Class XI Physics/waves Notes

Waves
Waves are of three types - mechanical, electromagnetic and matter waves. Mechanical waves
can be produced only in media which possess elasticity and inertia. Water waves, sound waves and
seismic waves are common examples of this type. Electromagnetic waves do not require any material
medium for propagation. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, the ultraviolet rays, X
rays and γ rays are electromagnetic waves. The waves associated with particles like electrons,
protons and fundamental particles in motion are matter waves. In this chapter we will study
mechanical waves, which require a material medium for their propagation.
Wave motion
Wave motion is a form of disturbance travelling in the medium due to the periodic motion of the
particles about their mean position.
Characteristics of wave motion
1. The medium should possess elasticity and inertia.
2. It needs some source of disturbance.
3. All the particles of the medium do not receive the disturbance at the same instant (i.e) each
particle begins to vibrate a little later than its predecessor.
4. All types of traveling waves transport energy.
5. The waves undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
Mechanical waves
The two types of mechanical waves are (i) transverse waves and (ii) longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
Transverse waves are waves in which particles of the medium execute SHM about their mean
positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. The motion of the
wave is known as wave motion.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
 Transverse waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.
 The maximum displacement of the particle in the positive
direction i.e. above its mean position is called crest.
 The maximum displacement of the particle in the
negative direction i.e below its mean position is called
trough.
For the propagation of transverse waves, the medium
must possess force of cohesion and volume elasticity. Since gases
and liquids do not have rigidity (cohesion), transverse waves cannot be produced in gases and liquids.
Transverse waves can be produced in solids and surfaces of liquids only.
Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves are that waves in which each particle of the medium executes simple
harmonic motion about its mean position along the direction of propagation of the wave.
Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves through fluids.
When a longitudinal wave travels through a medium, it produces compressions and rarefactions.
In the case of a spiral spring, whose one end is
tied to a hook of a wall and the other end is moved
forward and backward, the coils of the spring vibrate
about their original position along the length of the
spring and longitudinal waves propagate through the
spring (Fig.). The regions where the coils are closer are
said to be in the state of compression, while the regions
where the coils are farther are said to be in the state of rarefaction.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Longitudinal waves can be produced in all types of material medium, solids, liquids and
gases. The density and pressure of the medium in the region of compression are more than that in the
region of rarefaction.

Important terms used in wave motion

Fig. Graphical representation of waves

Amplitude, A
The maximum displacement of a particle of the medium.
Wavelength, λ
The minimum distance between any two identical points (such as the crests) on adjacent waves.
Time period T
The time required for two identical points (such as the crests) of adjacent waves to pass by a point.
Frequency ν
The number of crests (or troughs, or any other point on the wave) that pass a given point in a unit
time interval.
1
ν=
T

velocity V
The distance travelled by a wave in a medium in one second is called the velocity of propagation of the
wave in that medium.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Progressive wave
A progressive wave is defined as the onward transmission of the vibratory motion of a body in an
elastic medium from one particle to the successive particle.
Equation of a plane progressive wave

The displacement of a particle in a wave is a wave function (the function involving x and t
which describes mathematically the motion of a wave pulse are called wave functions).
Let us assume that a progressive wave travels from the origin O along the positive direction of
X axis, from left to right. At any time t, the displacement y of the element located at position x is given
by,
…………..(1)
One can as well choose a cosine function or a linear combination of sine and cosine functions such as,
…………….(2)
Where,
2𝜋
In the equation 1 k = 𝜆
and known as wave number (propagation constant).
Equation of a wave travelling in the negative direction of x-axis is given by,

Phase of a progressive wave

The phase of the wave is the argument Sine of the oscillatory term sin (kx – ωt + φ) in Eq. (1). It
describes the state of motion as the wave sweeps through a string element at a particular
position x. It changes linearly with time t .
Phase = (kx – ωt + φ),
Where φ is known as the initial phase.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes

Phase difference
It determines the lack of harmony in the vibrating state of two particles ie., how far one particle
leads the other or lags behind the other.
Angular Wave Number(propagation constant)
The equation of a wave for, t = 0, is,
y(x,0) = a sin (kx + ωt ) Initial phase = 0
sin kx = sin (kx + )
= sin k (x + 2nπ
𝑘
)
This represents the displacement at points x and (x + 2nπ
𝑘
) are same. the least
distance between the two points with the same displacement(wave length) is obtained by taking
n=1.
2π 2π
Then, λ = or k =
𝑘 𝜆
K is known as angular wave number or propagation constant.
“Angular wave number or propagation constant is defined as 2π times the number of
waves that can be accommodated per unit length.”
S.I. unit ========== radian m-1.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Speed of a travelling wave
Consider a transverse wave travelling in the +ve x direction.

