English Syntax

ENGLISH SYNTAX - COURSE
C1 - 03. 10. 2019
In English language, there are words, phrases, clauses and sentences.

WORDS PHRASES CLAUSES SENTENCES
● article ● noun phrase ● Nominal ● simple
● noun (NP); phrase [ ]; ● compound
● pronoun e.g. woman - noun; ● complex
● adjective beautiful woman e.g. What you see is ● compound-co
● adverb -NP what you get. mplex
● verb ● adjective
● verbals (no phrase (Adj. ● Relative clause
tense, no P); ( );
voice): ● Adverb phrase
infinitives, (Adv. P); e.g. I have a house
gerunds, ● verb phrase which is beautiful.
participles; - infinitive phrase (to
● preposition see clearly) ● Adverbial
● conjunction - gerund phrase clause { }
● interjection (travelling around the
world); e.g. If you don’t
- participle phrase behave, I will punish
(sleeping deeply); you.
● prepositional
phrase (PP)
In English Syntax, a clause is a combination of Subject and Predicate.

The Subject names who or what the sentence is about.
Everything that is not the Subject is the Predicate.
SENTENCES (4 types)

★ Simple;
★ Compound;
★ Complex;
★ Compound-complex;
0.
1. Simple sentences - A simple sentence consists of one independent clause and
no-subordinate clauses.
e.g. Without music, life would be a mistake.
Would be a mistake without music = predicat;

Life - subject;
2. Compound sentence - It is composed of two or more independent sentences, with

no-subordinate clauses.
e.g. One arrow is easily broken, but you can’t break a bundle of ten.
3. Complex sentence - It consist of one independent clause with one or more

subordinate clauses. e.g. If you scatter thorns, don’t go barefoot.
4. Compound-complex sentence - It is a sentence which consist at least of two

independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
e.g. Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are.
(2 independent clauses + 2 subordinate clauses: what you eat + what you are)
VERBS, OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS
A stentence’s verbs can be used as linking (copulative), transitive/intransitive,

depending on the types of objects or complements these verbs may take.
e.g. HeS madeV a cakeDO. [for me]IO - vb. is bitransitive
HeS madeV meIO a cakeDO. - vb is transitive
HeS [would make]V (would be) [a good husband]SC. - vb. is used as linking
Dans smokesv. - (is used as intransitive)
DanS smokesV cigarsDO. - (vb. is used as transitive)
Linking verbs take subject complement (SC), words/word groups that complete the
meaning of the subject by renaming it or by describing it. When the SC renames the S, it is
expressed by a noun/noun equivalent. When the SC describes the S it is expressed by an
adjective/adjective equivalent.
e.g. NP[The quarrels of friends]S [are]LV NP[the opportunities of foes]SC.

noun[Life]S isLV adj.hardSC.
noun[Love]S1 [is]LV adj.[blind]SC but noun[marriage]S2 [is]LV NP[a real eye-opener]SC. (but
= coordinating conjunction)
‘Why [is]LV NP[the measure of love]S noun[loss]SC?’
1.
Linking verbs are normally forms of ‘be’ (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had
been). Other verbs can be used as linking when they are followed by word groups that
rename/describe the S. (become, feel, grow, look, make, prove, seem, smell, sound, taste)
Transitive verbs and DOs (Direct Objects).

DO are required by transitive verbs. DO are words/ word groups that complete the verb’s
meaning by naming the receiver of the action. DO are expressed by noun/ noun equivalent.
NP[The little snake]S studiesTV NP[the ways of the big serpent]DO.
The DO of a transitive verb is sometimes preceded by an IO (Indirect Object), a noun/

noun equivalent showing to whom/for whom/ of whom the action of the sentence is done.
The IO can be moved to the end of the clause in the form of a Prepositional Phrase (PP).
pronoun[You]S [show]TV pronoun[me]IO NP[a hero]DO /[and]coordinating conjunction/ pronoun[I]S [will

write]TV pronoun[you]IO NP[a tragedy]DO.
You show a hero PP[to me]IO.
The DO of the TV is sometimes followed by an OC (Object Complement), a word/word
group that completes the DO’s meaning by renaming it (if it is expressed by a noun/noun
equivalent) or by describing it (if expressed by an adjective)
NP[Some people]S callTV NP[a spade]DO NP[an agricultural implement]OC.

noun[Love]S makesTV NP[all hard hearts]OD adj.[gentle]OC.
NP[A spade]S isLV NP[an agricultural implement]SC.
NP[All hard hearts]S becomeLV adj.[gentle]SC under love’s influence.
Some verbs require the combination DO + OC: make, prove, make, elect, appoint, call.
proper noun[John]S [gave]TV NP[the beggar]IO noun[money]DO.

