UNIT 1

CONCEPT OF STRESS

Stress may be understood as a state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary

demands, constraints or opportunities. The pressures of modern life, coupled with the demands
of a job, can lead to emotional imbalances that are collectively labeled ‘Stress’. However, stress
is not always unpleasant. Stress is the spice of life and the absence of stress makes life dull,
monotonous and spiritless.

While no definition of stress has been universally accepted, three common classes of definition
are as follows: one is a stimulus, an environmental event, usually a threat, that affects the body
in complex ways; in this interpretation, stress is referred to as a “stressor”, one that evokes
complex reactions of the various systems of the body. A second definition is that stress is a
bodily reaction to stressors; consequently, complex interaction of systems of the body can result
in deleterious consequences to those systems and organs to the point of a person becoming
“stressed out”; and serious illness can follow. This class fits Hans Selye’s definition of stress as
the nonspecific response of the body to any demand. The demands, Hans Selye (1978/1956)
held, can be positive ones (Eustress) or negative ones (Distress). A third type is an interactive
one between environmental events (stressors) and bodily reactions such that stressors affect
systems of the body and the resulting behaviour feeds back to affect the environmental stressors.
However, they can also lead in complex ways to a variety of mental or physical problems.

To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places special physical or psychological
demands upon a person, anything that can unbalance his individual equilibrium. Stress may be
unconscious like the noise of a city or the daily chore of driving a car. Perhaps the one
incontestable statement that can be made about stress is that it belongs to everyone to
businessmen and professors, to mother and their children, to factory workers. Stress is a part of
the fabric of life. Nothing can isolate stress from human beings as is evident from various
researches and studies. The latest evidence suggested reveals, some stress is necessary to the well
being and a lack can be harmful. Stress definitely causes some serious ailments. Severe stress
makes people accident-prone. At one time or another, most people experience stress. The term
stress has been used to describe a variety of negative feelings and reactions that accompany
threatening or challenging situations. However, not all stress reactions are negative. A certain
amount of stress is actually necessary for survival. For example, birth is one of the most stressful
experiences of life. The high level of hormones released during birth, which are also involved in
the stress response, are believed to prepare the newborn infant to adapt to the challenges of life
outside the womb. These biological responses to stress make the newborn more alert, promoting
the bonding process and, by extension, the child's physical survival. The stress reaction
maximizes the expenditure of energy which helps prepare the body to meet a threatening or
challenging situation and the individual tends to mobilize a great deal of effort in order to deal
with the event.

Stress has generally been viewed as a set of neurological and physiological reactions that
serves an adaptive function (Franken, 1994). Traditionally, stress research has been oriented
toward studies involving the body's reaction to stress and the cognitive processes that influence
the perception of stress. However, social perspectives of the stress response have noted that
different people experiencing similar life conditions are not necessarily affected in the same
manner (Pearlin, 1982). Research into the societal and cultural influences of stress make it
necessary to reexamine how stress is defined and studied.

Stress is an individual’s response to a disturbing factor in the environment, and consequence of

such reaction. Stress involves interaction of the person and environment. To quote a definition:
“Stress is an adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical,
psychological and / or behavioural deviations for organizational participants” (Fred
Luthans, 1998). The physical or psychological demands from the environment that cause stress
are called stressors. They create stress or the potential for stress when an individual perceives
them as representing a demand that may exceed that person’s ability to respond. How an
individual experiences stress depends on (i) the person’s perception of the situation, (ii) the
person’s past experience, (iii) the presence or absence of social support, and (iv) individual
differences with regard to stress reactions (Don Hellriegel, et. al., 2001).

Stress can manifest itself in both a positive way and a negative way. Stress is said to be positive
when situation offers an opportunity to one to gain something. Eustress is the term used to
describe positive stress. It is negative when stress is associated with heart-disease, alcoholism,
drug abuse, marital breakdowns, absenteeism, child abuse and a host of other social, physical,
organizational and emotional problems. Stress is associated with constraints and demands.

To understand and clarify the meaning of stress, it is useful to state what does not constitute
stress:

I. Stress is not simply anxiety or nervous tension.

II. Stress need not always be damaging.
III. Stress is not always due to overwork but may also result from having too little to
do.
IV. Stress cannot be avoided.
V. Stress is body’s biological response mechanisms but the body has limited capacity
to respond to stressors.

