CHAPTER I: BASIC UNDERSTANDING.

1. What is Civil Engineering?

One of the oldest engineering disciplines, civil engineering is the applied science of physics and mathematics to address the
infrastructural needs of human civilization. This includes construction engineering, bridge engineering, highway engineering, and the
basic maintenance of roads, canals, dams, and buildings.

Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline
after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. Civil engineering takes
place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners
through to international companies.

2. Basics of engineering.

Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other things, including bridges, roads,
vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with
a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application.

3. Basics of civil Engineering.

Civil engineering is a profession that applies the basic principles of science in conjunction with mathematical and computati onal
tools to solve problems associated with developing and sustaining civilized life on our planet. Civil engineering is one of the
older and broader engineering fields, both in terms of the range of problems that fall within its purview and in the range of
knowledge required to solve those problems. Civil engineering works are generally one -of-a-kind projects; they are often grand
in scale; and they usually require cooperation among professionals of many different disciplines. The completion of a civil
engineering project involves the solution of technical problems in which uncertainty of information and myriad non -technical
factors often play a significant role. Some of the most common examples of civil engineering works include bridges, buildings ,
dams, airports, highways, tunnels, and water distribution systems. Civil engineers are concerned with flood control, landslid es,
air and water pollution, and the design of facilities to withstand earthquakes and other natural hazards.

The civil engineering program comprises seven traditional areas (construction engineering and management, construction
materials engineering, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering,
and water resources engineering and science) and three interdisciplinary programs (sustainable and resilient infrastructure
systems; energy-water-environment sustainability; and societal risk management). Although each area has its own special body
of knowledge and engineering tools, they all rely on the same fundamental core principles. Civil engineering projects often
draw expertise from many of these areas and programs.

4. Possible scopes for a career.

The main scope of civil engineering or the task of civil engineering is planning, designing, estimating, supervising construction,
managing construction, execution, and maintenance of structures like building, roads, bridges, dams, etc. One who designs and
maintains works of public utility is known as civil engineer

5. Careers Related to Civil Engineers.

Architects
Architects plan and design houses, factories, office buildings, and other structures.
Civil Engineering Technicians
Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers to plan, design, and build highways, bridges, utilities, and other infrastructure
projects. They also help to plan, design, and build commercial, industrial, residential, and land development projects.
Construction Managers
Construction managers plan, coordinate, budget, and supervise construction projects from start to finish.
Environmental Engineers
Environmental engineers use the principles of engineering, soil science, biology, and chemistry to develop solutions to environmental
problems. They are involved in efforts to improve recycling, waste disposal, public health, and water and air pollution control.
Landscape Architects
Landscape architects design parks and the outdoor spaces of campuses, recreational facilities, businesses, private homes, and other
open areas.
Surveyors
Surveyors make precise measurements to determine property boundaries. They provide data relevant to the shape and contour of the
Earth's surface for engineering, mapmaking, and construction projects.
Urban and Regional Planners
Urban and regional planners develop land use plans and programs that help create communities, accommodate population growth, and
revitalize physical facilities in towns, cities, counties, and metropolitan areas.
6. Importance of civil engineering.

Civil engineers play an extremely important role in the society. They are responsible for maintaining the overall safety of society in a
number of ways including rural engineering. From constructing highways and buildings to bridges and tunnels, the responsibilities
ofcivil engineers are many.

7. Advancement for Civil Engineers

Civil engineers with ample experience may move into senior positions, such as project managers or functional managers of design,
construction, operation, or maintenance. However, they would first need to obtain the Professional Engineering (PE) license, because
only licensed engineers can assume responsibilities for public projects.
After gaining licensure, a professional engineer may seek credentialing that demonstrates his or her expertise in a civil engineering
specialty. Such a credential may be helpful for advancement to senior technical or even managerial positions.

8. Important Qualities for Civil Engineers

Decisionmaking skills. Civil engineers often balance multiple and frequently conflicting objectives, such as determining the feasibility
of plans with regard to financial costs and safety concerns. Urban and regional planners often look to civil engineers for advice on
these issues. Civil engineers must be able to make good decisions based on best practices, their own technical knowledge, and their
own experience.
Leadership skills. Civil engineers take ultimate responsibility for the projects that they manage or research that they perform.
Therefore, they must be able to lead planners, surveyors, construction managers, civil engineering technicians, civil engineering
technologists, and others in implementing their project plan.
Math skills. Civil engineers use the principles of calculus, trigonometry, and other advanced topics in mathematics for analysis,
design, and troubleshooting in their work.
Organizational skills. Only licensed civil engineers can sign the design documents for infrastructure projects. This requirement makes
it imperative that civil engineers be able to monitor and evaluate the work at the jobsite as a project progresses. That way, they can
ensure compliance with the design documents. Civil engineers also often manage several projects at the same time, and thus must be
able to balance time needs and to effectively allocate resources.
Problem-solving skills. Civil engineers work at the highest level of the planning, design, construction, and operation of multifaceted
projects or research. The many variables involved require that they possess the ability to identify and evaluate complex problems.
They must be able to then use their skill and training to develop cost-effective, safe, and efficient solutions.
Speaking skills. Civil engineers must present reports and plans to audiences of people with a wide range of backgrounds and technical
knowledge. This requires the ability to speak clearly and to converse with people in various settings, and to translate engineering and
scientific information into easy-to-understand concepts.
Writing skills. Civil engineers must be able to communicate with others, such as architects, landscape architects, urban and regional
planners. They also must be able to explain projects to elected officials and citizens. Civil engineers must be able to write reports that
are clear, concise, and understandable to those with little or no technical or scientific background.
 9. Duties of Civil Engineers
Civil engineers typically do the following:

 Analyze long range plans, survey reports, maps, and other data to plan and design projects
 Consider construction costs, government regulations, potential environmental hazards, and other factors during the planning and risk-
analysis stages of a project
 Compile and submit permit applications to local, state, and federal agencies, verifying that projects comply with various regulations
 Oversee and analyze the results of soil testing to determine the adequacy and strength of foundations
 Analyze the results of tests on building materials, such as concrete, wood, asphalt, or steel, for use in particular projects
 Prepare cost estimates for materials, equipment, or labor to determine a project's economic feasibility
 Use design software to plan and design transportation systems, hydraulic systems, and structures in line with industry and government
standards
 Perform or oversee surveying operations to establish building locations, site layouts, reference points, grades, and elevations to guide
construction
 Manage the repair, maintenance, and replacement of public and private infrastructure

Civil engineers also must present their findings to the public on topics such as bid proposals, environmental impact statements, or
property descriptions.
Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions ranging from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer,
public works director, and city manager. As supervisors, they are tasked with ensuring that safe work practices are followed at
construction sites.
Other civil engineers work in design, construction, research, and teaching. Civil engineers work with others on projects and may be
assisted by civil engineering technicians.
Civil engineers prepare permit documents for work on projects in renewable energy. They verify that the projects will comply with
federal, state, and local requirements. These engineers conduct structural analyses for large-scale photovoltaic, or solar energy,
projects. They also evaluate the ability of solar array support structures and buildings to tolerate stresses from wind, seismic activity,
and other sources. For large-scale wind projects, civil engineers often prepare roadbeds to handle large trucks that haul in the turbines.
Civil engineers work on complex projects, and they can achieve job satisfaction in seeing the project reach completion. They usually
specialize in one of several areas.
Construction engineers manage construction projects, ensuring that they are scheduled and built in accordance with plans and
specifications. These engineers typically are responsible for the design and safety of temporary structures used during construction.
They may also oversee budgetary, time-management, and communications aspects of a project.
Geotechnical engineers work to make sure that foundations for built objects ranging from streets and buildings to runways and dams,
are solid. They focus on how structures built by civil engineers, such as buildings and tunnels, interact with the earth (including soil
and rock). In addition, they design and plan for slopes, retaining walls, and tunnels.
Structural engineers design and assess major projects, such as buildings, bridges, or dams, to ensure their strength and durability.
Transportation engineers plan, design, operate, and maintain everyday systems, such as streets and highways, but they also plan larger
projects, such as airports, ship ports, mass transit systems, and harbors.
The work of civil engineers is closely related to the work of environmental engineers.

CHAPTER II: HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

10. Manual Labor: the First Engineering Tool

Civil engineering involves the design, construction, and maintenance of works such as roads, bridges, and buildings. It's a science that
includes a variety of disciplines including soils, structures, geology, and other fields. Thus the history of civil engineering is closely
associated with the history of advancement in these sciences. In ancient history, most of the construction was carried out by artisans,
and technical expertise was limited. Tasks were accomplished by the utilization of manual labor only, without the use of sophisticated
machinery, since it did not exist. Therefore, civil engineering works could only be realized with the utilization of a large number of
skilled workers over an extended period of time.
11. Prehistoric and Ancient Civil Engineering Structures

It might be appropriate to assume that the science of civil engineering truly commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Egypt when
transportation gained such importance that it led to the development of the wheel. According to the historians, the Pyramids were
constructed in Egypt during 2800-2400 BC and may be considered as the first large structure construction ever. The Great Wall of
China that was constructed around 200 BC is considered another achievement of ancient civil engineering. The Romans developed
extensive structures in their empire, including aqueducts, bridges, and dams. A scientific approach to the physical sciences concerning
civil engineering was implemented by Archimedes in the third century BC, by utilizing the Archimedes Principle concerning
buoyancy and the Archimedes screw for raising water.

12. The Roles of Civil And Military Engineer in Ancient Times

As stated above, civil engineering is considered to be the first main discipline of engineering, and the engineers were in fact military
engineers with expertise in military and civil works. During the era of battles or operations, the engineers were engaged to assist the
soldiers fighting in the battlefield by making catapults, towers, and other instruments used for fighting the enemy. However, during
peace time, they were concerned mainly with the civil activities such as building fortifications for defense, making bridges, canals, etc.

13. Civil Engineering in the 18th – 20th Century

Until the recent era, there was no major difference between the terms civil engineering and architecture, and they were often used
interchangeably. It was in the 18th century that the term civil engineering was firstly used independently from the term military
engineering. The first private college in the United States that included Civil Engineering as a separate discipline was Norwich
University established in the year 1819. Civil engineering societies were formed in United States and European countries during the
19th century, and similar institutions were established in other countries of the world during the 20th century. The American Society of
Civil Engineers is the first national engineering society in the United States. In was founded in 1852 with members related to the civil
engineering profession located globally. The number of universities in the world that include civil engineering as a discipline have
increased tremendously during the 19th and the 20th centuries, indicating the importance of this technology.

14. Modern Concepts In Civil Engineering

Numerous technologies have assisted in the advancement of civil engineering in the modern world, including high-tech machinery,
selection of materials, test equipment, and other sciences. However, the most prominent contributor in this field is considered to be
computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM). Civil engineers use this technology to achieve an efficient
system of construction, including manufacture, fabrication, and erection. Three-dimensional design software is an essential tool for the
civil engineer that facilitates him in the efficient designing of bridges, tall buildings, and other huge complicated structures.

15. CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

The decades surrounding the American Revolution, from the 1760s until about 1820, saw few advances in building technology. Where
change occurred it was often small, local, and incremental. The buildings of the early nineteenth century look different from their
colonial counterparts, a product of new republican sensibilities that stripped down the ornate detail of the classical Georgian style and
replaced it with the simpler lines of the Federal style. Despite the change in appearance, though, buildings of the new American nation
were constructed with the same traditional techniques that had been in use for generations.

