Plant organology and anatomy theory notes:

Special features of the plant cell

1. Plastids - chloroplasts contain a double membrane envelope developed by thylakoid mem-

brane system. Pigment content: chlorophylls, carotenoids. Main function is photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts are present in ripened fruits, the internal membrane system is often degraded,
they contain only carotenoids.

2. A well developed central vacuole in fully differentiated cells- the membrane of the vacuole is
called the tonoplast, which has special features distinct from plasma membrane. Main func-
tions are the regulation of water balance in the plant cells; accumulation of metabolites

3. The Extracellular system (EM) of plant cells is cellulose based cell wall, functions are; regula-
tion of water balance, supporting the plant body, site of important metabolic processes.

4. Plasmodesmata - allows cell to connect and communicate, make plant tissues to be supra
cellularly organised - symplast.

5. The mitotic apparatus of a cell doesn’t include the centriole, but MTOC - microtubule organ-
ising centre is present

6. Contain intrusion bodies, don’t show biologically organised structure eg) starch granules or
Ca Oxide crystals

Structure Information Image

Nucleus • has envelope of two membranes,

holds chromosomal DNA picked
into chromatin fibres and histone
proteins. The nuclear contents
communicate by systole and nu-
clear pores.
Structure Information Image

Plasma Membra • maintains the proper Conc of mate-

rials in a cell by controlling the pas-
sage of materials in and out of the
cell.
Endoplasmic reticu- • makes and packages proteins and
lum lipids. Found in eukaryotic organ-
isms, forms an interconnected net-
work of flattened membrane en-
closed sacs or tubes known as
cristae. RER and SER.

Golgi apparatus • a system of stacked membrane

bound flattened sacs involved in
modifying sorting and packaging
macromolecules for secretion or
delivery to other organelles.

Lysosomes • membrane bound vesicles that con-

tain hydrolytic enzymes involved in
intracellular digestions.
Peroxisomes • membrane bound vessels contain-
ing oxidative enzymes that generate
and destroy hydrogen peroxide.

Microtubular Cy- • array of protein filaments form net-

toskeleton works that give the cell its shape
and provide basis for its movement
- microtubules, actin filaments and
intermediate filaments.

Totipotency of a cell • any differentiated living plant cell Calli placed on plant regeneration
can be converted into undifferenti- medium:

ated callus cell which is later capa- 1: calli with undifferentiated cells

ble of plant regeneration. 2: a callus that has just started plant

differentiation

3: calli with numerous plantlets

formed from undiferrentiated,

meristemoid cells
Structure Information Image

Mitochondria Make ATP, contain DNA. Double membrane

with inner folded Cristal, matrix and outer
membrane.

Chloroplasts • contain chlorophyll, double mem-

brane and are used in photosynthe-
sis. Contain DNA

Cell wall • cellulose and a matrix of polysac-

charides that keep the structure of
the cell. Protoplast fusion Is used to
make hybrid plants .Without cell
wall, cell can’t divide. Cell wall de-
termines shape of plant cell.

Vacuole • large single membrane bound vesi-

cle occupying up to 90% of cell
volume, vacuole functions in space
filling and intracellular digestion.
Regulation of water regime, site of
important biochemical processes ,
secondary metabolites.

Plastids • Thykaloids contain chlorophyll,

chloroplasts have double mem-
brane because it came from bacte-
ria that lived in the plant and later
became part of the system - en-
dosymbiosis theory. When the cell
engulfed the prokaryote cell it
formed a body that had an outer
eukaryotic membrane and an inner
prokaryotic membrane. Plastids
have their own bacteria type DNA
 Structure Information Image

Special transport pro- Ion channel proteins, H+ pump, proton anti

teins in the tonoplast port proteins.

Plasmodesmata 1. allows cell to connect and commu-

nicate, make plant tissues to be
supra cellularly organised - sym-
plast. Present in primary cell walls.
Plasma bridges crossing the cell
walls that connects the cells to-
gether. If there is secondary cell
thickening, causes destruction of
plasmodesmata and therefore
weakens the connections between
cells.
Thykaloids a membrane-bound compartment in-
side chloroplasts and cyanobacteria.
They are the site of the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis. Thylakoids
consist of a thylakoid membrane sur-
rounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast
thylakoids frequently form stacks of
disks referred to as grana.

Grana Stacks of thylakoids

7.

 Plastids

Family of organelles which have a double or more mem-

brane envelope. Almost all contain inter membrane system.
All contain bacterial type DNA. Specific for plants. Intercon-
vertable- can come from any type of plastid due to envi-
ronmental system.