People experience different levels of stress which may stem from personal events in their lives
(financial problems, health concerns etc.) or at work. The organization may get negatively
affected by work put in by under-stressed as well as over-stressed employees. Ivancevich and
Matteson have defined stress as, “An adaptive response, medicated by individual
characteristics and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any external action,
situation, or event that place special physical and or psychological demands upon a
person.”

A simple definition of stress with reference to industrial and organizational psychology is as

follows: “Stress is a consequence of or a general response to an action or situation that
places special or psychological demands or both on a person”.

FRUSTRATION CONFLICT AND PRESSURE

The common man fails to distinguish between the three sources of stress. Stress may arise
because of frustration, conflict or pressure (Coleman, 1973). Frustration occurs when the ability
to achieve a desired goal is delayed or blocked. This may be caused due to physical handicaps or
deprivations severely restricting our life activities and satisfaction. People experience stress
when they can no longer have control over what happens in their lives. Resulting frustration
causes stress. Conflict occurs not from a single obstacle but when a choice is to be made between
two or more goals, means, priorities etc. Pressure involves demands that force us to speed up or
intensify our efforts. This stems from our aspirations, standards and values. In addition, stress
may arise because of a threat i.e. an anticipated harm from a potential source. These broad
sources of stress - frustration, conflict, pressure and a potential threat are vital for understanding
total stress pattern that an individual faces. As the stress may emanate from either of these roots,
personal experiences of stress differ.

Frustrations

When a person’s strivings are thwarted, either by obstacles that block progress toward a
desired goal or by the absence of an appropriate goal, frustration occurs. Frustrations often
lead to self devaluation, making the person feel that he has failed in some way or is incompetent.
A wide range of obstacles , both external and internal, can lead to frustration. Prejudice,
unfulfillment of a job, death of a loved one are common frustrations stemming from the
environment. Social obstacles are found in the various restrictions and regulations which society
places upon behavior and in the punishments imposed for breaking these rules. Other major
obstacles are wars, depression in economy, excessive competition, lack of opportunity, racial
intolerance, etc.

Physical handicaps, limited ability to perform certain tasks, loneliness, guilt and inadequate self
control are sources of frustrations based on personal limitations. Many internal frustrations arise
out of psychological barriers in the form of reality and ethical controls.

Conflicts

In many instances, stress results from simultaneous occurrence of two or more incompatible
needs or motives. For ex, the woman who loves her job but must decide whether to uproot her
family for a promotion. In essence, she has a choice to make, and she will experience conflict
when trying to make it. Conflict can be divided into : approach avoidance, approach approach
and avoidance avoidance conflicts. Double approach conflict can be choice between alternative
careers. In avoidance avoidance conflict, a person may have to choose between getting killed in
war or running back home and gaining self disapproval. In approach avoidance conflict, a person
may have to choose a marriage because the person is good and avoid because it’s an out of
country marriage.
Pressures

Pressures force us to speed up, intensify effort or change the direction of goal directed
behavior. We all have pressures and we cope with trhem efficiently but in some cases, pressures
seriously tax our coping resources. If they become excessive, they may lead to maladaptive
behavior. Pressures can originate from internal and external resources. Students may feel
pressure to get good grades. The long study hours, intensive study examinations are a source of
stress for the students.

MODELS OF STRESS

Bio-psychosocial Model of Stress ( SELYE’S MODEL)

According to Selye, an important aspect of stress is that a wide variety of dissimilar situations
are capable of producing the stress response such as fatigue, effort, pain, fear, and even success.
This has led to several definitions of stress, each of which highlights different aspects of stress.
One of the most comprehensive models of stress is the Bio-psychosocial Model of Stress
(Bernard & Krupat, 1994). According to the Bio-psychosocial Model of Stress, stress involves
three components: an external component, an internal component, and the interaction between
the external and internal components. The external component of the Bio psychosocial Model of
stress involves environmental events that precede the recognition of stress and can elicit a stress
response. As previously mentioned, the stress reaction is elicited by a wide variety of
psychosocial stimuli that are either physiologically or emotionally threatening and disrupt the
body's homeostasis (Cannon, 1932). We are usually aware of stressors when we feel conflicted,
frustrated, or pressured.

