The Price of Poor

Electrical Installations
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ramifications of shoddy electrical work

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A compilation of
technical articles from
Welcome
T
he dangers associated with sub-stan-
dard and non-Code-compliant electri-
cal installations are far too great to
ignore ― especially when it comes to
home safety. These sobering statistics help
drive this point home.
From 2010 to 2014, the National Fire Pro-
tection Association estimated an average of
45,210 home fires were caused by electrical
failure or malfunction, resulting in an esti-
mated 420 deaths, 1,370 injuries, and $1.4 bil-
lion in property damage each year. According
to a data sheet posted on the Electrical Safety
Foundation International (ESFI) website (dated
Feb. 4, 2015), electrical distribution systems
are the third leading cause of home structure
fires and each year in the United States, arcing
faults are responsible for starting more than
28,000 home fires, killing and injuring hundreds
of people, and causing over $700 million in
property damage.
Safe electrical installations should be prior-
ity #1 for electrical professionals. That’s why
we’ve assembled a group of five articles to help
drive home the importance of electrical safety
in the residential sector.
The first article zeros in on the most common
bonding & grounding errors made on residen-
tial wiring systems. These Top 10 mistakes can
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MIKE EBY
Senior Director of Content, EC&M
lead to electric shock and fire hazards. The
second article reminds us of the importance of
properly labeling all circuits in a panelboard.
The third article does a masterful job of show-
ing us how to identify and avoid unwanted
overheating situations due to excessive cur-
rent, poor connections and insulation break-
down. The fourth article brings in a personal,
human element into our discussion of safety,
reminding us all why it’s so important to be vigi-
lant on this front. The final article was selected
from our very popular Forensic Casebook se-
ries. In this story, a forensic engineer presents
a case study on how a damaged service drop
cable, which was placed back in service after
it was damaged, produced transient voltages
high enough to create arcing in two residential
branch circuits. This started two different fires
in a house, which fortunately caused no injuries
but could have easily burned the house down
if no one was present when they started.
The advice provided by this group of in-
dustry experts and the lessons learned from
their years of industry experience are well
worth your time. So take advantage of this
unique opportunity we’re presenting, and
spend time studying the following group of
articles carefully. You and your customers will
be glad you did.
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 2
Contents

IN THIS ISSUE

The 10 Worst Grounding Mistakes You’ll Ever Make

Why common errors in residential wiring can lead to
fire and electric shock hazards................................................................................................4

Circuit Directory or Identification Requirements

Per Sec. 408.4(A) of the 2017 National Electrical Code, every circuit in a
circuit panel must be identified as to its specific purpose or use.................................... 13

The Basics of Electrical Overheating

Practical tips for identifying and reducing the most common causes
of electrical fires.................................................................................................................... 14

You Can’t Afford Not to Take Safety Seriously

Personal reflection reminds us why development and enforcement of a
safety culture is so important............................................................................................... 18

The Case of the Service Cable Arcing Incident

After two fires break out simultaneously in home, forensic investigation
uncovers defect in service drop that produced transient voltages high
enough to create arcing in two branch circuits.................................................................. 20

Cover photo by DarthArt / iStock / Getty Images Plus

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The 10 Worst
Grounding Mistakes
You’ll Ever Make
Why common errors in residential wiring can
lead to fire and electric shock hazards.

By David Herres, Master Electrician

P
roper grounding and bonding pre-
vent unwanted voltage on non-cur-
rent-carrying metal objects, such as
tool and appliance casings, raceways,
and enclosures, as well as facilitate the correct
operation of overcurrent devices. But beware
of wiring everything to a ground rod and con-
sidering the job well done. There are certain
subtleties you must follow to adhere to appli-
cable NEC rules and provide safe installations
to the public and working personnel. Although
Photo 1. This non-grounding receptacle is typical of those
ground theory is a vast subject, on which found in older homes across the country.

whole volumes have been written, let’s take a

look at some of the most common grounding
errors you may run into on a daily basis.
Editor’s Note: Given its original publication date,
this article is based on the requirements in the
2008 Edition of the National Electrical Code (NEC).
1. IMPROPER REPLACEMENT OF NON-
GROUNDING RECEPTACLES.
Dwellings and non-dwellings often contain
non-grounding receptacles (Photo 1). It’s not
the NEC’s intent to immediately replace all
noncompliant equipment with each new edi-
tion of the Code. In fact, it’s perfectly fine to

