From

Newton’s law
to
hydrodynamic equations

18.354 - L14
forces, such as @⇢
gravity
dV = ⇢g, and ⇢up is· ndS
a pressure
= force. r ·The pressure force is a
(⇢u)dV.
@t
per unit area V(usually compressive)
S exerted across
V the surface of a fluid eleme
ective derivative,
ted to both and
intermolecular
Goal: derive we shall
forces and discuss
momentum it’s significance
transfer across an in a
interfa
old forthe
is solely
olume, anypressure
arbitrary
given by fluid
is element
forcegravity, f =dV⇢g, , thus
we find
Z Z Z Z
Du@⇢pndS =
⇢ dV+=r · (⇢u)(rpdV.= rp
0. + ⇢g)dV
V (t) Dt @t V (t)
dVold
(t)
theand
for
S(t) are being
continuity
any
deformed by the motion of the fluid, so if we want to
equation.
arbitrary fluid element we arrive at
nside the integral
like water, sign we must
the density does take account very
not change of this.
muchThe and
Reynolds transport
we will often b
o, and it can be shown that Du
he density variations. If we make rp
for a deforming,
this
incompressible fluid element
approximation the continuit
Z = Z + g.
d Dt
he incompressibility condition ⇢ Du
⇢udV = ⇢ dV
dt V (t) V (t) Dt
with the the continuity requation· u = 0. (300), constitutes the
ied up a little if we realise that the gravitational force, be
roximations, this one
s the gradient of ais scalar
sometimes
D very good
@potential r and
. sometimes
It is not sou
therefore
= + (u · r)
figure out where it fails.
! p. This implies that Dt gravity
@t simply modifies the pres
oes nothing to change the velocity. 56 However, we cannot d
omentum equations
have a free surface (as we shall see later with water wave
 pressure as p + ! p. This implies that gravity simply modifies the pressure distributi
This, three components
combined with of u the
the andcontinuity
p. Note that if we do(300),
equation not demand constant
constitutes the density
Euler then the equa-
equations.
e have ainfree
thesurface
fluid and(as wenothing
does shall see later
to change with water
the velocity. waves).
However, we cannot do this if ⇢ is n
3.2 From Newton’s
Thingstionscan be tidied laws
(continuity+momentum) to
up a little hydrodynamic
only close with equations
another relation,
if we realise that the gravitational an being
force, equation of state p(⇢).
conservative,
he13.2 From
constant
density iscan Newton’s
or if we
constant havelaws
means awe to
freenow hydrodynamic
surface
have (asfour
we shall see equations
equations later
in with
four water waves).
unknowns:
be written as the gradient of a scalar potential r . It is therefore usual to redefine
oTocomplement
ts Assuming
ofcomplement
u and p. the
Note
13.2
pressure
the
purely
that
as
density
+ if !
pFrom we p.do
isnot
Newton’s
This
constant
macroscopic demand
implies
means
lawsconsiderationswe now
constant
to hydrodynamic
that gravity
have
from
density
simply
four
the equations
theprevious
then
equations
modifies the indistribution
equa-
pressure
four unknow
section, wew
three the
components purelyof macroscopic
u and p. Note considerations
that the
if we from
do notHowever,
demand we the previous
constant section,
density then we
the equ
ow discuss
y+momentum) in
how the fluid
one
only and
can
close does
obtain
withnothing to change
hydrodynamic
another relation,velocity.
equations
an equation from cannot
the
ofthe do this if
microscopic
state ⇢ is not
dynam
p(⇢).section,dynami
now discuss how To
tionsconstant complement
one can
(continuity+momentum) the
obtain purely macroscopic
hydrodynamic
only close considerations
withequations
another from
from
relation, the previous
anmicroscopic
equation of we p(⇢
state wil
or if we have a free surface (as we shall see later with water waves).
oTothis
thisend,
end,weweAssuming
consider
now discussahow
consider many-particle
theadensity
one can obtainsystem
many-particleis constant means
hydrodynamic
system governed
wegoverned
equations
now have four
by equations
by Newton’s
from the microscopic
Newton’s equations
in equations
dynamics
four unknowns:
To this end, we consider a many-particle system governed by Newton’s equations
Newton’s laws
three
13.2 From to Newton’s
components hydrodynamic
of u dx andi p.
dxilaws Noteto thatequations
if we dv
hydrodynamic do not demandequations
dv constant density then the equa-
tions (continuity+momentum) ==vonly
v ii ,dx, i
close
=
mm
with
v ,
==
another
m
F
dv
F i
, F , an equation of state p(⇢). (308)
,
irelation,
=
(
(30
the purely macroscopic
To complement theconsiderations
dtdt
purely macroscopic dt
i dt
dt
fromconsiderations
the previous dt
i
from section,
the previouswe will section, we w
ssuming
w assuming
one can that
that
now allassuming
allparticles
discuss
13.2
obtain howthat
particles
From
hydrodynamic onehaveall
Newton’shave
can the
particles
the
obtainlawssame
have
same
equations to themass
mass
hydrodynamic samem,
hydrodynamic
from mass
m, the and
and
equationsthat
m, that
and the
that
the
equations
microscopic from forces
the forces
forces
the FFFi i can
microscopic
dynamics. canbe
can bebesplit
split
split
dynamiinto
in
nconsider
external To this an
contribution
end, external
we Gcontribution
consider and a pair Ginteractions
and pair interactions
many-particle system H(r) H(r)
=
governed =H(
by H( r) r)
Newton’s equations
an external contribution
a many-particle
To complement the G and
system pair interactions
governed
purely macroscopic by H(r)
XNewton’sfrom
considerations = H(
equations r)
the previous section, we will
X
now discuss how one can obtainX
F (x 1 , . . . , x n ) =
dx iG(x i) +
hydrodynamic H(x dv
equations
i xj ) =from rxthe i (x 1 , . . . , xn ) dynamics.(309)
microscopic
FF (x(x1dx,1.,i....,. x
, n)
x n )==G(x G(x )i )++ =H(x
idv H(x
v i , j6i= i i mxj ) == Fr i,xxii (x (x11,,......,,xxnn)) (
(30
(30
To this end, = vwei ,considerma many-particle = F i , system governed
dt dt by Newton’s equations (308)
assuming dtthat We define the fine-grained
all particles dt
have
j6
dxthe
=
i
i
j6=phase-space
i
same mass density
dv m, and that the forces F i can be split in
= vi , N m = F i, (308)
all We
particles
Wedefine have
define the the
thefine-grained
an external same mass
fine-grained
contribution G m,
phase-space
phase-space
anddt and
pair that Xthe dt
density
density
interactions forces H(r)F= i canH(ber)split into
f (t, x, v)same
=
X (x m,xand i (t))that
(v the v i (t)) (310)
tribution G assumingand pair that all particles have
interactions H(r)
X NN
X
the = mass
H( r) forces F i can be split into
F (x X
an external contribution
1 , . . . , x ) =
n G and pairG(x i ) +interactions
i=1 H(xi H(r) xj ) = = H( rxi r)(x1 , . . . , xn ) (30
where (x f f(t,
(t,
x x,)x,= v)v) (x = = xi ) (y(x (x
X y ) x
x(zi (t))
i(t)) z ) (v
in threev iidimensions.
(t))
(t)) Intuitively, the (31
(
density
1, . . . , x ) = G(x ) +
n i H(x
i
F (x1 , . . . , xni) = G(x j i) + x )= r
xi i x
H(x
j6 =i
1 j ) = rni (x , . . . , x )
i
xi (x1 , . . . , xn ) (309) (309)
f counts the number of i=1
particles
i=1 that at time t are in the small volume [x, x + dx] while
We define the j6=fine-grained
i phase-space
j6=i density
where(x(x xix)Wehaving velocities in [v, v + dv]. By chain and product rule
here i )== (x(x
define x
the
x )i ) (y
(y yy )
i ) (z
(z
ifine-grainedi phase-space N zzii)) in
in three
density
dimensions.
dimensions. Intuitively,
Intuitively, the
thedens
den
hef fine-grained phase-space density
N X
counts the number @of
counts the number of fparticlesparticles X
f (t, that
dx,
thatv) = atNtime
at time (x tt are
are
x in (v
in
(t)) the
the small
small
v (t)) volume
volume [x,
[x, xx++dx]dx] wh
w
(31
= [ (x X
x ) (v v )]i i
N@tv + dv].f (t, i i
having velocities in X
[v,
aving velocities in [v, v + dv]. By By chain
dtx,chain
v) = i=1
i=1
and
and product
xi (t)) (vrule
(xproduct rulevi (t)) (310)
fwhere
(t, x, v)
(x = Nx ) = (x(x x (t)) (y (vyi=1) v i (t))
(z
XNxii )
z ) in three dimensions. (310) the dens
Intuitively,
@ where XNX xd ) == (x x{ )(v(y vy)r
(x
i i i
@f counts d i [ (xof particles
the i=1
number i i i ) (z
that zi ) in
xiat(xtime xi )tthree
ẋi +dimensions.
·are in (x
the x Intuitively,
i )rv
small ·the
(v v i )[x,
i volume }density
v̇ ix + dx] wh
f =
f f =counts the dt x i )
[ (x ofixparticles (v v i )]
@t number i ) (v that v i )]
at time t are in the small volume [x, x + dx] while
having velocities
) = (x@t xihaving
) (y velocities
yidt
i=1 in [v,
) (z in [v, v +
zi )v + dv].
indv]. By
three chain and product
dimensions. ruleN
Intuitively, the density
i=1 XN By chain and product rule X
 an external contribution G and pair interactions H(r) = i H( r)
j6=i X
F (x1 , . . . , xn ) = G(xi ) + H(xi xj ) = rxi (x1 , . . . , xn ) (309)
We define the fine-grained phase-spacej6=density
i
N
We define the fine-grained X
phase-space density
f (t, x, v) = (x
N
xi (t)) (v v i (t)) (310)
X
i=1
f (t, x, v) = (x xi (t)) (v v i (t)) (310)
where (x xi ) = (x xi ) (y yi ) (zi=1 zi ) in three dimensions. Intuitively, the density
f countswhere
the number
(x xi )of=particles
(x xi ) that
(y at yi ) time
(z zti )are in thedimensions.
in three small volume [x, x +the
Intuitively, dx] while
density
having velocities in [v,
f counts the v + dv].
number By chain
of particles thatand product
at time t arerule
in the small volume [x, x + dx] while
having velocities
N in [v, v + dv]. By chain and product rule
@ X d
f =@ [N(xd xi ) (v v i )]
X
@t fi=1=dt [ (x xi ) (v v i )]
@t dt
i=1
N
X
XN
= { (v { v(v
= i )rx (x x ) · ẋ + (x x )rvi (v(v vvi ))· ·v̇v̇i }}
vii )rxi (x i xi )i · ẋi + (x i xi )r vi i i
i i
N
X N XN N
X X F
F ii
= r=x rx(v v(vi ) (x x ) · v r
v i ) (x i xi )i · v i vrv (x x ) (v v ) ·
(x ixi ) (v vii ) · (311)
(311)
m
i=1 i=1 i=1i=1