•Etioplasts- chloroplasts that have not been exposed to

light, usually found in flowering plants (agiosperms) grown in
the dark

•Amyloplasts- double enveloped organelles in plant cells

that are involved in various biological pathways. Store
starch, a type of leucoplast.

•Proplastids- no internal membrane, differentiate into all

different type of plastids.

•A meristem- tissue in most plants containing undifferenti-

ated cells, found in zones of the plant where growth can
take place.

•Leucoplast- organelles found in plant cells, non pigment-

ed, in contrast to other plastids eg) chloroplasts. If no pho-
tosynthetic pigments then leucoplasts are not green and are
located in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants eg)roots,
bulbs, seeds. Stores food.

•Proteinoplast- lack pigment, a type of leucoplast

•Chromoplast-found in ripening fruite/roots eg)carrots,

where plastids form pigments eg) carotene.

•Gerontoplast-an ageing plastid.

•Elaioplasts- specialised for storage of lipids in plants, they

house oil body deposits as rounded plastoglobuli, fat
droplets.

•Plastoglobuli - plastid lipoprotein particles surrounded by

a membrane lipid monolayer

•Cytokinins - a class of plant growth substances (phyto-

hormones) that promote cell division or cytokinesis in plant
roots and shoots. Involved primarily in cell growth and dif-
ferentiation but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth and leaf senescence.

Cytokinins->more mitosis->more cells->plant growth

Starch
• If starch accumulates in large concentrations then it will begin to crystallise which is how plants
can store starch.

• Synthesised in plastids of both photosynthetic and non photosynthetic cells.

• Insoluble polyglucan produced by starch synthesis using ADP-glucose as the sugar donor mol-
ecule.

• These two molecules are assembled together to form a semi-crystalline starch granule.

• A1-4 glycosidic bonds(amylose) an a1-6(amylopectin) glycosidic bonds

• Glycogen is a multi-branched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy stor-

age in animals, fungi, and bacteria. The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage
form of glucose in the body

• Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many
forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellu-
lose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth.

• Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by

glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy storage.

• Phycobilisomes are aggregates of light-harvesting proteins attached to the stroma side of the
thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and red algae.

• Prochloron (from the Greek pro (before) and the Greek chloros (green) ) is a unicellular oxygenic
photosynthetic prokaryote commonly found as an extracellular symbiont on coral reefs, particu-
larly in didemnid ascidians (sea squirts)

• A stromule is a microscopic structure found in plant cells. Stromules are highly dynamic struc-
tures extending from the surface of all plastid types, including proplastids, chloroplasts, etio-
plasts, leucoplasts, amyloplasts, and chromoplas-
ts

•Symbiogenesis/Endosymbiotic theory - an
evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells
from prokaryotic organisms.

Phycobilisomes
Euglenophyta -

• Ancient eukaryotes

• Storage polysaccharide - paramilon

• Chloroplasts- triple membrane envelope, no

grana stacks

• Chlorophyll a, b

 Chlorophyta - green algae

Staining with congo red – chrisoidine shows that

the composition of cell wall changes during

3
4

1: primary cell walls are stained red because of the abundance of cellulose
2: secondary xylem cell walls are stained pale-red because lignin and cellulose are both abundant in those secondary
thickened walls
3: the walls of phloem fiber cells are stained yellow because of lignin predominance
4. Periderm cell walls are stained brown due to suberin

• Ancestors of true plants

• Storage polysaccharide is starch

• Chloroplasts; double membrane envelope, grana starch in part of species but not all

• Chlorophyll a, b

• In spirogyra, chloroplasts don’t contain grant stacks.

Phaeophyta - brown algae

• Storage material- laminarin (polysaccharide), mannitol, triglycerides

• Chloroplast - four membrane envelope

• Chlorophyll a, b

• Fucoxanthin - a xanthophyll type pigment

Phodophyta - red algae

• Storage polly saccharide - Floridea starch

• Chloroplasts - no grana, double membrane envelope

• Chlorophyll a, d

• Phycobilin pigments - phycoeritin, phycocyanin

Functions of chloroplasts/plastid system

1. Photosynthesis

2. Photorespiration

3. Brings ATP nd reducing power to the cell

4. Amino acid synthesis (GS-GOGAT cycle = glutamine-synthase/ glutamic 2 oxolutarate amino

transferase)

5. Pollen fertility, together with mitochondria

6. ROS scavenging

7. Antibiotic resistance

8. Biosynthesis of plant hormones (partially or totally)

9. Storage

10. Insect mediated pollination

The plant cell wall.