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leave the old “two prongers” in place. But
because an intact functioning equipment
ground is such an obvious safety feature,
most electricians tend to replace these old
relics whenever possible.
There are several ways you can complete
this upgrade, many of which are erroneous
and strictly against the Code. For example,
never apply the following non-NEC-compliant
solutions:
• Hook up a new grounding receptacle on
the theory that this is a step in the right
direction. This can lead future electricians
and occupants to believe they are fully
protected by a non-functioning ground
receptacle.
• Connect the green grounding terminal of a
grounded receptacle via a short jumper to
the grounded neutral conductor. This prac-
tice is totally noncompliant and dangerous
because when a load is connected, voltage
will appear on both the neutral and ground
wires. Therefore, any noncurrent-carrying
appliance or tool case will become ener-
gized, causing shock to the user, who is
typically partially or totally grounded.
• Run an individual ground conductor from
the green grounding terminal of a ground-
ed receptacle to the nearest water pipe
or other grounded object. This “floating
ground” presents various hazards. It is
likely that this ground rod of convenience
will have several ohms of ground resis-
tance so that, in case of ground fault within
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a connected tool or appliance, the breaker
will not trip — and exposed metal will re-
main energized.
• Run an individual ground conductor back to
the entrance panel, and connect it to the
neutral bar or grounding strip. This solution
is somewhat better, but still noncompliant.
Any grounding conductor must be within
the circuit cable or raceway. One objection
is that an individual conductor could be
damaged or removed in the course of work
taking place in the future.
What are the correct ways to handle this
type of situation, when you find yourself work-
ing with non-grounded receptacles?
• The best approach is to run a new branch
circuit back to the panel, verifying presence
of a valid ground. Since this procedure usu-
ally involves fishing cable behind walls or,
in some cases, removing and then replacing
wall finish, it’s not always feasible unless a
total rewiring job is being performed.
• Another possibility is to replace the two-
prong receptacle with a GFCI. Hook up the
two wires, and leave the grounding termi-
nal unattached. Included with the GFCI is a
sticker that says, “No equipment ground.”
This sticker must be in place so that future
electricians and users are not misled. The
thinking behind this strategy is that even
though the tool or appliance case is not
grounded, the GFCI will provide enhanced
safety. It’s important to note that a GFCI
functions properly without the presence
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 5
 of a grounding conductor. The device com-
pares current flowing through the hot and
neutral conductors and trips if a difference
of more than 5 milliamps is detected.
• Non-grounding receptacles are still manu-
factured. If replacement is necessary (and
acquiring a ground is not feasible), instal-
lation of a new non-grounding receptacle
is a way to go.
2. INSTALLATION OF A SATELLITE DISH,
TELEPHONE, CATV, OR OTHER LOW-VOLTAGE
EQUIPMENT WITHOUT PROPER GROUNDING.
If you look at a number of satellite dish in-
stallations in your neighborhood, a certain
percentage will inevitably not be grounded at
all. Of those that are grounded, there is still
a high probability many are not fully compli-
ant. For example, the grounding electrode
conductor could be too long, too small, have
unlisted clamps at terminations, have excess
bends, or be connected to a single ground rod
but not be bonded to other system grounds.
For NEC purposes, a satellite dish is an
antenna, and installation requirements are
found in Chapter 8, Communications Systems.
Article 810, Radio and Television Equipment,
details the installation requirements. Part II
deals with receiving Equipment — Antenna
Systems. This type of equipment, which in-
cludes the satellite dish, must have a listed
antenna discharge unit, which can be either
outside the building or inside between the
point of entrance of the lead-in conductors
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and the receiver — and as near as possible to
the entrance of the conductors to the building.
The antenna discharge unit is not to be lo-
cated near combustible material and certainly
not within a hazardous (classified) location.
The antenna discharge unit must be
grounded. The grounding conductor is usu-
ally copper; however, you can use aluminum
or copper-clad aluminum if it’s not in contact
with masonry or earth. Outside, aluminum or
copper-clad aluminum cannot be within 18
inches of the earth.
Photo 2. Grounding means for a satellite dish must be
located at the point of entrance to the building. In this par-
ticular installation, the grounding conductor is integral with
the coax from the dish, but the installer did not bond it to
the other system grounds.
The grounding conductor can be bare or
insulated, stranded or solid, and must be se-
curely fastened in place and run in a straight
line from the discharge unit to the grounding
electrode (Photo 2). If the building has an in-
tersystem bonding termination, the grounding
conductor is to be connected to it or to one
of the following:
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 6
• Grounding electrode system.