16. building materials

The availability of timber and the early development of sawmills made wood the construction material of choice in early America. By
the mid-eighteenth century, standardized conventions for size and quality of lumber facilitated long-distance transactions, and a
complex system of sawyers, agents, and board yards moved wood from timber lot to the towns and cities where construction was
taking place. Most builders fashioned their buildings from quick sketches and traditional mental templates, substituting creativity,
intuition, and experience for more formal written drawings and designs. In the 1760s architectural design books from England became
available in the colonies and encouraged a greater level of uniformity and standardization in high-style elite urban buildings. By the
1790s the patterns were being used by tradesmen of all classes, and English architectural conventions increasingly influenced
vernacular building techniques and designs in the countryside as well.

Most wooden structures were framed with heavy hand-hewn posts and beams joined together by hand-carved mortise-and-tenon
joints, covered over with sheathing and clapboards and roofed with hand-split wooden shingles. Frames were often fit together into
subassemblies at the mill or carpenter's yard, then marked, disassembled, and shipped to the building site. At the site, builders would
reconstruct the subassemblies, then supervise the raising, in which local townspeople would come together for a day to pull the sides
up into place and attach the roofing frame. Raising a frame was dangerous business, so it was important that all involved understood
how the framing was supposed to go together. Consequently, the house-raising tradition worked against innovations in framing. With
advances in sawmill technology in the 1790s, sawn framing members increasingly replaced hewn timbers and helped fuel the building
boom of that decade. Machine-cut nails, a cheap alternative to the hand-forged nails that had been in use for centuries, also became
widely available in the first decade of the nineteenth century. The availability of both sawn lumber and nails resulted in a more
economical braced-frame style of construction, which replaced some of the heavy timber framing with smaller, standardized studs
attached by nails rather than hand-carved joints.

In the mid-Atlantic and the South, a significant amount of brick construction took place, particularly in cities like Philadelphia and
Baltimore, where bricks were used to build whole blocks of residential row houses. There were few brick structures in the Northeast,
largely due to the lack of the limestone that was necessary for both mortar and plaster. The exception was in chimney construction,
where brick was in use everywhere from the late seventeenth century. Brick vaults, which had replaced rubble-stone foundations
beneath chimney stacks by about 1800, provided both a stronger foundation and a built-in cellar storage area. Brickmaking was an
ancient art, and this period saw few departures from the traditional production process, the only real innovation coming in 1815 with
the burning of anthracite coal and wood in the kilns. The combination created slightly inferior bricks and mortar but greatly reduced
the time and cost involved.

Most eighteenth-century foundations were constructed either of packed earth or loosely fitting stones and boulders bound together by
mortar. In the 1790s improved quarrying and splitting techniques allowed builders to cap foundations with hewn granite slabs that
greatly enhanced durability and stability. Techniques for milling and cutting stone were also perfected in this decade, resulting in the
increased use of granite and marble for both structural and decorative purposes.

17. industrialization and transformation

The 1820s and 1830s witnessed a dramatic transformation in building technology. Sawmills began to replace old up-and-down saws,
which only cut on the down stroke, with the new and more productive continuously cutting circular saw. As a result, sawn frames,
shingles, and lath for plaster all became much more inexpensive and widely available than their hand-fashioned antecedents. Steam-
driven sawmills began to free sawyers from their dependence on seasonal water flow. New nailheading machinery made cut nails even
more economical, and the invention of planing machinery greatly reduced the time and skill necessary for sizing boards and producing
finish work. Carpenter-builders shifted from the scribe rule system of measurements, where individual framing members were trued
up and fitted with respect to each other, to the square rule, which emphasized standardization and the interchangeability of framing
elements. These technological developments, coupled with the need for fast and cheap construction on the expanding American
frontier, led to the invention of balloon-frame construction. First used at Fort Dearborn, near Chicago in 1833, the balloon frame
replaced the posts, beams, and braces with rows of smaller, lighter studs, rafters, and joists, wholly held together by nails rather than
hand-carved joints.

Steam machinery facilitated hoisting and cutting operations in quarries, and slate became an increasingly popular roofing material,
particularly in cities, where wood-shingled roofs had proven to be dangerous fire hazards. Mechanized brick making, the use of
poured cement in construction, and iron-framed structures all began to appear in the late 1820s. The development of practical cast iron
stoves in the early 1830s freed builders from the limitations on floor plans imposed by the earlier need for a fireplace in each room.
More choices were available to builders, but the technology and the construction practices of the 1820s and 1830s were also
transforming building from a traditional craft trade into a factory-style operation. Though in many places, particularly in the
countryside, vernacular and hand-crafted building practices continued for much of the nineteenth century, the industrialization taking
place at the end of the early national period produced more efficient and standardized building technologies that fit the needs of the
rapidly growing nation.
18. 10 Most Famous Historical Monuments of India

i. Taj Mahal, Agra

The Taj Mahal, a beautiful white marble Monument located in the city of Agra on the banks of the holy river Yamuna in the state of
Uttar Pradesh. Taj Mahal is the finest example of combines elements of Mughal, Persian, Ottoman Turkish and Indian architectural
styles.
It is one of the eight wonders of the world and also one of the must visit place in Uttar Pradesh . Fatehpur Sikri is another historic site
in the state, the first planned city of the Mughals.
ii. Mysore Palace, Mysore

The Palace of Mysore is the most famous historical monument, located in the city of Mysore in Karnataka and one of the most visited
monuments in India. Mysore Palace is one of the most famous tourist attractions in the city along with Chamundi Hills.
iii. Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar

The Golden Temple is known as Harmandir Sahib is a Sikh Gurdwara located in the Amritsar, Punjab. Shri Darbar Shaib is the holiest
shrine and most famous pilgrimage place for Sikhs.
Harmandir Sahib is one of the most sacred places in India, a Holy Granth Sahib is always present inside the temple.
iv. Brihadishwara Temple, Thanjavur

Brihadishwara Temple also called Periya Koyil or Big Temple is one of the India’s largest temple located in the Thanjavur at the
Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
The Rajarajeswaram temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and the best temple build by Cholas along with Airavatesvara Temple of Tamil
Nadu, Brihadishwara Temple and Airavatesvara Temple are two world heritage sites in Tamil Nadu.
v. Bahai Temple, Delhi

The Lotus Temple of Delhi is called Bahai Temples, situated near kalka Ji.Lotus Temple is a house of Worship for every religion and
best place for meditation and peace.

Bahai Faith is spiritual unity of all humankind, there are eight continental Houses of Worship have been built around the world. Lotus
Temple is one of them and the prominent attraction in Delhi.
vi. Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

The great monuments of the royal Rajputs of Rajasthan, Hawa Mahal also Palace of Winds is situated in the heart of pink city and the
capital of Rajasthan,Jaipur. The pyramid shape five-story palace is constructed by red and pink sandstone by Maharaja Sawai Pratap
Singh for women’s of royal families.
Hawa Mahal is one of the major tourist attraction of Jaipur as well as must see historical monuments of Rajasthan state.
vii. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Mumbai

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus or Victoria Terminus is a historic railway station situated in the dream city of India Mumbai,
Maharashtra.
Victoria Terminus is one of the most busiest railway station in India and headquarters of the Central Railways. There are top 25
Historical Monuments located in Maharashtra.
viii. Victoria Memorial, Kolkata

The Victoria Memorial Hall is located in the capital of West Bengal, Kolkata and dedicated to Queen Victoria. Victoria Memorial is
one of the major tourist attraction of Kolkata and serves as a museum with great collection of manuscripts,paintings and sculptures of
the British period.
ix. Qutub Minar, Delhi

Qutab Minar of Delhi is one of the tallest and famous towers in the world and second tallest Minar in India. Complex of Qutb Minar is
home to several historically monuments such as Tomb of Iltutmish, Iron pillar of Delhi and Alai Minar.
x. Sanchi Stupa, Sanchi

The Buddhist vihara at Sanchi is also known as Great Stupa is one of the most famous Buddhist monument in India, located at Sanchi
Town in Raisen District. Sanchi Stupa is one of the best preserved ancient Stupas in India, surrounded by four carved gateways.

19. Top 10 ancient monuments in the world

Several of groundbreaking inventions, sophisticated gadgets, and mostly, the emergence of technology have made our life seamlessly
incredible and easy, and so is the construction industry. But when you step back to time, you’ll discover that the calculation, precision,
and mastermind of the primeval people, who lived several centuries before, were just beyond the up-to-date technological brilliance,
as you come to know how punctiliously they crafted their masterpieces without the use of any line-up of super tools or technological
innovation. Here are some of my favorite historical monuments whose enormous charm and splendid beauty blew me away.
i. The Colosseum, Rome, Italy
The Colosseum has been the world’s largest amphitheater since it was built more than 2,000 years ago. When it was first opened in
AD 80, this huge imposing structure measured 150 meters wide and 190 meters long, with 80 arched entrances and capacity to seat up
to 74,000 spectators. Not only a marvelous depiction of the ancient Roman architecture, the Colosseum also gives you a slice of the
region’s turbulent past.
ii. Tikal, Guatemala

A mélange of stunning monuments in the form of palaces, shrines, residences, game courts, and roads, within the vast expanse of
Tikal National Park, is touted as an outstanding example of the artistic and human intellect of Mayan civilization that thrived here
from 300 to 850 BC. This is a UNESCO world heritage site and is placed in the Guatemala’s El Peten province.
iii. Easter Island
Mysterious charm, exotic beaches, influence of Polynesian culture, and most of all, about a thousand monumental statues, namely,
Moai scattered across the region make this Pacific island extraordinarily beautiful. Dating back to 12th century, these statutes were
sculpted by the ancient Rapa Nui people using volcanic ash. Each Moai is strikingly unique and comes with small, big, slender, fat or
tattooed shape. It is situated more than 3,500 kilometers off the Chile’s west coast.
iv. Machu Picchu

Situated at an altitude of about 2,500 meters above sea level, this ancient Inca city in Peru boasts a breathtaking location in the midst
of a tropical forest. Built during the 15th century, Machu Picchu’s outstanding structures including La Ciudadela throw light on the
Inca Empire’s complex yet refined architecture.
v. Petra, Jordan
Petra is one of the world’s most significant of historical sites. Erected as early as 312 BC, the monuments seen here is especially
noteworthy for its intricate rock-cut architectural marvel. Located on the scenic Mount Hor’s slopes in Ma’an, this UNESCO World
Heritage Site is sometimes referred to as the Rose Red City due to its rocks’ color, with which the city of Petra is carved out. The
history has it that it was once the centre of the Nabataean kingdom till AD 106 when the Roman Empire came into power. Must-visits
include El Dier – the Monastery, Byzantine Church, Hadrien Gate, the Great Temple and Rock-cut sandstone tombs.
vi. Taj Mahal, India

Built during the 17th century, this majestic structure, often cited as the epitome of love, was built by Emperor Shah Jahan as a tribute
of his everlasting love towards his wife, Mumthaz Mahal. It took over 20 years for its completion, and more than 20,000 people, along
with 1,000 plus elephants, were employed to erect this spectacular monument, which is a blend of Indian, Islamic and Persian
architecture styles.
vii. The Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt

Constructed around 3,000 years ago, the Great Pyramid of Giza is a marvelous masterpiece that continues to perplex archaeologists,
astronomers and scientists, with its attention to detail construction style which even most sophisticated technology can’t reproduce.
Besides its unique pyramid shape, what’s more mysterious is the exact alignment of the Great Pyramid of Khufu Pyramid of
Menkaure, and the Pyramid of Khafre as per the Constellation of Orion. There are many such things about these pyramids that haven’t
been unraveled yet.
viii. Angkor Wat, Cambodia

The largest of its kind in the world, Angkor Archeological Park is perhaps the South East Asia’s most significant archeological sites.
Spanning over an area of about 400 square kilometers in Angkor, Siem Reap, it stands as a classic illustration of the magnificent
Khmer architecture. Its highlights include the glorious remnants of the varied capitals of the Khmer Empire that traces its origin back
to the 9th century.
ix. Parthenon, Greece
This is an ancient shrine majestically sitting on the Acropolis, a huge rock overlooking the city of Athens, Greece. Reflecting Doric-
style architecture, Parthenon is exceptional for its stupendous white marble columns and sculptural frescos representing the battle
scenes. It was built in 5th century BC to mainly worship the Greek Goddess, Athena.
x. The Great Wall of China

Stretching for more than 6,400 kilometers, from Yu Pass in the east to Lop Nur in the west, this is the longest man-made monument
ever built, and it covers a wide spectrum of plateaus, peaks, and deserts placed between east coast and west coast of China. It was
mainly built as a defense to safeguard the Chinese empire from the attack of northern invaders. Fascinatingly, it took more than 2,000
years to complete its construction, which is believed to have begun in 7th century BC.