Most of the common stressors fall within four broad categories: personal, social/familial, work,
and the environment. These stressful events have been linked to a variety of psychological
physical complaints. For example bereavement is a particularly difficult stressor and has
provided some of the first systematic evidence of a link between stress and immune functioning.
Bereavement research generally supports a relationship between a sense of loss and lowered
immune system functioning. Health problems and increased accidents are also associated with
stressful work demands, job insecurity and changes in job responsibilities (Bernard & Krupat,
1994).
Stressors also differ in their duration. Acute stressors are stressors of relatively short duration
and are generally not considered to be a health risk because they are limited by time. Chronic
stressors are of relatively longer duration and can pose a serious health risk due to their
prolonged activation of the body's stress response. The internal component of stress involves a
set of neurological and physiological reactions to stress.

Selye noted that a person who is subjected to prolonged stress goes through three phases: Alarm
Reaction, Stage of Resistance and Exhaustion. He termed this set of responses as the General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). This general reaction to stress is viewed as a set of reactions that
mobilize the organism's resources to deal with an impending threat.

The Alarm Reaction is equivalent to the fight-or-flight response and includes the various
neurological and physiological responses when confronted with a stressor. When a threat is
perceived the hypothalamus signals both the sympathetic nervous system and the pituitary. The
sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal glands. The adrenal glands release
corticosteroids to increase metabolism which provides immediate energy. The pituitary gland
releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) which also affects the adrenal glands. The
adrenal glands then release epinephrine and norepinephrine which prolongs the fight-or-flight
response.

The Stage of Resistance is a continued state of arousal. If the stressful situation is prolonged,
the high level of hormones during the resistance phase may upset homeostasis and harm the
internal organs leaving the organism vulnerable to disease. There is evidence from animal
research that the adrenal glands actually increase in size during the resistance stage which may
reflect the prolonged activity. The Exhaustion stage occurs after prolonged resistance. During
this stage, the body's energy reserves are finally exhausted and breakdown occurs.
Cognitive theory of Stress ( LAZARUS AND FOLKMAN)

The Bio-psychosocial Model of Stress is the interaction between the external and internal
components, involving the individual's cognitive processes. Lazarus et. al., (1984b; 1978) have
proposed a cognitive theory of stress which addresses this interaction. They refer to this
interaction as a transaction, taking into account the ongoing relationship between the individual
and the environment. Their theory places emphasis on the meaning that an event has for the
individual and not on the physiological responses. Lazarus et al. believe that one's view of a
situation determines whether an event is experienced as stressful or not, making stress the
consequence of appraisal and not the antecedent of stress. According to this theory, the way an
individual appraises an event plays a fundamental role in determining, not only the magnitude of
the stress response, but also the kind of coping strategies that the individual may employ in
his/her efforts to deal with the stress.
According to the Transaction Theory of Stress, the cognitive appraisal of stress is a two-
part process which involves a primary appraisal and a secondary appraisal. Primary
appraisal involves the determination of an event as stressful. During primary appraisal, the
event or situation can be categorized as irrelevant, beneficial, or stressful. If the event is
appraised as stressful, the event is then evaluated as either a harm/loss, a threat, or a challenge. A
harm/loss refers to an injury or damage that has already taken place. A threat refers to something
that could produce harm or loss. A challenge event refers to the potential for growth, mastery, or
some form of gain. Lazarus argues that we cannot assess the origins of stress by looking solely at
the nature of the environmental event rather stress is a process that involves the interaction of the
individual with the environment. These categories are based mostly on one's own prior
experiences and learning. Also, each of these categories generate different emotional responses.
Harm/loss stressors can elicit anger, disgust, sadness, or disappointment. Threatening stressors
can produce anxiety and challenging stressors can produce excitement.

This theory helps to integrate both the motivational aspects of stress and the varying emotions
that are associated with the experience of stress. Secondary appraisal occurs after assessment of
the event as a threat or a challenge. During secondary appraisal the individual now evaluates his
or her coping resources and options. According to the theory of transactions, stress arises only
when a particular transaction is appraised by the person as relevant to his or her well-being. In
order for an event to be appraised as a stressor, it must be personally relevant and there must be a
perceived mismatch between a situation's demands and one's resources to cope with it.

