Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.
Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at .
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ghs. .
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
The Garden History Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Garden
History.
http://www.jstor.org
ALIX WILKINSON
selected for a sacred building was where a deity was believed to reside. They also
re-createdthe characteristicsof the placewheresome mythologicalevent had happened,
by addingarchitecturalandplantfeatureswhichwould be remindersof the myth. These
mythswereaboutthe creationof the world, the after-life,and aboutthe lives of the gods.
The Egyptians were not searching to impose meaning, in the manner of those who
createda park in Mexico City as a culturalreminderof the lost city of Tenochititlan.13
Nor were they like the English garden designers of the eighteenth century who used
classical mythology and their Gothic heritage as the language of their buildings and
statuary,as, for example, at Rousham. 4 Meaningwas alreadythere, and understood.
They were more in the spirit of Henry Hoare, who, at Stourhead,whether playfullyor
not, acknowledgedthe water deities of the site and compared the foundation of his
dynastichome with Aeneas'sfoundationof Rome, as interpretedby Virgil.15
In Egypt, the territory in which a garden was planted already had its own
significanceand residentdeities. Thus the goddess Hathorwas believed to dwell in the
mountainchainwhich ranfrom Deir el Baharito Deir el Medineh. Shrinesdedicatedto
herwerebuilt over the yearsat eachend of the range,northand south. At Karnak,across
the river,the gods, Mont, a falcon-headedwargod, and Amun, calledthe 'Hidden One',
alreadyinhabitedthe site on which the temples and gardenswere built.
A gardenmirroredthe featuresof a mythologicallandscape,and of the world of the
after-life.This landscapehad to be as permanentas possible, and sustainableby future
generations.It was a marvelwhich would impressthe priests and courtierswho would
understandthe symbolism,andamazethe generalpopulaceandforeignerswho would be
awedby the size and splendourof the buildingsand theirgrounds.The palacesin which
the kings lived were also sacredprecincts, because the king was himself a god. Palace
gardenswere the setting for the ceremonialreceptionof foreign ambassadorsas well as
for the entertainmentof the king and the court.
Tomb gardenswere intendedto be placeswherethe soul of the dead could find rest
and refreshment.The form which resulted from these requirementswas a courtyard
filled with trees, under which stood a basin of water for the soul, as bird or human, to
drink.
MEANING
Thesymbolismof templegardens
Meaningwas fundamentalto Egyptianarchitectureand garden design. The design of
temple gardensdependedon whetherthey were the cult temple, wherethe imagesof the
living gods resided, or were funerary,and were intended for occasionaluse. Gardens
were an integralpart of the cult shrine, which was itself a cosmos, representingboth
Egypt and the universe. 6 Temple gardensincorporatedwater, which representedthe
originalwaterwhich coveredthe earthat the beginningof time, and was the god called
Nun, and the vegetationwhich grew aroundand in it.
The plants grown in these gardens all had their own symbolism. The waterlilies
(Nymphaealotus,Nymphaeacaerulea)floatingon the lakes were remindersthat the sun
god had originallysprung from the waterlily,17and papyrus(Cyperuspapyrus)was the
home of Hathor,18the sky, and mother goddess, and was also the place where Isis had
hidden her son, Horus, after the murderof Osiris, her husband, by his brother, Seth.
