Structural Studies Introduction

Figure 1 Schwandbach Bridge by Robert Maillart, 1933, Switzerland (Photo credit: Richard Garlock)

Basics of Structural
Analysis

WContents
1. Reactions
2. Internal Forces
3. Stress
4. Efficiency and Safety Factor

Princeton University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Professor Maria E. Garlock Moreyra
Structural Studies Introduction

In this document, we will continue learning the basic vocabulary of structural analysis and
we will introduce fundamental numerical calculations.

1. Reactions
Reactions are the forces and/or moments at the support(s) of a structure that resist the
applied loads. These reactions are necessary to balance all the loads and keep the structure
in equilibrium —the condition where every force acting on a structure is balanced by an
equal and opposite force.

Static Equilibrium assumes that all loads applied to a structure, both forces and moments,
are resisted by reactions in the structure so that it is in equilibrium and not in motion
(or rotation). Mathematically we define static equilibrium through the following three
equations:

which reads: the sum (Σ) of all (external) vertical forces (V) on the structure must
cancel. The arrow and the (+) sign mean that the forces pointing upwards are
considered positive in the sum, while those pointing downwards are negative.

which reads: the sum (Σ) of all (external) horizontal forces (H) on the structure must
cancel. In this sum, the horizontal forces pointing east are considered positive.
Forces in the opposite direction must be considered negative.

which reads: the sum (Σ) of all (external) moments (M) relative to any point x on
the structure must cancel. Counterclockwise moments are considered positive in
this sum. Clockwise moments are negative.

Although positive sign conventions are defined above, it doesn’t matter which direction you
choose to be positive, as long as you remain consistent throughout all of your calculations.

Verbally, these equations are fairly simple. First, all of the forces in the horizontal directions
—often those due to wind— are resisted by some horizontal reaction(s). Second, the forces
in the vertical direction —likely those due to dead loads and live loads— are resisted by some
vertical reaction(s). However, just because vertical and horizontal loads are cancelled by
reaction forces does not eliminate the possibility of them rotating the structure. Rotational
equilibrium is assured only when the sum of the moments of all the forces relative to any
point in the structures is zero.

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Structural Studies Introduction

In order to apply these equilibrium equations to a structure, it is necessary to draw a free-

body diagram of the structure (or a piece of it). Usually, these forces are just the external
loads and the reactions from the supports of the structure. However, if we draw the free-
body diagram of a piece of the structure, we must include the internal forces that the
removed piece exerted on the cut (i.e. where the structure was ‘sliced’).

Let us find the reactions in the bridge sketched below in Figure 2, where a truck with a given
weight Q is located 2L/3 from support A.

Figure 2
A sketch of a simply
supported bridge with a
point load Q representing
the vehicle

The first step is to draw the free-body diagram of the beam that models the bridge. We
detach it from its supports and draw all the forces acting on it. These forces are: the external
load Q (an idealized concentrated load that accounts for the truck weight) and the reactions
from the detached supports. The latter follows from the relationship between degrees of
freedom and type of reactions, as shown in Structural Studies: Learning the Language, Table
1. Point A is supported by a pin, which can react to the structure it supports only with a
vertical and a horizontal reaction force, hence we should draw a vertical VA and a horizontal
HA reaction in the free-body diagram of the beam at point A. The support at B is a roller,
which means that the only reaction such a support can present is a vertical one, VB. This
completes the free-body diagram for the beam (Figure 3):

Figure 3
Free-body diagram of
the bridge beam

To find the horizontal reaction force at A, HA, we notice that there is no horizontal external
force on the beam to be resisted, hence there is no need for a horizontal reaction on the
beam, leading to the conclusion that HA = 0.
The same result is obtained if we look at the equilibrium condition:

ΣV = VB+VB – Q
ΣV = 0

The vertical reaction must resist the external load Q, namely VA + VB = Q, which also results
from the formal condition ΣV = 0:

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Structural Studies Introduction

To find the values of VA or VB we apply the rotational equilibrium condition ΣM = 0 at

either point A or point B (any other point in the beam will yield the same result bvut the
calculations are simpler if one selects a point where a horizontal or vertical reaction exists).