20. Top 10 modern marvels in the world

How would you define a marvel? Is it something that makes you wonder, “How did they do that?” For me a marvel is synonymous
with wonder and is something unique and astonishing. Often we associate marvels with superlatives, such as “the tallest”, “the
biggest”, “the longest”, “the oldest”, “the highest” and so on.

There are nature’s marvelous wonders, such as Mount Everest, Victoria Falls, The Aurora Borealis and The Great Barrier Reef, just to
name a few.

But what about those astounding modern man-made marvels, which can make anyone gasp in awe? Engineering wonders, such as
bridges, tunnels or railways that connect cities and even countries, a spacecraft that sends man to the moon or a skyscraper built to
withstand an earthquake, all have one thing in common. They are made to solve a problem and to make life easier for humankind.
As technology advances and as man gets more creative and competitive, the list of engineering wonders will keep growing. For now
though, we’ll share our top 10 list of modern engineering marvels in the world. Since it’s almost impossible to narrow the list to
only ten, feel free to add yours—if you think it merits top 10 status.
1. Millau Viaduct (Millau, France)
Record it breaks: Tallest cable-stayed road bridge

With its spectacular silhouette lines—somewhat reminiscent of the St. Louis Gateway Arch–The Millau Viaduct, which spans across
the valley of the River Tarn near Millau in southern France, is one of the most impressive engineering ventures in the world. The
bridge’s highest tower soars to 1,125 feet, making it the tallest cable-stayed road bridge in the world. Interestingly, the Millau
Viaduct’s tallest towers surpass the Eiffel Tower (986 feet) and are almost as tall as the Empire State Building (1,250 feet). It is the
12th highest bridge in the world at 890 feet high below road deck (The Gateway Arch is 630 feet tall) and spans 8,071 feet (1 ½
miles).

The Millau Viaduct, completed in December 2004, was constructed to alleviate congested traffic on the route from Paris to Barcelona
during the summer vacation months. This modern engineering marvel was developed by French engineer Michel Virlogeux and
British designer Norman Foster.

Remarkably the Millau Viaduct took only took three years to complete. Typically a cable-stayed road bridge is built in sections and
then lifted and put into position with cranes. Since the bridge was close to 900 feet high, a new technique had to be used. After
building the towers, engineers constructed the roadway on either side of the towers and then rolled the two sides into the center. The
new technique carried several engineering risks but proved to be efficient in constructing the roadway.

2. The Venice Tide Barrier Project (Venice, Italy)

Record it breaks: World’s largest flood prevention project

After 40 years of debating how to protect Venice from floods and to keep it from sinking further, The Venice Tide Barrier Project was
instigated in 2003. This innovative engineering feat, which consists of 78 rotating gates, is designed to keep the sea waters from
entering the Venetian Lagoon if high tides and storms are in the forecast. The gates, each 6,500 square feet, are large metal boxes
filled with water that rest at the bottom of the sea. When a tide of more than 3 ½ feet is forecast the water is emptied from the gates
using compressed air. The gates will rise to the top of the water, blocking the sea from the lagoon, therefore stopping the tide flow.
The project is expected to be finished in 2012.
3. National Stadium a.k.a. “Bird’s Nest” (Beijing, China)
Record it breaks: World’s largest steel structure

Nicknamed the Bird’s Nest for its intricate shape and lattice-like design, this astonishing structure looks more like a public work of art
than an Olympic stadium. Designed by the Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, the Bird’s Nest was built for the
2008 Olympic Games and Paralympics and seats 80,000 people. The elaborate design incorporates Chinese symbols and mythology.
Consisting of about 26 miles of unwrapped steel, the stadium is made up of two independent frames that are set 50 feet apart—an
inner concrete red bowl for seating and an outer steel frame weighing 42,000 tons. The original design called for a retractable roof.
That was later removed from the plans so the structure could more easily meet seismic requirements and also for budgetary reasons.

This recent engineering wonder is one of the most energy-efficient and environmentally friendly stadiums in the world. During the
winter, underground geothermal pipes heat the indoor part of the stadium. Underground cisterns collect and store rainwater for
irrigation and for use in restrooms.

4. The Bailong Elevator (Zhangjiajie, China)

Record it breaks: The highest and heaviest outdoor elevator

Built off the side of an enormous cliff in Zhangjiajie National Forest Park in China, The Bailong Elevator is the highest and heaviest
outdoor elevator in the world. It is 1,070 feet high and consists of three double-story glass elevators. Also known as “Hundred
Dragons Elevator,” the sight-seeing elevator, which takes two minutes to ride from the base to the top, can carry 50 people in one trip
with a total of 18,000 people daily. Construction of the elevator began in October 1999 and was finished in 2002 for public use.
5. Palm Islands (Dubai)
Record it breaks: The world’s largest artificial island

Perhaps one of the more massive innovative engineering feats, The Palm Islands are located off the coast of the United Arab Emirates
in the Persian Gulf near Dubai. Known as the largest man-made set of islands, he project, which is being constructed by Nakheel
Properties, a land developer in the United Arab Emirates, began in 2001 with the first of three islands, Palm Jumeirah. Through the
use of sand dredging ships, the islands are formed by filling the seabed with sand. This process, known as rainbowing, includes
spraying sand on top of the rising surface of the island. Each island will be in the shape of a palm tree with a crescent-shaped rock
encircling the top of each island.

Two of the islands, the Palm Jumeirah and the Palm Jebel Ali, have been completed while the third and largest of the islands, Palm
Deira, is still under construction. The Palm Island project, which was commissioned by Sheikh Mohammed, will add 320 miles of
beaches to the shrinking Dubai shoreline. The islands will be comprised of hundreds of luxury hotels, theme parks, high-end homes,
health spas, shopping malls and sports facilities.
6. The Large Hadron Collider (underground in Geneva, Switzerland)
Record it breaks: The largest and highest-energy particle accelerator

Have you ever wondered how the World Wide Web came about or how cancer treatments were developed? The Large Hadron
Collider (LHC) played a tremendous role in these modern day breakthroughs. This modern engineering marvel lies underground in a
574-foot long circular tunnel with a 17-mile circumference. Think of the LHC as a science experiment. Using superconducting
magnets, the LHC directs two beams of atomic particles (hadrons) that travel at high speeds and then collide into each other. New
particles are created out of the collision, from which scientists can track behavior. Developed by CERN, a European scientific research
firm, the LHC was introduced in 2008. It was built to answer many basic questions of science and the universe and to further develop
technologies, such as medical imaging, electronics, radiation processing, new manufacturing processes and more.

7. Three Gorges Dam (Sandouping, Hubei, China)

Record it breaks: The world’s largest hydroelectric power station and world’s largest concrete structure

The Three Gorges Dam, located on the Yangtze River and one of China’s largest construction projects since the Great Wall, is one-
and-a-half miles wide, over 600 feet wide and almost 400 miles long. This innovative engineering feat creates electricity equal to 18
nuclear power plants. It serves several purposes for the Yiling District of Yichang in China. Not only does it produce electricity for the
area, it also increases shipping capacity and provides flood storage space. Construction of the dam began in 1994; it opened for
commercial operation in 2008.

Although the dam is touted as one of the greatest engineering projects in China, it has been plagued with controversy. The dam has
created ecological problems, such as landslides and pollution, and has displaced over a million people and flooded archeological sites.

8. Channel Tunnel
Record it breaks: World’s longest stretch of underwater tunnel

The Channel Tunnel, also known as the Chunnel, is a 32- mile underwater rail tunnel that links Folkstone, England and Coquelles,
France beneath the English Channel. A joint venture between England and France, construction on The Tunnel began in 1988 and was
completed in 1994.

Recognized as one of the “Seven Wonders of the Modern World” by the American Society of Civil Engineers, The Tunnel’s lowest
point is 250 feet deep while the portion of rail underwater is 23.5 miles. Train speed reaches 100 miles per hour while a trip between
the two cities takes only 20 minutes. The Tunnel plays a crucial role in connecting the two countries and serves the transportation
needs of over seven million people a year who travel on the Eurostar trains.

The Tunnel is nothing short of a modern engineering marvel. Fires were a huge concern at the time engineers were building the tunnel.
Therefore, the need for an emergency route was crucial. A system of three tubes makes up The Tunnel—two full-size tubes for rail
traffic and one small tube in between for emergency access. The emergency tunnel was put to test when a fire on a train broke out a
year after the tunnel was built. Thirty-one people were trapped and were able to escape safely using the emergency route.
9. Chandra X-ray Observatory
Record it breaks: World’s most power x-ray telescope

Launched by NASA on July 23, 1999, the Chandra Observatory is a satellite that allows scientists to obtain x-ray images from high-
energy regions of the universe. These images include events such as black holes, neutron stars, dark matter and supernovas. The
Chandra was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, a physicist and Nobel Prize winner, who discovered the maximum mass for
white dwarfs. The Chandra is the third of four “Great Observatories” launched by NASA. The Hubble Space Telescope was the first;
second the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory; and last was the Spitzer Space Telescope.
Since earth-based telescopes are not able to detect the majority of x-ray sources, the Chandra plays a vital role in x-ray astronomy.
And because of its high-resolution mirrors, it is able to pick up x-ray sources 100 times fainter than previous x-ray telescopes. This
recent engineering wonder orbits 200 times higher above the earth than the Hubble. At 45 feet long it is the largest satellite that has
been launched.
10. The New Valley Project (Western Desert of Egypt)
Record it breaks: Largest development project in Egypt

One of the most ambitious projects to take place in Egypt, The New Valley Project consists of building a massive irrigation system to
reclaim a half-a-million acres of desert. The Mubarak Pumping Station, the heart of the project, opened for operation in 2005 and was
name one of the five most outstanding civil engineering achievements of the year by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The
station pumps water from Lake Nasser via a canal system through the valley transforming over 500,000 acres of desert into
agricultural land.

The New Valley Project’s intent is to create a second Nile Valley and is scheduled for completion in 2017. If successful, this modern
engineering marvel will help manage the increasing growth of Egypt’s inhabitants by providing about 3 million jobs and attracting
over 16 million people to the future towns.