57 57
where, in the last step, we inserted Newton’s equations and used that
@ @
(x xi ) = (x xi ) (3
@xi @x
Furthermore, making use of the defining properties of the delta-function
N
X N
X
@ Fi
f = v·r (v v ) (x x) r (x x ) (v v )·
 @ @
(x xi ) = (x xi ) (312)
@xi @x
where, in the last step, we inserted Newton’s equations and used that
Furthermore, making use of the defining properties of the delta-function
@ @
XN (x xi ) = (xX
N xi ) (312)
@ @x i @x Fi
f = v · rx (v v i ) (x xi ) rv (x xi ) (v v i ) ·
@t
Furthermore, making use of the defining properties of the delta-function m
i=1 i=1
XN
@ 1
X N N
X F i (313)
= v · rxvf· rx rv (v v(x
f = ) xi ) x(v
(x i)
v iv) · F i .(x
r xi ) (v vi) ·
@t m i
m
i=1 i=1 i=1
N
X forces, we may rewrite
Writing r = rx and inserting (309)1 for the
= v · rx f rv (x xi ) (v v i ) · F i . (313)
m 2 3
✓ ◆ XN i=1
X
@
mWriting +rv ·=rrxfand rv (309)
= inserting (x forxthe
i ) (v ) · 4may
v i we
forces, G(xrewrite
i) + H(xi xj )5
@t
i=1 2 j6=i 3
✓ ◆ N 2 3
@ N X X
m +v·r f = Xrv (x xi ) (v v4 i ) · 4G(xi ) +
X H(xi x5j )5
@t = rv (x xi ) (v v i ) · G(x) + H(x xj )
i=1 j6=i
i=1 2 xj 6=x 3
2 XN 3 X
= rv X (x xi ) (v v i ) · 4G(x) + H(x xj )5
= 4G(x) + H(x xj )5 · rv f (314)
i=1 xj 6=x
2 xj 6=x 3
X
In the second line, we have again 4G(x) +
= exploited H(x xof
the properties j )5the· rdelta
vf function which allow (314)
us to replace xi by x. Also note the appearance xj 6=x of the convective derivative on the lhs.;

