GENETICS

– is branch of biology that deals with heredity

and variation of organisms

HEREDITY
– passing of traits from parent to offspring

TRAITS
– any characteristic that can be passed from
parent to offspring

VARIATION
– the act or process of changing
– in genetics, deviation in characters in an
individual from the group to which it
belongs or deviation in characters of the
offspring from those of its parents

GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL

– he considered as the
“Father of Modern Genetics”
– he was an Austrian Monk,
born in what is now
Czech Republic in 1822
– he was a son of peasant
farmer, studied Theology
 and was ordained priest Order St. Augustine
– he had done research on heredity with
green peas from 1856 to 1868
– his research formed the foundation of
Genetics
GENETICS TERMS YOU NEED TO KNOW
ALLELE
- different form of a gene that controls a
certain traits
GENE
- a unit of heredity; a section of DNA
sequence encoding a single protein
CHROMOSOME – carries
hereditary information (gene)
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
– is a double helix: that
is, two long, thin strands
twisted around each other
like a spiral staircase
NOTE: How are alleles written?
A capital letter is used for the allele
indicating DOMINANT TRAIT and a lower case
letter is written for the contrasting RECESSIVE
ALLELE (TRAIT)
Examples: Allele for Tallness = (T)
Allele for Shortness = (t)
DOMINANT TRAITS
– are traits that manifested more often than
others
– stronger of two genes expressed in the
hybrid (an offspring between parents of
different traits)
– represented by a capital letter
(Pure Tall = TT)
RECESSIVE TRAITS
– are traits that are hidden
– gene that shows up less often in a cross
– represented by a lowercase letter
(Pure Short = tt)
PHENOTYPE
– is the external or physical expression of a
trait
– refers to the physical appearance of an
organism (genotype + environment)
Examples: Red, Short, Tall, White

GENOTYPE
– refers to the gene combination for a trait
– is the internal genetic constitution
of an organism
Examples: TT, Tt, tt

NOTE: It is possible for two different individuals

to have the same phenotype but different
genotype.
Example:
TRAITS PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE
PURE TALL
TALL TT
PLANT
HYBRID PLANT TALL Tt
HOMOZYGOUS
– gene combination involving 2 dominant or
2 recessive genes
– also called PURE
Examples: Pure tall = TT and Pure short = tt
HETEROZYGOUS
– gene combination of one dominant & one
recessive allele
– also called HYBRID
Examples: Hybrid tall = Tt and Hybrid round = Rr
TRAITS SYMBOL PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE
(FOR TRAITS)
Homozygous/
TT Tall
Pure tall
PLANT Heterozygous/
Tt Tall
HEIGHT Hybrid tall
Homozygous/
tt Short
Pure short
Homozygous/
YY Yellow
Pure yellow
SEED Heterozygous/
Yy Yellow
COLOR Hybrid yellow
Homozygous/
yy Green
Pure green
Homozygous/
RR Round
Pure round
SEED Heterozygous/
Rr Round
SHAPE Hybrid round
Homozygous/
rr Wrinkled
Pure wrinkled
 TYPES OF GENETIC CROSSES
MONOHYBRID CROSS – cross involving a single
trait. Example: flower color
DIHYBRID CROSS – cross involving two traits.
Example: flower color and plant height

PUNNETT SQUARE
– a useful tool to do genetic cross
– for monohybrid cross, you need a square
divided by four (looks like a window pane)
– we use the Punnett square to predict the
genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.
Steps on How to Use a Punnett Square
1. Determine the genotypes of the parent
organisms.
2. Write down your "cross" (mating).
3. Draw a p-square.
Parent genotypes:
TT(Homozygous tall) and tt (homozygous short)
CROSS: TT  tt

4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each

 parent & put them "outside" the p-square
5. Determine the possible genotypes of the
offspring by filling in the p-square.
6. Summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes
of offspring)
T T
TT  tt t Tt Tt Genotypes:
4 Tt = Heterozygous tall
t Tt Tt Genotypic ratio: 4:0
Phenotypes:
4 = Tall plants
Phenotypic ratio: 4:0
Other examples…
Traits: Seed shape
Alleles: R – Round r – Wrinkled
Cross:
Homozygous round x Heterozygous wrinkled
RR x Rr