21. BUILDING MATERIALS OF ANCIENT CONSTRUCTION

Man kind has constructed buildings and other structures since prehistory. The technology and economy of construction work has
changed through out history. The story of construction is the story of civilization. About 12000 years ago, human began to
settle into villages and cities. As civilization grows, people need more permanent buildings. Hence ancient people developed most
of our modern, building materials including binding material, glass, ricks, tiles etc.

The Indus Valley Civilization was the one of the world’s first great urban civilizations. It flourished in the vast river plains and
adjacent regions in what are now Pakistan and western India. The earliest cities became integrated into an extensive urban culture
around 4600 years ago and continued to dominate the region for at least 700years, from 2600 to 1900BC. It was only in the 1920’s
that the buried cities and villages of the Indus valley were recognised by archaeologists as representing the undiscovered civilization.
The people who build and ruled these cities belong to what archaeologists refer to as Harappan culture and Indus civilization. This
civilization developed at approximately the same time as the early city states of Egypt and Mesopotamia.

* The Chronology of Ancient India

The Chronology of ancient India is fascinating puzzle. Archaeological discoveries of five decades have led new theories and
reassessment regarding ancient period can now be made. One point of agreement is that Vedic age ended before 1000BC.

The history of architecture in India is not a continuous story. In India as in other countries ,culture and architecture are
connected with political power, religion was the main inspiration behind the architecture achievements, and was dominating
the political order. Accordingly three distinct motivations and styles of building were built in three successive ages.

* Indo-Aryan: the beginning of the first cycle cannot be precisely mentioned. It spanned between 5000Bx to the end of
the 12th century AD.

* Indo-Islamic: Second cycle started from the beginning of the 13th century and lasted until the middle of the 18th century.

* Indo-British Period: The third cycle was the period of British rule from 1858 to 1947.

The three distinct cultures created by the three political cycles can be classified as Indo-Aryan, Indo-Islamic and Indo-British.
Accordingly during the first period Hindu and Buddhist monuments were made, during the second Islamic monument and in the third
western style buildings were constructed. Indian political history made yet another destructive impact on her architecture. It is
responsible for a completely one-sided view of the ancient Indian architecture, in which the importance of the south is emphasized at
the cost of north. The impression is that south India is the land of temples and is different from the Gangetic basin in material culture.
This is due to the historical fact that the temples of the Gangetic basin were destroyed by the Muslims, who razed to the ground all
Hindu temples wherever they found them, except during the short period of Akbar 1556-1605. Even before the establishment of
Muslim power in India, in the 10th century, Sultan Mohamed of Ghazni had sacked most of the great religious centers in
northern India in the course of his repeated invasions. As a result of this widespread destruction, Hindu and Buddhist monument
survived in northern India only in those regions into which Muslims did not penetrate — Bundelkhand, Orissa, Rajasthan , Nepal and
Himalayan foothills. In the northern plain, temples began to rebuild only in the 18th century, when the Marathas became dominant.

Periods of Indian Art

All the surviving examples of ancient India architecture are religious monuments. No residential buildings or any other form of
secular architecture have survived in he south, the elaborate palace complex of the Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagara was
sacked by the Muslims after their conquest of the city in 1565. But Sanskrit literature contains numerous references to splendid
mansions and palaces which rose to the sky and there can be no doubt that domestic architecture of ancient India was elaborate.

MUD ARCHITECTURE

Architecture involves use of various different construction materials that require a unique construction technique. But
most of these construction techniques are energy intensive techniques. All the natural resources are depleting which has
made it mandatory that we choose materials and construction systems which require less energy for its execution. Mud
construction system is less energy intensive and very effective in different climatic conditions. Earth is one of man's oldest
building materials and most ancient civilizations used it in some form. It was easily available, cheap, and strong and
required only simple technology. In Egypt the grain stores of Ramasseum built in adobe in 1300BC still exist; the Great Wall of
China has sections built in rammed earth over 2000 years ago. Iran, India, Nepal, Yemen all have examples of ancient
cities and large buildings built in various forms of earthen construction. It is significant that the oldest surviving examples of
this building form are in the most arid areas of the world. The strength of unsterilized earth walls comes from the bonding effect of
dried clay. If this becomes wet the strength is lost and indeed the wall will erode or even fail completely. Different countries
have different approaches to this problem. From the earliest times men built dwellings that were closest at hand: out of
fibers, leaves, stone or unbaked-sundried-mud. But the onset of the industrial revolution, bricks of baked clay and mass-
produced materials such as cement, steel and glass gradually supplanted the basic element of traditional construction.
The development of transportation made it possible to bring building materials from far away; while the use of modern
components and specialized use of construction techniques brought about the less of craftsmanship and art that had given
each locale its sense of place. But it is the fact that unbaked mud is still the most viable building material for one third of
world’s population-predominantly the poor who remain on the side-lines of money economy that depends on manufactured
materials. Furthermore building with mud has become an important factor in planning new development. Following
the recent energy crisis, technological progress has been made in certain countries, and the enthusiasm of architects and land
developers has added in the spread of these new techniques. Today we are able to choose between conventional ‘international
architecture’ and a more ‘down to earth’ approach that combines reasonable cost with traditional cultural motifs in a modern way

Mud as a Building material

Mud, a mixture of earth and water, is economical, practical, functional and attractive. It is easy to work with, and it takes
decoration as well. Mud is especially useful in humid and hot climates. Mud is a natural building material that is found in abundance,
especially where other building materials such as bricks, stone or wood are scarce due to affordability and or availability.
The mud architecture is a great resource that focuses on architecture constructed of mud brick, rammed earth, compressed
earth block and other methods of earthen construction. The proliferation of concept to use mud and improved techniques in
order to raise the level of living in the population is a very welcome idea. This can go a long way not only in the form of changing the
look of population centers, rural as well as urban, but also in solving environmental problems and problems related to energy
and other finite resources. Various reasons for using mud as a construction material is described below:

Energy Consumption

In mud construction, minimum fossil fuel energy is consumed and is naturally abundant throughout the world, where as in brick
construction fossil energy is consumed for manufacturing process and transportation. Recycling Recycling of modern materials for
building construction is expensive. Re-cycling of soil does not need fossil fuel and labour requirement is also less. The characteristic
of recycled soil for construction remains the same whereas in modern building material it acquires inferior character after recycling.

Abundance

The abundance availability of soil in large areas helps the economically weaker section of the society to afford the mud
construction. It is easily adaptable and the technology can be transferred easily.

Housing demand

A huge deficit of housing demand in urban and rural areas linked with limited resources on all fronts make it absolutely
essential that the housing solution have o be best effective , through optimal and efficient use of all resources of land and
building material.

MANIFESTATION OF MUD

Depending on the characteristics of the mud available, availability of supporting materials and technology used, different
manifestations of mud are used. These include Adobe or Sun-dried bricks, Cob, Rammed earth, Pressed brick, Wattle and Daub etc.

Cob: The word cob comes from Old English root meaning “a lump of rounded mass”. It’s a traditional building technique using hand
formed lumps if earth mixed with sand and straw. Cob is easy to learn and inexpensive to build. It dries to hardness similar to
lean concrete.This ancient technology doesn’t contribute to deforestation, pollution or mining, nor depend on manufactured
materials or power tools. Cob is non-toxic and completely recyclable. Regular working windows are embedded in the cob along
with their lintels while the layers are building up. If fixed window is needed we can use any kind of glass embedded into the cob. Cob
houses have been known to last for centuries.
Adobe

Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, water and some kind of fibrous or organic material (sticks, straw
and or manure),which the builders shapes into bricks using frames and dry in sun. Adobe buildings are similar to cob and mud brick
buildings. Adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing building in the world. In hot climates,
compared with wooden buildings offer significant advantage due to their greater thermal mass, but they are known to be
particularly susceptible to earthquake damage. Buildings made up of sun-dried earth are common in the West Asia, Northern
Africa, West Africa, South America, Spain, Eastern Europe and East Anglia.

Rammed earth

Rammed earth is a technique used in the building of walls using the raw materials of earth, chalk, lime and gravel. It is an ancient
building method that has seen a revival in recent years as people seek more sustainable building materials and natural building
methods. Rammed earth walls are simple to construct, incombustible to water damage. Traditionally, rammed earth buildings are
found in every continent except Antartica, from the temperate and wet regions of Northern Europe to semi-dry deserts ,mountain areas
and the tropics. Hinder land house Australia made of rammed earth walls The compressive strength of rammed earth can be up to 4.3
MPa. This is less than that of a similar thickness of concrete, but more than strong enough for use in domestic buildings. Indeed,
properly built rammed earth can withstand loads for thousands of years, as many still-standing ancient structures around the world
attest. Rammed earth using re-bar, wood or bamboo reinforcement can prevent failure caused by earthquakes or heavy storms.

Wattle and Daub

Wattle and daub is a building material used for making walls, in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed with a
sticky material usually made of some combination of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw. It is an important
construction material in many parts of the world. The wattle is made by weaving thin branches or slats between upright stakes. The
wattle may be made in place to form the whole of a wall. Daub is generally created from a mixture of certain in gradients from three
categories: binders, aggregates and reinforcement. Binders hold the mix together and can include clay, lime, chalk dust and
limestone dust. Aggregates give the mix its bulk and dimensional stability through

materials such as earth, sand, crushed chalk and crushed stone. Reinforcement is provided by staw hair,

hay or other fiberous material and helps to hold mix together as well as to control shrinkage and provide

flexibility. The daub may be mixed by hand or by treading either by humans or livestock it is then applied

to the wattle and allowed to dry and often then whitewashed to increase its resistance to rain.

Compressed Earth Blocks

The soil, raw or stabilized , is slightly moistened, poured into a steel press and then

compressed either with a manual or motorized press. It is developed from traditional rammed earth. The

input of soil stabilization allowed building higher with thinner walls, which have a much better

compressive strength and water resistance

Ancient mortar

The first mortars were made of mud and clay. Because of a lack of stone and an

abundance of clay, Babylonian constructions were of baked brick, using lime or pitch for mortar.

According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of humans using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh

of Baluchistan in Pakistan, built of sun-dried bricks in 6500 BCE. The ancient sites of Harappan
civilization of third millennium BCE are built with kiln-fired bricks and a gypsum mortar. Gypsum mortar,

also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids and many other ancient

structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a lower firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make

than lime mortar and sets up much faster which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient,

brick arch and vault construction. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions

In the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the

Indus Valley Civilization, such as the Mohenjo-daro city-settlement that dates to earlier than 2600 BCE.

Gypsum cement that was "light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate, and a high

percentage of lime" was used in the construction of wells, drains and on the exteriors of "important looking

buildings." Bitumen mortar was also used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro

Ordinary Portland cement mortar, commonly known as OPC mortar or just cement mortar,

is created by mixing powdered Ordinary Portland Cement, fine aggregate and water.

It was invented in 1794 by Joseph Aspdin and patented on 18 December 1824, largely as a

result of efforts to develop stronger mortars. It was made popular during the late nineteenth century, and

had by 1930 became more popular than lime mortar as construction material. The advantages of Portland

cement is that it sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction. Furthermore, fewer skilled

workers are required in building a structure with Portland cement.