the above derivation

In the shows
second line, that again
we have it results from the
exploited Newton’s firstofequation.
properties the delta function which allow
To us
obtain the hydrodynamic
to replace xi by x. Also equations from (314),
note the appearance of two additionalderivative
the convective reductionsonwill
the be
lhs.;
necessary:
the above derivation shows that it results from Newton’s first equation.
 5f ·=rv◆vf· rx (v NvX
H(x xj ✓)@ti=1 ) (x xi ) rv (314)
iN
2(x xi ) (v v i ) · i 3
xj 6=x X X
he hydrodynamic
2m @ equations
+v·r f = =
i=1 from
rr
X (314),
3xi ) (v
(x (x
two
i=1
xi ) v(v additional
i ) · 4G(x
4G(x)
v i )i )· + H(x+i reductions
m
xj )5H(x xj )will
5 be
xj 6=x v v
@t XN
= X
v · rx f
1
rvi=1i=1 (x xi ) (v v i ) 2 · F i. j6=i xj 6=x (313)
3
= 4 G(x) + m
H(x X 2 Ni=1 5
xj ) · r v f 3
X (314)
d the properties of the delta function which allow
= rv (x xX i ) (v v i ) · 4G(x) + H(x xj )5
to replace the fine-grained
Writing r = rx and density f (t, x,
6=x= (309)
xjinserting v),
pearance of the convective derivative on the lhs.;
which
4G(x)
i=1
still
for the depends
+forces, H(x implicitly xj )5 ·xr
we may rewrite
j 6=xvf (314)
2 32 3
nknown) solutions x
✓ (t), by
s from Newton’s first equation. a coarse-grained
◆
j the properties X density
N hf
X (t, x, v)i.
xj 6=x
X
, we have again m
@
exploited
+ v · r f == r4vG(x) (x of
+ xi )H(x the delta
(v vxi )j )·54G(x function
· rvif) + H(xiwhich allow
xj )5 (314)
In the second @t line, we have again exploited the properties of the delta function which allow
ns from (314),
o construct the two additional
by x. Also note the appearance of
relevant reductions
field variables, thewill
i=1
mass be density ⇢(t, r) and velocity
thexj 6=convective
x
2 derivative on the
j6=i
3 lhs.;
us to replace xi by x. Also note X N the appearance of the convective X derivative on the lhs.;
on shows that
In the it results
second line, wefrom
have Newton’s
again exploited first
the equation.
properties of the delta function which allow
om the coarse-grained density f¯.
the above derivation
us to replace xi by shows
x. Alsothat
= r
notev it resultsi from Newton’s
(x x ) (v
the appearance of the
v i ) · 4 G(x) +
convectivefirst equation.
H(x
derivative
x ) 5
onj the lhs.;
hydrodynamic
Totheobtain
aboveequations
derivation from
the hydrodynamic
shows that
2
(314),
i=1
it equations
results two
from additional
from
Newton’s (314),
3 first reductions
xj 6=x
two
equation. additional will be will be
reductions
d the
density f (t, x, v), which
necessary: still depends implicitly
To obtain the hydrodynamic equations
coarse-graining procedure, let us recall
4
X from (314), two additional reductions will be
that the Newton equations (308)
necessary: = G(x) + H(x xj )5 · rv f (314)
by
of adeterministic
coarse-grained
• We needODEs
density
whose
to replace
hf (t,solutions
x,xv)i.
6=x
the fine-grained are {x
density (t),
f (t, x, v), .which
. . , xstill(t)}
j
are implicitly
depends uniquely
replace the fine-grained
• We need to replacedensity f (t, x,density
the fine-grained v), which 1 depends
f (t, x, v),still
which still dependsNimplicitly
implicitly
the Inon
initial thethe (unknown)
second
conditions line, we
{x solutions
have again
(0), . x.j.x j (t),
exploited
, xby aby
the a coarse-grained
properties
(0); v of
(0), the
. delta
. . , density
function v)i.hf=:
which(t,allow
x, v)i.
nown) solutions
eld variables, on the
the
us to replace
(unknown)
xj (t),
xi byby
mass solutions
aAlso
1coarse-grained
x.density ⇢(t,
note the
(t), coarse-grained
r) and
N
appearance density
of velocity
1 density
the convective x, v)i. on the lhs.;0 . However,
v
hf
N (0)}
(t, x,
hf (t, derivative
mental
nsity f . ¯ realization
• the
We •above
We have
have of to
derivation
to a macroscopic
construct
shows that
construct the
the relevant
resultsfield
itrelevant system
from variables,
field
¯
Newton’s (say,
thefirst
variables, mass a
equation.
the glass
density
mass ⇢(t, of
r)
density andwater),
velocity
⇢(t, r) and it is prac-
velocity
construct the To field
relevant
obtainu, from
thefield the coarse-grained
variables,
hydrodynamic density
equations the from f . (314),
mass ¯. density
two additional ⇢(t, r) and
reductions velocity
will be
ble to determine field u, from the coarse-grained density f
necessary: the initial conditions exactly. To account for this lack of
mdure,
the coarse-grained To motivatedensity ¯.
f
the coarse-graining procedure, let us recall that the Newton equations (308)
may let us
assume
Toformrecall
• Wea that
motivate systemthat
needthe the
of
to
the
deterministic
replace
Newton
initial
coarse-graining ODEs
the fine-grained
equations
conditions
procedure,
whosedensity solutions
f (t,are
let (308)
us
v),{x
x,are drawn
recall that
1 (t), .still
which from
Nthe
(t)} Newton
. . , xdepends are some
uniquely
implicitly probability
equations (308)
hose solutions
form determined
). Without
he0coarse-graining
onare
a system {x
of
the by
(unknown)
specifying
procedure,1 (t),
deterministic
the initial . . .
solutions
thelet , x
conditions
us ODEs
x
exact
N (t)}
{xby
j (t),
recall
a are
whose
1 (0),
detailsthat uniquely
. . , xNsolutions
.coarse-grained
(0); v 1 (0),
theof this
Newton
.are
. . , vhf
density {x
N (0)}
(t,
distribution
1 (t),
x,=: . .0.., However,
v)i.
equations xN (t)} are uniquely
at this point,
(308)
for
determined any experimental
by the realization
initial conditions of a macroscopic
{x1variables, system
(0), . . . ,the (say,
xNmass a glass
(0); density
v 1 (0),⇢(t, of water),
. . .r)
, vand it is prac-
(0), . . . , x (0);
• We v (0),
have . .
to construct. , v the(0)}
relevant =:field . However, N (0)}velocity=: 0 . However,
deterministic
the N ODEs
coarse-grained
tically 1 whose
impossible density
to solutions
Nhf i by are
determine the averaging
initial 0¯{x1 (t), .the
conditions .
exactly. . , x
To N (t)}
fine-grained
account are
for uniquely
this density
lack of f with
for any experimental
field u, from therealization
coarse-grained of a macroscopic
density f .
knowledge, we may assume that the initial conditions are drawn from some probability system (say, a glass of water), it is prac-
