted on side = high obliquity
–Approx. 14 Earth masses → much lower pressures → no metallic H
–Density requires substantial amounts of Water, Ammonia, Methane → liquid ocean
→ magnetic dynamo region
–NO internal heat source (or very weak) – Reason is not fully understood
• Neptune
–Approx. 17 Earth masses → much lower pressures → no metallic H
–Density requires substantial amounts of Water, Ammonia, Methane → liquid ocean
→ magnetic dynamo region
–Internal heat source (from formation and differentiation) → heat output ~2 solar input Click to
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 NASA’s Planetary Fact Sheet
MERCURY VENUS EARTH MOON MARS JUPITER SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE PLUTO

Mass (1024kg) 0.330 4.87 5.97 0.073 0.642 1898 568 86.8 102 0.0146

Diameter (km) 4879 12,104 12,756 3475 6792 142,984 120,536 51,118 49,528 2370

Density (kg/m3) 5427 5243 5514 3340 3933 1326 687 1271 1638 2095

Gravity (m/s2) 3.7 8.9 9.8 1.6 3.7 23.1 9.0 8.7 11.0 0.7

Escape Velocity (km/s) 4.3 10.4 11.2 2.4 5.0 59.5 35.5 21.3 23.5 1.3

Rotation Period (hours) 1407.6 -5832.5 23.9 655.7 24.6 9.9 10.7 -17.2 16.1 -153.3

Length of Day (hours) 4222.6 2802.0 24.0 708.7 24.7 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1 153.3

Distance from Sun (106 km) 57.9 108.2 149.6 0.384* 227.9 778.6 1433.5 2872.5 4495.1 5906.4

Perihelion (106 km) 46.0 107.5 147.1 0.363* 206.6 740.5 1352.6 2741.3 4444.5 4436.8

Aphelion (106 km) 69.8 108.9 152.1 0.406* 249.2 816.6 1514.5 3003.6 4545.7 7375.9

Orbital Period (days) 88.0 224.7 365.2 27.3 687.0 4331 10,747 30,589 59,800 90,560

Orbital Velocity (km/s) 47.4 35.0 29.8 1.0 24.1 13.1 9.7 6.8 5.4 4.7

Orbital Inclination (degrees) 7.0 3.4 0.0 5.1 1.9 1.3 2.5 0.8 1.8 17.2

Orbital Eccentricity 0.205 0.007 0.017 0.055 0.094 0.049 0.057 0.046 0.011 0.244

Obliquity to Orbit (degrees) 0.034 177.4 23.4 6.7 25.2 3.1 26.7 97.8 28.3 122.5

Mean Temperature (C) 167 464 15 -20 -65 -110 -140 -195 -200 -225

Surface Pressure (bars) 0 92 1 0 0.01 Unknown* Unknown* Unknown* Unknown* 0.00001

Number of Moons 0 0 1 0 2 79 62 27 14 5

Ring System? No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Global Magnetic Field? Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown

MERCURY VENUS EARTH MOON MARS JUPITER SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE PLUTO

This data comes from the National and Aeronautics Space Administration’s planetary information
Click to
website. Every underlined word is linked to more detailed information on that web site. Proceed
 (click on image to use
Solar System Properties Explorer simulation in a browser)

Allows one to explore a set of histograms for characteristics like number of

satellites, mass, orbital period, etc. for the terrestrial and Jovian planets, plus Click to
Pluto. Proceed
Planetary Satellites (moons) of the Solar System

• Moons in the Solar System

– Mercury & Venus have no moons
– Earth has one moon
– Mars has two very small moons
– Pluto has five moons
– All Jovian planets have many moons
– All Solar System moons are terrestrial objects
• Solid surfaces Rocks, ices or a mixture of the two
• Moon sizes
– Most planetary moons are quite small
– Seven planetary moons are quite large
• Earth “The Moon“ or Luna
• Jupiter Io, Europa, Ganymede & Callisto
• Saturn Titan
• Neptune Triton Click to
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The Asteroid Belt (1 of 4)

• Asteroid Belt objects are made of rock and stone. Some are solid objects, while others
are orbiting “rubble piles”.
• The Asteroid Belt may contain billions of particles
The Asteroid Belt (2 of 4)

• Asteroid Belt objects are made of rock and stone. Some are solid objects, while others
are orbiting “rubble piles”.
• The Asteroid Belt may contain billions of particles.
• Some asteroids in the Belt are quite large, but most range in size down to pebbles and
are known as meteoroids.
The Asteroid Belt (3 of 4)

• The asteroid Ceres is also designated as a dwarf planet

The Asteroid Belt (4 of 4)

• At least 7,000 asteroids are known.