proper noun[John]S [worried]TV NP[the beggar]DO.
proper noun[John]S [worried]TV PP[about the beggar]PO.
The PO (Prepositional Object) is always expressed by a PP.
Intransitive verbs takes NO objects or complements. They may/ may not be followed by
Adverbial Modifiers (of Time/Place...) AMT/AMP
noun[Money]S talksIT.
personal pronoun[I]S [often]AMT travelIT PP[to Rome]AMP.
2.
C2 - 17. 10. 2019
THE PHRASE RANK
The Prepositional Phrase (PP) consists of a preposition + its complement (noun/noun

equivalent/adverb whose syntactic function is complement of preposition);
Preposition Complement
for now (adv)
by then (adv)
with her (personal pronoun)
in time (noun)
next to the table (NP)
by the time that you read this (NP)
after running more than 500 miles in one week (GP - gerund
phrase)
to [whomever]DO [it]S may concern (Nominal Clause)
from [what]DO [I]S can see (Nominal Clause)
The complement of a Preposition is expressed by an adverb or, more frequently, by a

noun/noun equivalent such as a pronoun/gerund/GP/NP/Nominal Clause.
by NP[[
def articlethe]
Det
t imeHead
(Relative
Clause/ t hat/ you read this)
]Complement of Preposition
THE NOUN PHRASE

NP has 4 major constituents which appear in a fixed order:
1. The Determiner;
2. The Premodifier (which comprises all the modifying constituents before the Head,
other than the Determiners; have lexical content, whereas Determiners are
functional words);
3. The Head (around which the other constituents cluster);
4. The Postmodifier (which comprises all the modifying constituents placed after the
Head);
3.
(Determiner) (Premodifier) NounHead (Postmodifier)
Determiner Premodifier Head Postmodifier
the (def. art.) one (pronoun) for me (PP)
the (def. art.) young (adj.) lions (noun)
the (def. art.) young (adj)
the (def. art.) information age (noun)
(noun)
some badly-needed time (noun) with the family (PP)
(Adj.P/Participi
al Phrase)
this conclusion to the story (PP)
(demonstrative (noun)
adj.)
all (indefinite beautiful (adj.) children (noun)
adj.) my
(posesive adj.)
several mistery (noun) books (noun) which we recently enjoyed (Relative
(indefinite adj.) Clause)
our1 (posesive sinking2 ship (noun)
adj.) (present
participle verb)
3
our (posesive writing skills (noun)

adj.) (gerund verb)4
several brand-new books (noun) that I have to buy (Relative Clause)
(indefinite adj.) (adj)
both these marvelous data-banks filled with information (Participial
(demonstrative (adj.) (noun) Phrase)
adj.)
the first serious (adj.) promise (noun) that(/ which) he made (Relative Clause)
(ordinal
numeral)
his (posesive clearly-stated promise (noun) that he would take care of the kids
adj.) (Participial (Nominal Clause)
Phrase)
1
no-lexical content (only functional)
2
lexical content
3
rephrase - Our ship is sinking.
4
rephrase - Ours skills used for writing.
4.
The parts of speech which can be Determiners are:
1. definite/indefinite articles;
2. demonstrative adjectives;
3. possesive adjectives;
4. indefinite adjectives;
5. numerals;
Sometimes you have 2/more words as Determiners
Premodifiers can be expressed by:

1. adjective/Adj.P;
2. participle/Participial P;
3. gerund/Gerund P;
4. noun;
The Head of a NP can be:

1. a noun;
2. a pronoun;
3. an adjective;
The Postmodifier in a NP can be expressed by:

1. Participial P;
2. Prepositional P;
3. Nominal Clause;
4. Relative Clause;
This is [the boy who loves]/[the cat that chased]/[the mouse that ate]/[the cheese that lay
in]/the house that Jack.
Know is that phrases and even whole clauses can be recycled into the NP. The process of
placing a phrase/clause within another phrase/clause is called embedding and it allows us
to take a finite number of words and phrases and construct an infinite number of
expressions.
5.
THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE (Adj.P)
The functional constituents in the Adj.P are: the Premodification, the modfying
constituents that precede the Head.
The Head (which is an adj. or participle serving as the focus of the phrase)
Postmodification (the modifying constituents that follow the head)
Complementation items (which usually follow postmodification and complete the
meaning of the Head)
Premodifier Head Postmodifier + Complementation
happy
more happy than I am (Comparative Structure)
partly cloudly
young in spirit (Prepositional Phrase)
very energetic for his age (Prepositional Phrase)
so extremely sweet
too good to be true (Infinitive Phrase)
hot /enough/ for her/ to date (adverb + PP + Infinitive
Phrase)
quite worried about the results of the test (PP)
(participle)
unusually sunny for this time of year (PP)
very happily married indeed (adverb)
(participle)
ADVERB ADJ./PARTICIP adverb/PP/Inf P/Comparative Structure
LE
! Only the ADVERBS enough & i ndeed are considered postmodifiers, whereas the
Comparative structures, the Infinitive Phrases, Prepositional Phrases are
complementation items.
6.
THE ADVERB PHRASE (Adv. P)
The functional constituents of the Adv. Phrases are almost identical to those of the Adj.
Phrase, except that the Adverb functions as Head
Premodifier Head Postmodifier + Complementation