Full line curve a transverse wave, at t = 0

Dotted line curve same transverse wave, at t = ∆ t
During ∆ t, the wave displaced through a distance of ∆ x.
dx
V=
dt
y(x,t) = a sin ( kx±ωt )
φ = ( kx±ωt ) is a constant
𝑑φ 𝑑( kx ±ωt )
=0 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ω – k 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
=0
ω = k 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= ω𝑘
2𝜋𝜈
V = ω𝑘 = 2𝜋 = 𝜈𝜆
𝜆
V= 𝝂𝝀

“ It should be clearly understood that wave velocity v is determined only by the elastic and
inertial properties of the medium. Therefore, v is constant for a given medium.
Frequency is characterised by the source which produces disturbance. Different sources
may produce vibrations of different frequencies. Their wavelengths will differ to keep the
product νλ = v, a constant. ”

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string.
The speed of the wave depends on,
(i). Linear mass density of the string ( mass per unit length) {μ}
(ii). Tension T in the string.
ie., v = k μ a Tb
by dimensional analysis,
M0LT-1 = [ML-1]a [MLT-2]b
= Ma+b L-a+b T-2b
a+b = 0
-a+b = 1
-2b = -1 b=1 2 a = -b = 1 2
v=k 𝑇
𝜇 , k=1

v= 𝑇
𝜇
in a solid,
𝜂
v= 𝜌 where, η = coefficient of elasticity
Speed of longitudinal waves
The speed of the wave depends on,
Bulk modulus (B) and density of the medium.
∆𝑝
𝐵 = − ∆𝑣
𝑣

V∞ B 𝞺b
a

v = k B a 𝞺b
M0LT-1 = [ML-1T-2]a [ML-3T0]b
= Ma+b L-a-3b T-2a
a + b =0 , -a-3b = 1, -2a = -1

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
a= 1 2 , b = −1 2
ie., v = k B
ρ , k=1
v= B
ρ ,
in a solid bar,
v= y
ρ ,
Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in gas
Newton assumed that “ The changes in pressure and volume of a gas, when sound waves
are propagated through it, are isothermal.”
According to Newton,
at compression, the heat generated is lost to the surroundings
at rare faction, the heat lost is gained from surroundings.
For such a process,
Bi
v= ρ , where Bi = coefficient of isothermal elasticity.

For an isothermal process, PV = a constant

Differentiating , P dv + v dp = 0
P dv = - v dp
−vdp dp
P = dv =− dv = Bi
v
ie., P= Bi
∴v= P
ρ

Where P is the pressure of air and ρ is the density of air. The above equation is known as
Newton’s formula for the velocity of sound waves in a gas.
At NTP, P = 76 cm of mercury = (0.76 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8) N m–2
ρ = 1.293 kg m–3.
Velocity of sound in air at NTP is

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes

The experimental value for the velocity of sound in air is 332 m s–1. But the theoretical
value of 280 m s–1 is 15% less than the experimental value. This discrepancy could not be
explained by Newton’s formula.
Laplace’s correction
The above discrepancy between the observed and calculated values was explained by
Laplace in 1816. Laplace suggested d that sound waves travel in air under adiabatic condition
and not under isothermal condition.
It is not isothermal because,
(i). Velocity of sound in air is large; there is no time lag amongst themselves or with the
surroundings for the exchange of heat.
(ii). Gas is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore it does not allow free exchange of heat.
According to Laplace,
At compressions the temperature of air rises and at rarefactions, due to expansion, the
temperature decreases.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes

Characteristics of progressive wave

1. Each particle of the medium executes vibration about its mean position. The disturbance
progresses onward from one particle to another.
2. The particles of the medium vibrate with same amplitude about their mean positions.
3. Each successive particle of the medium performs a motion similar to that of its predecessor
along the propagation of the wave, but later in time.
4. The phase of every particle changes from 0 to 2π.
5. No particle remains permanently at rest. Twice during each vibration, the particles are
momentarily at rest at extreme positions; different particles attain the position at different time.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
6. Transverse progressive waves are characterised by crests and troughs. Longitudinal waves are
characterised by compressions and rarefactions.
7. There is a transfer of energy across the medium in the direction of propagation of progressive
wave.
8. All the particles have the same maximum velocity when they pass through the mean position.
9. The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the particle separated by mλ are the same,
where m is an integer.
Superposition principle
When two waves travel in a medium simultaneously in such a way that each wave
represents its separate motion, then the resultant displacement at any point at any time is equal
to the vector sum of the individual displacements of the waves.
This principle is illustrated by means of a slinky in the Fig.
1. In the figure, (i) shows that the two pulses pass each other,
2. In the figure, (ii) shows that they are at some distance apart
3. In the figure, (iii) shows that they overlap partly
4. In the figure, (iv) shows that resultant is maximum
Fig. illustrates the same events but with
pulses that are equal and opposite.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
If Y1 and Y2 are the displacements at a point, then the resultant displacement is,
given by Y = Y1 + Y2
If | Y 1|=| Y 2|= a, and if the two waves have their displacements in the same direction, then
|Y|= a + a = 2a
If the two waves have their displacements in the opposite direction,
then |Y | = a + (-a) = 0
The principle of superposition of waves is applied in wave phenomena such as interference,
beats and stationary waves.
Phenomena of interference
The combination of separate waves in the same region of space to produce a resultant wave is
called interference.
“ when two waves of same frequency travelling in a medium superpose with each other, their
resultant intensity is maximum at some points and minimum at some other points. This
phenomenon of superposition is called interdrence.”
Let a wave travelling along a stretched string be given by,
Y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
and another wave, shifted from the first by a phase φ,
Y2(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt + φ )
Both the waves have the same angular frequency, same angular wave number k (same
wavelength) and the same amplitude a. They travel in the positive direction of x-axis, with the
same speed.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
By super position principle,
The resultant wave is the algebraic sum of the two constituent waves.
Its diplacement, Y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx – ωt + φ)
We now use the trigonometric relation,
𝐴−𝐵
sin A + sin B = 2 sin 𝐴+𝐵
2
cos 2

then displacement, Y (x, t ) = = [2a cos ∅2 ] sin (kx – ωt + ∅2 )

equation shows that the resultant wave is also a sinusoidal wave.
The resultant wave differs from the constituent waves in two respects:
(1) its phase angle is (½)φ and
(2) its amplitude
∅
Its amplitude, A(φ) = 2a cos
2
1. If ∅ = 0, ie., no phase difference(the two waves are in phase), { adding constructively}
Then amplitude, A=2a (maximum value) {adding destructively}
2. If φ = π, the two waves are completely out of phase, the amplitude of the resultant wave,

A=0

Adding constructively Adding destructively

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 Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Reflection of sound
 The sound waves reflected obeying the laws of reflection of light.(‹i = ‹r )
Applications of reflection of sound waves
(ii) Stethoscope : Stethoscope is an instrument used by physicians to listen to the sounds
produced by various parts of the body. It consists of a long tube made of rubber or metal. When
sound pulses pass through one end of the tube, the pulses get concentrated to the other end
due to several reflections on the inner surface of the tube.
(iii) Echo : Echoes are sound waves reflected from a reflecting surface at a distance from the
listener. Due to persistence of hearing, we keep hearing the sound for 1 10 th of a second, even
after the sounding source has stopped vibrating. No echo is heard if the reflecting obstacle is
less than 17 m away from the source.
In refraction The sound waves obeys snell’s law
Reflection of sound at a rigid boundary (closed end) and open boundary( open end)

Fig: The reflection of a traveling wave pulse at the free end of

Fig: The reflection of a traveling wave pulse at the fixed end of a stretched
a stretched string. The reflected pulse is not inverted.
string. The reflected pulse is inverted, but its shape is unchanged.

“A travelling wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is reflected with a phase reversal but the reflection
at an open boundary takes place without any phase change.”