- Made of cellulose: a polymer, that is the most frequent macromolecule on the planet

- cellobiose > cellulose > micelle > microfibril

- contains proteins: 3 main types - extensions, expansin,

Class Examples Image

Cellulose Microfibrils of 1-4B glucan

Matrix polysac- homogalacturonan, rhamno-

charides - galacturonan, arabinan, galac-
-pectins. tan.

-Hemicelluloses
 Class Examples Image
-Hemicelluloses
Xyloglucan, xylan, glucoman-
nan, arabinoxylan,
callose(1-3) b-d-glucan,
(1-3,1-4)B-d-glucan (grasses
only)

Lignin High molecular weight, insolu-

ble plant polymers that form
key structural materials In the
support tissue of vascular
plants and some algae. Lignin
are particularly important in the
formation of cell walls, wood
and bark. Lend rigidity and do
not rot easily

Structural proteins Channel proteins- form small

openings for molecules to dif-
fuse through.

Transport proteins- regulate the

move of subs across the
membrane

Carrier proteins- binding site

on protein surface grabs cer-
tain molecules and pulls them
into the cell

Gated channels- similar to car-

rier proteins, not always open

Golgi apparatus

- everything except cellulose is made

here - complex materials

- exocytosis; membrane bound vesicles

containing cellulose and transported to
the cell membrane

- endocytosis; cells engulf surrounding

material.

- Formation of new cell wall is Golgi

vesicles moving down microtubules to
gather in the centre and then bind to
form a cell plate, only a cell Wass
when more cellulose and pectin are
present. The cell plate mostly contains callose and hemicell.

- Isotropic growth - grows uniformly in any direction. Centrosomal ALIX regulates mitotic spindle

- Orientation by modulating astral microtubule dynamics, the orientation of cellulose microfibrils

determined cell shape.

- Polymeric lignin consists of phenolic subunits mainly being endocarps of the polymer and non-
phenolic substances forming the lignin backbone.

Vacuolar system in different cell types

Types of functions of plant vacuoles-

1. Vegetative - regulation of water regime

2. Storage - of nutrients of secondary metabolites

3. Lytic

• All of them are surrounded by the tonolast

• Cell sap - aqueous solution

• Plasmolysis - shrinking of the protoplasm due to water loss in an environment - separates plas-
ma membrane from tonoplast.

• Helps develop salt resistance

• Protein storage vacuoles

Membrane transport proteins in the tonoplast.

Transporters are binding ATP, they transport glutathione

conjugates, amfipatic anions (detoxification, storage of
antimicrobial compounds, accumulation of anthocya-
nines, defence against oxidative stress)

OSMOPROTECTANTS

Structure of plasmodesmata

•Small channels between cell walls of plants connected

by er membrane shared between cells

•Types - primary formed in cell plate during cytokinesis.

Secondary formed be-
tween cells during cell ex-
pansion and maturity, of-
ten branched, ER mem-
brane breaks down and
fuses with adjacent ER.

•Large enough to allow

diffusion of metabolites
but not freely permeable
to all molecules (ie pro-
teins). Viruses may ma-
nipulate size limit allowing
viral encoded movement
of proteins.

Phloem consists of sieve

elements and companion cells, sieve tube stack to form vessels which connect via sieve plates
and allow translocation of solutes.

Vas- cu-
lar tissues

Xylem and phloem - appeared at emergence of land plants, Compound tissues.

Xylem

- transport water and solutes from root to plant body

- Tracheas - ferns/angiospermd - water transport cells, secondary wall thickenings are less pre-
dominant.

- treachery elements - some ferns, gnetophytes, angiosperms. From the perforation of radial
walls of cells derived from vascular cambium. Cell wall thickenings are more prominent. High

lignin content.

- Xylem parenchyma - living, storage, secretory, some transport activity for pit rays, secondary
thickenings may be prominent.

- Fibres - elongated, prominent wall thickenings, dead, fusiform, high lignin content.

- Wood parenchyma - living, storage, secretory, in pith rays transport function, thin walled cells.

- Types of vascular cambium - fusiform initials and pith ray initials.

Phloem
- transport Organic compounds from photosynthesising tissues to plant body

- Sieve tubes and albumine cells in ferns, gymnosperms. Elongated, pitted transporting cells.

- Seve tubes and companion cells in angiosperms. Absent of fragmented nucleus, pitted side
walls, separated from each other by sieve plates, mycoplasm.