For point B, we get:

The force VA has a clockwise moment relative to point B; hence its contribution is negative in
the sum above, while force Q has a counter-clockwise moment, giving a positive contribution
in such sum. Solving for VA yields:

Which in turn gives:

2. Internal Forces
So far we’ve talked about loads and reactions external to the structure, but very important
forces are developed by the structure itself in order to resist the external loading and the
reactions. Loads and reactions balance each other through the material in the structure,
creating internal forces in its fibers or elements. In other words, internal forces are the
mechanisms used by the material in the structure to transfer the external loading into their
supports; hence they depend on the specific external loading and reaction forces.

Once the external forces are calculated, we can start evaluating the internal forces, which
will have different values at different points of the structure. We usually use the variable x
to denote the horizontal coordinate of the point in the structure where we are evaluating
its internal forces and the functional notation, F(x), to denote that the quantity F (which
could represent an internal force) changes its value with the variable x. Usually F(x) has
an associated formula or expression that allows one to determine its value by putting a
desired value of x into the formula.

In order to visualize and compute the internal forces, we need to go “inside” the structure
at the point of interest (with coordinate x). This means we perform a cut at the point of
the structure to “expose” those internal forces and find their values using the equilibrium
equations on the free-body representation of the resulting piece. Remember that if a
structure is in equilibrium, any isolated piece of it is as well.

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Structural Studies Introduction

Let us discover the internal forces generated in the bridge beam to resist its own self-
weight (dead load), represented by a given uniform (i.e. constant along the entire span) load
distribution q. The bridge is idealized as a simply supported beam represented in Figure 4.

Internal forces in a structure develop in response to external loading and their reactions;
hence the first step in the process of looking into internal forces is finding reactions. To do
so, it suffices to observe that the centroid of this load is at x = L/2 and the total load is qL.
Using the same procedure as in the previous example, we find that this load generates two
identical external reactions V = qL/2 = VA = VB.

To expose the internal forces in the beam at location “x” we cut the beam at this point and
look at the free-body diagram of the resulting left piece (Figure 5), where, in addition to
external forces and reactions shown, we need to draw the forces that the right piece of the
beam exerts on this left piece of the beam at the cut. These are precisely the internal forces
we want to learn about.

Clearly this piece of the beam as drawn in Figure 5 is not in equilibrium since the reaction V
= qL/2 is different than the total (vertical) load on this piece of the beam qx. Only at mid-
point (x = L/2) are these two forces the same. Since this piece must be in equilibrium at all
times, there must be a force at the cut that restores its vertical equilibrium. Here is where
our first internal force comes into play.

Figure 4
The loaded beam representing
the Bridge in Example 1
supporting its own weight

Figure 5
Left: Incomplete free-body
diagram of the cut at x
Right: Free-body diagram
of piece, now in vertical
equilibrium but still incomplete
See Figure 7

This internal force is known as shear, and is represented by S in Figure 5, right. It is always
perpendicular to the axis of the structure and tries to slide the right portion of the beam
vertically off the right one. Remember this is a force exerted by the right portion of the
beam on its left counterpart in order to keep it from collapsing (maintain equilibrium).

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Structural Studies Introduction

You can visualize it as the mechanism by which the beam transfers the external loading to
its supports. Its value must make the ΣV = 0 (vertical equilibrium condition), hence:

As shown above, and for this particular external loading, the shear force S has a linear
dependence on x. Its plot, shown in Figure 6, is known as the shear diagram, and is the
graphical representation of the shear force S(x) at any point x in the bridge. This internal
force has its largest value at the supports:

Don’t forget that this result only applies to the particular loading conditions of this example.
In general, to find the shear force S at a point x for any loading on a beam you need to:

a) find the reactions first

b) sum of all the external forces and reactions to the left of point x. The result is the shear
force Sx = S(x).