• Grounded interior metal water piping sys-
tem within 5 feet of point of entrance to
the building.
• Power service accessible grounding means
external to the building.
• Metallic power service raceway.
• Service equipment enclosure.
• Grounding electrode conductor or its metal
enclosure.
If this grounding conductor is installed
within a metal raceway, you must bond the
metal raceway to it at both ends. For this rea-
son, if raceway is deemed necessary for extra
protection, UL-listed PVC (rigid non-metallic
conduit) is generally used. The grounding
conductor must be no smaller than 10 AWG
copper.
Where separate electrodes are used, you
must connect the antenna discharge unit
grounding means to the premises power
system grounding system by a 6 AWG copper
conductor. Needless to say, grounding a sat-
ellite dish goes well beyond simply driving a
ground rod at the point of entrance.
Grounding for CATV is slightly different.
Typically, CATV is brought into the building via
coaxial cable, which has a center conductor,
insulating spacer, and outer electrical shield.
Because of the spacer, capacitive coupling
is diminished so that the cable provides a
high-quality signal for data, voice, and video
transmission. Improper grounding of coaxial
cable used for CATV is very common.
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There is no antenna discharge unit as re-
quired for satellite dish installation. Instead,
the shield of the coaxial cable is connected to
an insulated grounding conductor that is lim-
ited to copper but may be stranded or solid.
The grounding conductor is 14 AWG minimum
so that it has current-carrying capacity ap-
proximately equal to the outer shield of the
coaxial cable.
The major distinguishing characteristic
is that for one- and two-family homes the
grounding conductor cannot exceed 20 feet in
length and should preferably be shorter. If a
grounding electrode, such as the Intersystem
Bonding Termination, is not within 20 feet, it
is necessary to drive a ground rod for that
purpose. However, even after this dedicated
grounding means is established, in order to
be NEC-compliant, the installation must have
a bonding jumper not smaller than 6 AWG or
equivalent, which is connected between the
CATV system’s grounding electrode and the
power grounding electrode system for the
building. Omitting this jumper is a serious
Code violation, second only to no ground-
ing at all. You must bond all system grounds,
antenna, power, CATV, telephone, and so on
with a heavy bonding jumper.
3. NON-INSTALLATION OF GFCIS WHERE
REQUIRED. RECENT CODE EDITIONS HAVE
MANDATED INCREASED USE OF GFCIs.
In dwelling units, GFCIs are required on all
125V, single-phase, 15A and 20A receptacles in:
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 7
bathrooms; garages; accessory buildings with
a floor at or below grade level not intended
as a habitable room, limited to storage, work
and similar areas; outdoors; kitchens along
countertops; within 6 feet of outside edge of
laundry, utility, and wet bar sinks; and boat-
houses. In other than dwelling units, GFCIs
are required on all 125V, single-phase, 15A
and 20A receptacles in bathrooms, kitchens,
rooftops, outdoors, and within 6 feet of the
outside edge of sinks.
Other areas requiring the use of GFCIs include:
boat hoists, aircraft hangars, drinking fountains,
cord- and plug-connected vending machines,
high-pressure spray washers, hydromassage
bathtubs, carnivals, circuses, fairs (and the like),
electrically operated pool covers, portable or
mobile electric signs, electrified truck parking
space supply equipment, elevators, dumbwait-
ers, escalators, moving walks, platform lifts/
stairway chairlifts, fixed electric space heating
cables, fountains, commercial garages, electri-
cal equipment for naturally and artificially made
bodies of water, pipeline heating, therapeutic
pools and tubs, boathouses, construction
sites, healthcare facilities, marinas/boatyards,
pools, recreational vehicles, sensitive electronic
equipment, spas, and hot tubs.
4. IMPROPERLY CONNECTING THE
EQUIPMENT-GROUNDING CONDUCTOR TO
THE SYSTEM NEUTRAL.
You must connect a grounded neutral con-
ductor to normally noncurrent-carrying metal
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parts of equipment, raceways, and enclosures
only through the main bonding jumper (or,
in the case of a separately derived system,
through a system bonding jumper). Make
this connection at the service disconnecting
means, not downstream. When you buy a new
entrance panel, a screw or other main bonding
jumper is usually included in the packaging.
Attached to it are instructions stipulating that
it is to be installed only when the panel is to
be used as service equipment.
It’s a major error to install a main bonding
jumper in a box used as a subpanel fed by a
4-wire feeder. It’s also wrong not to install it
when the panel is used as service equipment.
Improper redundant connection of grounded
neutral to equipment-grounding conductors
can result in objectionable circulating current
and presence of voltage on metal tool or ap-
pliance casings. You should connect grounded
neutral and equipment-grounding conductors
at the service disconnect. Then separate them
— never to rejoin again. Additional optional
Photo 3. You should only connect grounded neutral con-
ductors and equipment grounding conductors at the panel.
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 8
ground rods may be connected anywhere
along the equipment-grounding conductor
but never to the grounded neutral.