quietly enough (adverb)
quite honestly
so very beautifully indeed (adverb)
really early for me (PP)
too quickly for me/ to see well (PP + Inf P)
fast enough/ for us/ to arrive in time (adverb
+ PP + Inf P)
so surprisingly fast for his age (PP)
more beautifully than I did (Comparative Structure)
ADVERB ADVERB adverb/PP/Inf P/Comparative
Structure
THE VERB PHRASE
The VP, in English, has a different structure since the information it carries about MOOD,
TENSE, ASPECT, MODALITY and VOICE is quite different from the information
carried by the other phrases.
The VP has 2 functional constituents: the auxiliary and the main verb.
THE AUXILIARY is a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood, tense,
aspect, modality and voice.
THE MAIN VERB is a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and usually an
inflection.
Auxiliary Main Verb
support auxiliary - forms of ‘DO’ base form
modal auxiliary - ‘CAN’, ‘MAY’, base form
‘SHOULD’
perfect auxiliary - forms of ‘HAVE’ ‘-ed’/past participle
progressive auxiliary - forms of ‘BE’ ‘-ing’ - present participle
passive auxiliary - forms of ‘BE’ ‘-ed’/past participle
7.
Modal Perfect Progressive Passive Support Main Verb
Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary
do believe
can go
may have gone
is going
has been waiting
might have been waiting
were hired
are being hired
should be trying
might have been being interviewed
THE VERBAL PHRASE
Verbals are NON-FINITE verb forms and include Infinitives, Gerunds & Participles
(Present Participle & Past Participle).
THE GERUND is an ‘-ing’ verb form that behaves like a NOUN having the syntactic
functions that nouns usually have (S, DO, SC, Complements of Preposition).
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE is an ‘-ing’ verb form that behaves like an ADJECTIVE,
ADVERB or VERB.
Gerund[Sleeping]S is my favourite pastime.

The Present Participle[sleeping]Premodifier baby looks like an angel. (the baby who is sleeping)
The baby is Present Participle[sleeping]Main Verb.
She went upstairs Present Participle[crying]AM of Manner.
She was punished for Gerund[crying]Complement of Preposition.
The Gerund[sleeping]Premodifier bag is new. (the bag who is sleeping - the bag is used for
sleeping)
Verbals can take Objects, Complements & Modifiers to form Verbal Phrases (VP) which
are classified as Infinitive Phrases, Participial Phrases and Gerund Phrases.
[To side with truth]S is noble.

Infinitive Phrase
We do not have the right Infinitive Phrase[to abandon the poor]Postmodifier.
She stood up Infinitive Phrase[to be kissed by Jake]AM of Purpose.
Truth Participial Phrase[kept in the dark]Postmodifier will never save the world.
Participial Phrase[Being a philosopher]AM of Reason, I have a problem for every solution.
8.
[Justifying the fault]S doubles it.
Gerund Phrase
My hobby is Gerund Phrase[travelling abroad]SC.
He was punished for Gerund Phrase[stealing the car]Complement of Preposition.
Kleptomaniacs can’t help Gerund Phrase[helping themselves]DO.
IDENTIFYING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Subordinate clauses are patterned like sentences having subject and verbs, objects or
complements, but they function within sentences normally as adjectives, adverbs or nouns.
They cannot stand alone as complete sentences.
1. The arrow (that have left the bow) never returns.

*that have left the bow - adjective → defining relative clause, where:
that = relative pronoun, subiect;
have left = tranzitive verb;
the bow = Direct object;
2. {When the well is dry}, we know the worth of water.
*when the well is dry - adverb → adverbial clause, where: where = relative
pronoun;
well = subject;
is = linking word;
dry = subject complement;
3. [Whoever gossips to you], will gossip of you.

*whoever gossips to you - noun → nominal clause, whoever = relative pronoun;
4. Jane gossip to [whoever will listen].

*whoever will listen - noun → nominal clause, whoever = relative pronoun;
5. Mark does [whatever his father tells him to do].

*whatever his father tells him to do - noun → nominal clause, where does =
tranzitive verb;
6. [What you want] is [what you shall get].

*what you want - noun → nominal clause, what = relative pronoun;
what you shall get -noun → nominal clause, what = relative pronoun;
is = linking verb.
Syntactic functions:
9.
1. Adverbial manner of time;
2. Subject;
3. Complement of preposition;
4. Direct object;
5. Subject + Subject complement;
Relative clauses normally begin with a relative pronoun, sometimes with a relative adverb
(when, where, why).
Adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinative conjunctions or by relative adverbs.
(why, when, where, how).
Nominal clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as what, whatever, who,
whoever, whom, whoever.
Relative adverbs: why, when, where, how.

Subordinative conjunctions: if, whether, that.
Relative clauses
-Modify nouns or noun equivalents, bringing more information about these, information
classified as essential or not essencial by the speaker or writer.
Defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses

● brings essential information to the ● does not bring essential information to
sentence; the sentence;
● can be introduced by the relative ● cannot be introduced by „that” (only
pronoun „that”; by which, etc);
● are not separated by comma (s) from ● are separated by comma(s) from the
the rest of the sentence. rest of the sentence.
1. The pen (that you gave me is now broken).