As a general rule, however, Portland cement should not be used for the repair or repointing

of older buildings built in lime mortar, which require the flexibility, softness and breathability of lime if

they are to function correctly

Polymer cement mortars (PCM) are the materials which are made by partially replacing the

cement hydrate binders of conventional cement mortar with polymers. The polymeric admixtures include

latexes or emulsions, redispersible polymer powders, water-soluble polymers, liquid thermoset resins and

monomers. It has low permeability, and it reduces the incidence of drying shrinkage cracking, mainly

designed for repairing concrete structures. For an example see MagneLine.

Lime Mortar

The setting speed can be increased by using impure limestone in the kiln, to form a hydraulic lime that will set on
contact with water. Such a lime must be stored as a dry powder. Alternatively, a pozzolanic material such as calcined clay or brick
dust may be added to the mortar mix. Addition of a pozzolanic material will make the mortar set reasonably quickly by reaction with
the water.
 It would be problematic to use Portland cement mortars to repair older buildings originally constructed using lime
mortar. Lime mortar is softer than cement mortar, allowing brickwork a certain degree of flexibility to adapt to shifting ground or
other changing conditions. Cement mortar is harder and allows little flexibility. The contrast can cause brickwork to crack where the
two mortars are present in a single

wall.

Lime mortar is considered breathable in that it will allow moisture to freely move through and evaporate
from the surface. In old buildings with walls that shift over time, cracks can be found which allow rain water into the structure. The
lime mortar allows this moisture to escape through evaporation and keeps the wall dry. Re−pointing or rendering an old wall with
cement mortar stops the evaporation and can cause problems associated with moisture behind the cement.

Pozzolanic mortar

Pozzolana is a fine, sandy volcanic ash. It was originally discovered and dug at Pozzuoli, nearby Mount
Vesuvius in Italy, and was subsequently mined at other sites, too. The Romans learned that pozzolana added to lime mortar
allowed the lime to set relatively quickly and even under water. Vitruvius, the Roman architect, spoke of four types of pozzolana. It is
found in all the volcanic areas of Italy in various colours: black, white, grey and red. Pozzolana has since become a generic term for
any siliceous and/or aluminous additive to slaked lime to create hydraulic cement.

Fire stop mortar

Firestop mortars are mortars most typically used to firestop large openings in walls and floors required to have a
fire-resistance rating. They are passive fire protection items. Firestop mortars differ in formula and properties from most other
cementitious substances and cannot be substituted with generic mortars without violating the listing and approval use and
compliance. Firestop mortar is usually a combination of powder mixed with water, forming a cementatious stone which dries
hard. It is sometimes mixed with lightweight aggregates, such as perlite or vermiculite

Methodology

Traditionally, natural materials are being used as

construction material as well as sanitation such as mud, timber, stone, lime, herbs and plant etc. In India more than 80% of
the population is sheltered in structures built with biomass. Locally available materials are the most environmentally
sustainable.

Lime as construction material

Lime is being used vastly as a binding material with some natural additives in to it as it has very good
cementing ability. In various scriptures like Bhrugu Samhita the procedure of preparation of lime mortar is described in detail .As
per our practice, the one part of lime to the two part of river sand is used with 1/10 part of jaggery as natural polymer and chopped
grass fibers. The mortar was successfully sed for brick masonry, plastering, and tiling. Various tests were carried out on the
lime confirming to IS1624-1986.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID TEST

Procedure-Place sufficient quantity of powder lime into a 50-ml graduated glass cylinder, which on gentle
tapping for about two minutes or so, settles down to about S-ml mark with a neat surface on the top. Into this cylinder,
fill up to 25-ml mark hydrochloric acid ( 1 : 1 ), preferably along a glass rod placed in the cylinder so that the acid does
not get smeared all over the side of the cylinder. The contents, after stirring with a glass rod, should not leave much inert material at
the bottom of the cylinder. To ensure that the inert material left at the bottom of the cylinder after stirring with a glass rod ,does
not contain any calcium carbonate, add excess of hydrochloric acid drop by drop with constant stirring till there is no
effervescence. The cylinder with its contents shall then be kept standing for about 24 hours for observation of gel formation
.Test observations & result-A good thick gel was formed and below it some inert material was deposited. Hence by
observations it can be said that the lime is of class B.

BALL TEST
 Procedure –Make balls of about 50mm diameter of quick lime mixed with just sufficient water to give a stiff paste,
and leave them undisturbed for a period of six hours. Immerse in a basin of water.

Test observations & result-Very little expansion and numerous cracks seen on the surface how that the lime may be of
class B

ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu temples adopted a definite structure in the later half of the 7th century . The common elements of the Hindu temples
in their original Sanskrit terms are as followed:
The main compound of the temple is known as Vimana which comprises of two parts. The top portion of the
Vimana is known as Sikhara and the lower portion which lies inside the Vimana is called Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber)
1. ”Sikhara‟ refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidical and tapering representing the mythological Meru or
the highest mountain peak.
2. Garbhagriha refers to the womb chamber which is the innermost chamber of any temple where the deity resides. It is
mainly square in layout and is entered through eastern side.
3. Pradakshina Patha refers to the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation and comprises of enclosed corridor outside
the garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction, paying their respect to the deity.
4. Mandapa is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha ,used as assembling point by devotees for chant; rituals meditate or
observe the priests perform the rituals. Sometimes, „Natamandira‟ is also provided in some temples which mean the hall for
dancing. In some early temple structures, the mandapa was isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary.
5. Antarala refers to the intermediate chamber which joins the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple premises.
6.Ardhamandapa refers to the front porch in the main entrance of the temple which leads to the main templeSome other
essential structural elements found in the Hindu temples are:
7 .Mainly found in the south Indian temples, Gopurams ‟are the monumental and ornate entrance to
the temple premises.
8. Pitha or the plinths of the main temple.
9.The gateways typical to north Indian temples are Toranas
10. The Amalaka is the fluted disc like stone placed at the pinnacle of sikhara

THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu architecture was among the first ones that established a relationship between human figure and the system of
proportion which was later studied by Leonardo da Vinci and Le Corbusieer in modular system of measurement. It is
based on the geometry of Vastupurashamandala in which the form of Purasha was made to fit the abstract idea of square as
the highest geometric form.The basic form of Vastupurashamandala is the square which represents the earth and the circle
represents the universe suggesting timelessness and infinity . The mandalais actually a square divided into smaller squares
arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller square depicts the area of the respective Gods. The most commonly used
mandalais the square subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Thus, the Vastupurashamandala was the basis of the ground
floor plan for all Hindu temples. The basic shape of the temple plan was : the outermost ring of square of the mandala
from thickness of walls of main shrine, the central 4 squares was reserved for the main deity, the inner ring of 12 square
form the walls of the garbhagrihaand the next 16 to 28 forms the pradkshina patha. These simple divisions of
square with permutation and combination became the base for the development of more complex temple compound.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The temples were constructed with all types of materials depending upon the availability from region to region. The
materials varied from timber to mud, plaster, brick or stone incorporating the entire India. The material played a
significant role in overall aesthetics, construction techniques and monumental character of the temple. Earlier temple
structures were constructed with less durable materials such as timber, brick or plaster and thus, have mostly
disappeared or only fragment remains. Sites excavated in Vaisali in Bihar shows examples of temples constructed with
mud or mud brick. The usage of timber and bamboo was mainly in the temples of Himalayan valleys and the region of West
Bengal and Kerala. The construction of the temples with bricks was prominent in pre Christian era but were limited to
those area where suitable stone or bricks are available. The use of stone for temple construction was one of the
prominent developments in Indian temple architecture . The construction from stone evolved from rock cut sanctuaries
(Stupa, Sanchi) to more complicated structure with ornate carvings and sculptings. Fine grained dark marble and
soapy chloritic schist was used by later western chalukyas who established themselves in the tenth century around the areas of
Malkhed and kalyani. Jain temple of Lakkundi is a great example of this era. Earlier Pallava temples were constructed of
hard igneous rocks such as granite (Olakkannesvara temple), leptinite (shore temple of Mamallapuram) and
gnesis (Mukundanayanar temple). At later stages especially during Pandya era (around 6 century), the lower portion of the
temples were being constructed using solid granite stone masonry whereas the lighter materials like brick, timber and
plaster were used to construct the super structure . The Hoyasala Empire (a prominent souther empire) which ruled over
parts of Karnatka, parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh used greenish grey soapstone which were soft and sculptor
friendly . The temples of Kerala primarily used timber, tiles or copper sheet to build super structure whereas the vimana was
constructed using granite or hard laterite blocks. The temples of Himachal Pradesh were generally built using the
combination of wood and stones generally in dry stone machinery. The architects of Bengal used laterite, bricks, wood,
terracotta or mud for erecting different types of temples with lime or mud mortar as binding materials.
Modern Building Materials
Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such
as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials,
many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established
industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as
carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. This reference deals with habitats and structures including homes.
Types of Building Materials Used in Construction
Natural Building Materials
Building materials can be generally categorized into two sources, natural and synthetic. Natural building materials
are those that are unprocessed or minimally processed by industry, such as lumber or glass. Synthetic materials are made in
industrial settings after much human manipulations, such as plastics and petroleum based paints. Both have their uses.
Mud, stone, and fibrous plants are the most basic building materials, aside from tents made of flexible materials such as cloth
or skins. People all over the world have used these three materials together to create homes to suit their local weather
conditions. In general stone and/or brush are used as basic structural components in these buildings, while mud is used to fill in
the space between, acting as a type of concrete and insulation.A basic example is wattle and daub mostly used as permanent
housing in tropical countries or as summer structures by ancient northern peoples.
Fabric
The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world over. Two well known types include the conical
teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major construction technique with the development of tensile architecture
and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel
cables or internal (air pressure.)
Mud and clay
The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually connected with
the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay usually mean using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually
associated with sod building. The other main ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw/grasses. Rammed earth
is both an old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand, now forms
and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used.
Soil and especially clay is good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with
earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time
like stone. Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more
resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer.
Peoples building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, resulted in homes that have been built for
centuries in western and northern Europe as well as the rest of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of
these buildings have remained habitable for hundreds of years.
Rock
Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting building material available, and is usually
readily available. There are many types of rock through out the world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for
particular uses. Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a material is its weight and
awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big draw-back, as stone is hard to keep warm without using large amounts of
heating resources.
Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually different
forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now.The granite-strewn uplands
of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were
constructed from loose granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still
be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse) and into modern times. Slate is
another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found.
Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built entirely with stone such as the Pyramids in
Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the Inca civilization.
Thatch
Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. Many
African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent
but the material fell out of favour as industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials.
Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many of new builds too have thatched
roofs with special ridge tiles on top.
Brush
 Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in tropical and sub-tropical areas, such as
rainforests, where very large leaves can be used in the building. Native Americans often built brush structures for resting and living in,
too. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to a beaver’s lodge. These were variously named
wikiups, lean-tos, and so forth.
Ice
Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos, but has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in northern areas that might not
otherwise see many winter tourists.
Wood
Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into
lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a generic building material and is used in building just about any
type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly
strong when compressed vertically.
There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species
are better for various uses than others. And growing conditions are important for deciding quality.
Historically, wood for building large structures was used in its unprocessed form as logs. The trees were just cut to the
needed length, sometimes stripped of bark, and then notched or lashed into place.
In earlier times, and in some parts of the world, many country homes or communities had a personal wood-lot from
which the family or community would grow and harvest trees to build with. These lots would be tended to like a garden.
With the invention of mechanizing saws came the mass production of dimensional lumber. This made buildings quicker
to put up and more uniform. Thus the modern western style home was made.
Brick and Block
A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also may be of lower quality mud, etc. Clay
bricks are formed in a moulding (the soft mud method), or in commercial manufacture more frequently by extruding clay
through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process).
Bricks were widely used as a building material in the 1700, 1800 and 1900s. This was probably due to the fact that it
was much more flame retardant than wood in the ever crowding cities, and fairly cheap to produce. Another type of block replaced
clay bricks in the late 20th century. It was the Cinder block. Made mostly with concrete. An important low-cost building material in
developing countries is the Sandcrete block, which is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks.
Concrete
Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate (composite) and a binder such as
cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel
and sand), portland cement and water. After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used
in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term concrete.
For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it is generally strengthened using steel
rods or bars (known as rebars). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete.
In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been
entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in
this modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport.
Metal
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering. There
are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal
structural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is metal’s prime
enemy when it comes to longevity. The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin sometimes overcome
their greater cost. Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted to specific uses or specialty items today.
Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut, and can be seen used in most
cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for the building
industries. Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much more
expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack structural
qualities such as tensile strength or hardness.
Glass
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. They provided humans
with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made
from mixtures of sand and silicates, and is very brittle.
Modern glass “curtain walls” can be used to cover the entire facade of a building. Glass can also be used to span over a wide
roof structure in a “space frame”.
Ceramics
Ceramics are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are mostly used as fixtures or coverings in buildings. Ceramic floors,
walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just a
specialized form of clay-pottery firing in kilns, but it has evolved into more technical areas.
Plastic
 Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor in a Canadian highrise apartment building. The term plastics covers a range of
synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects or films or
fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity.
Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general
uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today
Foam
Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for firestop mortar at CIBC bank in Toronto. More recently Synthetic
polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used on a limited scale. It is light weight, easily shaped and an excellent
insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement.
Cement composites
Cement bonded composites are an important class of building materials. These products are made of hydrated cement paste
that binds wood or alike particles or fibers to make precast building components. Various fibrous materials including paper and
fiberglass have been used as binders.
Wood and natural fibres are composed of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates, glycosides and
phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making cement boned
composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed.
Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite to that
of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement compatibility,
methods based on different properties are used, such as, hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology.
Various methods are used by researchers such as the measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-
aggregate mix; the comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of
microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes.
It has been found that the hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most
convenient method. Recently, Karade et al. have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested a method based
on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction.
Modern Industry
Modern building is a multibillion dollar industry, and the production and harvesting of raw materials for building purposes is
on a worldwide scale. Often being a primary governmental and trade key point between nations. Environmental concerns are also
becoming a major world topic concerning the availability and sustainability of certain materials, and the extraction of such large
quantities needed for the human habitat.
Virtual materials
Certain materials like photographs, images, text may be considered virtual. While, they usually exist on a substrate of natural
material themselves, they acquire a different quality of salience to natural materials through the process of representation.
Building Products
When we talk about building products we refer to the ready-made particles that are fitted in different architectural hardware
and decorative hardware parts of a building. The list of building products exclusively exclude the building materials, which
are used to construct the building architecture and supporting fixtures like windows, doors, cabinets, etc. Building products do
not make any part of a building rather they support and make them working.
Evolution of building materials
The core of a construction project apart from its design is the materials used. Construction has always been highly related to its
materials, which have been an essential component since as far back as 400 BC! Buildings and structures including bridges, dams,
roads and canals have been built since pre-history. Building materials thus have a long history of around some thousands of years.