Palms were sacred to the gods of the sun, moon, and fertility.19Date palms (Phoenix
dactylifera)were particularlyconnected with the sun god, doum palms (Hyphaene
ALIX WILKINSON 3
thebaica)with the scribe of the gods, Thoth, and with Min, the fertilitygod. Anotherof
Min's plants was the humble lettuce (Latucasativa).20
The symbolismof tombgardens
Tombs were based on the design of the tomb of the god, Osiris, who had been restored
from death to life. By imitativemagic, the humandead could enter eternallife by being
buried in a tomb like that of Osiris. This tomb consistedof a mound of earthwith trees
aroundit, enclosinga tomb chamber(Figure I). An actualrealizationof this conceptwas
made at Abydos by King Seti I. It is a temple-like structureon an island, with a tomb
beside it, buried under a great
mound of earth and sand. Around j Figure I. Illustrationof the tomb of
the mound were planted conifers J thegodOsiriswithina mound.On
the
c coffin of Petosiris in Marseilles
and tamarisks in six, huge brick- rV ie M ie
Source:JacquesVandier.Manuel
lined pits. A tamarisk was believed d'archeologieegyptienne(Picard,
to be the place where the soul of the Paris, I952-69), fig 319
god, Osiris, in the form of a bird, i
rested (Figure 2). It was also
believed to be where the king as the sun was reborn.21Accordingto the solarmyths, the
dead king becamethe sun, which the sky goddessswallowedeachnight and gave birthto
each dawn. King Mentuhotep (c. 20o-1960 B.C.) planted tamarisks(Tamarixarticu-
lata) and sycomore-figtrees (Ficussycomorus) in frontof his tomb and funerarytemple at
Deir el Bahari(Figure 3). Sycomore-figtrees were the home of the sky-goddess, called
alternatively,Hathor, Nut, and Isis. On the easternhorizonof heaven, the sun emerged
between sycomore-figsof turquoise.22The sycomoretree had anotherrole, as nourisher
of the deceased(see Figure 8). In paintingsin courtiers'tombs, the sky-goddessappears
from the sycomore-fig tree at the corer of a pool, holding out bread and fruit and
pouringwater. Mentuhotepthus madesurethatthe two treessignificantfor his rebirthas
the sun were beside his tomb. Date palms representedthe sun, and had the practical
advantageof being able to withstand drought. Single palm trees and flowerbedswere
plantedin the open courtyardsof priests'and courtiers'tombs at Memphisand Thebes.
The meaning and messageof the gardenswas frequentlyin the sculpture, both in the
round and in relief, which representedthe owner in various guises and performing
various activities. The sculptures intimated things historical and mythological. The
things historical were the relation of the owner to his ancestors, and the things
mythologicalwere about the relationshipof the ownerto the gods. The owner appeared
in variousguises, and performedvariousactivities,both in sculpturein the roundand in
scenesof relief. In tomb gardens,a statuerepresentedthe ownerhimself. It was the living
presenceof the deceased, and had to receivethe attentionand respectdue to him. Over
life-sizefiguresof Mentuhotepstood in frontof the avenueat his funerarytemple at Deir
el Bahari.They were fixed into the rock by meansof deep pedestalswhich wereburiedin
the rock. Lion-bodiedsphinxes, with the face of QueenHatshepsut,lined the way across
the lowest terraceof her funerarytemple beside that of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari.
The status of the owner is demonstratedby the size of the gardenand its enclosure,
and by the size and splendour of the buildings and their decoration. Royal gardens
were much larger than those of anyone else: Mentuhotep's grove at Deir el Bahari
was about 50 m square: a garden at el-Amaranacovered an area of about a length of
96 m.
4 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
o 5 10 IS 20 2S*
The royal dominance over nature is demonstrated by bringing plants into the desert,
rather than by draining areas of marsh, as for example, at Versailles, or carving out a
clearing in a forest.
Summary
Temples were not, as in eighteenth-century Europe, 'trifles best seen by chance'.3 but
the main building, and raison d'etre of the garden. Statuary and sculpture were not just
decorative features. They were bearers of religious as well as political messages.
FUNCTION
The function of temple gardens was to produce the floral, vegetable, and fruit offerings
needed for the rituals of the gods, as well as for the perfumes used for anointing the
statues, and to provision the staff of priests and workpeople in the temple.24 Hatshepsut
and some of her successors tried to grow incense trees, Commiforamyrrha, and possibly
Boswelliasacra,in their gardens.25Hatshepsutsaid she brought 'greenannt trees from
Punt (Figure 4). 'Greenantenth
has identifiedboth with myrrh26and with frankin-
space provided
cense. The space provided by
by gardens
gardens was used for processions within the temple
temple
ALIX WILKINSON 5
and , ?iA
enclosure, .WILKINS..O
S...ef,
had to accommodater.
large gatherFigure 4. Incense trees broughtto
'~?~~:~:~~nsu~ ~ .Egypt from Punt
open-air temple. It had a central lake, surrounded by temples and other buildings.
Th is
enclosure may have represented earth,Bahari Deir
(London , east-west
894oriented 8), route of
the
Amama there was a walled park-like area, called Maru-Aten, which may have been an
temple of
Kar h Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were caied
ak, by priests, accompanied by an
temple of Karnak, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were carried by priests, accompanied by an
and othe gods of KaThiak
excited throng, to the Luxor temple. At the Festival of the Valley,2s
sailed across thver, so that the statues of the 'lving gods' could visit the 'dead gods' in
the funerary temples on the west bank of the Nile. In order to reach Hatshepsut's temple
at Deir el Baharibetween temples thewould go from her riverside Vafley Tempstivals,
formed
procession which asat
probably also surrounded by trees,29 along a tree-lined canal to her funerary temple.