*that you gave me is now broken = defining relative clause.
that - relative pronoun;

you - subject;
gave - transitive verb;
me - indirect object.
2. The pen (relative pronoun[that]S cost me £3 is know broken)Defining Relative Clause.
10.
3. That pen, (which happens to be my favourite, is now broken)Non-Defining Relative Clause.
The relative pronouns introducing relative clauses have syntactic function inside the
relative clause. If they are subjects in the relative clauses they introduce, they cannot
and must not be left out.
ho lives in Caro)Defining Relative Clause is a doctor. - 2 or more wives;

My wife (w
My wife, (who lives in Caro)Non-Defining Relative Clause, is a doctor. - just 1 wife.
The man, (for whom I work)Prepositional Relative Clause i s over there. - defining;
The man (whom I work for)Relative Clause is over there. - defining.
hich is the capital of France), is a lovely city. - non-defining relative clause;

Paris, (w
The Paris t hat I love no longer exist. - defining relative noun;
He lives in Paris, w hich brings him great joy. - sentence relative clause, non-defining.
(not Paris brings him great joy, but the fact that he lives in Paris).
→ If the antecedent of the relative pronoun introducing the relative clause is the rest of the
sentence in which it appears, we call the clause a sentence relative clause and it is always
non-defining.
Prepositional relative clauses can be either defining or non-defining.

Relative clauses can be reduced when they are transformed into infinitive phrases or
participial phrases.
E.g.
The man (that John should talk to) is Wilson. - defining relative clause;
The man to talk t o is Wilson. - infinitive phrase.
Do you know the girl w ho is talking to Tom? -defining relative clause;

Do you know the girl t alking to Tom? -participial phrase.
The man that got injured in the accident is in hospital. -defining relative clause
(can be used with or without that)
The man i njured in the accident is in hospital. - participial phrase
NOMINAL CLAUSES
11.
Nominal clauses behave like a noun or NP within sentences, having the syntactic functions
normally associated with this part of speech.
NOMINAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY CONJUNCTION ‘THAT’:
[Nominal Clause That

he is still alive]S is surprising.
The problem is[Nominal Clause that he is still alive]SC.
They know [Nominal Clause that he is still alive]DO.
[NPThe fact [Nominal Clause that
he is still alive]NOUN COMPLEMENT5]S is surprising.
It6 is [adjclear]SC [Nominal Clause that
he is still alive]Delayed Subject.
[I]S amLV [Adj.P certain [Nominal Clause that
he is still alive]ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT]SC.
NOMINAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY RELATIVE PRONOUN ‘WHO’:
[Nominal Clause Who

would be blamed]S depends on the judge.
[I]S (was not)LV [Adj.P sure [who would be blamed]ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT]SC.
It (was not)LV [sure]SC [Nominal Clause who would be blamed]Delayed S.
I (wondered)TV [Nominal Clause who
would be blamed]DO.
The question is [Nominal Clause who would be blamed]SC.
[NP The question [Nominal Clause who would be blamed]NOUN COMPLEMENT]s needs an
answer.
[NP The
outcome]S (depends)TV [PP on [Nominal Clause who
will be blamed]COMPLEMENT OF
PREPOSITION]PO.
7
Do you know [Nominal Clause if he will come]DO?
8
[Nominal Clause Whether he will come]S is a mystery.
He suggested [Nominal Clause that the meeting should be postponed]DO.
It (is)LV [a pity]SC [Nominal Clause that
the meeting will be postponed]Delayed S.
[He]S (was)LV [Adj.P certain
[Nominal Clause that
the meeting would be postponed]Adj.C]SC.
9
I told them [Nominal Clause how to use the gadget]DO.
[Nominal Clause Whoever
comes]S can go in.
He can give you [Nominal Clause whatever you need]DO.
He gives [Nominal Clause whoever asks him]IO the same answer.
He gives the same answer [PP to [Nominal Clause whoever asks him]Complement of Preposition]IO.
The winner is [Nominal Clause whoever
arrives first]SC.
5
rename ‘the fact’, and complements it
6
has no lexical meaning - cannot be the subject; help you to begin the sentence (in English, there must be a ‘subject’ in the
front of the clause);
7
conjunction
8
conjunction
9
adverb
12.
You may call [the dog]DO [Nominal Clause whatever you want]OC.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Can perform the syntactic function of Adverbial Modifier of:

TIME/PLACE/MANNER/REASON/PURPOSE/RESULT/CONDITION/CONCESSI
ON
{If you like it}AM of CONDITION, come and get it.