5. IMPROPERLY GROUNDING FRAMES OF

ELECTRIC RANGES AND CLOTHES DRYERS.
Prior to the 1996 version of the NEC, it was
common practice to use the neutral as an
equipment ground. Now, however, all frames
of electric ranges, wall-mounted ovens, coun-
ter-mounted cooking units, clothes dryers,
and outlet or junction boxes that are part of
these circuits must be grounded by a fourth
wire: the equipment-grounding conductor.
An exception permits retention of the pre-
1996 arrangement for existing branch-circuit
installations only where an equipment-
grounding conductor is not present. Several
other conditions must be met. If possible, the Photo 4. Prior to the 2008 Edition of the NEC, submersible
best course of action is to run a new 4-wire pumps were not required to be grounded.

branch circuit from the panel. If you must

keep an old appliance, be sure to remove the
neutral to frame bonding jumper if an equip-
ment-grounding conductor is to be connected.
6. FAILURE TO GROUND SUBMERSIBLE
WELL PUMPS.
At one time, submersible well pumps were not
required to be grounded because they were
not considered accessible. However, it was
noted that workers would pull the pump, lay
it on the ground, and energize it to see if it
would spin. If, due to a wiring fault, the case
became live, the overcurrent device would not
function, causing a shock hazard. The 2008
NEC requires a fourth equipment-grounding
conductor that you must now lug to the top
of the well casing. Many people assume that
in a 3-wire submersible pump system one
wire is a “ground.” In actuality, submersible
pump cable consists of three wires (plus
equipment-grounding conductor) twisted
together and unjacketed. Yellow is a common
240V leg, black is run, and red is start, which
the control box energizes for a short period of
time. Prior to the new grounding requirement,
everything was hot.

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7. FAILURE TO PROPERLY ATTACH THE
GROUND WIRE TO ELECTRICAL DEVICES.
Wiring daisy-chained devices in such a
way that removing one of them breaks the
equipment grounding continuity is a com-
mon problem. The preferred way to ground
a wiring device is to connect incoming and
outgoing equipment-grounding conductors
to a short bare or green jumper. The bare or
green insulated jumper is then connected to
the grounding terminal of the device.
8. FAILURE TO INSTALL A SECOND GROUND
ROD WHERE REQUIRED.
A single ground rod that does not have a re-
sistance to ground of 25 ohms or less must
be augmented by a second ground rod. Once
the second ground rod is installed, it’s not
necessary for the two to meet the resistance
requirement. As a practical matter, few elec-
tricians do the resistance measurement.
Non-overlapping effective resistance areas reduce net
resistance.
You cannot use a simple ohmmeter be-
cause that would require a known perfect
ground. Special equipment and procedures
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are needed, so it’s common practice to simply
drive a second ground rod. You must locate
them at least 6 feet apart. Greater distance is
even better (Figure). If both rods and the bare
ground electrode conductor connecting them
are directly under the drip line of the roof,
ground resistance will be further diminished.
This is because the soil along this line is more
moist. Ground resistance greatly increases
when soil becomes dry.
9. FAILURE TO PROPERLY REATTACH METAL
RACEWAY THAT IS USED AS AN EQUIPMENT-
GROUNDING CONDUCTOR.
When equipment is relocated, replaced, or
removed for repair, many times equipment
ground paths are broken. If these connections
are not fixed, there’s an accident waiting to
happen (Photo 5). Setscrews, locknuts, and
threads should be fully engaged and continu-
ity tests performed before equipment is put
back into service. Dirt and corrosion can also
compromise ground continuity.
Photo 5. Standard locknuts or bushings shall not be the
sole connection for grounding purposes.
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 10
 NEC Article 250.4 requires that electrical
equipment, wiring, and other electrically con-
ductive material likely to become energized
shall be installed in a manner that creates a
low-impedance circuit from any point on the
wiring system to the electrical supply source
to facilitate the operation of overcurrent
devices.
10. FAILURE TO BOND EQUIPMENT GROUND
TO WATER PIPE.
Improper connections are often seen in the
field. Screw clamps and other improvised
connections do not provide permanent low
impedance bonding. The worst method would
be to just wrap the wire around the pipe or to
omit this bonding altogether.
Photo 6. Someone used a water pipe clamp to improperly
connect a ground wire to this ground rod.
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In a dwelling, a conductor must be run to
metallic water pipe, if present, and connected
with a UL-listed pipe grounding clamp (Photo
6). This bonding conductor is to be sized ac-
cording to Table 250.66, based on the size
of the largest ungrounded service entrance
conductor or equivalent area for parallel
conductors.
Herres is a licensed master electrician in Stew-
artstown, N.H. He can be reached at electri-
ciansparadise@hughes.net.
To view this article online, click here.
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LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 11
schneider-electric.us/simplysmarter

*Source: Argent Global independent study

Circuit Directory or
Identification Requirements
Per Sec. 408.4(A) of the 2017 National Electrical Code,
every circuit in a circuit panel must be identified as to
its specific purpose or use.