Let us continue analyzing our left piece of the beam depicted in Figure 5, right, for more
internal forces. Even with the addition of the shear S into this free-body diagram that
restored vertical equilibrium, this piece would rotate if left like that, that is ΣMx ≠ 0 where x
is any point in the piece of the beam under study. For instance, if we choose point x as our
reference point:

You can put any numerical value of x between 0 and L (but not 0 or L) to verify this inequality.
The moment is equal to zero at the supports since it has pin and roller boundary conditions.

Figure 6
Shear force S(x), shear diagram

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Structural Studies Introduction

The needed moment to restore rotational equilibrium to this piece of the beam (Figure 5,
right) is called the internal bending moment M(x). It is a moment resisting the tendency of
the internal loads to bend the structure. Now we can complete the free-body diagram of
our beam piece (Figure 5) that allowed us to find all the internal forces in our bridge.

Figure 7
Complete free-body diagram
of beam cut at x, with all
internal forces

The bending moment is considered positive when it tries to deform the beam into a
concave-up shape (a ‘smile’), and negative otherwise. In this example M(x) is positive, and,
as in the case of the shear force, this moment is exerted by the right portion of the beam
on its left one. The value of this bending results from the equilibrium condition ΣMx = 0 on
the free-body of Figure 7. To solve for M(x), we sum the moment about any point. Summing
about point x:

The plot of this equation (a simple parabola) is shown in Figure 8 and is known as the
bending moment diagram, M(x) for this beam under uniform distributed loading. Its
maximum value is qL2/8 when x = L/2 (the midpoint of the beam), and (3/4) qL2/8 at the
quarter points when x = L/4 and x = 3L/4.

To find the bending moment M at a point x for any loading on a beam you need to:

a) find the reactions first

b) sum the moments relative to point x (the point where the cut is made) of all external
moments, forces and reactions.

Figure 8
Bending moment diagram
M(x) for a beam under
uniform load q

Remember that internal forces and their diagrams depend on the external loading on the
structure.

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Structural Studies Introduction

Another very important internal force (not participating in the beam example above) is the
axial force N. This force is needed to transmit external loading with a component along the
direction of the axis of the beam. The axial internal force always has the direction of the
axis of the structure under study (hence it is always perpendicular to the shear force). The
element of the structure is under tension (always positive by convention) when this axial
force tries to stretch this element, and under compression (always negative by convention)
when it tries to squeeze it (Figure 9 illustrates a column under compression and a cable
under tension). The column and the arch are the classical examples of structures where the
axial internal force of compression is the key mechanism of load transfer to its foundations
or supports, as well as vaults and domes, while the steel cable supporting a suspension
bridge is the typical example of a structure under tensile axial forces.

Figure 9
Left: Column in compression.
Right: Cable in tension

3. Stress
The ability of a structure to resist internal forces depends on the strength of the materials,
the size of the cross-section, and the form where these forces act, i.e. a structure with a
large cross-section will resist an equal force more easily than one of smaller cross-section.

The value of the force per unit area is called the stress on that section of the structure. All
the internal forces studied become more useful when we specify the cross sectional area of
the material on which they act. When the internal force is perpendicular to the plane of the
area, the corresponding stress is an axial stress. The axial stress (faxial) in a member of cross
sectional area A, subject to an axial load N, is mathematically expressed as:

Equation 1
Axial Stress

The bending moment stress fbend results from the internal bending moment M. Its distribution
(how it varies along the cross-section where it acts) is more complex that the ones of axial
stress. In Figure 10 a cantilever beam is being bent to the left by the load Q, which in
turn generates the internal bending moment M. The figure illustrates this bending moment
generating compressive stresses on the left fibers of the beam while creating equal tensile
stresses on the right ones.

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Structural Studies Introduction

These stresses are distributed over the cross section as shown in Figure 10 (detail). The
point on the cross section where there is no bending stress is called the neutral axis; and
this distribution shows that the maximum compressive and tensile stresses occur on the
outermost fibers of the beam. Figure 10 (detail) illustrates the equivalent compressive force
C and tensile force T (= C) causing the described bending. Since these forces must produce
the same bending as the one created by the internal bending moment M, we have that:

The value of d depends on the geometry of the cross-section of the element where the
bending is being analyzed.