I told the truth {so that I didn’t10 get fired}AM of RESULT.
I told the truth {so that I wouldn’t11 get fired}AM of PURPOSE.
{Although I told the truth}AM of CONCESION, I got fired.
{Since12 you are often late}AM of REASON, he will fire you.
She left {as soon as I arrived}AM of TIME.
I’ll walk the dogs {where pets are allowed}AM of PLACE.
John looked at me {as if my words had hurt him}AM of MANNER.
Introductory words for AM:

● Time: “after, as, just as, as soon as, before, long before, by the time, ever since,
since, once, till, until, when, whenever, while”
● Place: “as far as, where, wherever”
● Manner: “as, as if, as though”
● Reason: “as, because, since, seeing that, considering that, insofar as, inasmuch as”
● Purpose: “in order that, so that, lest”
● Result: “so that, such … that, so …. that, with the result that”
● Condition: “as long as, but for, if, in case, on condition that, provided that,
providing that, as long as, suppose, supposing, assuming, unless”
● Concession: “much as, as much as, although, though, even though, even if, even
when, however, whatever, whenever, whichever, whoever”
{Much as you love this sport}AM CONCESSION, your health problems will force you to
quit.
The weather was {so beautiful that I couldn’t stay indoors}AM RESULT.
I told my mom the truth {so that she shouldn’t find it out from you}AM PURPOSE.
{In case you run into Sam}AM CONDITION, ask him to be here on time.
Jane came back {as she had something to tell me}AM REASON.
We kept looking back {lest someone should follow us}AM PURPOSE.
You may sit {wherever you like}AM PLACE.
10
really happened
11
did not happen yet
12
can be replaced with ‘because’
13.
ADVERBIAL MODIFIER ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT
Ben is cooking [PP in
the kitchen]AM PLACE. Ben is [PP in
the kitchen]AC PLACE.
Ben is cooking ADVthereAM PLACE. Ben is ADVthereAC PLACE.
Ben ate the cookies [PP in
the kitchen]AM Ben put the cookies [PP in the kitchen]AC
PLACE. PLACE.
- not compulsory - compulsory

- flexible in position - not flexible with regard to its position
- 2 fixed positions:
- explicit popular relationship with the
S
- implicit popular relationship with the
DO
- is expressed by adverbs or PP
THE SEVEN BASIC CLAUSE PATTERNS IN ENGLISH
Pattern S V IO DO SC OC AC
S+V John is sleeping
S+V+ John is tired
SC
S+V+ John is there
AC
S+V+ Mary loves John
DO
S+V+ Mary called John a liar
DO + OC
S+V+ Mary put the watch there
DO + AC
S+V+ Mary bought John a watch
IO + DO
SEMINAR EXERCISES
14.
In the following set of sentences, identify the subordinate clauses, analyse them and
specify the type of sentence in each case.
INSTRUCTIONS: find the V (number them), find the S (number them), find the
introductory words (specify what it is and circle it), write where the clause begins and
ends;
1. /[My opinions]S1 might’ve changed/Independent Clause butcoord. conj/ [the fact [Nominal Clause that

conjunction I S2
a m V2 right] Noun ]
Complement S3
h asn’t changed./ Independent Clause =
compound-complex sentence
2. /Never put off TV1 till tomorrow [Nominal Clause whatrel pr you S2 can ignore V2
entirely]DO/Independent Clause. = complex sentence
3. /It isV1 a miracle/Independent Clause [Nominal Clause that

conj. curiosity S2 survives V2 formal
education]S1. - A. Einstein = complex sentence
4. /IS1 hateV1 uncertainty/Independent Clause socoord conj /it’sV2 niceSC [Nominal Clause that
conj you S3
knowV3 [Nominal Clause that
IS4’mV4 really stone-broke]DO]Delayed S2/Independent Clause. =
compound-complex sentence
5. /Consultants S1 are V1 [NP people (Relative Clause who S2 borrow V2 your watch to tell you the
time)Defining Relative Clause and coord. conjunction (Relative Clause(whoS3) then walk away V3 with
it)Defining Relative Clause]SC./Independent Clause = complex sentence
6. /[A lifelong friend]S1 isV1 [NP someone

(Prepositional Relative Clause from
whom you S2 haven’t
borrowed V2 money yet)Defining Relative Clause]SC/Independent Clause. = complex sentence
7. /[NP Any man (Relative Clause who S1 can see V1 through women)Defining Relative Clause]S2 is sure
missing V2 a lot/Independent Clause. = complex sentence
15.
SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS
Syntactic functions can be main (subject & predicate), secondary (SC, AC, PO, IO, DO,
OC) and they are known as CENTRAL syntactic functions.
There are also PERIPHERAL syntactic functions: NounComplement, AdjCompelement,

Complement of Preposition, AdvModifier.
THE CENTRAL SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS
THE SUBJECT (S)
1. [nounMary]S is smart.
2. [personal pronounShe]S is smart.
3. [NPThat girl]S is smart.
4. [Nominal ClauseThat Mary is smart]S is clear.
5. [GerPUnderstanding]S is essential.
6. [GerPBeing smart]S is Mary’s advantage.
7. [InfPTo understand]S is essential.
8. [InfPTo always be smart]S is essential.
The subject of a sentence can be expressed by: a noun, a pronoun, a NP, a Nominal
Clause, a gerund/GerP, infinitive/InfP.
THE PREDICATE (P)
The predicate: Finite verb + O/C + AdvModifier
1. MaryS smokes.
2. MaryS smokes cigarsDO.
3. MaryS gives meIO cigarsDO.
4. MaryS is presidentSC.
5. TheyS elected MaryDO presidentOC.
6. MaryS oftenAMT smokes.
7. MaryS sometimesAMT smokes cigarsDO.
8. MaryS alwaysAMT gives meIO cigarsDO.
9. MaryS is alreadyAMT presidentSC.
10.TheyS electedTV MaryDO presidentOC [yesterday morning]AMT.
16.
TYPES OF PREDICATION
1. [Messi’s popularity]S is growingIntrV. - VERBAL PREDICATION