By Mark Lamendola, Electrical Consultant

Photo by KenTannenbaum / iStock / Getty Images Plus

I
n a circuit panel, every circuit must be iden-
tified as to its specific purpose or use [as
per Sec. 408.4(A) of the National Electrical
Code]. This identification must be made:
• In a circuit directory that is located on the face
or inside of the panel door (panel boards).
• At each switch or circuit breaker (switch- • Handwritten ink on top of poorly applied
boards or switchgear). correction fluid, denoting a change from the
Often, compliance with this rule fails to original.
embrace the rationale behind it. Instead of • Stick-on tags that don’t stay put after some
a type-written, accurate, clear circuit name, time in service
what do some installers leave? Some ex- These problems exist because of the “after-
amples include: thought” attitude toward this Code rule. The
• Handwritten (in smudged pencil) illegible solution is to plan this identification from the
scrawl. drawings. Labels made using the correct meth-
• For the sake of space, one or more mysterious ods and materials should be provided to the
abbreviations. electricians to affix where needed.
• Vague description because the electrician
was too tired after ten hours of pulling wire To view this article online, click here.
to whip out a brilliantly composed descrip-
tion on the spot. ☛ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

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The Basics of
Electrical Overheating
Practical tips for identifying and reducing the
most common causes of electrical fires

By Chris Korinek, P.E., Synergy Technologies LLC

A
s an electrician, you’ve probably
seen or at least heard about elec-
trical fires. Fortunately, they are
not an everyday occurrence. In my
experience as a forensic engineer, there are
three main independent modes of electri-
cal overheating that lead to electrical fires:
excessive current, poor connections, and
insulation breakdown. There is a rare fourth
mode — inductive heating — which will not be
discussed in this article.
Excessive current is rare because circuit
breakers and fuses (if sized correctly) typically
protect against this occurrence.
Poor connections can be very efficient at
overheating, because they can generate a high
wattage over a small area for a long period of
time. This is evidenced in the research from
William J. Meese and Robert W. Beausoliel in
the “Exploratory Study of Glowing Electrical
Connections,” published by the National Bu-
reau of Standards, and NFPA 921, the “Guide
Photo 1. A glowing connection from a lab experiment with
12 AWG conductor carrying 12A. The overheating was
caused by a loose connection.
for Fire and Explosion Investigations” from
NFPA. If the watt density is high enough, the
connection will glow. An oxide actually forms
at the (loose) contact area, and the resistance
of the oxide causes the I2R power dissipation.
Photo 1 shows a glowing connection at a
common receptacle with a current of 12A with
a 12 AWG conductor. If we’re lucky, proper
enclosing of these connections will keep
an occurrence like this from igniting nearby
combustibles, such as wood and cellulose
insulation. Even though a poor connection is