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Standing Waves or Stationary Waves
When two sets of progressive wave trains of the same type having the same amplitude and same
time period/ frequency/wavelength travelling with same speed along the same straight line in
opposite directions superimpose, a new set of waves are formed. These are called stationary
waves.
 The resultant wave does not propagate in any direction.
 There is no transfer of energy in the wave.
Two types of stationary waves are there,
Longitudinal stationary waves and transverse stationary waves
Standing waves in strings
Standing waves occur when both ends of a string are fixed. In that case, only waves
which are motionless at the ends of the string can persist. There are nodes, where the amplitude
is always zero, and antinodes, where the amplitude varies from zero to the maximum value.
In fig. it shows a transverse progressive wave travelling along a string from left to right
(incident wave), by a thin continuous curve. Let this wave be reflected at the other fixed end of
the string. The reflected wave is represented by a thin dotted curve.
The incident and reflected waves travelling in opposite directions superimpose.
According to super-position principle, the resultant displacement at any point on the string is
equal to vector sum of the individual displacement at that point.

In fig. A Antinodes
N Nodes

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes

Crest of one wave falls on crest of other wave. The resultant

displacement is the sum of individual displacements.

The waves moved λ/4 to right (incident wave) and λ/4 to left
(reflected wave). Crest of one wave falls on trough of other
wave. The resultant displacement at each point becomes zero.

The waves moved λ/2 to right (incident wave) and λ/2 to left (reflected
wave). Crest of one wave falls on crest of other wave. The resultant
displacement is the sum of individual displacements.

The waves moved λ to right (incident wave) and λ to left (reflected

wave). Crest of one wave falls on trough of other wave. The resultant
displacement at each point becomes zero.

 At t=T, the wave form will be same as t=0

 The distance between two consecutive Nodes is λ/2.
 The distance between two consecutive Antinodes is λ/2.
 All the particles except those at nodes, execute S.H.M. about their mean position.
 The amplitude of vibration at Nodes is zero.
 The amplitude of vibration at Antinodes is maximum.
 The wave length and time period of stationary waves are same as that of individual waves.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Analytical treatment ( stationary waves)
Let a harmonic wave be set up on a string of length L, fixed at the two ends x=0 and
x=L. This wave gets reflected from the two fixed ends of the string continuously and as a result
of superposition of these waves, transverse standing waves are formed on the string.
Let the incident wave be,
Y1(x, t) = a sin (ωt– kx)
The reflected wave be,
Y2(x, t) = a sin (ωt+ kx+ π) , π is the phase difference b/w the waves since it is
reflected for a closed end.
Y2(x, t) = - a sin (ωt + kx) sin (θ + π ) = - sin θ
The resultant wave is given by,
Y(x, t) = Y1(x, t) + Y2(x, t)
= a sin (ωt– kx) - a sin (ωt + kx)
= - a[sin (ωt+ kx) - sin (ωt - kx)]
𝐴−𝐵
sin A - sin B = 2 cos 𝐴+𝐵
2
sin 2

∴ Y(x, t) = - 2a cos ωt sin kx

= - 2a sin kx cos ωt
Y(x, t) represents the resultant wave.
 Amplitude of the wave, A= 2a sin kx
 The equation doesn’t have (vt ± x) , therefore, it does not present a moving harmonic
wave.
 For different values of x, amplitude is different.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Normal modes of vibration
The equation of a stationary wave is,
Y(x, t) = - 2a sin kx cos ωt
Where, the amplitude of the stationary wave is ,
A= 2a sin kx.
At one end of the string, x=0
There fore, Y = o, ie., this end is a node.
As the other end of the string is fixed, Y = 0, and x = L, “ L ”is the length of the string.
∴ at this end,
sin kL = 0 = sin n π , where n= 0,1,2,3…..
2π
k L = n π or L= nπ
𝜆

then L = 𝑛𝜆2
This condition shows that standing waves on a string of length L have restricted wavelength
given by
2𝐿
𝜆= 𝑛
, for n = 1, 2, 3, … etc.
The frequencies corresponding to these wavelengths follow from Eq. as
V
𝜈= 𝜆

nV
𝜈= 2𝐿

Where V is the speed of travelling waves on the string. The set of frequencies given by the
equation are called the natural frequencies or modes of oscillation of the system.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
First normal mode (fundamental mode)
When n=1 , two nodes
V
𝜈1 = 2𝐿
and L= 𝜆21
The frequency is known as fundamental frequency
or first harmonic
The sound so produced is fundamental note .
Second normal mode
When n=2 , three nodes
2V
𝜈2 = , 𝜈2 = 2 𝜈1
2𝐿
V
or 𝜈2 = 𝐿
2𝜆 2
and L= =𝜆
2

The frequency is known as first over tone. Since the frequency is equal
to twice the fundamental, it is also known as second harmonic .
Third normal mode
When n=3 , four nodes
3V V
𝜈3 = =3 = 3 𝜈1
2𝐿 2𝐿
3𝜆 3
and L= 2

The frequency is known as second over tone or third harmonic.