2. MessiS is growingTV [a beard]DO. - VERBAL PREDICATION
3. MessiS is growingLV tiredSC. - NOMINAL PREDICATION
4. [His kids]S are growing up (phrasal verb) fast. - VERBAL PREDICATION
Answer for the exam: In sentence 1, predication is verbal realised by using the verb
‘grow’ as intransitive. In sentence 2, predication is verbal, the transitive verb ‘grow’ being
followed by its DO expressed by a NP. Sentence 3 presents a case of nominal predication,
the verb ‘grow’ used as linking is followed by the adjective ‘tired’ its SC. In sentence 4,
we have a case of verbal predication realised by using the phrasal verb ‘grow up’ meaning
‘to mature’.
THE SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (SC)
1. The winner is [nounJohn]SC.

2. The winner is [personal pronounhe]SC.
3. The winner is [NPmy husband]SC.
4. [The winner]S is [Nominal Clausewhoever arrives first]SC.
5. Seeing is [Gerbelieving]SC.
6. To see is [Infto believe]SC.
7. John is [Adjhandsome]SC.
8. Johns isLV [AdjPmore handsome than Mark]SC.
THE ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT (AC)
1. Mary was [PPon time]AC.

2. Mary was [advearly]AC.
3. Mary put the cigar [PPin her purse]AC.
4. Mary put the cigar [advthere]AC.
THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (PO)
1. JohnS votedTV [PPagainst me]PO.

2. JohnS worriedTV [PPabout my reaction]PO.
17.
THE INDIRECT OBJECT (IO)
1. John bought [nounMarry]IO flowers.

2. John bought [personal pronounher]IO flowers.
3. John bought [NPmy wife]IO flowers.
4. JohnS bought [Nominal Clausewhomever he fancied]IO flowersDO.
5. John bought flowers [PPfor Mary]IO.
THE DIRECT OBJECT (DO)
1. John loved [nounwomen]DO.

2. John loved [personal pronounher]DO.
3. John loved [NPhis wife]DO.
4. John loved [Nominal Clausewhoever was nice to him]DO.
5. John loved [Gerflirting]DO.
6. John loved [GerPflirting with beautiful women]DO.
7. John loved [Infto flirt]DO.
8. John loved [InfPto flirt with beautiful women]DO.
THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT (OC)
1. They called Mary [nounboss]OC.

2. [relative pronounWhat]OC did they call Mary?
3. They called Mary [NPthe moody boss]OC.
4. They called Mary [Nominal Clausewhatever they wanted]OC.
5. They painted the car [adjred]OC.
6. They painted the car [AdjPredder than red]OC.
THE PERIPHERAL SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS
NOUN COMPLEMENT & ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT
1. [NPThe idea [Nominal Clausethat we should lie]NounCompl]S was not mine.

2. [The boss]S was [AdjPsure [Nominal Clausethat we had lied]AdjCompl]SC.
THE COMPLEMENT OF PREPOSITION
1. I would do anything [PPfor [nounlove]Compl of prepositionn]IO.

2. I would do anything [PPfor [personal pronounyou]Compl of Preposition]IO.
3. I would do anything [PPfor [NPthe love [PPof [NPmy life]Compl of Preposition]Compl of Preposition]IO.
18.
4. I would do anything [PPfor [Nominal Clausewhoever loves me]Compl of Preposition]IO.
5. He was accused [of [Gerstealing]Compl of Preposition].
6. He was accused [PPof [GerPstealing [PPfrom [NPhis company]Compl of Preposition]]Compl of Preposition].
THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
1. [NPThat morning]AMT John left [advunexpectedly]AMManner.

2. John [AdvPalmost always]AMT brings me flowers [PPon my birthday]AMT.
3. John [AdvPalmost always]AMT brings me flowers {Adverbial Clausewhen he comes to visit}AMT.
TYPES OF EXERCISES FOR EXAM
1. Types of predication.
2. Build sentences according to the following pattern:
a. S (Nom.Clause) + V + SC (Nom.Clause): [Nominal ClauseWhatever makes you happy]S is
[Nominal Clausewhat I will do for you] SC.
b. S + V + DO + IO: Mike gives [substpencils]DO [PPto Mary] IO.
3. Give examples in sentences of the following:
a. adjective, SC: She is really [adjhappy] SC
b. Nominal Clause, Delayed S: It is believed [Nominal Clausethat he will come]
Delayed S.
c. Nominal Clause, Adjective Complement: He is sure [Nominal Clausethat he will
come] AdjComplement.
4. Analyse the underlined words or phrases:
a. (You) HaveTV [NPan awesome day]DO now that [NPthe exam]S isLV adverboverAdverbial
Complement.
b. [idefinite pronounNobody]S agreedTV [PPwith [NPmy proposal]Complement of Preposition]DO.
5. Point out the constituents of the following NP.
dayHead]
a. [NP [indefinite articlean]Determiner [adjectiveawesome]Premodifier Noun
6. Point out the constituents of the following sentence:
a. [NounDrugs]S haveperfect axiliary taughtTV [NP [an] Determiner [entire]Premodifier generationhead [of [NP
[American]Premodifier Kidshead]Complement of preposition]Postmodifier]IO [NP [the] Determiner
[metric]Premodifier systemhead]DO.
⅞. Complete the following with the required Adverbial Clauses: I spent a lot of tie
swimming…:
a. AMTime: when I was on holiday.
b. AMReason: s ince I wanted to get in shape.
c. AMConcession: although I was afraid of water at first.
d. AMPlace: wherever I traveled.
9/10. Identify the finite subordinate clauses and specify the sentence type.
19.
Identify means:
1. circle the introductory word if it exists and specify its part of speech: subordinating
conjunction (since, as, because, if, although), relative adverbs (when, where,
why), relative pronouns.
WHAT INTRODUCES NOMINAL CLAUSES.