Very initially, buildings were made of perishable materials like leaves, branches and animal hides. With invention, materials like
stone, clay and timber were used. Slowly came the age of bricks and concretes. Then, with industrial revolution, came metals and
steel, which was considered as a revolution of architecture. Today, we see buildings made of bricks, concrete, wood, steel and glass.
These materials are no more a revolution.

Now, other innovative materials are coming up in the industry of architecture. With ongoing research and innovative technologies, a
variety of modern material options have become available today. With the styles and designs on modern construction, we need
materials that can maintain structural strength while reducing its impact on the environment. Polycarbonate is one of the latest
materials used in construction because they can withstand harsh weather conditions like wind, rain, hail and snow. They are also
highly corrosion resistant and can also resist fire. Thus, polycarbonate roofing is one of the best and most popularity-gaining materials
today that is used in greenhouses, skylights, pergolas, sidings, sidelights and many other roofing applications.

Modern construction materials also need to be able to adapt to various climatic conditions from freezing sub-zero temperatures to dry
heat or high humidity. Ever since man started constructing dwellings to reside in, building materials have been evolving only in an
attempt to defeat weather. Let us look at the evolution in detail.
  Mud and clay were among the first construction materials. Clay would be easily formed into shapes. Mud was held together
with the help of hay, straw, sticks and other organic fibers and dung. Ice was used in the Arctic areas to form igloos.
 Then came the time when wood, logs, sticks and thatch were used. Large uncut rocks were piled together to form historic
structures. Further, man started building structures with advanced composite materials like cement and concrete, reinforced
with steel or other metals.
 Men then shifted from mud huts and tents to the age of skyscrapers made of glass or metal, which has made buildings more
practical than in history. Today, most high-rise buildings are made with steel or other metals.
 With steel and metals getting sensitive to corrosion, people started coming up with other options that could last longer. This
was when plastics came up that are formed of polymers, and can be easily moulded while in liquid state. Moreover, plastic is
very light in weight and comparatively cheaper.
You can opt for polycarbonate greenhouse panels, solid textured polycarbonate sheets, multiwall polycarbonate sheets,
corrugated and profiled polycarbonate sheets and UPVC corrugated/synthetic sheets from Tuflite Polymers for all your
construction requirements to get the best possible products at the most pocket-friendly prices.

22. History of construction

Neolithic construction
Neolithic, also known as the New Stone Age, was a time period roughly from 9000 BC to 5000 BC named because it was the last
period of the age before wood working began. The tools available were made from natural materials including bone, antler,
hide, stone, wood, grasses, animal fibers, and the use of water. These tools were used by people to cut such as with the hand
axe, chopper, adze, and celt. Also to scrape, chop such as with a flake tool, pound, pierce, roll, pull, leaver, and carry.
Building materials included bones such as mammoth ribs, hide, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, clay, lime plaster, and more. For example,
the first bridges made by humans were probably just wooden logs placed across a stream and later timber trackways. In addition
to living in caves and rock shelters, the first buildings were simple shelters, tents like the Inuit's tupiq, and huts sometimes built as pit-
houses meant to suit the basic needs of protection from the elements and sometimes as fortifications for safety such as the crannog.
Built self-sufficiently by their inhabitants rather than by specialist builders, using locally available materials and traditional designs
and methods which together are called vernacular architecture.
The very simplest shelters, tents, leave no traces. Because of this, what little we can say about very early construction is mostly
conjecture and based on what we know about the way nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen in remote areas build shelters today.
The absence of metal tools placed limitations on the materials that could be worked, but it was still possible to build quite elaborate
stone structures with ingenuity using dry stone walling techniques such as at Skara Brae in Scotland, Europe's most complete
Neolithic village. The first mud bricks, formed with the hands rather than wooden moulds, belong to the late Neolithic period and
were found in Jericho. One of the largest structures of this period was the Neolithic long house. In all cases of timber
framed and log structures in these very early cultures, only the very lowest parts of the walls and post holes are unearthed in
archaeological excavations, making reconstruction of the upper parts of these buildings largely conjectural.
Neolithic architecture ranges from the tent to the megalith (an arrangement of large stones) and rock-cut architecture which are
frequently temples, tombs, and dwellings. The most remarkable Neolithic structure in Western Europe is the iconic megalith known
as Stonehenge, regarded by some archaeologists as displaying methods of timber construction such as at woodhenge translated into
stone, a process known as petrification. The now ruinous remains are of post and lintel construction and include massive sandstone
lintels which were located on supporting uprights by means of mortise and tenon joints; the lintels themselves being end-jointed by the
use of tongue and groove joints. There is also evidence of prefabrication of the stonework; the symmetrical geometric arrays of stone
clearly indicate that the builders of Stonehenge had mastered sophisticated surveying methods.[4] Neolithic villages large enough to
have rural and urban features are called proto-cities to distinguish them from cities beginning with Eridu.
Neolithic tools

Man using a hand axe A Neolithic stone axe with a wooden handle. A sickle for harvesting crops and thatching
materials.
Various bone tools from China Bone hammer from the Linear Pottery Culture a stone drill

Copper Age and Bronze Age construction

The Copper Age is the early part of the Bronze Age. Bronze is made when tin is added to copper and brass is copper with zinc. Copper
came into use before 5,000 BC and bronze around 3,100 BC, although the times vary by region. Copper and bronze were used for the
same types of tools as stone such as axes and chisels, but the new, less brittle, more durable material cut better. Bronze was cast into
desired shapes and if damaged could be recast. A new tool developed in the copper age is the saw. Other uses of copper and bronze
were to "harden" the cutting edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including
quarrying blocks and making rock-cut architecture.
During the Bronze Age the corbelled arch came into use such as for beehive tombs. The wheel came into use but was not common
until much later. Heavy loads were moved on boats, sledges (a primitive sled) or on rollers. The Egyptians began building stone
temples with the post and lintel construction method and the Greeks and Romans followed this style.
Iron Age construction
The Iron Age is a cultural period from roughly 1200 BC to 50 BC with the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons. Iron is not
much harder than bronze but by adding carbon iron becomes steel which was being produced after about 300 BC. Steel can be
hardened and tempered producing a sharp, durable cutting edge. A new woodworking tool allowed by the use of steel is the hand-
plane.

Middle ages

The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to
the Renaissance and is divided into Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque periods.
Fortifications, castles and cathedrals were the greatest construction projects. The Middle Ages began with the end of the Roman era
and many Roman building techniques were lost. But some Roman techniques, including the use of iron ring-beams, appear to have
been used in the Palatine Chapel at Aachen, c. 800 AD, where it is believed builders from the Langobard Kingdom in northern Italy
contributed to the work.[10] A revival of stone buildings in the 9th century and the Romanesque style of architecture began in the late
11th century. Also notable are the stave churches in Scandinavia.
 Villard de Honnecourt's drawing of a flying buttress at Reims, ca. AD 1320–1335 (Bibliothèque nationale)

Materials
Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c. 1000 AD. In Southern Europe adobe remained predominant.
Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600–1000 AD but elsewhere the craft of brick-making had largely
disappeared and with it the methods for burning tiles. Roofs were largely thatched. Houses were small and gathered around a large
communal hall. Monasticism spread more sophisticated building techniques. The Cistercians may have been responsible for
reintroducing brick-making to the area from the Netherlands, through Denmark and Northern Germany to Poland leading
to Backsteingotik. Brick remained the most popular prestige material in these areas throughout the period. Elsewhere buildings were
typically in timber or where it could be afforded, stone. Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the
walls and rubble infill, with weak lime mortars. The poor hardening properties of these mortars were a continual problem, and the
settlement of the rubble filling of Romanesque and Gothic walls and piers is still a major cause for concern.
Design
There were no standard textbooks on building in the Middle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred their knowledge through
apprenticeships and from father to son. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the source of a craftsman's livelihood.
Drawings only survive from the later period. Parchment was too expensive to be commonly used and paper did not appear until the
end of the period. Models were used for designing structures and could be built to large scales. Details were mostly designed at full
size on tracing floors, some of which survive.
Labour
In general, medieval buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work was done by labor paid by the day. Skilled craftsmen
served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. It is not clear how many women were members of a guild holding a
monopoly on a particular trade in a defined area (usually within the town walls). Towns were in general very small by modern
standards and dominated by the dwellings of a small number of rich nobles or merchants, and by cathedrals and churches.
Techniques