Similarly, higher overtones are produced, if the wire vibrates with more segments.
In general , If there are P segments,
𝑇
Where V = 𝑚

P th harmonic corresponds to (P-1)th overtone.

The collection of all possible modes is called the harmonic series and n is called the harmonic
number.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Organ pipes

Organ pipes are musical instruments which are used to produce musical sound by blowing air
into the pipe. Organ pipes are two types (i) closed organ pipes, closed at one end (ii) open organ
pipe, open at both ends.

Standing waves in closed organ pipes

If the air is blown lightly at the open end of the closed organ pipe, then the air column vibrates
in the fundamental mode. There is a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end.

The equation of longitudinal stationary waves set up in a closed organ pipe is

Y(x, t) = - 2a sin kx cos ωt

At the closed end of the pipe, x=0
sin kx = sin0=o { ie., a node is formed}
At the open end of the pipe of length L,
S=L, an antinode is to be formed,
ie., y will be max. therefore sinKL = max. = ±1 (where L is the length of the tube)

sinKL = sin(𝑛 + 1 2) π
KL = (𝑛 + 1 2 ) π
2𝜋
𝜆
L = (𝑛 + 1 2 ) π
2𝐿
λ = (𝑛+1 2 )

L = (𝑛 + 1 2) 𝜆2 where n=0,1,2…………
Frequency, 𝜈 = (𝑛 + 1 2) 2𝐿𝑉

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
First normal mode (when n=0)
𝜆1
L= or 𝜆1 = 4 L {one node and one antinode}
4

If 𝜈1 is the fundamental frequency of the vibrations and v is the velocity of

sound in air, then

V V
𝜈1 = 𝜆 = { fundamental frequency, when n=1}
1 4𝐿

If air is blown strongly at the open end, frequencies higher than fundamental frequency can be
produced. They are called overtones. Fig. shows the mode of vibration with two or more nodes
and antinodes.

Second normal mode (when n=1)

3𝜆 2 4𝐿
L= or 𝜆2 =
4 3
V 3V
𝜈2 = 𝜆 = = 3𝜈1 {first overtone or third harmonic. n=1}
2 4𝐿

Third normal mode(when n=2)

5𝜆 3 4𝐿
L= or 𝜆3 =
4 5
V 5V
𝜈3 = 𝜆 = = 5𝜈1 {second overtone or fifth harmonic. n=2}
3 4𝐿

Nth normal mode

𝜈n = (𝑛 + 1 2) 2𝐿𝑉 {(n-1)th overtone. n=n}

In closed organ pipe, the higher frequencies are odd harmonics of the fundamental
frequency.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Standing waves in open organ pipes

An open organ pipe is open at both ends. Therefore, an antinode is formed at each end.
Proceeding as in the case of closed organ pipe, and Y=max at x=0 and at x=L, we shall obtain,
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
𝑛𝑉
𝜈n =
2𝐿

First normal mode (when n=1)

𝜆1
L= or 𝜆1 = 2 L {one node and two antinode}
2

If 𝜈1 is the fundamental frequency of the vibrations and v is the velocity of

sound in air, then

V V
𝜈1 = 𝜆 = { fundamental frequency, when n=1}
1 2𝐿

Second normal mode (when n=2)

2𝐿
𝜆2 = =L
2
V V
𝜈2 = 𝜆 = = 2𝜈1 {first overtone or second harmonic. n=2}
2 𝐿

Third normal mode(when n=3)

3𝜆 3 2𝐿
L= or 𝜆3 =
2 3
V 3V
𝜈3 = 𝜆 = = 3𝜈1 {second overtone or third harmonic. n=3}
3 2𝐿

Nth normal mode

th
𝜈 n =𝑛𝜈 1 {n overtone or 𝑛th harmonic. n=n}

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
 In an open organ pipe, the fundamental frequency is (2𝐿V ) and all harmonics of

fundamental frequency are produced, ie., 2 (2𝐿V ), 3(2𝐿V ), 4(2𝐿V ) and so on.