• The Asteroid Belt may contain many objects, but they are spread out over a huge area
of space. This has allowed spacecraft to move through this region without hitting
anything.
• The formation of Jupiter disrupted the formation of any worlds in the Asteroid Belt
region by scattering asteroids away. This caused them to collide and break into smaller
pieces.
• Gravitational influences can move asteroids out of the Belt. Click to
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Comets (1 of 2)

Blue tail of ionized gas

White-yellow tail of dust

Icy nucleus, which

evaporates and gets
Mostly objects in highly elliptical orbits,
blown into space by solar
occasionally coming close to the sun.
wind pressure.
Comets (2 of 2)
• No clear ring particle  comet
Blue tail of ionized gas
• Comet sources
White-yellow tail of dust
Icy nucleus, which
evaporates and gets
blown into space by solar
wind pressure.
distinction
– “Dirty snowball” model of
comets
– Quite different from all other
Solar System objects
• A mixture of ices & rock &
metal
– Short-term comets
– Source: Kuiper belt
• Less than 200 years to orbit
the Sun
– Long-term comets
– Source: Oort cloud
• More than 200 years to orbit
the Sun Click to
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The Kuiper Belt (1 of 2)

• An area of the outer solar system that is estimated to stretch across 20 astronomical units
(AU) of space beyond the orbit of Neptune.
• The Kuiper Belt is named for the astronomer Gerard Kuiper, one of various astronomers,
who theorized about a disk of material in the outer reaches of the solar system.
The Kuiper Belt (2 of 2)

• An area of the outer solar system that is estimated to stretch across 20 astronomical units
(AU) of space beyond the orbit of Neptune.
• The Kuiper Belt is named for the astronomer Gerard Kuiper, one of various astronomers,
who theorized about a disk of material in the outer reaches of the solar system.
• Contain hundreds of thousands of icy bodies that range in size from small chunks of ice to
planetoids larger than 100 km across.
• Most short-period comets originate in the Kuiper Belt and have orbital periods of 200 years
or less.
• There could be more than a trillion comet nuclei in the main body of the Kuiper Belt.
• At least nine stars are known to have structures similar to our Kuiper Belt
• The ices in the Kuiper Belt date back to the formation of the solar system and contain Click to
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clues to conditions in the early solar nebula.
 The Oort Cloud
• The Oort Cloud is an extended
shell of icy objects that exist in the
outermost reaches of the solar
system. It is named after
astronomer Jan Oort, who first
theorized its existence.
• It is a reserve of cometary nuclei
that contain ices dating back to
the origin of the solar system.
Objects in the Oort Cloud are also
referred to as Trans-Neptunian
objects. This name also applies to
objects in the Kuiper Belt.
• The inner limits of the cloud begin
at about 2,000 AU from the Sun.
The cloud itself stretches out
almost a quarter of the way to the
nearest star,
• It is theorized to be the remains of
the disc of material that formed
the Sun and planets.

• Some astronomers speculate that the Sun may have captured Oort Cloud cometary material
from the outer disks of other stars that were forming in the same nebula as our star.
• Estimates on the number of objects in the Oort cloud Are in the order of 2 trillion.
• The planetoid Sedna, discovered in 2003, is thought to be a member of the inner Oort
Cloud.
• Long-period comets (those with orbital periods longer than 200 years) are thought to Click to
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originate in the Oort Cloud.
Origins of the Solar System - Nebular Theory (1 of 3)

• Basic observation
– All planets orbit the Sun in the same direction
• Extremely unlikely by pure chance
• Basic implication
– A slowly-rotating nebula became the Solar System
• Its rate of rotation increased as its diameter
decreased
• Basic physical process
– Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction Gravity  Pressure
• As a nebula contracts, it rotates faster
– Conservation of angular momentum
Origins of the Solar System - Nebular Theory (2 of 3)
• Basic physical process
– Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction Gravity  Pressure
• As a nebula contracts, it rotates faster
– Conservation of angular momentum

After starting a spin, a figure

skater will pull in his or her
limbs inward.
So much mass, so close to the
center of rotation, results in a
tremendous increase in
rotational speed.
In the case of Russian skater,
Julia Lipnitskaia, the effect is,
seemingly superhuman.
Origins of the Solar System - Nebular Theory (3 of 3)
• Basic physical process
– Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction Gravity  Pressure
• As a nebula contracts, it rotates faster
– Conservation of angular momentum
• As the particles descended towards the center of
the solar nebula due to gravity, they lost potential
energy.
• While losing potential energy, they gained kinetic
energy.
• The collapse of the nebula resulted in an increase
in collisions between particles due to their proximity
to one another.
• The collisions caused an increase in thermal
energy.
• Accretion of mass increases pressure
• Temperature & pressure enough to initiate nuclear
fusion
Click to
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Formation of Any Star System (1 of 2)
• Presence of a nebula (gas & dust cloud)
– Typically ~ 1.0 light year in diameter
– Typically ~ 99% gas & ~1% dust
– Typically ~ 10 kelvins temperature
• A compression mechanism begins contraction
– Solar wind from a nearby OB star association
– Shock wave from a nearby supernova
Formation of Any Star System (2 of 2)
• Presence of a nebula (gas & dust cloud)
– Typically ~ 1.0 light year in diameter
– Typically ~ 99% gas & ~1% dust
– Typically ~ 10 kelvins temperature
• A compression mechanism begins contraction
– Solar wind from a nearby OB star association
– Shock wave from a nearby supernova
• Prominent forces
– Gravity Inversely proportional to d2
• Tends to make the nebula contract & form a star
– Pressure Directly proportional to TK
• Tends to make the nebula expand & not form a
star
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Formation of Any Star System (1 of 2)