THAT introduces defining Relative Clauses,
The subordinating conjunction ‘THAT’ introduces Nominal Clauses,
SO...THAT introduces Adverbial Clauses.
2. point out where each clause begins and where it ends.

3. specify if the clause is Nominal, Adverbial or Relative and its syntactic function.
● He spoke {Adverbial Clauseso quietly that we didn’t understand}AMResult. (so...that =

subordinating conjunction)
● He spoke quietly {Adverbial Clauseso that we wouldn’t understand}AMPurpose. (so that =
subordinating conjunction)
● It was clear [Nominal Clausethat he had lied]DelayedS. (that = subordinating conjunction)
● She was sure [Nominal Clausethat he had lied]AdjComplement. (that = subordinating conjunction)
● She knew [Nominal Clausethat he had lied]DO. (that = subordinating conjunction)
● [NPThe problem]S was [Nominal Clausethat he had lied]SC. (that = subordinating conjunction)
● The idea [Nominal Clausethat he had lied]Noun Complement terrified me. (that = subordinating
conjunction)
● The idea (Defining Relative Clausethat he mentioned) terrified me. (that = relative pronoun13)
● [A crook]S1 isv1 a person (Defining RelClausewhoS2 wasv2 out for [NomClausewhat hes3 could
getv3]Complement of Prep) and (Defining RelClausewhos4 isv4 now in for [NomClausewhat hes5
gotv5]Complement of Prep).
● Always (you)s1 readv1 stuff (DefRelClausethats2 will makev2 you look good {AdvClauseif yous3
diev3 in the middle of it}AMCond).
● A bankers1 isv1 a fellow (DefRelClausewhos2 lendsv2 you his umbrella {when the suns3 is
shiningv3}AMtime) and (DefRelClausewhos4 wantsv4 it back the m
inute (DefRelClause(when) its5
beginsv5 to rain)).
● Is1 believev1 [NomClausethat Is2 amv2 very time-conscious]DO, {as Is3 always knowv3 [when
Is4 amv4 late]DO}AMReason.
13
DO THE TRANSLATION TEST
20.

English Syntax

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English Syntax

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ENGLISH SYNTAX - COURSE

C​1​ - 03. 10. 2019

In English language, there are words, phrases, clauses and sentences.

In English Syntax, a clause is a combination of ​Subject​ and ​Predicate​.

​SENTENCES (​4 types)

Would be a mistake without music = predicat;

2. Compound sentence ​- It is composed of two or more independent sentences, with

3. Complex sentence ​- It consist of one independent clause with one or more

4. Compound-complex sentence ​- It is a sentence which consist at least of two

VERBS, OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS

A stentence’s verbs can be used as ​linking (copulative), ​transitive​/​intransitive​,

e.g. ​NP​[The quarrels of friends]​S​ [are]​LV​ ​NP​[the opportunities of foes]​SC​.

Transitive verbs and DOs (Direct Objects).

NP​[The little snake]​S​ studies​TV​ ​NP​[the ways of the big serpent]​DO​.

The DO of a transitive verb is sometimes ​preceded by an ​IO ​(Indirect Object)​, a noun/

pronoun​[You]​S [show]​TV ​pronoun​[me]​IO ​NP​[a hero]​DO /[and]​coordinating conjunction​/ ​pronoun​[I]​S [will

NP​[Some people]​S​ call​TV​ ​NP​[a spade]​DO​ ​NP​[an agricultural implement]​OC​.

proper noun​[John]​S​ [gave]​TV​ ​NP​[the beggar]​IO​ ​noun​[money]​DO​.

The ​PO (Prepositional Object)​ is always expressed by a PP.

THE PHRASE RANK

The Prepositional Phrase​ ​(PP)​ consists of a ​preposition​ + ​its​ ​complement (​noun/noun

The complement of a Preposition is expressed by an adverb or, more frequently, by a

THE NOUN PHRASE

our​ (posesive writing skills​ (noun)

Premodifiers can be expressed by:

The Head of a NP can be:

The Postmodifier in a NP can be expressed by:

Premodifier Head Postmodifier​ ​+​ ​Complementation

THE VERB PHRASE

THE VERBAL PHRASE

[​To side​ with truth]​S​ is noble.