 Fundamental note in open organ pipe has double the frequency of the fundamental
note in closed organ pipe.
 In an open organ pipe, all the harmonics are present whereas in a closed organ pipe,
only alternate harmonics of frequencies are present.
 The overall musical sound produced by an open organ pipe is richer than the musical
sound produced by a closed organ pipe.
 Harmonics are the notes/ sounds of frequency equal to or an integral multiple of
fundamental frequency.
 Overtones are the notes/ sounds of frequency twice/ thrice / four times ... the
fundamental frequency.

Beats

“The phenomenon of alternate variation in the intensity of sound with time at a particular
position, when two sound waves of nearly same frequencies and amplitudes superimpose on
each other is called beats.”

The intensity of the resultant sound at a point rises and falls regularly with time. When the
intensity rises to maximum we call it as waxing of sound, when it falls to minimum we call it
as waning of sound.

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Class XI Physics/waves Notes
The fig. shows graphical representation of beats. Each maximum intensity show beat.

Beat period

The time interval between two successive beats (ie., two successive
maxima or minima of sound) is called beat period.

Beat frequency

The number of beats produced per second is called

beat frequency, which is equal to the difference in frequencies
of two waves.

When two sounds of nearly equal frequencies reach our ears simultaneously, we hear a sound,
which is an average of two combining frequencies. The beat frequency is equal to the difference
in frequencies of two incoming sounds.

Example: A tuning fork of unknown frequency gives 6 beats per second with a tuning fork of
frequency 256. It gives same number of beats/ sec when loaded with wax. Find the unknown
frequency.
Frequency of tuning fork A , n1 = 256 Hz
Beat frequency , m = 6
Frequency of tuning fork B , n2 = ?
n2 - n1 = m
n2= n1+m = 256 + 6 =250

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 Class XI Physics/waves Notes
For formation of beats, difference in frequencies of two sources must be
less than 10. Due to the property of persistence of hearing, the impression
of a sound heard by our ears persists on our mind for 1/10 of a second. If
another sound is heard before 1/10 second passes, the impressions of the two
sounds mix up and beats are formed.

Analytical method
Let us consider two waves of slightly different frequencies ω1 and ω 2 (ω 1 > ω 2) having equal
amplitude travelling in a medium in the same direction.
S1= a cos ω1t
S 1 and S2 are time dependent variations of displacement of longitudinal waves
S2= a cos ω2t
When the two waves are super imposed,
The resultant displacement,
𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵
S = S1 + S2 = a (cos ω1t+ cos ω2t) cos A + cos B = 2 cos 2
cos 2

ω 1 −ω 2 t ω 1 +ω 2 t
= 2a cos 2
cos 2
ω 1 −ω 2 ω 1 +ω 2
ωb = 2
ωa = 2

S = 2a cos ωbt cos ωat

ω1 − ω2 << ω1 , ω2 and ωa >> ωb
Therefore the main time dependence in the equation arises from cos ωat and cos ωbt can be
regarded as amplitude.
ωa cant easily differentiate from ω1 and ω2, since it is the average, therefore the resultant wave is
a wave with nearly same angular frequency. But amplitude is not constant.
ω 1 −ω 2
The amplitude frequency, = 2

Difference in frequency is beat frequency,

ie., ωbeat = 2ωb= ω1 − ω2
ω = 2πν
νbeat= ν1-ν2
Tuning of musical instruments use the knowledge of beats (guitar).

R. Rejo 25
Class XI Physics/waves Notes
Doppler Effect
The whistle of a fast moving train appears to increase in pitch as it approaches a
stationary observer and it appears to decrease as the train moves away from the observer. This
apparent change in frequency was first observed and explained by Doppler in 1845.
“The phenomenon of the apparent change in the frequency of sound due to the relative
motion between the source of sound and the observer is called Doppler Effect.”

The apparent frequency due to Doppler effect for different cases can be deduced as follows.
1. source moves towards the stationary observer
Direction from the observer to the source the positive direction of velocity.
Source S moving with velocity vs . Observer is stationary .
Let the speed of a wave be v . Angular frequency of the wave ω and period To .

Fig. A source moving with velocity vs emits a wave crest at the point S1. It emits
the next wave crest at S 2 after moving a distance vsTo .