Menageries were included in gardens. Live animals in the royal gardens reflected
the king's ambition to collect the living world around him, and to have animals of
particular significance as his attendants. Lions, the royal animal par excellence, decorated
his throne and chariot. Lions were kept in cages at the entrance to royal gardens at
Karnak (see Figure 12), and antelopes, oryx, and ibex were kept at Karnak and Amarna.
Aviaries were probably part of the garden design at Amarna in the 'Northern Maru'.
Birds illustrated at Amarna, and presumably living in the gardens, included rock pigeon,
turtle dove, great spotted cuckoo, grey-lag goose, pied kingfishers, geese, and ducks.
Ducks and geese were ornaments as well as being edible, as were the fish. Animals were
bred at various temples. Some were the animals sacred to the deity of the temples, such as
rams at Mendes and Elephantine, bulls at Memphis, Bubastis, and Akhmim, and pigs at
Memphis. Others were needed for the offerings in the temple. During the Old Kingdom
(2600-2I50 B. C. ) birds were reared at the sun temple of Niuserre. Kings arranged for the
construction of fowl-yards in the temple of Amun at Karnak. Seti II said the temple was,
'filled with geese, cranes, ducks, doves and [otherkinds of fowl] to provide the divine
offerings for his father Amun'. In the later periods, they were reared so that pilgrims
could offer them as sacrificesto the deity of the temple. Mummifiedibises, have been
found in huge numbers at Saqqara, Hermopolis, Athribis, and Abydos, and cats, apes,
6 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
and crocodiles,at Tuna el Gebel, Mareotis,and in the Fayum. Shrinesof the crocodile
god, Sobek, are illustratedfrom the Old Kingdomup to the Ptolemaicperiod. Temples
of Sobek are known at several places including Kom Ombo, Edfu, and Hermonthis
(Armant),where the water-penfor the crocodileshad a movable hatch through which
they were fed.
The function of temple gardens was to provide floral, vegetable, and animal
offeringsand provisions,whereasthe functionof tomb gardenswas to be availableto the
spiritof the deceasedas a placeof shadeand refreshment,and to thatend they wereoften
illustratedon the walls inside the tomb. The externalgarden was the place to which
relativesand priests could bring waterand offeringsfor the spirit of the deceased.
FORM
Gardendesignin general
Since they areat the beginningof the storyof garden-making,and set the agendain form
for gardensthroughoutthe Near Eastand beyond, ancientEgyptiangardenshave many
of the features well known from later times. The glory of gardens depends on their
design, on the way they are laid out and structured, and on the decorative features,
skilfullyplacedto enhancea view or evoke ideas. Afterthese foundationshave been laid,
the plantingbringscolour, light, and shade, and variationsin height. Ancient Egyptian
gardenswere no exception.
Egyptiangardenswereformal.30They wereaxiallyplanned,as for example, Hatshep-
sut's funerary temple at Deir el Bahari which was approachedby a series of rising
courtyards.A building, whether tomb or shrine, was the focus and point of departure.
The unity of the buildingand the gardenswas usuallyevident. Straightlines predomin-
ated in the design and in the plantings. Symmetryis found in the repetitionof like with
like. For example, twin groves, twin trees, and twin pools. Geometryis exemplifiedin
the arrangementof rectangleswithin a garden. In the illustrationwhich survives of a
gardenat Karnak,the layoutconsistsof a rectangularwalledareain the centreof which is
a vineyard(Figure 5) surroundedby walled gardens, some of which are orchards,and
some of which have pools and a shrine. Identicaltrees were planted in avenues at the
funerarytemple of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari,and on the approachto the temple of
Karnak,where there was an avenueof sycomore-figtrees, underplantedwith vines and
papyrus(Figure 6).