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Photo 2. The photos above show evidence of oxide buildup and small areas of melting due to the series arcing on the wire
and the underside of the screw.
hazardous, there is currently no way to detect
a poor connection as soon as it begins. A GFCI
or AFCI may sense a poor connection after
some electrical insulation becomes conduc-
tive and leakage current occurs (5 mA or 30
mA, respectively).
The red circles in Photo 2 show evidence
of oxide buildup and small areas of melting
due to the series arcing on the wire and the
underside of the screw.
One of the more misunderstood modes of
overheating is insulation breakdown. On one
hand, we know how frayed cords can cause
overheating when the insulation is defeated,
and strands of the hot wire touch strands of
the neutral or ground wire (see Stand Your
Ground). This causes a parallel short circuit
and arc — and sparks may be ejected/can
ignite nearby fine combustibles, such as
paper. However, there are other ways for an
overheating occurrence to ignite into flaming
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combustion, one of which is called arc track-
ing, according to Sec. 8.9.4.5. of NFPA 921, the
“Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations.”
With wet arc tracking, a conductive liquid
makes contact with an electrical circuit. Leak-
age current across an insulator can begin and
grow to arc tracking, which can glow and be hot
Stand Your Ground
Historically, grounding has been present
primarily for shock protection when actually it
has increased the risk of fire. A poor connection
in a ground conductor network (possibly with
conduit or armored cable) carrying current can
certainly be a fire hazard, especially when the
grounding conductor has been neglected under
the rationalization that “it is only a ground”
and thereby not important. A GFCI and AFCI can
protect against both shock and fire hazards
when a ground is present.
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 15
Photo 3. Lab-induced dry arc tracking (left) and wet arc tracking (right).
enough to ignite combustibles. Some examples
of this are salt water on aquarium electrical
devices or the rinse aid in a dishwasher leaking
onto internal wiring. If this liquid bridges be-
tween energized and nonenergized conductors,
current can flow through the liquid and heat
Photo 4. Close-up view of the inside of the microswitch in
which the arc tracking occurred between the contacts in the
area shown by the red oval.
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plastic insulation supporting the conductors.
Over time, this current can degrade the
plastic, turning a hydrocarbon into elemental
carbon, which is semi-conductive. This carbon
itself can then conduct increasing amounts of
leakage current, which can then glow and ig-
nite combustible gases coming off the plastic
material. Dry arc tracking can occur without a
liquid and may begin by the thermal degrada-
tion in the vicinity of a poor connection, such
as that seen in Photo 1. Photo 3 illustrates lab-
induced dry arc tracking and wet arc tracking
situations on a plug face and microswitch,
respectively.
Photo 4 depicts a close-up of the inside of
the microswitch in which the wet arc track-
ing occurred between the contacts in the
area shown by the red oval. In this case, the
degraded carbon in the plastic conducted
current across its surface to cause the over-
heating.
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 16
 What are some of the things that can be
done to improve electrical safety other than
following the NEC and additional common
requirements?
• Install GFCIs indoors, if possible, so they
don’t get wet. GFCIs can overheat and be-
come a fire hazard or fail to operate and
become a shock hazard if they are wet.
• Think critically about hazardous or marginal
applications and locations (saw mills, dusty
areas, pool pump rooms), and consider
Potential Problem Areas
Some commonly known defective wiring practices
that can lead to electrical fires include:
• Loose connections.
• Aluminum and copper conductors spliced together
with an incorrect connector. Aluminum oxide
causes overheating.
• Some insulation piercing connectors when applied
incorrectly can make poor connections due to in-
sufficient contact area or pressure.
Some fairly unknown or rare issues include:
• NM cable, if placed against sharp edges of steel
truss nailing plates, can have its insulation cut.
This can cause overheating as current flows from
the “hot” conductor to the steel through the sharp
edge, and finally to the neutral or ground conductor
(most likely due to a poor connection). If the cable
is not secured sufficiently — and stress is placed
on the cable — this can also cause the insulation to
be cut. It is believed that wires lightly contacting
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upgrading from an indoor to a hazardous-
rated enclosure.
• Avoid the poor wiring practices, as noted
in Potential Problem Areas.
Korinek, P.E., is a forensic engineer and president
of Synergy Technologies LLC in Cedarburg, Wis.
He can be reached at Chris@Synergytech.net.
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the sharp edge can allow heating without tripping
a circuit breaker.
• Appliances with water involved (such as dish-
washers and aquariums) can be fire and shock
hazards. Precautions can be taken, however,
such as installing GFCIs or AFCIs with sufficient
grounding systems to lessen shock and fire
hazards.
• Low-voltage applications (such as high-current
landscape lighting) with field connections that
are exposed to combustibles, such as wood
siding, can be dangerous. A glowing connection
drawing 15A or more can generate significant
heat and may ignite these combustibles. I have
heard professionals say, “It’s only 12V; it should
be safe.” Of course, this is safe for a shock con-
cern, but it’s definitely dangerous from a fire
standpoint, as overheating due to a poor con-
nection is a function of current and is generally
independent of voltage.
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 17
You Can’t Afford Not to
Take Safety Seriously
Personal reflection reminds us why development
and enforcement of a safety culture is so important.

By Gerald Talbot, Mister Sparky

W
e all like to be healthy, feel good,
and make money in our busi-
ness pursuits. So sometimes,
when faced with preventive
measures, we tend to flow in the path of least

Photo by comussu / iStock / Getty Images Plus

resistance (no pun intended). All you want is
to make a profit, right? But then the van trans-
mission goes out, an angry customer demands
his money back, your best technician quits,
and there’s that mechanic who’s always trying
to sell you new tires every time you get an oil
change… you get the picture. These things can
really set you on edge, causing you to pinch
every penny in an attempt to make a profit. factory was happily cutting and stacking up-
Let’s be honest. Sometimes safety can feel holstery to be used in an upcoming order until
like another hurdle to jump over that ulti- one day an explosion changed everything.
mately slows your business to a crawl. But let After hearing the loud boom, many workers
me tell you a quick story that demonstrates rushed out of the building as the factory
why this is type of thinking is flawed. filled with smoke as isolated fires broke out.
Back in the 1970s, there was an upholstery Noticing everyone wasn’t out of the building,
factory in Columbus, Ga. Money was flowing, one man ran back in to tell workers in the
and business was booming. Everyone in the basement to evacuate. As they made their