roscopic
e),initial
formally system
conditions
expressed
ticallydistribution
impossible
To motivate
(say,
{xthe
P( 0to
aas
1).(0), glass
determine
Without
coarse-graining
xof
. . . ,specifying
Nthe water),
(0); v 1exact
initial
the
procedure,
(0), it .is. ,prac-
.recall
letconditions
usdetails
vthat (0)}
exactly.
ofNthis =: equations
NewtonTo
thedistribution 0 .account
at However,
this (308) for this lack of
point,
altalconditions
realization
knowledge,
we may
form aexactly.
of wea may
define
system macroscopic To Zaccount
assume
thedeterministic
of coarse-grained that system
ODEs the
density for
whose hf (say,
initial this
isolutions
by alack
glass
conditions
averaging
are {xthe1of of . . .water),
are
fine-grained
(t), ,xdrawn ituniquely
from
N (t)}density
are isf some
prac-
with probability
respect toP(
determined
distribution P( ), formally
by 00the
). initial
Without expressed
conditions
specifying as1 (0), the
{x . . . , xexact
N (0); v 1details
(0), . . . , vof
N (0)}this =:distribution
0 . However, at this point,
to determine
tial conditions for hf
the
any(t,
initial
are drawn conditions
from exactly.
some Z To
probability account for this lack of
we may define x,
experimental
the v)i = hf (t,dP(
realization
coarse-grained of a )
density
0 f
macroscopic (t, hf x,
system
i by v). (say,
averaging a glass
theof water), it
fine-grained is prac-
density f (315)
with
ay assume
he exact that
details
tically the
of
impossible initial
this to conditions
distribution
determine x,
the v)i =
initial are
conditions 0drawn
at this point,
dP( ) f (t, x, v).
exactly. from To some
account for probability
this lack(315)
of
respect to P( 0 ), formally expressed as
knowledge, we may assume that the initial conditions are drawn from some probability
. hfWithout
i by averaging specifying0 ).the
distribution P(the
exact
fine-grained
Without
details
specifying the
of
density
Z
exact
this
details fdistribution
ofwith
at this point,
this distribution at this point,
58
 AveragingEq.
Averaging Eq.(314)
(314) and
and using
using the
the fact
fact that
thatintegration over
integration overinitial conditions
initial commutes
conditions commutes
with the partial di↵erentiations, we have
with the partial di↵erentiations, we have
✓ ◆
✓ @ ◆
m @ + v · r hf i = rv · [G(x)hf i + C] (316)
m @t + v · r hf i = rv · [G(x)hf i + C] (316)
@t
where the collision-term
where the collision-term X
C(t, x, v) := X hH(x xj )f (t, x, v)i (317)
C(t, x, v) := xj 6=x hH(x xj )f (t, x, v)i (317)
xj 6=x
represents the average e↵ect of the pair interactions on a fluid particle at position x.
We now
represents thedefine thee↵ect
average mass density ⇢, the
of the pair velocity field
interactions onu, and the
a fluid specific
particle atkinetic energy
position x.
tensor
We now⌃ bydefine the mass density ⇢, the velocity field u, and the specific kinetic energy
tensor ⌃ by Z
⇢(t, x) = m Zd3 v hf (t, x, v)i, (318a)
Z
⇢(t, x) = m 3d3 v hf (t, x, v)i, (318a)
⇢(t, x) u(t, x) = m d v hf (t, x, v)i v. (318b)
Z
Z 3
⇢(t, x) u(t, x) = m 3d v hf (t, x, v)i v. (318b)
⇢(t, x) ⌃(t, x) = m d v hf (t, x, v)i vv. (318c)
Z
3
⇢(t, x) ⌃(t, x) = m d
The tensor ⌃ is, by construction, symmetric as canv hfbe
(t, seen
x, v)ifrom
vv. the definition of its
(318c)
individual components
The tensor ⌃ is, by construction, symmetric Z as can be seen from the definition of its
individual components ⇢(t, x) ⌃ij (t, x) = m d3 v hf (t, x, v)i vi vj ,
Z
and the trace of ⌃ defines the⌃local kinetic 3
⇢(t, x) ij (t, x) = energy
m ddensity
v hf (t, x, v)i vi vj ,
Z
1 m 3 2
✏(t, x) := Tr(⇢⌃) =
and the trace of ⌃ defines the2local kinetic d
energyv hf (t, x,
density v)i |v| . (319)
2
 ✓ ◆xj 6=x
@
where the collision-term
m + v · r hf i = rv · [G(x)hf i + C] (316)
represents the average e↵ect @t of the pair interactions on a fluid particle at position x.
X
We now define the mass C(t, density
x, v) := ⇢, thehH(x
velocity
xj field u,v)i
)f (t, x, and the specific kinetic(317)
energy
where the collision-term
tensor ⌃ by xj 6=x
X
represents the average C(t,
e↵ectx,of
v)the hH(xZ xj )fon
:= pair interactions (t,ax,fluid
v)i particle at position x.(317)
3
⇢(t, x)
xj 6=x= m d v hf (t, x, v)i,
We now define the mass density ⇢, the velocity field u, and the specific kinetic energy
(318a)
tensor ⌃ by Z
represents the average e↵ect of the pair interactions3 on a fluid particle at position x.
⇢(t, x) u(t, x) = m Z d v hf (t, x, v)i v. (318b)
We now define the mass density ⇢, the velocity field u, and the specific kinetic energy
tensor ⌃ by ⇢(t, x) = m Z d3 v hf (t, x, v)i, (318a)
3
⇢(t, x) ⌃(t, x) = mZZ d v hf (t, x, v)i vv. (318c)
⇢(t, x)⇢(t,
u(t,x)x) == mm dd33vvhfhf(t, (t,x,
x,v)i,
v)i v. (318b)
(318a)
The tensor ⌃ is, by construction, symmetric ZZ as can be seen from the definition of its
individual components ⇢(t, ⇢(t,x)
x)u(t,
⌃(t,x)x) == mm dd33vvhfhf(t, (t,x,
x,v)i
v)iv.
vv. (318c)
(318b)
ZZ
The tensor ⌃ is, by⇢(t,construction,
⇢(t,x)
x)⌃⌃(t, x)symmetric
ij (t,x) == mm das d3 v3 vcan
hfhf be
(t,(t, seen
x,x, v)i
v)i from
vi vj , the definition(318c)
vv. of its
individual components
and
Thethe trace⌃ofis,
tensor ⌃ by
defines the local symmetric
construction, Zas can
kinetic energy density
be seen from the definition of its
3
individual components ⇢(t, x) ⌃ij (t, x) = mZ d v hf (t, x, v)i vi vj ,
1 m Z 3
✏(t, x) := Tr(⇢⌃) = d v hf (t, x, v)i |v|2 . (319)
and the trace of ⌃ defines ⌃2ijlocal
⇢(t, x)the = 2menergy
(t, x)kinetic d3 vdensity
hf (t, x, v)i vi vj ,
Z
Integrating Eq. (316) over v, we get 1 m 3 2
✏(t, x) :=
and the trace of ⌃ defines the local Tr(⇢⌃) = d v hf
kinetic 2energy density(t, x, v)i |v| . (319)
2 Z
@ Z 3
Integrating Eq. (316) ⇢ + r ·1(⇢u) = m dv rv · [G(x)hf i + C] , (320)
@t over
✏(t, x) :=v, we get =
Tr(⇢⌃) d3 v hf (t, x, v)i |v|2 . (319)
2 2Z
@
but the rhs. can be transformed into a =
surface integral
Integrating Eq. (316) @t ⇢ + r · (⇢u)
over v, we get dv 3
rv ·(in velocity
[G(x)hf i + space)
C] , that vanishes since
(320)
for physically reasonable interactions [G(x)hf i + C] ! 0 as |v| ! 1. We thus recover the
Z
mass conservation equation
@
 ⇢(t, x) ⌃(t, x) = m d3 v hf (t, x, v)i vv. (318c)