- Phloem parenchyma - living storage, secretory rhytidome

- Phloem fibres - prosenhymatic, thick walled, fusiform - mechanical support, low lignin content
of walls.

- Mature sieve tube - no ribosomes, tonoplast, fragmented or absent nucleus. Protein cytoskele-
ton aggregates through plasmodesmata - transporting function.

-
Sieve Element Cells

Sieve elements are long and narrow cells that are connected together to form the sieve tube

▪ Sieve elements are connected by sieve plates at their transverse ends, which are porous to
enable flow between cells

▪ Sieve elements have no nuclei and reduced numbers of organelles to maximise space for
the translocation of materials

▪ The sieve elements also have thick and rigid cell walls to withstand the hydrostatic pres-
sures which facilitate flow

▪ Sieve parenchyma may contain tannic acids, resin, gums, balsam, crystals.

Companion Cells

Provide metabolic support for sieve element cells and facilitate the loading and unloading of ma-
terials at source and sink

▪ Possess an infolding plasma membrane which increases SA:Vol ratio to allow for more ma-
terial exchange

▪ Have many mitochondria to fuel the active transport of materials between the sieve tube
and the source or sink

▪ Contain appropriate transport proteins within the plasma membrane to move materials into
or out of the sieve tube

Sieve elements are unable to sustain independent metabolic activity without the support of a
companion cell

▪ This is because the sieve element cells have no nuclei and fewer organelles (to maximise
flow rate)

▪ Plasmodesmata exist between sieve elements and companion cells in relatively large
numbers

▪ These connect the cytoplasm of the two cells and mediate the symplastic exchange of
metabolites

Roots

▪ In monocotyledons, the stele is large and vessels will form a radiating circle around the
central pith

▪ Xylem vessels will be located more internally and phloem vessels will be located
more externally

▪ In dicotyledons, the stele is very small and the xylem is located centrally with the phloem
surrounding it

▪ Xylem vessels may form a cross-like shape (‘X’ for xylem), while the phloem is situ-
ated in the surrounding gaps

Stem

▪ In monocotyledons, the
vascular bundles are found
in a scattered arrangement
throughout the stem

▪ Phloem vessels will

be positioned ex-
ternally (towards
outside of stem) –
remember:  phloem
= outside  

▪ In dicotyledons, the vascu-

lar bundles are arranged in
a circle around the centre
of the stem (pith)

▪ Phloem and xylem

vessels will be
separated by the
cambium (xylem on
inside ; phloem on
outside)

Evolution of vas-
cular tissues -
types of steles

Stele - central cylinder - vascu-

lar tissue embedded in ground tissue.

• Primitive vascular plants - haplostele

• Psilotum have no leaves or roots

Ground tissues
Parenchymatic

• thin walls, isodiametric or elongated living cells

• Clorenchyma - photosynthetic parenchyma

• Storage tissue

• Aeration tissue, aerenchyma

• Secretory tissue - resin canals, volatile oil cannals, laticifers etc

• Water storage tissue

• Endoderm

Mechanical tissues

• Cell wall thickenings,

• Collenchyma - under the epidermis of primary stem - living

• Sclerenchyma - thickenings at large cell surfaces, non living cells.

Plant Histology

Tissue - a community of cells with identical ontogenetic origins, designed for completing a well
defined function. May contain different cell types but they collaborate to achieve the function.
Functional only in the context of the whole organism.

Tissue systems - completing the same basic function eg) xylem and phloem are vascular tissue
system. Usually in vascular plants the tissues are complex

Development of Tissues:
Cell (pro- or eukaryotic) → Cell Colony → Thallus → (Conquering Terrestrial Habitats) → Tissue Or-
ganization

The conquering of terrestrial habitats was the driving force of tissue development during evolution

Types of Tissues:

Basic Organization: Simple -- Compound

Developmental Stage and Function: Meristems -- Differentiated Tissues

Characteristics of Meristematic Cells:

• Isodiametric Shape
• Small Size
• Prevacuolar compartments
• Thin Primary Cell Wall
• Small diameter of plasmodesmata

Meristems: (merizein = to divide)

According to their origin:

Primary
- At the tips of main and lateral organs. Mainly apical position, these are remnants of the embry-
onic meristem
- Stem cells - histogens; formation of differentiated tissues, their coordinated function leads to
the development of whole organs.
- Intercalary meristems
- Meristemoids eg) initials of trichomes or stomata
Secondary
- Appear at later stages of development in differentiated tissues. They give rise to secondary
structures
- Dicots - secondary meristems and secondary tissues. Vascular cambium and phellogen in
branches, trunk and secondary thickening of roots.
- Monocots - built up exclusively from primary tissues, no secondary merits or tissues
Quiescent Centre: In shoot and root tip, for root tip they are just above the columella of root cap.
Absent or low mitotic activity which regulates the functioning of stem cells

Plant Stem Cells:

Surround the quies-
cent centre and pro-
duce histogens. Divi-
sion of stem cells -
one daughter cell pre-
serves the stem cell
state, the other
daughter cell will par-
ticipate in the forma-
tion of histogens

In root - bundles are

simple

In the stem - bundles

are compound

Intercalary meristems (2pics below)

Gramineous stem, leaf sheath, filiform leaves, axes of flowers between modi-
fied leaves of flowers, bud axes, in flower stalks of plants with leaf rosettes.

Types of meristems based on position

APICAL
- Causes primary growth ie) lengthen plant.

- Occurs at tips of shoots and roots.

- Produces new leaves and flowers

- Found it the tips of buds.

LATERAL
1. Pericycle - usually is the outermost cell layer of the younger roots. Func-
tions to develop lateral roots, secondary vascular tissue and periderm (not in monocots).

2. The vascular cambium - lateral meristem gives rise to the secondary xylem and phloem in
axial organs. It forms continuous cylinder to induce secondary thickenings. divi-
sion planes: parallel to surface, form secondary phloem on external and secondary xylem
on their internal sides = bipleuric functioning. In roots, formation of vascular cambium occurs
between xylem and phloem bundles. Rem-
nants of pro cambium - fascicular cambium.

Interfascicular cambium - dedifferentiating parenchymal cells

For stems containing eusteles, the origin of continuous cambium ring is dual; both primary

and secondary

3. Phellogen - lateral and secondary meristem, gives rise to periderm. Functions in bipleuric way
giving rise to phellom at the external and phelloderm (ground tissue)

Periderm = phellom+phellogen+phelloderm. May contain lenticels.

Origin from - epidermal cells/ subepidernal cell layers

4. Wound cambium - secondary meristematic tissue formed by dedifferentiation -> callus. Func-
tions are defence, form of adventitious organs and vegetative reproduction.

Callus cultures - tobacco

Types of tissues

1. Composition ; simple-compound

2. Differentiation state; meristems-differentiated tissues

Differentiated tissues Primary from primary meris-
tems
1. Epidermal tissues Shoot epiderm - protoderm,
From phellogen, secondary , ter-
root epiderm - dermatogen
2. Vascular tissues Pro cambium shoot, pleroma
root. Primary xylem, phloem
3. Ground tissues Ground meristem shoot/peri-
blem, plerome; mechanical- col-
lenchim, sclerenchim, paranchi-
matic;
Secondary rays, excretory tis-
Assimilatory, storage, excretory,
water storage and aerenchim.
Secondary from secondary
meristems- superposed on re-
place primary tissues.
tiary periderm, rhitidome
Secondary- vascular cambium,
secondary xylem and phloem
Parenchyma tic and mechanical
tissues on the secondary body -
cambium and phellogen;
sues of the secondary body (eg.
Tannin storage tissue), secondary
mechanical/supporting tissues
(sclereids sclerenchimatic fibres)
 Primary tissues - epi- Secondary tissues - protective
dermal tissues of the
younger plant body

Meristems Protoderm, dermatogen Paracambium - phel- Wound cambium

logen

Mature epidermal Epidermis Periderm, rhitidome Wound tissue

Salvia officinalis - trichomes ^

Root epidermis
- has usually one cell layer, no cuticle

- Special cell type ; root hair

- Found roots with micorhizal hyphae and root hair

The cuticle

- cutin, wax, cellulose, pectin. Wax extruded on the epidermis - nepenthes gracilis modified leaf.

- Cell types - pavement cells, stomatal complexes (guard cells with/without companion cells),
trichomes, secretory cells.

The shoot epidermis;

- Comes from protoderm, present in leaves, young flowers, seeds, fruits

- Compound tissue

- Usually one layered, pavement cells + other cell types tightly joined

- Cuticle or wax on the surface

- Functions - protection (sunlight, wounding, herbivores, penetration of pathogens

- Gas exchange CO2, O2, regulation of water regime of the whole plant body.

The periderm -
- Phellom + phellogen + phelloderm

- Suberin

- Generated mostly from outer cortical layers

- Pericycle - paracambium - periderm - rhitidome