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way out of the burning structure, another,
bigger explosion occurred, leaving many more
people trapped inside. Those still left in the
basement, including the person who ran in
to save them, found a man lying underneath
a table, after the fires had been put out and
the smoke had cleared. That man was my
grandfather, Marvin Talbot. He, along with
several others, died at the upholstery plant
that tragic day. Unlike many children my age,
I grew up without a grandfather, and the loss
still affects my family to this day.
Later, after conducting a fire investigation,
authorities determined the second explosion
was preventable. Caused by dust particles
from the upholstery the workers were cut-
ting, the fire would not have occurred if the
company had simply installed a dust collec-
tion system.
Most of us have undoubtedly seen or expe-
rienced unsafe conditions at work. The bot-
tom line is we cannot overlook these hazards.
It is our duty to protect the men and women
working every day in our trade. It’s not just
about money; it’s about what we stand to
lose if we don’t protect ourselves. Our fellow
colleagues who have lost their lives to on-
the-job accidents in this industry serve as the
greatest reminder that no one is invincible in
the workplace.
Following are some safety tips that have
worked well in our business:
1) Consider implementation of personal pro-
tective equipment (PPE).
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2) Give awards based on safety as well as
performance.
3) Perform random job-site visits to ensure
safety culture acceptance.
4) Set goals for your team to lower your rate
of frequency of incidents.
5) Consider using pit boards in attics to avoid
falling through ceilings.
6) Implement the “Circle of Safety” (e.g., ev-
eryone at your company looks out for each
other) for all employees.
Remember that frequency often relates to
severity. Thus, if you want to spot an accident
waiting to happen, inspect the tasks you do
the most. Starting a safety culture at your
business — and making sure everyone leads
by example — is the first step in boosting
safety awareness among all employees.
Talbot is a licensed, master electrician in Geor-
gia, where he was born and raised. He has been
in the industry for 17 years and is currently the
operations manager for Mister Sparky Atlanta,
where he manages a team of technicians. In his
spare time, he plays with his kids, volunteers,
and is flipping his fourth house. He can be
reached at gerald.talbot@mistersparky.com.
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LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 19
The Case of the Service
Cable Arcing Incident
After two fires break out simultaneously in a home,
forensic investigation uncovers defect in service drop
that produced transient voltages high enough to
create arcing in two branch circuits.
Frederick Franklin, P.E., Professional Analytical and Consulting Engineers
W
hen two distinctly separate
fires occurred at the same time
inside a house in southwest-
ern Ohio, the homeowner was
left searching for answers in the aftermath
of destruction. Although thankfully no one
was hurt in this case, the scenario could have
had a much more tragic ending, should the
fires have ignited during the night while the
homeowner was sleeping, for example. The
critical question at hand was to uncover the
hidden culprit behind these two fires — and
to determine how, if at all, they were related.
THE SCENE
After noticing a little smoke coming from an
exhaust fan in the basement on the west side
of her house (the fan had not been running),
the woman discovered the first fire. Remem-
bering that her handyman lived nearby, she
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quickly called his cell phone. The handyman
came within 5 min. Because the overhead
lights were not working in the basement at the
time, he plugged a lamp into a wall receptacle
in the basement via an extension cord to see
what was going on. He immediately noticed
the carpeting below the exhaust fan was
smoldering and that a cardboard box below
the fan had ignited, so he used two glasses
of water to extinguish the flames. Then he
grabbed a knife to cut out the burned wood
paneling around the exhaust fan to be sure
the fire was out. Working live on the wiring, he
disconnected the exhaust fan and put twist-
on wire connectors on the ends of the “live”
wires — a process that took at least 20 min.
As the handyman neared completion of
this work, the homeowner, who had been
watching him closely in the basement, went
upstairs to the first level and was astonished
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 20
to see flames as high as her head in the
bedroom. “The whole bedroom is on fire!”
she screamed down to him. At this point, the
homeowner called for her dogs and quickly
exited the house.
Photo 1. The service drop conductors melted and fell away
from the house.
The handyman called the fire department
and was put on hold three times before get-
ting an answer. He walked outside to the front
of the house and saw the window air condi-
tioner to the bedroom engulfed in flames.
He also noticed arcing in the service drop
(the run of service cable between the electric
utility transformer on the utility pole and the
attachment point at the house) near its con-
nection to the service entrance (the run of
service cable between the attachment point
on the house and the main circuit breaker