Church in Kizhi, Russia is listed as a UNESCO world heritage site as a building constructed entirely out of wood, in the log
building technique
Romanesque buildings of the period 600–1100 AD were entirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaults covered by timber roofs.
The Gothic style of architecture with its vaults, flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches developed in the twelfth century, and in the
centuries that followed ever more incredible feats of constructional daring were achieved in stone. Thin stone vaults and towering
buildings were constructed using rules derived by trial and error. Failures were frequent, particularly in difficult areas such as crossing
towers.
The pile driver was invented around 1500.
Achievements
The scale of fortifications and castle building in the Middle Ages was remarkable, but the outstanding buildings of the period were the
Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults and walls of glass. Outstanding examples are: Beauvais Cathedral, Chartres
Cathedral, King's College Chapel and Notre Dame, Paris.
Renaissance

The Renaissance in Italy, the invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of building. The rediscovery of
Vitruvius had a strong influence. During the Middle Ages buildings were designed by the people that built them. The master mason
and master carpenters learnt their trades by word of mouth and relied on experience, models and rules of thumb to determine the sizes
of building elements. Vitruvius however describes in detail the education of the perfect architect who, he said, must be skilled in all
the arts and sciences. Filippo Brunelleschi was one of the first of the new style of architects. He started life as a goldsmith and
educated himself in Roman architecture by studying ruins. He went on to engineer the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

Materials
The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with the technology of conversion. Water mills in most of western Europe were
used to saw timber and convert trees into planks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. In Italy the brick makers were
organized into guilds although the kilns were mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and easy availability of firewood and
brick earth. Brick makers were typically paid by the brick, which gave them an incentive to make them too small. As a result,
legislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizes and each town kept measures against which bricks had to be compared. An
increasing amount of ironwork was used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The iron was fixed using forelock bolts.
The screw-threaded bolt (and nut) could be made and are found in clock making in this period, but they were labour-intensive and thus
not used on large structures. Roofing was typically of terracotta roof tiles. In Italy they followed Roman precedents. In northern
Europe plain tiles were used. Stone, where available, remained the material of choice for prestige buildings.
Design
The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the Renaissance radically changed the nature of building design. The Renaissance
reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti's treatise on architecture raised the subject to a new level,
defining architecture as something worthy of study by the aristocracy. Previously it was viewed merely as a technical art, suited only
to the artisan. The resulting change in status of architecture and more importantly the architect is key to understanding the changes in
the process of design. The Renaissance architect was often an artist (a painter or sculptor) who had little knowledge of building
technology but a keen grasp of the rules of classical design. The architect thus had to provide detailed drawings for the craftsmen
setting out the disposition of the various parts. This was what is called the process of design, from the Italian word for drawing.
Occasionally the architect would get involved in particularly difficult technical problems but the technical side of architecture was
mainly left up to the craftsmen. This change in the way buildings were designed had a fundamental difference on the way problems
were approached. Where the Medieval craftsmen tended to approach a problem with a technical solution in mind, the Renaissance
architects started with an idea of what the end product needed to look like and then searched around for a way of making it work. This
led to extraordinary leaps forward in engineering.
Labour

The structure of the dome of Florence cathedral , showing the double skin structure
 Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Tower of Babel, illustrating construction techniques of the 16th century

Labour in the Renaissance was much the same as in the Middle Ages: buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work was done
by labourers paid by the day. Skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. Craftsmen were
organized in guilds which provided a limited form of building regulation in return for members of the guild holding a monopoly on a
particular trade in a defined area (usually within the town walls). Towns were in general very small by modern standards and
dominated by the dwellings of a small number of rich nobles or merchants and cathedrals and churches.
Technical advances
The wish to return to classical architecture created problems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders did not use concrete and thus
comparable vaults and domes had to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The
first major breakthrough was Brunelleschi's project for the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore. Brunelleschi managed to devise a way of
building a huge dome without formwork, relying instead on the weight of the bricks and the way they were laid to keep them in
position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way the dome was built is still subject to debate today as it is not
possible to take the dome apart to study its construction without destroying it. The dome is a double skin, linked by ribs, with a series
of wooden and stone chains around it at intervals to attempt to deal with hoop stresses.
Brunelleschi's dome was completed (up to the base of the lantern) in 1446. Its size was soon surpassed by the dome of St Peter's, built
using flying scaffolding supported on the cornices and constructed using two stone shells.
The seventeenth century

The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which would have profound effects on building construction in the centuries
to come. The major breakthroughs were towards the end of the century when architect-engineers began to use experimental science to
inform the form of their buildings. However it was not until the eighteenth century that engineering theory developed sufficiently to
allow sizes of members to be calculated. Seventeenth-century structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and the use of
scale models.
Materials and tools
The major breakthrough in this period was in the manufacture of glass, with the first cast plate glass being developed in France. Iron
was increasingly employed in structures. Christopher Wren used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace, and
iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St Paul's Cathedral. Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces
covering rubble cores, held together with lime mortar. Experiments were made mixing lime with other materials to provide a hydraulic
mortar, but there was still no equivalent of the Roman concrete. In England, France and the Dutch Republic, cut and gauged
brickwork was used to provide detailed and ornate facades. The triangulated roof truss was introduced to England and used by Inigo
Jones and Christopher Wren.
Many tools have been made obsolete by modern technology, but the line gauge, plumb-line, the carpenter's square, the spirit level, and
the drafting compass are still in regular use.
Methods
Despite the birth of experimental science, the methods of construction in this period remained largely medieval. The same types of
crane that had been used in previous centuries were still being employed. Flying scaffolds were employed at St Paul's Cathedral,
England and in the dome of St Peters, Rome, but otherwise the same types of timber scaffolding that had been in use centuries before
were retained. Cranes and scaffolding depended on timber. Complex systems of pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be lifted,
and long ramps were used to haul loads up to the upper parts of buildings.
The eighteenth century

The eighteenth century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late seventeenth century. The architects and
engineers became increasingly professionalized. Experimental science and mathematical methods became increasingly sophisticated
 and employed in buildings. At the same time the birth of the industrial revolution saw an increase in the size of cities and increase in
the pace and quantity of construction.
Materials
The major breakthroughs in this period were in the use of iron (both cast and wrought). Iron columns had been used in Wren's designs
for the House of Commons and were used in several early eighteenth-century churches in London, but these supported only galleries.
In the second half of the eighteenth century the decreasing costs of iron production allowed the construction of major pieces of iron
engineering. The Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale (1779) is a particularly notable example. Large-scale mill construction required fire-
proof buildings and cast iron became increasingly used for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for floors. The Louvre in Paris
boasted an early example of a wrought-iron roof. Steel was used in the manufacture of tools but could not be made in sufficient
quantities to be used for building.
Brick production increased markedly during this period. Many buildings throughout Europe were built of brick, but they were often
coated in lime render, sometimes patterned to look like stone. Brick production itself changed little. Bricks were moulded by hand and
fired in kilns no different to those used for centuries before. Terracotta in the form of Coade stone was used as an artificial stone in the
UK.
The nineteenth century: Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution was manifested in new kinds of transportation installations, such as railways, canals and macadam roads.
These required large amounts of investment. New construction devices included steam engines, machine tools, explosives and
optical surveying. The steam engine combined with two other technologies which blossomed in the nineteenth century, the circular
saw and machine cut nails, lead to the use of balloon framing and the decline of traditional timber framing.
As steel was mass-produced from the mid-19th century, it was used, in form of I-beams and reinforced concrete. Glass panes also
went into mass production, and changed from luxury to every man's property. Plumbing appeared, and gave common access
to drinking water and sewage collection. Building codes have been applied since the 19th century, with special respect to fire safety.
The twentieth century
With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th century, elevators and cranes made high rise buildings
and skyscrapers possible, while heavy equipment and power tools decreased the workforce needed. Other new technologies
were prefabrication and computer-aided design.
Trade unions were formed to protect construction workers' interests and occupational safety and health. Personal protective
equipment such as hard hats and earmuffs also came into use, and have become mandatory at most sites.
From the 20th century, governmental construction projects were used as a part of macroeconomic stimulation policies, especially
during the Great depression (see New Deal). For economy of scale, whole suburbs, towns and cities, including infrastructure, are often
planned and constructed within the same project (called megaproject if the cost exceeds US$1 billion), such as Brasília in Brazil, and
the Million Programme in Sweden.
In the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy conservation and sustainable development have become more important issues of
construction.

23. Qualities of good civil engineer

Civil engineers are professionals dealing with the management of our constructed and natural environment. Whether the work process
involves the maintenance, the construction or the design of buildings, roads, dams, canals or bridges, civil engineers will do much of
the heavy lifting and are therefore required to possess special qualities – here are some of the most important ones:

– Technical skills – a good civil engineer must possess solid knowledge of mathematics and physics and they also need to be able to
use special design software packages, and has skills surrounding metal fabrication for Denver projects and other cities requirements.
– Project management and leadership skills – civil engineers usually work as part of a team or as team leaders, therefore they need
advanced soft skills, such as problem solving and planning skills as well. In many cases, the civil engineer is in charge of the entire
construction process and supervises the work of everyone involved from contractors and architects to technicians and suppliers and
handles the communication with government authorities as well, so very strong communication and organizing skills are also
indispensable.
– Creativity – engineering is a science that works based on accurate calculations and strict rules, but civil engineers apply the
available solutions in physical environments and therefore need to be able to innovate, to find new ways of solving situations in a safe
and efficient manner, which involves a great deal of creative thinking.

CHAPTER III: Overview of National Planning for Construction and Infrastructure Development

24. Position of construction industry vis-a-vis other industries.

In the years ahead, the construction industry in India has to overcome various challenges - be it with respect to housing, environment,
transportation, power or natural hazards. Technocrats associated with the Indian construction industry need to employ innovative
technologies and skilled project handling strategies to overcome these challenges. The outstanding performance under demanding
situations in the past will stand in good stead and give confidence to the Indian construction industry to bring about an overall
development in the infrastructure of the nation. The gains of large investments in the mega-projects eventually will feedback to the
construction industry itself in the form of better economy and improved work conditions.