Figure 10
Bending stress in a
cantilever. Its profile and the
equivalent bending forces

Example

Axial Compressive Stress in Columns

A given vertical load of value Q = 10 k acting on a short vertical column, the effects will
be very different when applied to a small column of cross-section A1 = 2 in2 than when
applied to a larger one of cross sectional area A2 = 10 in2. The axial stress acting on
the small column

is higher than that acting on the larger one,

even though both are under the same load Q. This example tries to illustrate that
knowing the value of the load or force alone is of limited use until we know the
available cross-sectional area to resist it. In structural design, the useful measure
of capacity is stress, because that is what measures the capacity of the material (e.g.
steel, concrete, etc.) to resist tension and compression.

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Structural Studies Introduction

Example

Axial Tensile Stress in a Cable

The cable in Figure 8, right, is in tension. For example, let’s imagine it is supporting a
load of 10 k and that it has a circular cross sectional area of 0.5 in2. This means the
cable will be under an axial tensile stress of:

To each internal force, we associate a stress quantity to measure the effect of the
internal force on the particular structure.

4. Efficiency and Safety Factor

Stresses are important because they are used by engineers to determine if an existing
structure or one being designed will be able to support a given loading without failing.

The ultimate stress of a material is the maximum stress it can withstand in either tension
or compression before it fails or breaks. This is a property of the material that is typically
well known. Common engineering practice is to design structures with actual stresses (the
largest stresses actually occurring in the elements of the structure under design loads)
well below the ultimate stress values. One approach is to limit the maximum stress in the
structure to the allowable stress. Safety committees or standard boards set the allowable
stress value for the purpose of assuring safety. The allowable stress of a material is usually
one half to one third the value of the ultimate stress of the material. The ratio of the two is
known as the safety factor:

Equation 2
Safety Factor

The ultimate stress is usually expressed in units of pounds per square inch (psi). For
example, steel that is typically used for beams and columns has an ultimate stress ranging
from 36,000 psi to 70,000 psi in tension and compression, so that its allowable stress can
be between 20,000 psi and 35,000 psi. Concrete typically has an ultimate stress ranging
from 3,000 psi to 8,000 psi in compression only. In design, concrete is assumed to be
incapable of developing tensile stresses. Obviously, a safety factor less than 1 indicates
failure, whereas a safety factor that is too large indicates an inefficient structure with an
excess of material. Typically, engineers design for safety factors ranging from 2.0 to 3.0.

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Structural Studies Introduction

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the largest stress value suffered by the member of the
structure to the maximum allowable stress for the material being used:

Equation 3
Efficiency of the Structure

By multiplying this value by 100%, one obtains the percentage of allowable stress actually
used in the element built or designed

Example

Let’s return to the example of the cable in tension. A typical steel cable has an ultimate
stress (yield stress) of about 150,000 psi so that a typical allowable stress is about 80,000
psi. This cable will definitely withstand the 10 k load and its efficiency is:

The efficiency of the cable is then 25%, which shows that a thinner wire would have
sustained the load more efficiently.

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Structural Studies Introduction

w Summary of Terms

A total cross-sectional area in2

Aflange cross-sectional area of the flange in2
C compressive force lbs or k
a distance between C and T ft
faxial compressive stress psi or ksi
fbend bending stress psi or ksi
H horizontal reaction lbs or k
L span length ft
M bending moment lbs-ft or k-ft
p or q distributed load lbs/ft or k/ft
Pcr buckling load or the Euler critical buckling load lbs or k
P or Q concentrated load lbs or k
S shear force lbs or k
T tensile force lbs or k
V vertical reaction lbs or k

w Summary of Equations

Maximum Bending Moment in a Simply Supported

Beam Under a Uniformly Distributed Load

Vertical Reaction at the Support of a Simply Supported

Beam Due to a Uniformly Distributed Load

Axial stress

Internal Forces

Maximum bending stress of a hollow beam

Safety factor

Efficiency of the structure

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