• Central protostar forms

first, then the plaets
– H begins fusing into
He → Solar/Stellar
wind gets strong
– This quickly blows
remaining gas & dust
away
Formation of Any Star System (2 of 2)

• Central protostar forms

first, then the planets
– H begins fusing into
He → Solar/Stellar
wind gets strong
– This quickly blows
remaining gas & dust
away

• Circumstellar disks

– Many are observed in our part of the Milky Way

• Overwhelming emphasis on stars like our Sun
– Many appear as new stars with disks of gas & dust
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Planetary Formation - Accretion (1 of 6)

• Basic Physical Process No. 1

– Countless tiny particles attracted by gravity and electrostatics

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Planetary Formation - Accretion (2 of 6)

• Basic Physical Process No. 1

– Countless tiny particles attracted by gravity and electrostatics
– Extremely high probability of collisions
• High energy impacts: Particles move farther apart (not shown)
• Low energy impacts: Particles stay gravitationally bound
– Smaller particles become bigger particles

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Planetary Formation - Accretion (3 of 6)

• Basic Physical Process No. 1

– Countless tiny particles attracted by gravity and electrostatics
– Extremely high probability of collisions
• High energy impacts: Particles move farther apart (not shown)
• Low energy impacts: Particles stay gravitationally bound
– Smaller particles become bigger particles
• ~109 asteroid-size planetesimals form by accretion

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Planetary Formation - Accretion (4 of 6)

• Basic Physical Process No. 1

– Countless tiny particles attracted by gravity and electrostatics
– Extremely high probability of collisions
• High energy impacts: Particles move farther apart (not shown)
• Low energy impacts: Particles stay gravitationally bound
– Smaller particles become bigger particles
• ~109 asteroid-size planetesimals form by accretion
• Protostar produces solar wind, pushing gas further out
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Planetary Formation - Accretion (5 of 6)

• Basic Physical Process No. 1

– Countless tiny particles attracted by gravity and electrostatics
– Extremely high probability of collisions
• High energy impacts: Particles move farther apart (not shown)
• Low energy impacts: Particles stay gravitationally bound
– Smaller particles become bigger particles
• ~109 asteroid-size planetesimals form by accretion
• Protostar produces solar wind, pushing gas further out
• ~101 planet-size objects form by accretion Click to
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Planetary Formation - Accretion (6 of 6)

• Basic Physical Process No. 1

– Countless tiny particles attracted by gravity and electrostatics
– Extremely high probability of collisions
• High energy impacts: Particles move farther apart (not shown)
• Low energy impacts: Particles stay gravitationally bound
– Smaller particles become bigger particles
• ~109 asteroid-size planetesimals form by accretion
• Protostar produces solar wind, pushing gas further out
• ~101 planet-size objects form by accretion Click to
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 Planetary Differentiation

• Critical factor
– Impacts of larger objects generate more heat
• Terrestrial protoplanets are [almost] completely molten
• “Chemical” differentiation occurs
– Lowest density materials rise to the surface → Crust
– Highest density materials sink to the center → Core Click to
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Planetary Formation - Condensation (1 of 3)

• Terrestrial planets are made from materials that constituted ~0.6% of the
nebula.
• Jovian planets were formed in region where ~2% of material condensed. They
also captured gas (98%).
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Planetary Formation - Condensation (2 of 3)

• Basic Physical Process No. 2

– Point source radiant energy flux from varies µ 1/D2
• Ten times the distance, one percent the energy flux
– Any distant star is essentially a point source
• The concept applies to all forming & existing stars
– At some distance, it is cold enough for solids to form
• This distance is relatively close for rocks
– Much closer to the Sun than the planet Mercury
• This distance is relatively far for ices
– Slightly closer to the Sun than the planet Jupiter

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Planetary Formation - Condensation (3 of 3)

– This produces two types of planets

• High density solid planets Terrestrial planets
• Low density gaseous planets Jovian planets Click to
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 (click on image to use
Planet Formation Temperatures Plot simulation in a browser)

Shows planet formation temperature as a function of distance from the Sun.

Also indicates the state (gas or solid) of several substances at the given Click to
distance and temperature. Proceed
Exceptions to the Rule

– Several notable exceptions to the general trends previously listed, stand

out.
• Planets with unusual axial tilts or rotations
• Planets with unexpectedly large or small moons
• Moons with unusual orbits
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Heavy Bombardment

– Leftover planetesimals bombarded other objects

in the late stages of solar system formation.
• First few hundred million years
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Captured Moons

– Unusual moons of some planets may be

captured planetesimals

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Giant Impact Theory Explains Large Size of
earth’s Moon

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Giant Impact Theory Also Explains Odd
Rotational Axes of Venus and Uranus

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Planetary Interiors

Frozen Nitrogen

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End of Lab

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