R. Rejo 26
Class XI Physics/waves Notes
At time t = 0 the source is at point S1, located at a distance L from the observer, and
emits a crest. This reaches the observer at time,
t 1 = L/v.
At time t = To, the source has moved a distance=vsTo and is at point S2, located at
a distance (L + vsTo) from the observer. At S2, the source emits a second crest.
This reaches the observer at,

At time n To, the source emits its (n+1)th crest and this reaches the observer at time,
(𝐿+𝑛 𝑣𝑠 𝑇𝑜 )
tn+1 = n To + 𝑣

Time for n waves,

tn = tn+1 – t1
(𝐿+𝑛 𝑣𝑠 𝑇𝑜 ) 𝐿
= n To + −𝑣
𝑣

Time for one wave,

tn 𝐿+𝑛 𝑣𝑠 𝑇𝑜 −𝐿
T= = n To + n
𝑛 𝑣
𝑣𝑠 𝑇𝑜
T = To + 𝑣

𝑣𝑠
T = To 1 + 𝑣

𝑣𝑠 −1
f = fo 1 + vs << v
𝑣

By binomial expansion,
𝑣𝑠
Apparent frequency, f = fo 1 − { source going away from observer, frequency is less
𝑣

than that of the original.}

When source is approaching,
𝑣𝑠
Apparent frequency, f = fo 1 + { source approaching to the observer, frequency is ,more
𝑣

than that of the original.}

R. Rejo 27
Class XI Physics/waves Notes
2. Observer is moving and source is stationary
Observer velocity V0 towards source
Wave speed V0 + V
At time t = 0 ,
t 1 = L/vo+v.
At time To, the source emits its (n+1)th crest and this reaches the observer at time,
(𝐿− 𝑣0 𝑇𝑜 )
t2 = To +
𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

At time n To, the source emits its (n+1)th crest and this reaches the observer at time,
(𝐿−𝑛 𝑣0 𝑇𝑜 )
tn+1 = n To + 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

Time for n waves,

tn = tn+1 – t1
(𝐿−𝑛 𝑣0 𝑇𝑜 ) 𝐿
= n To + −𝑣
𝑣𝑜 +𝑣 𝑜 +𝑣

Time for one wave,

tn 𝐿−𝑛 𝑣𝑜 𝑇𝑜 −𝐿
T= = n To + n
𝑛 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣
𝑣𝑜 𝑇𝑜
T = To − 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣− 𝑣𝑜 𝑣
T = To 1 − = To = To
𝑣𝑜 +𝑣 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

𝑣𝑜 +𝑣 −1 𝑣𝑜 −1
T = To = To 1 +
𝑣 𝑣

𝑣𝑜
Apparent frequency, f = fo 1 + 𝑣

When observer is moving away,

𝑣𝑜
Apparent frequency, f = fo 1 −
𝑣

R. Rejo 28
Class XI Physics/waves Notes
3. Both source and observer moving
Direction from the observer to the source as the positive direction.

The observer O and the source S, both moving respectively with velocities v 0 and vs . They are at
position O1 and S1 at time t = 0, when the source emits the first crest of a sound, whose velocity is
v with respect to the medium. After one period, t = T0, they have moved to O 2 and S2,
respectively through distances v0 T0 and vs T0, when the source emits the next crest.
When observer is moving, vel. of wave = vo+v
At time t = 0 ,
t 1 = L/vo+v.
At t=To, both observer and source have moved to O 2 and S2.
New dist. = L + (vs- v)To
At S2, the source emits a second crest.
This reaches the observer at time,
(𝐿+(v s − v o )𝑇𝑜 )
t2 = To + 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

R. Rejo 29
Class XI Physics/waves Notes
At time nTo the source emits its (n+1) th crest and this reaches the observer at time
(𝐿+𝑛 (v s − v o )𝑇𝑜 )
Tn+1 = nTo + 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

Time for n waves,

tn = tn+1 –t1
L
tn = nTo + (𝐿+𝑛 (v𝑣𝑜s +𝑣
− v o )𝑇𝑜 )
- v +v
o

Time for one wave,

tn (v s − v o )𝑇𝑜
T= = To +
𝑛 𝑣𝑜 +𝑣

(v s − v o )
T = To 1 + 𝑣+𝑣𝑜

v+ v s
T = To 𝑣+𝑣𝑜

v+ v o
Apparent frequency, f = fo 𝑣+𝑣𝑠

R. Rejo 30