YERKES DODSON LAW

The Yerkes–Dodson law is an empirical relationship between arousal and performance,

originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908.
The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to
a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. The process is often
illustrated graphically as a bell-shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher
levels of arousal. They discovered that mild electrical shocks could be used to motivate rats to
complete a maze, but when the electrical shocks became too strong, the rats would scurry around
in random directions to escape. The experiment demonstrated that increasing stress and arousal
levels could help focus motivation and attention on the task at hand, but only up to a certain
point.

Research has found that different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal
performance. For example, difficult or intellectually demanding tasks may require a lower level
of arousal (to facilitate concentration), whereas tasks demanding stamina or persistence may be
performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase motivation). The act of making music
professionally is a complex task, similar to many sports, requires a high level of physical and
psychological skills to succeed; there is little or no physical education or services that support
this population, in contrast to the sports population.

Because of task differences, the shape of the curve can be highly variable. For simple or well-
learned tasks, the relationship is monotonic, and performance improves as arousal increases. For
complex, unfamiliar, or difficult tasks, the relationship between arousal and performance
reverses after a point, and performance thereafter declines as arousal increases.
The effect of task difficulty led to the hypothesis that the Yerkes–Dodson Law can be
decomposed into two distinct factors as in a bathtub curve. The upward part of the inverted U
can be thought of as the energizing effect of arousal. The downward part is caused by negative
effects of arousal (or stress) on cognitive processes like attention (e.g., "tunnel vision"), memory,
and problem-solving.

One of the finest examples of this law is the anxiety you face during exam. If your anxiety level
is at an optimum balance, then you’ll find yourself performing better by remembering right
answers to the question. However, if you’re over anxious you’ll instead feel nervousness and test
anxiety, which would then hamper your ability remember the information you specifically
learned for the test.

SUEDFELD INFORMATION FLOW MODEL

Stimulus overload/underload model Suedfeld (1979) links stress to the parity of environmental
experiences and as well as the structure of experiences. Thus, some events may be acutely
aversive but not involve stimulating levels outside the optimal zone. Corollary is, events may be
positive in nature, but their bulk makes them stressful. A U-shaped relationship is contemplated
between stimulus load and stress, with stress being caused by both stimuli underload and
overload. Suedfeld identified factors that were considered important for the assessment of the
optimal level of stimulus load. Whilst physiological arousal is crucial, personality variables locus
of control, cognitive complexity and extraversion- introversion are important in the evaluative
declaration of the optimum level of stimulation of the person. Other determinants are age and
educational level. Antonovsky (1987) points out that the overload underload balance is
determined more by perceived rather than real resources.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING STRESS

Many biological conditions, infections, intoxications, physical traumas, malnutrition, emotional

strain, fatigue may lower the individual’s stress tolerance and can be a precipitating factor too.
Prolonged interference in the renewal of organism’s resources for coping with the daily demands
makes an individual vulnerable to stressors.
Sleep deprivation is another source of stress. The most common sleep related problem is
insomnia, the inability to fall asleep. People who do not get sleep, stay very tired, anxious,
drowsy and fatigued. Additionally, many jobs also require overtime and there are changes in
work schedules. Sleep deprived individuals also have a risk of accidents due to impaired
coordination. For shift workers, inattention and difficulty in concentration has been associated
with accidents. Sleep deprivation is also associated with changes in the immune system and
possibly with illness and death.

Studies of dietary deficiencies also point out to marked changes in social functioning. Accidents
and disease may prove to be highly stressful. Over 90,000 persons are killed each year and many
hundreds are injured. Such accidents are very stressful too. Many millions of people suffer from
heart conditions and other ailments which place serious restrictions on their life activities and in
some instances pose a continual threat to life itself. Chronic disease may also be painful and may
lead to reduction in life span.

Another factor of stress is the people who have been abused in childhood may have long term
abnormalities in the hypothalamus –pituitary system, which regulates stress.

Some individuals are genetically prone to stress, such as having a more or less inefficient
relaxation response.

Some individuals also suffer from immune regulated diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis which
may weaken the response to stress.

Some individuals may have neurotic personality traits and they may get stressed very easily and
turn to heavy drinking and smoking. This may further increase stress.