IDENTIFYING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1. The arrow (​that have left the bow)​ never returns.

3. [Whoever gossips to you]​, will gossip of you.

4. Jane gossip to​ [whoever will listen].

5. Mark does ​[whatever his father tells him to do].

6. [What you want]​ is [​what you shall get].

Relative adverbs​: why, when, where, how.

Defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses

1. The pen ​(that you gave me is now broken).

that - ​relative pronoun;

2. The pen ​(​relative pronoun​[that]​S​ cost me £3 is know broken)​Defining Relative Clause​.

​ ho lives in Caro)​Defining Relative Clause​ is a doctor.​ -​ 2 or more wives;

​ hich is the capital of France),​ is a lovely city. -​ non-defining relative clause;

Prepositional relative clauses can be either defining or non-defining.

Do you know the girl w ​ ho is talking to Tom​? ​-defining relative clause;

NOMINAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY CONJUNCTION ​‘THAT’:

[​Nominal Clause That​

NOMINAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY RELATIVE PRONOUN ​‘WHO’:

[​Nominal Clause Who​

Can perform the syntactic function of ​Adverbial ​Modifier ​of​:

{​If​ you like it}​AM of CONDITION​, come and get it.

Introductory words for AM:

- not compulsory - compulsory

THE SEVEN BASIC CLAUSE PATTERNS IN ENGLISH

3. /It ​is​V1 a miracle/​Independent Clause [​Nominal Clause that

6. /[A lifelong friend]​S1 ​is​V1 [​NP someone

There are also ​PERIPHERAL syntactic functions: NounComplement, AdjCompelement,

THE CENTRAL SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

THE SUBJECT (S)

THE PREDICATE (P)

The predicate: ​Finite verb + O/C + AdvModifier

1. [Messi’s popularity]​S​ is growing​IntrV​. - VERBAL PREDICATION

C1 - 03. 10. 2019

In English Syntax, a clause is a combination of Subject and Predicate.

SENTENCES (4 types)

2. Compound sentence - It is composed of two or more independent sentences, with

3. Complex sentence - It consist of one independent clause with one or more

4. Compound-complex sentence - It is a sentence which consist at least of two

A stentence’s verbs can be used as linking (copulative), transitive/intransitive,

e.g. NP[The quarrels of friends]S [are]LV NP[the opportunities of foes]SC.

NP[The little snake]S studiesTV NP[the ways of the big serpent]DO.

The DO of a transitive verb is sometimes preceded by an IO (Indirect Object), a noun/

pronoun[You]S [show]TV pronoun[me]IO NP[a hero]DO /[and]coordinating conjunction/ pronoun[I]S [will

NP[Some people]S callTV NP[a spade]DO NP[an agricultural implement]OC.

proper noun[John]S [gave]TV NP[the beggar]IO noun[money]DO.

The PO (Prepositional Object) is always expressed by a PP.

The Prepositional Phrase (PP) consists of a preposition + its complement (noun/noun

our (posesive writing skills (noun)

Premodifier Head Postmodifier + Complementation

[To side with truth]S is noble.

1. The arrow (that have left the bow) never returns.

3. [Whoever gossips to you], will gossip of you.

4. Jane gossip to [whoever will listen].

5. Mark does [whatever his father tells him to do].

6. [What you want] is [what you shall get].

Relative adverbs: why, when, where, how.

1. The pen (that you gave me is now broken).

that - relative pronoun;

2. The pen (relative pronoun[that]S cost me £3 is know broken)Defining Relative Clause.

ho lives in Caro)Defining Relative Clause is a doctor. - 2 or more wives;

hich is the capital of France), is a lovely city. - non-defining relative clause;

Do you know the girl w ho is talking to Tom? -defining relative clause;

NOMINAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY CONJUNCTION ‘THAT’:

[Nominal Clause That

NOMINAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY RELATIVE PRONOUN ‘WHO’:

[Nominal Clause Who

Can perform the syntactic function of Adverbial Modifier of:

{If you like it}AM of CONDITION, come and get it.

3. /It isV1 a miracle/Independent Clause [Nominal Clause that

6. /[A lifelong friend]S1 isV1 [NP someone

There are also PERIPHERAL syntactic functions: NounComplement, AdjCompelement,

The predicate: Finite verb + O/C + AdvModifier

1. [Messi’s popularity]S is growingIntrV. - VERBAL PREDICATION

1. The winner is [nounJohn]SC.

1. Mary was [PPon time]AC.

1. JohnS votedTV [PPagainst me]PO.

1. John bought [nounMarry]IO flowers.

1. John loved [nounwomen]DO.

1. They called Mary [nounboss]OC.

1. [NPThe idea [Nominal Clausethat we should lie]NounCompl]S was not mine.

1. I would do anything [PPfor [nounlove]Compl of prepositionn]IO.

1. [NPThat morning]AMT John left [advunexpectedly]AMManner.

WHAT INTRODUCES NOMINAL CLAUSES.

● He spoke {Adverbial Clauseso quietly that we didn’t understand}AMResult. (so...that =