The tensor ⌃ is, by construction, symmetric as can be seen from the definition of its
individual components Mass conservation
Z
Averaging Eq. (314) and using⇢(t,
thex) fact
⌃ij (t,that
x) = m d3 v hf
integration over
(t, x,initial
v)i vi vconditions
j, commutes
with the partial di↵erentiations, we have
and the trace of✓⌃ defines the◆local kinetic energy density
@ Z
m + v · r 1 hf i = mrv ·3[G(x)hf i + C]2 (316)
@t✏(t, x) := Tr(⇢⌃) = d v hf (t, x, v)i |v| . (319)
2 2
where the Integrating
collision-term
Eq. (316) over v, we get
X Z
C(t, x,@ v) := hH(x xj )f3 (t, x, v)i (317)
⇢ + r · (⇢u) = dv rv · [G(x)hf i + C] , (320)
@t xj 6=x

epresents but
thethe rhs. can
average be transformed
e↵ect of the pairinto a surface integral
interactions (in velocity
on a fluid space)
particle that vanishes
at position x. since
for physically reasonable interactions [G(x)hf i + C] ! 0 as |v| ! 1. We thus recover the
We now define the mass density ⇢, the velocity field u, and the specific kinetic energy
mass conservation equation
ensor ⌃ by
@ Z
⇢ + r · (⇢u)
3
= 0. (321)
⇢(t, x) =@t m d v hf (t, x, v)i, (318a)
To obtain the momentum conservationZ law, lets multiply (316) by v and subsequently
integrate over v,⇢(t, x) u(t, x) = m d3 v hf (t, x, v)i v. (318b)
Z ✓ ◆ Z Z
@
dv 3 x)
⇢(t, m ⌃(t,+x)v · r
= hf
m iv d=3 v hf (t,dv
x,
3
v)i · [G(x)hf i + C] .
vrvvv. (322)
(318c)
@t
 ij i j