The physiological mechanisms of stress are extremely complex, but they generally involve the
work of two systems—the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis. When a person first perceives something as stressful (Selye’s alarm reaction), the
sympathetic nervous system triggers arousal via the release of adrenaline from the adrenal
glands. Release of these hormones activates the fight-or-flight responses to stress, such as
accelerated heart rate and respiration. At the same time, the HPA axis, which is primarily
endocrine in nature, becomes especially active, although it works much more slowly than the
sympathetic nervous system. In response to stress, the hypothalamus (one of the limbic structures
in the brain) releases corticotrophin-releasing factor, a hormone that causes the pituitary gland to
release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The ACTH then activates the adrenal glands to
secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream; an important one is cortisol, which can
affect virtually every organ within the body. Cortisol is commonly known as a stress hormone
and helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run
away or fight. However, sustained elevated levels of cortisol weaken the immune system.

In short bursts, this process can have some favorable effects, such as providing extra energy,
improving immune system functioning temporarily, and decreasing pain sensitivity. However,
extended release of cortisol—as would happen with prolonged or chronic stress—often comes at
a high price. High levels of cortisol have been shown to produce a number of harmful effects.
For example, increases in cortisol can significantly weaken our immune system (Glaser &
Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005), and high levels are frequently observed among depressed individuals
(Geoffroy, Hertzman, Li, & Power, 2013). In summary, a stressful event causes a variety of
physiological reactions that activate the adrenal glands, which in turn release epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and cortisol. These hormones affect a number of bodily processes in ways that
prepare the stressed person to take direct action, but also in ways that may heighten the potential
for illness.

When stress is extreme or chronic, it can have profoundly negative consequences. For example,
stress often contributes to the development of certain psychological disorders, including post-
traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder, and other serious psychiatric conditions.
Additionally, we noted earlier that stress is linked to the development and progression of a
variety of physical illnesses and diseases.

ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES
This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the
control of the individual. Examples of crises and catastrophes include: devastating natural
disasters, such as major floods or earthquakes, wars, etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of
stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life. A study conducted by Stanford
University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in
stress level. Combat stress is a widespread acute and chronic problem. With the rapid pace and
the urgency of firing first, tragic episodes of accidentally killing friendly forces (“brother” killing
“brother” or fratricide) may happen.

Daily hassles/micro stressors

This category includes daily annoyances and minor hassles. Examples include: making
decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating
personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes conflicts with other people. Daily stressors,
however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful.
For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, nevertheless, a seasoned politician
most likely will not.

Daily hassles are the most frequently occurring type of stressor in most adults. The high
frequency of hassles causes this stressor to have the most physiological effect on an individual.
There are three major psychological types of conflicts that can cause stress.

Ambient stressors

As their name implies, these are global (as opposed to individual) low-grade stressors that are a
part of the background environment. They are defined as stressors that are "chronic, negatively
valued, non-urgent, physically perceptible, and intractable to the efforts of individuals to change
them". Typical examples of ambient stressors are pollution, noise, crowding, and traffic.

Organizational stressors

Studies conducted in military and combat fields show that some of the most potent stressors can
be due to personal organizational problems in the unit or on the home front. Stress due to bad
organizational practices is often connected to "Toxic Leadership", both in companies and in
governmental organizations. The individuals may feel job stress where there are no good
working conditions, poor lighting, poor ventilation, electricity shortage and toxicity in the air.
The group stressors can be lack of unity in the group, poor social support, work overload. Long
hours of work can be very stressful. Sometimes people also feel stressed when they have no
work at workplace, a condition of work underload. Strict supervisors and managers can also give
stress to others by pressurizing others to meet deadlines. Salary and low income is also stressful
to many. At workplace, self esteem can be lowered if there is too much competitiveness and one
is not able to meet the expectations of others.