Elementsof thedesigns
Gardenswere laid out with a strong structure,makinguse of differentlevels linked by
terraces, and often centred around pools of water. Steps and stairways emphasized
changes in levels and viewpoint. Terraces, which 'can be the supreme expression of
gardenart',31had balustradessupportingthe steps linking the different levels, as, for
example, at Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. Trees were grown on the
lowest terrace.32At the bottomof the ramp, aroundthe papyruspools were about66 pits
cut in the rock, probablyfor flowerbeds,33ratherthanfor the incense treesbroughtfrom
Punt.34It is not certainwhere these were planted. The gardenof the 'King's House' at
Amarnawas terraced,35as is an estate at Karnak(see Figure 12).
Areas with their own individualitywere separatedby walls or trees. Within these
areas,arcadesand colonnadesprovideda varietyof texturesanda backgroundfor plants.
ALIX WILKINSON 7
ALIX WILKINSON 9
~
/-~ . .....-..
........... Figure 7. Cisternwith stepped
/ ---_- . . ..sides in an orchard.Relief in the
<... ?> A . f ....
, i:%tomb of Meryreat Amarna
i--, ;: -
., X- : Source:Norman de Garis Davies,
;"q ^F" ~- ^^^^^ '_ ^.r_5U
y -^^' b |L_^!L ,
The RockTombsof El Amarna
\d>
...0 . .'n --h_ (London, 1903-08)
_
- ,
,
-
-
_I, , .. _ _ _L
,
' s g ..~,.
,z,J,^^'^^^,
S ,: ' .
little vegetation; and along the river bank there was too much. On the slopes of the
westernmountainat Thebes, the architectswere tryingto extend the riverbank into the
desert, and had to do it by artificially providing water. This mountain was the site of the
royal funerary temples and courtiers' tombs. Here the dead rested 'Upon the Crag of the
Lady who is the West of Thebes'.53 This was seen by the Egyptians as a hard, hilly
desert, scatteredwith the round-toppedmarkersof manytombs, with somewherea lush
I2 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
papyrusmarshwere poppiesalso grew, into which the sky goddess, as a cow, steppedto
welcome the dead, who were inside their tombs in the tall, pink rock beside these
markers.54
Landscapeof Amarna
At Amarna,the site sacredto the sun god, the desert plain was made green by parks at
either end; and temples, palacesand houses with their own gardensfilled the built-up
area.At the southernend was the vast open-airtemple, and at the northernend, another
more enclosed temple or palace,with a gardenin the centre. In between these parks, lay
clustersof buildingswith avenuesleadingup to them, and gardensaroundthem, some of
them with pools. In the suburbs, the gardens surroundinga few of the great houses
formedoasesbetweenthe whitewashedbuildings.The riverbank, whereships unloaded
in frontof the palace,was plantedwith treesand flowersin containers,and a flowerbed,
beside the naturallygrowingpapyrusand mandrake.61The effect fromthe landingstage
must have been of the river bank creepingtowardsthe easternmountain.
LandscapearoundMemphis
At Heliopolis, Ramesses III decreed that date and olive groves be established, and
orderedgardensand incense trees to be planted at Memphis.62
Whetherthe pyramidsat Gizahad any trees or gardensaroundthem is not known,
althoughthereis the suggestionof a gardenbetweenthe Step Pyramidand the Causeway
of Unas. At the riverend of the causewaystherewasplentyof vegetation,but thatwas not
contrivedby man.
Landscapeof theDelta
In the much more fertile Delta, a vast orchardand vineyardsurroundedthe palacesand
temple at Avaris (Tell Dabaa) and Pi-Ramesses.RamessesiII orderedthe planting of
orchardshere, and at many religious centres.
2
14 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
with gardens on the route between the Karnak and Luxor temples had names like
'Hatshepsutis united with the perfectionof Amun'.
Summary
The sacredgardensof ancientEgyptat Thebes andAmarnaweredecoratedwith manyof
the garden features which survived through Roman and Islamic times, and became
fashionablein eighteenth-centuryEurope. The power and splendourof the ruler were
demonstratedin extensive gardensin front of their funerarytemples at Deir el Bahari,
and in and aroundthe temple of Amun at Karnak.At Amarna,in the Maru-Aten,there
was a large artificiallake, an ornamentedquay, temples, garden walks, avenues, a
gatehouse, and maybe even a banquetinghouse. Its companiongarden, the 'Northern
Maru', included a sunken atriumgardenand a menagerie,as well as a centralpool and
small shrines.