and the trace of ⌃ defines the local kinetic energy density

Z
Momentum conservation
1
✏(t, x) := Tr(⇢⌃) =
m
d3 v hf (t, x, v)i |v|2 . (319)
2 2
AveragingIntegrating
Eq. (314) Eq.
and(316)
using thev,fact
over that integration over initial conditions commutes
we get
with the partial di↵erentiations, we have Z
✓ @
⇢ + r◆ · (⇢u) = dv 3 rv · [G(x)hf i + C] , (320)
@ @t
m + v · r hf i = rv · [G(x)hf i + C] (316)
@t
but the rhs. can be transformed into a surface integral (in velocity space) that vanishes since
where the for physically reasonable interactions [G(x)hf i + C] ! 0 as |v| ! 1. We thus recover the
collision-term
mass conservation equation
X
C(t, x, v) := @hH(x xj )f (t, x, v)i (317)
xj 6=x ⇢ + r · (⇢u) = 0. (321)
@t
representsTo
theobtain
average
thee↵ect of the conservation
momentum pair interactions on amultiply
law, lets fluid particle at position
(316) by x.
v and subsequently
We now integrate
define over v,
the mass density ⇢, the velocity field u, and the specific kinetic energy
tensor ⌃ by Z ✓ ◆ Z
@
dv 3 m + v · r hf iv
Z = dv 3 vrv · [G(x)hf i + C] . (322)
@t
⇢(t, x) = m d3 v hf (t, x, v)i, (318a)
Z
3
59
⇢(t, x) u(t, x) = m d v hf (t, x, v)i v. (318b)
Z
⇢(t, x) ⌃(t, x) = m d3 v hf (t, x, v)i vv. (318c)

The tensor ⌃ is, by construction, symmetric as can be seen from the definition of its
individual components
ntegrate over v,
Z ✓ ◆ Z
3 @
dv m + v · r hf iv = dv 3 vrv · [G(x)hf i + C] . (322)
@t

The lhs. can be rewritten as 59

Z ✓ ◆ Z
The lhs. can be rewritten
can@be+rewritten as @
ZThe
Z 3
lhs.
dv 3 ✓
m✓ @ @t v · ◆
r◆ hf as =
iv (⇢u) + r · ZZ dv 3
mhf ivv
@ @@t
@(⇢u) + r · dv 33mhf ivv
dv 3 m + v · r hf iv =
dv m @t + v · r hf iv = @t@ (⇢u) + r · dv mhf ivv
@t = @t (⇢u) + r · (⇢⌃)
@@t
= @
@ (⇢u) + r · (⇢⌃)
=
= @t (⇢u) +
(⇢u) +r r··(⇢uu)
(⇢⌃) + r · [⇢(⌃ uu)]
@t
@@t
= @@(⇢u) + r@ · (⇢uu) + r · [⇢(⌃ uu)]
=
= @t ⇢@t (⇢u)
u ++ u r ⇢· (⇢uu)
+ ur ·+ r ·+
(⇢u) [⇢(⌃
⇢u · ru uu)]
+ r · [⇢(⌃ uu)]
@t
@✓ @t
@ ◆
= ⇢ u@ + u @⇢ + ur · (⇢u) + ⇢u · ru + r · [⇢(⌃ uu)]
(321)
@
=
= ⇢ ⇢@t u + u · r⇢ +uur · (⇢u) + ⇢u · ru + r · [⇢(⌃ (323) uu)]
✓@t@t + u@t @t ◆ + r · [⇢(⌃ uu)]
(321) ✓@ ◆
= ⇢
(321) @ + u · r u + r · [⇢(⌃ uu)] (323)
The rhs. of (322) can be computed = ⇢by @t · r u + ryielding
+ uintegration,
partial · [⇢(⌃ uu)] (323)
Z @t Z
The rhs. of (322) can dv be3 computed by partial
+ C] integration,
= Z dv 3 ·yielding
The rhs. of (322)Zcan be vr v · [G(x)hf
computed by ipartial integration, yieldingi + C]
[G(x)hf
Z 3 Z 3
dv 3vrv · [G(x)hf i + C] = dv c(t,· [G(x)hf i + C]
dv vrv · [G(x)hf i + C] = = ⇢g + dv 3 · x),
[G(x)hf i + C] (324)
where g(x) := G(x)/m is the force per unit mass = (acceleration)
⇢g + c(t, x), and the last term (324)
Z Z X = ⇢g + c(t, x), (324)
where g(x) := G(x)/m c(t, x) is=thedv force
3
C per unit
= dv 3 mass (acceleration) and the last term
hH(x xj )f (t, x,and
v)i the last term (325)
where g(x) := G(x)/m isZthe force per Z unit mass (acceleration)
Z 3 Z 3 xX j 6=x
X
c(t, x) = dv 3C = dv 3 hH(x xj )f (t, x, v)i (325)
c(t, x) = dv C =
encodes the mean pair interactions. Combining dv hH(x x
(323) and (324),
j )f (t, x, v)i
we find (325)
xj 6=x
✓ ◆ xj 6=x
@
encodes the mean⇢pair interactions.
+u·r u = Combining
r · [⇢(⌃ (323) and+(324),
uu)] ⇢g(x) we findx).
+ c(t, (326)
encodes the mean✓ pair @t interactions.
◆ Combining (323) and (324), we find
✓ ◆
 where g(x) := G(x)/m is Z the forceby Zper unit mass (acceleration) and the last term
The rhs. of (322) can be computed Z 3 Z 3 X
partial
X
integration, yielding
Z x) = dv C = dv
c(t, =hH(x Z xj )fx),
⇢g + c(t, (t, x, v)i (325)
(324)
c(t, x)3 = dv 3 C = dv 3 hH(x3 xj )f (t, x, v)i (325)
where g(x) := G(x)/m is thedv vr · [G(x)hf i + C]
x j 6
= x= dv ·
v force per unit mass (acceleration) and the last term [G(x)hf i + C]
xj 6=x
Z
encodes the mean pair interactions. Z
Combining X =(323) and (324), we find
encodes the mean ⇢g + c(t, x), (324)
✓ pair
c(t, x) =interactions.
dv◆ C = Combining
3
dv 3 (323) and
hH(x xj )f(324),
(t, x, v)iwe find (325)
where g(x) := G(x)/m ✓ @ ◆
⇢ @+ is
u ·the
r forceu =per unit mass
6=x (acceleration)
r x· j[⇢(⌃ uu)] + ⇢g(x)and + c(t,thex).
last term (326)
⇢ @t + u Z ·r u Z = rX · [⇢(⌃ uu)] + ⇢g(x) + c(t, x). (326)
encodes the meanc(t, @t
pair
x) interactions.
= dv 3 C = Combining dv 3 (323)
hH(x andxj(324), )f (t, x,wev)ifind (325)
The symmetric tensor ✓ ◆
The symmetric tensor @ xj 6=x
⇢ + u · r u =⇧ :=r⌃· [⇢(⌃ uu uu)] + ⇢g(x) + c(t, x). (326)
(327)
@t
encodes the mean pair interactions. Combining ⇧ := ⌃ (323) uu and (324), we find (327)
measures ✓
the covariance
The symmetric tensor of the◆ local velocity fluctuations of the molecules which can be
measures @
the covariance
related to their + u ·ofr the
⇢temperature. To local
= velocity
u estimate r c,· [⇢(⌃ let fluctuations
us uu)]
assume of the
that
+ ⇢g(x) molecules
thec(t,
+ pair which(326)
x).interaction can be
force
Hrelated
can betoderived @t a pair potential
their temperature.
from ⇧ :=
To estimate ',⌃which c,uu letmeans
us assume
that H(r) that = the r pair (327)
interaction force
r '(r). Assuming
H can
The
further
measures bethe
that derived
symmetricH(0) =from
tensor
covariance aofpair
0, we the potential
may write
local velocity ', which means that
fluctuations of the H(r) = rrwhich
molecules '(r). can
Assuming
be
furthertothat H(0) = 0, we may Z write X
related their temperature. To estimate
⇧ := ⌃c, let uuus assume that the pair interaction (327) force
c(t, x) Z
= potential dv 3
X h[r x '(x xj )]f (t, H(r)
x, v)i = r '(r). Assuming (328)
H can be derived from a pair ', which means that r
measures the covariance c(t, x)
of =the local dvx3velocity h[rfluctuations
x '(x xj )]fof(t, x, molecules
the v)i which can be (328)
further that H(0) = 0, we may write j (t)
related to their temperature. To Z estimate xj (t)c, let us assume that the pair interaction force
Replacing for some function ⇣(x) the X sum over all particles by the integral
H can be derived from a pair potential3 ',h[r
Zwhich means that
(t, H(r) = rr '(r). Assuming
Replacing for somec(t, x) =
function
X ⇣(x) dvthe sum
1 x '(xall particles
over xj )]f x,by
v)ithe integral (328)
further that H(0) = 0, we may ⇣(xwrite
) ' x (t) Zd 3
y ⇢(t, y) ⇣(y) (329)
XZ j j
m 1
⇣(x X' overdall 3
Replacing for some c(t, function
xj
⇣(x) thej3) sum y ⇢(t, y) ⇣(y) (329)
x) = dv m h[rx '(x particles xj )]f (t,byx,the
v)i integral (328)
we have XxjZ Z
Zx j 1
(t) 3
we have 1 ⇣(x j ) '
3 m3
d y ⇢(t, y) ⇣(y) (329)
Replacing for c(t,
some ' xj⇣(x)Zdv
x)function the sum Zd yover ⇢(t, all y) h[r x '(x byy)]f
particles the (t, x, v)i
integral
m1
c(t, x) ' X Z dvZ3 1 Z d 3
y 3⇢(t, y) h[rx '(x y)]f (t, x, v)i
we have 1m
= ⇣(x j) '
Z Zdv 3
ZZ 3 d y y)
d y ⇢(t, ⇢(t,
h[ y)r⇣(y)
y '(x y)]f (t, x, v)i (329)
1j 1
xm
m
Z dvdv 3Z 3 d3 y3⇢(t, y) h[rx '(x
c(t, x) '= d y ⇢(t, y) h[ ry '(x y)]f (t,
y)]f x,(t,
v)ix, v)i
1m
m
we have = Z Zdv 3 Z Zd3 y [r⇢(t, y)] h'(x y)f (t, x, v)i (330)
11 1Z
m Z
3 3 3 3
c(t, x) '= m dvdv d3dyy ⇢(t,
= dv d h[ y)]
y) h[r r'(x
y '(x y)]f (t, x, v)i
x h'(x y)]f
3 y [r⇢(t, y)f
⇢(t, y) (t,(t,
x,x, v)i
v)i (330)
mZm Z
11 Z 3
Z 3 60
=
= dv
dv 3 d d3 yy [r⇢(t,
⇢(t, y) y)]
h[ h'(x
r '(x y)f (t, x,
y)]f (t, v)i
x, v)i (330)
m
m 60 y
related
furthertothat
their temperature.
H(0) = 0, we may To write
estimate c, let us assume that the pair interaction force
Z
H can be derived from a pair potential X ', which means that H(r) = rr '(r). Assuming
3
further that H(0) =c(t, x) may
0, we = write dv h[rx '(x xj )]f (t, x, v)i (328)
Z X
xj (t)
3
c(t, x) = dv h[rx '(x xj )]f (t, x, v)i (328)
Replacing for some function ⇣(x) the sum over all particles by the integral
xj (t) Z
X 1
Replacing for some function ⇣(x) j) '
⇣(xthe sum over d3 yall⇢(t, y) ⇣(y)by the integral
particles (329)
xj
m Z
X 1 3
we have ⇣(x j ) ' d y ⇢(t, y) ⇣(y) (329)
xj Z Zm
1 3 3
we have c(t, x) ' dv d y ⇢(t, y) h[rx '(x y)]f (t, x, v)i
mZ ZZ
Z
11 3 3
c(t, x) '= dvdv 3 dd3yy⇢(t, ⇢(t,y)y)h[r
h[ xr'(x
y '(x y)]f (t, (t,
y)]f x, v)i
x, v)i
mm
ZZ ZZ
11 3 3
== dvdv 3 dd3yy⇢(t, y) h[y)]rh'(x
[r⇢(t, y '(x y)f
y)]f
(t,(t,
x,x,v)iv)i (330)
mm
Z Z
1
= dv 3 d3 y [r⇢(t, y)] h'(x y)f (t, x, v)i (330)
m 60