25. Current budget (2019) of infrastructure works.

The government plans to restructure the national highways programme to create network of highways grid of a desirable capacity for
better connectivity, finance minister Nirmala Sitharaman said today.
Sitharaman said the government envisions using rivers for cargo transporation, a move that will decongest roads and railways and said
that the railway ministry is in the process of completing the ambitious dedicated freight corridor (DFC). She also said that railways
will be encouraged to make investments and expand network in suburban areas.
Railway infrastructure will need investment of ₹50 lakh crore between 2018 and 2030, she said adding that Public Private Partnerships
(PPP) will be used to unleash faster development and delivery of passenger freight services.The government will also launch station
modernization programme this year, she said.
Projects such as industrial corridors, DFC, Bharatmala, Sagarmala and UDAN schemes have and will continue to improve
connectivity and increase competitiveness. Road corridor project Bharatmala, port-linked industrialization plan Sagarmala and UDAN
will help in bridging the rural-urban divide and improve transport infrastructure. The minister also spoke of allowing commercial
activity around transit hubs. The finance minister also expects cargo movement in Ganga will increase four times in four years with
the creation of transit hubs at Varanasi, Sahigbanj and Haldia.
The government has set an investment target of ₹80,250 crore for phase three of the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, under which
the government wants to build 1,25,000 km of village roads. The earlier phases of this scheme led to the construction of 30,000 km of
village roads with green technology, which will continue, Sitharaman said.
The finance ministry had allocated the highest-ever budgetary support of ₹83,016 crore to the highways sector in the interim budget
announced earlier this year in February and ₹64,587 crore for railways.
“The budget speech duly emphasized the importance of infrastructure and connectivity to the Indian economy – in terms of enhancing
and taking forward programs across various key infrastructure sub-sectors. The budget’s focus on comprehensive plans and blue prints
for various infrastructure plans/ grids is a welcome one – especially in the context of: considering systemic trade-offs and
development of economic and efficient infrastructure, and involving private sector in this area in a bigger way on a long-term basis,"
said Peeyush Naidu, partner, Deloitte.
With regard to power, Sitharaman said the government would focus on “one nation, one grid". The government will introduce policy
interventions to revive nearly 24GW of natural gas-powered power plants, currently stranded for the lack of natural gas supply. The
government will also “examine the performance so far of the Ujwal Discome Assurance Yojana (UDAY), which had been introduced
to stabilize the financial bearings of state power distribution companies. The Centre will also also look into the electricity tariff policy
and tweak it to benefit the sector struggling to sign long-term power purchase agreements with states.
The country has raised ₹24,000 crore by monetizing public infrastructure, through infrastructure investment trusts, real estate
investment trusts and the toll-operate-transfer scheme of the National Highways Authority of India. To boost investment, the
government will encourage foreign portfolio investors to invest in infrastructure debt funds, introduce credit default swaps for the
infrastructure sector, deepen the corporate bond market, and encourage equity investment by non-residential Indians.
Chapter iv: Fundamentals of Architecture & Town Planning:

26. Example of great Architecture.

1. Eiffel Tower – Paris, France

Constructed in 1889, the Eiffel Tower is one of the most famous structures in the world. It’s named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel
and it was build as the entrance arch for the World Expo of 1889. The tower is 324 meters high, approximately as an 81 storey
building. Today, the tower attracts millions of visitors every year.

2. The Burj al Arab – Dubai

Built on an artificial island 280 meters away from the coast, the Burj al Arab in Dubai is one of the most luxurious and the fourth
tallest hotel in the world. It’s 321 meters high and it represents one of the wonders of contemporary engineering. The building is
designed by Tom Wright of WKK architects and its shape emulates shape of the sail of a ship.
3. Parthenon – Athens, Greece
The most famous and the best preserved temple of ancient Greece had a lot of influence on the architecture, art and aesthetics of the
western world. It was built in the 5th century BC, dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos, the patron of Athens. Its sculptures,
ornaments and friezes are today considered the finest examples of Classical Greek art. Its supervising architect, Phidias is still known
by name as one of the best sculptors and builders of the ancient times.
4. Sagrada Familia – Barcelona, Spain
One of the most elaborate churches in history, with a construction that has taken the most of the 20th century. Designed by one of the
greatest minds of modern architecture, Antonio Gaudi, the cathedral represents the fantastic fusion of gothic influences and singular
art nouveau ideas. It’s construction started in 1882, lasting through decades until the Spanish Civil War and the World War II, when it
stopped. Resuming the building in the 1950s, the process is not over yet. Although the church has been consecrated in 2010, the final
completion is planned for 2026, the year of 100 years anniversary of Gaudi’s death. Although unfinished, this building is huge and
breathtaking with myriads of ornaments adorning its constructive elements, making it one of the most recognizable symbols of the
city.
5. Angkor Wat – Cambodia
At first Hindu, then Buddhist, Angkor Wat was the most mysterious temple and the largest religious complex in the world. It was built
in the 12th century by the Khmer King Suryavarman, intended to be the state temple and then his mausoleum. After Hinduist
traditions were abandoned, Angkor Wat was dedicated to the Buddhist deity Vishnu. The complex is the symbol of Cambodia and it
found its place on the Cambodian national flag. Vast and impressive, this brilliant example of Khmer architecture is captivating in its
beauty and strong in its traditional structure.
6. Saint Peter’s Basilica – Vatican, Rome, Italy
Probably the most famous Catholic church in the world, Saint Peter’s in Rome was designed by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo,
Carlo Maderno and Gianlorenzo Bernini, respectively, with smaller additions by other prominent architects. It’s an elaborate basilica,
and the most revered building of Renaissance architecture.
7. Sydney Opera House
One of the most famous opera houses in the world, because of its building. It was designed by Danish architect Jorn Utzon, who was
celebrated for the groundbreaking modern design. Sydney Opera House was opened in 1973, staging large theatrical productions.
8. Colosseum
This ancient Roman amphitheatre is considered one of the greatest achievements of Roman architecture. It was constructed in 70-80
AD, and it’s one of the first buildings in history where concrete was used for construction.
9. Tower Bridge London
The symbol of London and a pearl of the 19th century architecture, Tower Bridge was built as a combination of bascule bridge and
suspension bridge in 1886 – 1894.
10. Hagia Sophia Istanbul
A monumental church, then mosque and today a museum. It’s a singular testimony to the grandeur and the genius of Byzantine
architecture. It was built in 6th century AD, during the reign of Emperor Justinian.
11. Kremlin
Moscow Kremlin is a large fortified complex set in the bosom of Moscow. It was built in 15th century and the fortress spans over
almost 28 hectares of land, with its impressive red walls, towers and buildings. It’s the seat of Russian government.
12. Empire State Building
Rarely a person travels to New York without planning to visit the Empire State Building. It is the symbol of the city and the
pioneering skyscraper, with its 103 stories. This 381 meters high structure was designed by William F. Lamb and completed in 1931,
becoming one of the first skyline creators of the Big Apple.
14. Petronas Towers Kuala Lumpur
These twin towers were the tallest buildings in the world in the period from 1998 to 2004, and still are the tallest twin buildings in the
world. Their complex and supermodern design initiated the construction of the post-modern Kuala Lumpur.
15. Leaning Tower Pisa
The campanile of the cathedral of Pisa, Tuscany is world famous for its leaning position. Started in the 12th, the tower was completed
in the second half of the 14th century, and it is the iconic building of the late Italian Romanesque style.
 16. Taj Mahal
Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built the most fantastic and the most beautiful monument to love, for his early deceased wife Mumtaz
Mahal. The entire building is covered in white marble, depicting architecturally the ideal vision of heaven. Constructed in the 17th
century, it is located in Agra, in the Indian region Uttar Pradesh.
17. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao
There was no better choice for the contemporary art museum architect, but the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao designer – the amazing
Frank Gehry. The building is the fantastic creation, covered in shiny sheets of metal, transferring the visitor into another dimension.
The museum was inaugurated in 1997.
18. Flatiron Building
A groundbreaking triangular solution of early modern architecture. The Flatiron Building was designed by Daniel Burnham and
completed in 1902. This New York landmark was the tallest building in the world at the time it was completed.
19. Villa Savoye
One of the most renowned modernist villas, built by the modern architecture pioneer Le Corbusier in Poissy, near Paris. The villa was
constructed after the emblematic “Five Points” the famous architect relied on, while conjuring up the modern style.
20. Kauffman Residence or Fallingwater
One of the most admired buildings designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, built in 1935 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The modern house is
set above a natural waterfall, fusing the artificial and the natural in perfect harmony. Fallingwater was proclaimed “best all time work
of American architecture” by the American Institute of Architects in 1991.
27. LEED ratings.
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) is the most widely used green building rating system in the world. Available
for virtually all building project types, from new construction to interior fit-outs and operation & maintenance, LEED provides a
framework that project teams can apply to create healthy, highly efficient, and cost-saving green buildings. LEED certification is a
globally recognized symbol of sustainability achievement.

LEED Rating Systems Explained

LEED Certification applies to all building types at all phases of development. Because the LEED standards are flexible enough to
apply to all project types, there are unique categories called LEED Rating Systems that project teams use to organize their process and
documentation for a specific building type.
The LEED rating systems are grouped into five main categories:

 Building Design and Construction

 Interior Design and Construction
 Operations and Maintenance
 Homes
 Neighborhood Development
These categories also correspond to the LEED professional credentials, which allow an individual to demonstrate proficiency in a
specific LEED specialty.
Building Design and Construction
The first category, Building Design and Construction, contains 10 LEED rating systems. These rating systems are guidelines for new
buildings and old buildings undergoing major renovations. Schools, hospitals, retail, data centers, warehouses, office buildings, and
apartment buildings are all examples of buildings that would fall into this category.
Interior Design and Construction
The second category is Interior Design and Construction, which was designed specifically for tenants leasing a portion of a larger
building. Interior spaces in commercial buildings, retail, and hospitals would fall into this category. For example, a company leasing
commercial office space or for a Starbucks in a strip center would pursue this option.
Building Operations and Maintenance
The third category is Building Operations and Maintenance, which can be used by building owners and operators to measure
operations and maintenance as well as make minor improvements. Schools, hospitals, retail, data centers, and warehouses can fall into
this category.
LEED for Homes
The fourth category is LEED for Homes, which was specifically designed for single and multi-family residential structures that are
three stories or less. LEED for Homes is modeled after the Environmental Protection Agency’s successful ENERGY STAR for
Homes program and became available to the public in 2008. It applies to single- and multi-family residential units up to three stories
tall.
LEED for Neighborhood Development
The fifth and final category is LEED for Neighborhood Development, which integrates the principles of smart growth, urbanism, and
green building into the first national program for neighborhood design.

28. Development of smart cities.

With the advent of “smartphones”, technology has helped mankind to solve some of its difficulties. On a similar note, “smart city” is a
futuristic approach to alleviate obstacles triggered by ever-increasing population and fast urbanization which is going to benefit the
governments as well as the masses. Modern day cities are deprived of vital elements like quality of life and socio-economic
development which can be delivered by the smart cities. Smart cities are an endeavour to make cities more efficient, sustainable and
liveable. In other words, a smart city is a city that can monitor and integrate functionality of all the critical infrastructure like roads,
tunnels, airways, waterways, railways, communication power supply, etc., control maintenance activities and can help in optimizing
the resources while keeping an eye on the security issues as well. This research paper explores various aspects and dimensions of a
smart city. To bridge the gap in literature regarding the concept of smart cities and its implementation, a framework has been
developed to get better insights about the idea of smart city. On the basis of extensive and deep research of literature from diverse
domains, we have identified six significant pillars for developing the framework as: Social, Management, Economic, Legal,
Technology and Sustainability (SMELTS). The paper throws light upon how these factors can make the smart city initiative a
successful project. The proposed framework has been used to figure out various agendas for research and traces its practical
implications.
With the ever increasing population levels and sudden population explosion in the cities, the urban challenges faced by the cities have
increased to unprecedented measure. This is expected to continue with additional increments in the pollution level, scarcity of
resources, traffic and many more. Cities today are facing new economic, political and technological responsibilities which they
must satisfy to deliver sustainable prosperity to their citizens. It’s time to leverage from technology and establish smarter
systems that can optimize the use of limited resources. Many cities have already started. It’s essential to act fast as the need to
provide a sustainable development and satiating the needs of the increasing population without disturbing the environment
will become critical soon. SMELTS can be considered as the important factors affecting a smart city initiative and a detailed
study of these would help better understand smart city initiatives as well as provide a managerial purview to the same.