Lower level occupations are more stressful than executive jobs because these jobs don’t let one
exercise control. A combination of high demand and low control produce job stress and is also
related to heart disease. The more decision making power is given to the individuals, the lesser
stress they feel. That also decreases heart diseases.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

Common examples of major life events include: marriage, going to college, death of a loved
one, birth of a child, moving houses, etc. These events, either positive or negative, can create a
sense of uncertainty and fear, which will ultimately lead to stress. For instance, research has
found the elevation of stress during the transition from high school to university, with college
freshmen being about two times more likely to be stressed than final year students. Research has
found major life events are somewhat rare to be major causes of stress, due to its rare
occurrences. Students feel lot of stress because of academic pressures, extreme competition,
exam phobias, lack of achievement motivation, poor results and lack of concentration. They
may have problematic relationships at home and in their social environment and are not able to
adjust. There can be lot of peer pressure of drinking and smoking. There can be peer pressure to
conform to the rules of the group. There can be lower self esteem and inferiority complex too
among the students.

The length of time since occurrence and whether or not it is a positive or negative event are
factors in whether or not it causes stress and how much stress it causes. Researchers have found
that events that have occurred within the past month generally are not linked to stress or illness,
while chronic events that occurred more than several months ago are linked to stress and
illness and personality change. Additionally, positive life events are typically not linked to
stress – and if so, generally only trivial stress – while negative life events can be linked to stress
and the health problems that accompany it. However, positive experiences and positive life
changes can predict decreases in neuroticism.
The sudden death of a loved one accounts for one third of PTSD cases. When someone close to
us dies, we get psychologically overwhelmed. People may develop long and exaggerated
episodes of depression. Prolonged bereavement is found in situations where there is an untimely
unexpected death.

Stress from divorce can also occur. The acknowledgement that one is a failure in a relationship,
the necessity to explain family about the failed relationship, the loss of valuable friendships, the
economic certainties, hardships, separation of children, the problem of custody, court battles and
living arrangements can be stressful. The readjustment to a single life can be stressful.

Elderly people also feel very stressful especially when they are not taken care of. As they age,
experiencing a relaxation response also gets very difficult. Aging may simply wear out the
system of the brain and cause inefficiency. Changes in living situations and loss of spouse can
cause bereavement. They may also have financial worries.

Women may feel lot of stress as they are multitasking lot of activities. They can feel the stress of
harassment at workplace and may also feel stressed because of neglecting family. They may
have too much work to do in a single day. Not getting enough support from the partner can also
be stressful. Factors at work and in home life can increase their stress. The positive or negative
effects of work and family roles depend upon the resources people have available. If women get
all the support from their environment then it will reduce the symptoms of stress. A good
income, control and support in the family are important in decreasing the stress of multiple roles.

Personal relationships are another potential source of stress but they can also buffer against
stress. People who have fewer personal relationships are at increased risk for health issues as
compared to with more relationships. Problematic relationships can cause stress whereas good
supportive relationships can reduce stress. In a survey conducted on college students, one third of
the stress events involved relationships. For married couples, relationships within the family are
sources of stress that interact with other life circumstances. Many relationships do not have
supporting partners and individuals may feel that they are not receiving care. Multiple
commitments to employment and family can produce stress for both women and men.
SOCIAL CAUSES

At a societal level, individuals may feel social isolation. They may feel that no one wants them
and they are not doing anything productive for the society. These individuals may suffer from
loneliness and may harbor doubts.

Unemployment and low socioeconomic status can also cause stress. The individuals may feel
that they don’t have the money to fulfill their daily needs. There can be economic recessions in
the society which may cause job insecurity and may make the person feel stressful all the time.

As technology advances in society, it’s getting very difficult to cope up with the advancing age
and can create stress in the lives of poor and elderly people. Rapid social change has played
havoc in the minds of man and has also played with the traditional values and systems of the
individuals. People also feel the fear and this is called existential anxiety. War and social unrest
is also very stressful. Riots and bombings are becoming more frequent and people who
experience this directly feel stressful.

Fear of crime and overcrowding can also affect the lives of city living. A study shows that
density and crowding tends to increase aggression, lower performance on complex tasks, prompt
withdrawal from interpersonal relationships, and increase crime rates. Living in crowded places
can increase stress and a person will have a greater tendency to experience physical symptoms.

Crowding, pollution and noise can occur in any social context.

Racial discrimination and exclusion of people on the basis of caste and culture is also stressful.
All the societies suffer from these discriminations. Gender discrimination is another source of
stress. There are lots of feelings of self devaluation which are produced by racial discrimination.
These individuals are also provided lower educational and economic opportunities.