60
 m j
x1j
Z Zm
= dv 3 d3 y ⇢(t, y) h[ ry '(x y)]f (t, x, v)i
we have m
ZZ ZZ
11
c(t, x) =' dv33 dd33y [r⇢(t,
dv ⇢(t, y) y)]
h[rxh'(x
'(x y)f y)]f(t,
(t,x,
x,v)i
v)i
mm
Z Z
1
= dv 3 d3 y ⇢(t, y) h[ ry '(x y)]f (t, x, v)i
m 60
In general, it is impossible toZ simplify
Z this further without some explicit assumptions about
P 1 determines
initial distribution
= that dv 3 thed3 yaverage
[r⇢(t,h ·y)]
i. There
h'(x is however
y)f (t, one exception,
x, v)i (
namely, the case when m interactions are very short-range so that we can approximate the
In general,
potential by aitdelta-function,
is impossible to simplify this further without some explicit assumptions about
initial distribution P that determines the average h · i. There is however one exception,
3
namely, the case when interactions'(r)
are = 60
very0 a (r),
short-range so that we can approximate the(331)
potential by a delta-function, 3
where '0 is the interaction energy and a the e↵ective particle volume. In this case,
3
3 Z'(r) =Z 0 a (r), (331)
'0 a
where '0 is c(t, x) =
the interaction energy dv 3a3 the
and d3 ye↵ective
[r⇢(t, y)] h (xvolume.
particle y)f (t,Inx,this
v)icase,
m
Z Z Z
''00aa33
c(t, x) == dv 3 x)]d3 y [r⇢(t,
[r⇢(t, dv 3 h (x
y)]x,
hf (t, v)i y)f (t, x, v)i
mm
3 Z
' a3
'0 a [r⇢(t, x)] dv 3 hf (t, x, v)i
0
==
m2 [r⇢(t, x)]⇢(t, x)
m 3
= ''00aa3 [r⇢(t, x)]⇢(t,
2 x)
= m22 r⇢(t, x) (332)
2m 3
'0 a 2
=
Inserting this into (326), we have r⇢(t, x) (332)
2m2 thus derived the following hydrodynamic equations
Inserting this into (326), we have
@ thus derived the following hydrodynamic equations
⇢ + r · (⇢u) = 0 (333a)
@t
✓ @ ⇢ + r · (⇢u)
◆ = 0
@ (333a)
⇢ ✓@t + u · r◆ u = r · ⌅ + ⇢g(x), (333b)
 ' a 3
0 3
'0 a [r⇢(t, x)]⇢(t, x)
== m 2
2 [r⇢(t, x)]⇢(t, x)
m
'0 a33
= '0 a r⇢(t, x)22 (332)
= 2m22 r⇢(t, x) (332)
2m
Inserting this into (326), we have thus derived the following hydrodynamic equations
Inserting this into (326), we have thus derived the following hydrodynamic equations
@
@ ⇢ + r · (⇢u) = 0 (333a)
@t
✓@t ⇢ + r · (⇢u)
◆ = 0 (333a)
✓ @ ◆
⇢ @ + u · r u = r · ⌅ + ⇢g(x), (333b)
⇢ @t + u · r u = r · ⌅ + ⇢g(x), (333b)
@t
where
where 
 '0 a33 2
⌅ := ⇢(⌃ uu) + '0 a ⇢ I (333c)
⌅ := ⇢(⌃ uu) + 2m22 ⇢2 I (333c)
2m
is the stress tensor with I denoting unit matrix.
is theNote
stress tensor
that Eqs. with(333)I do
denoting
not yetunit formmatrix.
a closed system, due to the appearance of the
Note that Eqs.
second-moment (333)⌃.do This
tensor not yet is aform a closed system,
manifestation due to the hierarchy
of the well-known appearance of the
problem,
second-moment
encountered in all tensor ⌃. This
14 attempts to is a manifestation
derive hydrodynamic of equations
the well-known
from hierarchy problem,
microscopic models.
encountered 14
in allthe attempts
More precisely, hierarchy to derive means
problem hydrodynamic
that theequations from microscopic
time evolution models.
of the nth-moment
More
dependsprecisely,
on thattheof the Closure problem
hierarchy problem means
higher moments. that theapproach
The standard time evolution of the this
to overcoming nth-moment
obstacle
depends on that (guess)
is to postulate of the higher moments.
reasonable ad-hoc The standard
closure approach
conditions, to overcoming
which essentially this obstacle
means that
isone
to tries
postulate (guess)
to express reasonable
higher moments, ad-hoc
such asclosure conditions,
⌃, in terms whichmoments.
of the lower essentiallyFor
means
example, that
one tries to express
a commonly adopted higher moments,
closure condition suchisasthe⌃,ideal
in terms of thegas
isotropic lower moments. For example,
approximation
a commonly adopted closure condition is the ideal isotropic gas approximation
kT
⌃ uu = kT I, (334)
⌃ uu = m I, (334)
m
where T is the temperature and k the Boltzmann constant. For this closure condition,
where T is the
Eqs. (333a) andtemperature
(333b) become andtoka the Boltzmann
closed system for constant.
⇢ and u. For this closure condition,
Eqs. Traditionally,
(333a) and (333b) and inbecome to a closed
most practical system forone
applications, ⇢ and
doesu.not bother with microscopic
Traditionally,
derivations of ⌅; and in most
instead practical
one merely applications,
postulates that one does not bother with microscopic
derivations of ⌅; instead one merely postulates that
> > 2µ
⌅ = pI + µ(r u + ru ) 2µ (r · u), (335)
⌅ = pI + µ(r u + ru ) > > 3 (r · u), (335)
14
Except, perhaps for very trivial examples. 3
 depends
⇢ on that+ uof· the
r higher
u =moments.
r · ⌅ +The standard approach to overcoming
⇢g(x), (333b) this obstacle
one (guess)
@t
is to postulate tries to express
reasonable higher
ad-hoc moments,
closure conditions, such
which as ⌃, in terms
essentially of the lowe
means that
one tries toaexpress
commonly adopted
higher moments, suchclosure condition
as ⌃, in terms ismoments.
of the lower the ideal For isotropic
example, gas ap
a commonly adopted
 closure condition is the ideal isotropic gas approximation
'0 a 3 2 kT kT
⌅ := ⇢(⌃ uu) + ⇢ I ⌃ uu (333c)
=
I, (334)
2m⌃2 uu = m I, m
where
ress tensor with T is the temperature
I denoting unit matrix.and k the Boltzmann constant. For this closure condition,
Eqs. (333a)where T is the totemperature and k u.
the Boltzmann constant. Fo
that Eqs. (333) do notandyet(333b)
form become a closed system
a closed system, due toforthe
⇢ and
appearance of the
moment tensor ⌃. Eqs.
This is a(333a)
Traditionally, and and
in most (333b)
practical
manifestation becomeonetohierarchy
applications,
of the well-known a closed
does system
not bother for ⇢ and u.
with microscopic
problem,
derivations of ⌅; instead one merely postulates that
Traditionally,
ered in all14 attempts to derive hydrodynamic and in most
equations frompractical applications,
microscopic models. one does not
ecisely, the hierarchy problem means 2µ of the nth-moment
derivations ⌅ =ofthat
⌅;+ the
pI µ(r time
instead
> evolution
one
u + ru > merely
) postulates that (335)
(r · u),
on that of the higher moments. The standard approach to overcoming 3 this obstacle
14
Except, perhaps
stulate (guess) reasonable for veryclosure
ad-hoc trivial examples.
conditions, which essentially > means that> 2µ
wheremoments,
to express higher p(t, x) is the
suchpressure
as ⌃, in field and of
terms
⌅ lower
µ the
the =
dynamic pI + µ(rFor
viscosity,
moments. which ru
uexample,
+can be a) function(r · u),
of pressure,
where temperature
p(t, x) is the pressureetc. depending
field and µonthe the fluid.
dynamic Equations
viscosity, (333a)
which and
can (333b)
be a
3
com-
function
only adopted closure condition is the ideal isotropic 61 approximation
gas
bined with the
of pressure, 14empirical ansatz
temperature
Except, perhaps (335)forarevery
etc. depending the famous
on the Navier-Stokes
fluid.
trivial equations.
Equations (333a)
examples. and The second
(333b) com-
summand
bined withinthe Eq.empirical
(335) contains kT the
ansatz rate-of-strain
(335) tensor
are the famous Navier-Stokes equations. The second
⌃ uu = I, (334)
summand in Eq. (335) contains m the rate-of-strain tensor
1
E = (r> u + ru> ) 61 (336)
is the temperature and k the Boltzmann constant. 21 For this closure condition,
E = (r> u + ru> ) (336)
3a) and (333b) become to a closed system for ⇢2 and u.
and (r · u) is the rate-of-expansion of the flow.
itionally, and inFor most practical applications, one⇢ =does notthe bother with microscopic
and (rincompressible flow, defined by
· u) is the rate-of-expansion of the const.,
flow. Navier-Stokes equations simplify to
ons of ⌅; insteadFor oneincompressible
merely postulates that by ⇢ = const., the Navier-Stokes equations simplify to
flow, defined
r·u = 0 (337a)
> ✓ > 2µ
◆
⌅ = pI + µ(r u + ru @ ) u ·=u),0
r ·(r (335) (337a)
⇢ ✓ + u · r3◆u = rp + µr2 u + ⇢g. (337b)
@t@
t, perhaps for very trivial examples. ⇢ +u·r u = rp + µr2 u + ⇢g. (337b)
@t
In this case, one has to solve for (p, u).
In this case, one has to solve for (p, u).
61
14 The Navier-Stokes Equations
 @t
= 2µrus . (345)
hearing it. Fortunately, it happens that most simple fluids are Newtonia
conditions. In
So this
for case,
water,one has
oil, to
air solve
etc. itfor
is (p, u).
(ii) Non-Newtonian fluids: This encompasses all other cases. possible
often to approximate
That is, whenever the stress fl
wtonian.depends
Non-Newtonian
on the strain in aalso
more happens
complicated frequently
way, the fluid isin nature
called (e. g. liquid c
non-Newtonian.
riseWhich
to fascinating
of 14
these twoThe flow Navier-Stokes
phenomena,
possibilities happens can onlybutbethis is more
Equations
determined specialised.
experimentally for a par-
et’s ticular fluid. In general,
put everything whether and
together a fluidwrite
is non-Newtonian
down theorequations
not depends on forhow hard
Newtonian
you are shearing it. Fortunately, it happens th that most simple fluids are Newtonian under
e consider In
the the previous
equation forsection,
u i , the we
i have seen
component how of one
the can deduce
velocity,
ordinary conditions. So for water, oil, air etc. it is often possible to approximate fluids as
the
this gene
is
dynamic
being Newtonian. equations also
Non-Newtonian from purely
happens macroscopic
✓
frequently in nature considerations
◆
(e. g. liquid crystals)and an
riseDu
and gives one tocan
i deriveflow
fascinating @pphenomena,X
macroscopic but @ is1 more@uspecialised.
continuum
this equations
j @ui from an underly
⇢ put everything
Now let’s = together+and 2µwrite down the equations+for Newtonian viscous
ForDt the remainder @x of this course,
i th @x jwe
2 will@x return
i @x to
j the macroscopic
flow. If we consider the equation for ui , the i component of the velocity, this is
Sec. 6.1. ✓ 2 ◆
=
Dui ri p@p
+ µriX (r @· u)
1 +@ujµr@uui i .
⇢ = + 2µ +
Dt @xi @xj 2 @xi @xj
14.1
fluid density Viscosity
doesn’t change
= rvery
i p + µrmuch
i (r · u) we ui . seen that r · u(346)
+ µrhave
2 = 0, an
ditions the Navier-Stokes
When theA main
fluid insight
density
equations
doesn’tfrom
changethe
for fluid motion
verydiscussion
much we have inseen
thethatare
previous
r · u = 0,section is that
and under
given the
these conditions in Navier-Stokes
Sec. 6.1.2, do not account
equations for one
for fluid motion arefinal element needed to co
Du 2
= rp + µr
fluid equations:⇢ viscosity.
Du Viscous 2
stresses
u. try to stop relative motio
Dt ⇢ = rp + µr u.
of the fluid. AnotherDtway of saying this is that wherever there is a ra
(347)