or fuse panel inside the house). The home-
owner characterized this arcing as “a lot of
little fireworks, like sparklers” that sounded
like “glasses popping.” Suddenly, the service
drop conductors fell away from the house and
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continued to spark on the ground (Photo 1).
They were still arcing when the fire depart-
ment arrived.
THE INVESTIGATION
The homeowner was certain there was no fire
around the service drop when she first saw it
arcing. She stated that no one in the house
smoked, and there were no candles in use at
the time of the fire. She also recalled that the
service drop had been replaced by the electric
utility three months earlier after a semi-truck
struck and knocked it down. However, the
homeowner was not sure whether the electric
utility had replaced the entire service drop or
merely re-attached the disconnected conduc-
tors to the house.
Photo 2. Minor damage from arcing in basement
exhaust fan.
Examination of the wiring to the exhaust fan
and in the bedroom revealed copper melts
indicative of short circuit arcing (Photo 2),
yet there was no path of fire communication
between these two widely separate areas of
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 21
Photo 3. Arcing fire occurred in bedroom on the main level
of the house.
burn damage (Photo 3). This indicated there
had to be a common cause of the two areas
of branch circuit arcing.
FORENSIC ANALYSIS
When arcing occurs in AC circuits, the arc is
extinguished every time the current goes
through the zero point of the sine wave. Ex-
tensive testing with a storage oscilloscope (a
device used to save each sweep of the cur-
rent waveform until you erase the data) has
shown the arc often does not re-ignite in 15A
and 20A branch circuits until the voltage in the
sine wave rises to a level well above zero — a
high level would be considered half way to
the peak of the sine wave. At that time, upon
arc re-ignition, the electrical current jumps
suddenly to its normal level in the sine wave.
These jumps and resultant missing portions of
the sine wave can be seen in Photo 4, where an
AFCI has detected them and used the missing
portions of waveform to decide to trip.
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Photo 4. Note the missing portions of the sine wave on the
oscilloscope screen, which have just tripped an AFCI.
It was theorized, with some confidence, that
arcing in the service cable would behave in
the same manner, producing jumps in the cur-
rent waveform. These jumps (step-functions)
would produce very high transient voltages
in the electric utility transformer, because
of the transformer’s inductance. Those very
high voltages would then be transferred to
the wiring in the house. The household wiring
is only rated for 600V. It was opined that the
transient voltages from jumps in the service
drop arcing current waveform rose well above
this 600V level to punch through the branch
circuit wirings insulation and create two sepa-
rate arcing fires.
The intermittent arcing in the service cable
that caused this fire was observed to continue
unabated because the impedance of the utility
transformer and the service drop, along with
the resistance of the arc, combined to keep
the primary current below what it takes to
LESSONS IN RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY | 22
open the primary fuse. Three or four separate
fires had been observed inside a residence
in other such cases. It was my opinion that if
electric utility transformers had secondary
fuses, most service cable fires, which are 1%
of total fires, would be prevented.
LESSONS LEARNED
It is now well known that common 15A and 20A
circuit breakers, as opposed to AFCIs, often
do not prevent short circuit arcs from caus-
ing a fire in branch circuits. When electrical
insulation breaks down, the resistance of the
short circuit arc, combined with the resistance
of the household wiring, can keep the arc-
ing current below the magnetic trip level of
the circuit breaker. Furthermore, most of the
intermittent arcs do not last long enough to
initiate the thermal trip. Between the arcs,
the thermal trip has time to cool down. You
can view a video demonstration of this phe-
nomenon at www.paceforensic.com, where a
power cord arcs more than 30 times for 2 min.
before it trips a 20A branch circuit breaker.
In summary, the latent defect in the service
drop, which occurred when it was damaged
by the semi-truck, produced high transient
voltages that entered the house and created
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arcing in two widely separate branch circuit
locations. The primary fuse at the utility
transformer and the circuit breakers in the
house were unable to react quickly enough,
if at all, to prevent these two fires.
THE SETTLEMENT
Because the service cable in this case had
been recently replaced or repaired by the
electric utility, the homeowner’s insurance
company filed a claim for damages against
the utility. The expert for the utility suggested
that generalized surges other than from the
arcing in the service cable entered this house
to cause the fires. Nevertheless, the case
settled out of court in favor of the client’s in-
surance company for an undisclosed amount.
Franklin has been an electrical/mechanical
forensic engineer for 40 years. He currently
serves as president of Professional Analytical
and Consulting Engineers, Cincinnati. He can
be reached at RickFranklin@PaceForensic.com.
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