// =~ ^TFigure 5
13. A gardenerpouring
waterfrom the bucket of the
-l.\ '::f
v / shadufinto a runnel which leads
o^ i n ^ t into the brick containerholding
/ t a date palm
/WV --^ '?--Jf/ Source:Normande GarisDavies,
J
The Tombof NeferHotepat
< ., 2 0 (New York,I933)
Jv
^A-'''
C_W .1 5Thebes
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Researchfor this article was begun at Dumbarton libraries. I am particularlygrateful to John Dixon
Oaks, in the Centerfor Studiesin LandscapeArchi- Hunt and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahnwho, as
tecture. I should like to thank Dumbarton Oaks, Directors of Studies in Landscape Architecture,
Trustees for Harvard University, for two Fellow- gaveme greathelp andencouragement.I shouldalso
ships (Summerand an academicyear), which gave like to thankAnnie Thacherand LindaLott for their
me time and space for study, and the use of their patienceand kindnessto me.
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bietak, Manfred, Tell el Dab'a, v (Vienna, I99I). the Royal Family',Journalof EgyptianArchaeology
Badawy,Alexander,'Maru-Aten:pleasureresort 75 (I989), pp. 89-IoI.
or temple?',Journalof EgyptianArchaeology42 Kaiser, W., 'Stadt und Tempel von Elephantine',
(1956), pp. 58-64. MitteilungendesDeutschenArchaologischenInstituts
Borchardt,Ludwig, HerbertRicke, Die Abteilung Kairo 38 (I982), pp. 306-29.
Wohnhduser in Tell el-Amara (Berlin, I980). Kemp, BarryJ. AmarnaReports(London, I984-).
Bruyere,Bernard,Rapportsurlesfouillesde Deir el Leblanc, Christian,'Culterendu aux colosses
Medineh 1935-40 (Cairo, 1952). "Osiriaques"',Bulletinde l'InstitutFranfaisd'Ar-
Davies, Norman de Garis, TheRock Tombsof el- cheologieOrientale82 (1982), pl. 1-lii.
Amara (London, I903-08). Martin, GeoffreyT., The TombChapelsof Paser
Davies, Norman de Garisand Alan H. Gardiner, andRa'ia at Saqqara(London, I985).
SevenPrivate Tombsat Kurneh(London, 1948). Nelson, Harold, Uvo Holscher, Workin Western
Dziobek, Eberhard,Das GrabdesIneni, Theben Thebes I931-I933 (Chicago, I934).
nr.8i (Mainzam Rhein, I992). Pendlebury,John D. S., et al. TheCity of
Eigner, Diethelm, Die Monumentalen
Grabbauten Akhenaten, IlI (London, I95I).
derSpatzeitin derThebanischen
Nekropole(Vienna, Pendlebury,John D. S. Tell el Amarna(London,
I984). I935).
Firth, Cecil M., BattiscombeGunn, TetiPyramid Petrie, WilliamM. Flinders, Tell el Amarna
Cemeteries(Cairo, I926). (London, I894).
Frankfort,Henri, TheCenotaphof Seti I at Abydos Porter, Berthaand RosalindL. B. Moss, Topogra-
(London, I933). phicalBibliographyof ancientEgyptianhieroglyphic
Germer,Renate, Flora despharaonischen
Agypten texts,reliefs,andpaintings(Oxford, 1927-).
(Mainz, I985). Ricke, Herbert, GerhardHaeny, Beitragezur
Haeny, Gerhard,HerbertRicke, Beitrigezur Agyptischen BauforschungundAltertumskunde,heft I
AgyptischenBauforschung undAltertumskunde,I, i. Untersuchungen im TotentempelAmenophis'III
Untersuchungen AmenophisIII
im Totentempel (Wiesbaden, I981).
(Wiesbaden, I98I). Shedid, Abdel Ghaffar,Stil derGrabmalereiin der
Houlihan, PatrickF., TheBirdsof AncientEgypt Zeit Amenophis'II. Untersuchtan den Thebanischen
(Warminster,I986). GribernNr. o04 undNr. 80 (Mainz-amRhein,
Holscher, Uvo, TheExcavationof MedinetHabu I988).
(Chicago, I934-54). Vandier,Jacques,Manueld'archeologie egyptienne,
H6lscher, Uvo, Die WiedergewinnungvonMedinet 7 vols (Paris, I952-69).
Habu in WestlichenTheben(Tiibingen, I958). Winlock, HerbertE. Excavationsat Deir el Bahri
Ikram, Salima, 'Domestic shrinesand the cult of 1911-1931 (New York, 1942).