a stress acts to reduce the strain.

64 As with pressure, viscosity has its o
64
forces and momentum transfer across a surface.
To understand more about viscosity, let’s first have a general
 @u
complicated!) process? Interestingly, one
⇢
properties are the same) then ru can
= show
⇢u ·parameter
+the rp
µ +that
is
2 if the fluid is both assumed to be
µrthat
all u +isfext ,
needed. (348)
@t
both incompressible and isotropic (i.e., whichever way you look at the fluid it’s macroscopic
properties
as well as are the same) then
incompressibility rthe parameter
·u = µ is that
0. Now note all that
the is needed.has five terms in it. The
equation
14.2 The Reynolds number
first two have to do with inertia and the third is pressure gradient, the fourth is viscosity
andFor
14.2 an
theThe incompressible
fifth Reynolds
is an external flow,
number we have
force. established
In many that the
situations, allequations
of these terms of motion are are
not equally
important. The most trivial situation is a static situation. Here all of the terms involving
For an incompressible flow, we @u have established that the equations 2 of motion are
the velocity are zero, and the⇢only+nonzero ⇢u · ruterms = rp are+the µrpressure
u + fext ,gradient and the external (348)
@t
forces. There are many other @u possibilities. The most 2difficult part is to figure out in any
as well situation
as incompressibility⇢ + ·⇢u
r u =· ru0. in = rp
Now +that
µr the u +equation
fext , (348)
particular which of @t the terms thenoteequation are large, haswhich
and five terms in it.
are small. The
In
first two
di↵erent have
limits to Navier-Stokes
the do with inertiaequations and the third contain is pressure
all of the gradient,
important the fourth
classes isofviscosity
partial
as well as incompressibility
and the equations
fifth is an (i.e., r
external · u = 0. Now
force. equation, note that
In many situations, the equation
all of thesehas five
termsterms in it. The
are not equally
di↵erential di↵usion Laplace’s equation, wave equations) which
first important.
two have toThe do most
with trivial
inertiasituation
and the is third is pressure gradient,
Here allthe of fourth is viscosity
are usually considered. In the next lecture awestatic shallsituation.
find an example the has
which terms involving
within it a
and the
the velocity
fifth is arean external force. In many situations, all of these terms are not equally
di↵usion equation. zero, and the only nonzero terms are the pressure gradient and the external
important.
forces. The most
There are trivialother
many situation is a static situation. Here all partof the
to terms involving
An important parameter thatpossibilities.
indicates theThe most importance
relative difficult ofisviscous
figureand
outinertial
in any
the velocity
particular aresituation
zero, andwhich
the onlythe nonzero
terms terms in the are the pressure gradientwhich and theare external
forces in a given situation is of the Reynolds number. equation
Suppose are large,
we areand looking at a small.
problem In
forces. Therelimits
di↵erent are many other possibilities.
the Navier-Stokes equations Thecontain
most difficult
all of thepart is to figure
important outofinpartial
classes any
where the characteristic velocity scale is U0 , and the characteristic length scale for variation
di↵erential
particular equations
situation which(i.e.,
of the di↵usion
terms in equation,
the equation Laplace’s are equation,
large, andwave which equations)
are small.which In
of the velocity is L. Then the size of the terms in the equation are
are usually
di↵erent limits theconsidered. In the next
Navier-Stokes equationslecturecontain
we shall allfind an example
of the important which has of
classes within
partialit a
di↵usionequations
di↵erential equation.(i.e.,
@u di↵usion
U02 equation, Laplace’sU02 equation, µUwave
0 equations) which
2
are usually An important In ⇠
considered.parameterthe ,
nextthat u
lecture· ru
indicates ⇠
we the
shall ,relative
find µr
an u ⇠
importance
example 2
. of
which viscous
has and
within (349)
inertial
it a
@t L L L
forcesequation.
di↵usion in a given situation is the Reynolds number. Suppose we are looking at a problem
The An ratio
where of the
the
important inertial
characteristic
parameterterms thatto indicates
velocity the
scale viscous 0 , term
is Uthe and is characteristic
the
relative importance length of viscous scaleand
for variation
inertial
forcesof in
thea velocity is L. Then
given situation the Reynolds
is the size of the terms in Suppose the equation are looking at a problem
⇢U02 /L number. ⇢U0 L we are
where the characteristic velocity scale is U ,=andµthe2= Re,
characteristic length scale for variation (350)
@u U02 µU0 /L20 U0 µU 0
of the velocity is L. Then the⇠size ,of theuterms · ru ⇠in the µr2 u are
, equation ⇠ 2 . (349)
@t L L L
and this is called the Reynolds number, Re. When the Reynolds number is very high the
flowThe ratio of
is rather inviscid, @u
the inertial
and U02 the
terms
when to the viscous
Reynolds U 2
0term isis low
number µU0 is very viscous. Honey
⇠ , u · ru ⇠ , µr2 uthe ⇠ flow 2
. (349)
is at low Reynolds number @t L turbulence
and L L
⇢U02 /L is at⇢Uhigh 0 L Reynolds number. For low Reynolds
The ratio of the inertial terms to theµU viscous =
2 termµis
= Re, (350)
0 /L
2
65
and this is called the Reynolds⇢U 0 /L
number, =
⇢U0When
Re. L
= the Reynolds number is very high
Re, (350)the
µU 2
flow is rather inviscid, and when 0 /L
the Reynolds µ number is low the flow is very viscous. Honey
is at low Reynolds number and turbulence is at high Reynolds number. For low Reynolds
and this is called the Reynolds number, Re. When the Reynolds number is very high the
flow is rather inviscid, and when the Reynolds number is low the flow is very viscous. Honey