R R
Genotypes:
R RR RR 2 RR = Homozygous round
2 Rr = Heterozygous round
r Rr Rr Genotypic ratio: 2:2
Phenotypes:
4 = round seed shape
Phenotypic ratio: 4:0
Traits: Flower color
Alleles: P – Purple p – White
Cross:
Heterozygous purple x Heterozygous purple
Pp x Pp
P p
Genotypes:
P PP Pp 1 PP = Homozygous purple
2 Pp = Heterozygous purple
p Pp pp 1 pp = Homozygous white
Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1
Phenotypes:
3 = Purple flower color
1 = White flower color
Phenotypic ratio: 3:1
Sample Problems:
1. In summer squash, white fruit color (W) is
dominant over yellow fruit color (w). If a squash
plant homozygous for white is crossed with a
plant homozygous for yellow, determine the
genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
2. A plant can produce either a white flower or a
purple flower, with the purple flower allele being
dominant. If a heterozygous purple flower
producing plant is matched with a homozygous
white flower, what are the possible offspring?
3. Blue eyes are recessive in humans, while
brown eyes are dominant. What is the
probability that a child of a blue-eyed father and
homozygous brown-eyed mother can have blue
eyes?
4. Dimples in a child are a dominant trait. If a
mother with no dimples had a child with a father
who was heterozygous for dimples, what is the
probability that the child would have dimples?
Number of times a particular
event occurs
PROBABILITY = ___________________________
Number of opportunities for
the event to occur
(number of trials)

MENDELIAN PRINCIPLE:
In Mendelian pattern of inheritance, the
effects of the recessive gene are not observed
when the dominant gene is present.
A. LAW OF DOMINANCE
In a cross of parents that are pure for
contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will
appear in the next generation.
All the offspring will be heterozygous and
express only the dominant trait.
RR x rr yields all Rr (round seeds)
B. LAW OF SEGREGATION
During the formation of gametes (eggs or
sperm), the two alleles responsible for a trait
separate from each other.
Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at
fertilization, producing the genotype for the
traits of the offspring.

C. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Alleles for different traits are distributed to
sex cells (& offspring) independently of one
another.
This law can be illustrated using dihybrid
crosses.
REVIEW:
Most genetic traits have a
stronger, _________________ allele and
a weaker, ________________ allele
In an individual with a heterozygous
genotype, the dominant allele SHOW UP
in the offspring and the recessive allele
gets COVERED UP and DOES NOT
SHOW, this is what we called COMPLETE
DOMINANT
DOMINANT RECESSIVE
Rr Tt Pp PP RR
TT rr pp tt
HOMOZYGOUS HETEROZYGOUS HOMOZYGOUS
DOMINANT GENOTYPES RECESSIVE

Oops!?!
 However, some alleles do not
completely dominate others. In fact,
some heterozygous genotypes ALLOW
BOTH ALLELES TO PARTIALLY SHOW
by BLENDING together how they are
expressed, this is what we called
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

Hmmm…
Other heterozygous genotypes
ALLOW BOTH ALLELES TO BE
COMPLETELY EXPRESSED AT THE
SAME TIME like SPOTS or STRIPES, this
is what we called CODOMINANCE

Write what each type would be if they

were heterozygous
A. COMPLETE DOMINANCE – If a Red
flower (RR) and White flower (rr) were
crossbred, resulting in 100% (Rr). What
phenotype would be seen according to
the rules of “complete dominance”?

B. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE – If a Red

flower (RR) and White flower (rr) were
crossed, resulting in 100% Rr. What
phenotype(s) would be seen according to
the rules of “incomplete dominance”?

C. CODOMINANCE – If a Red flower (RR)

and White flower (rr) were crossed,
resulting in 100% Rr. What phenotype(s)
would be seen according to the rules of
“codominance?
DOMINANT
NON-MENDELIAN PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
A. INCOMPELETE DOMINANCE
– a heterozygous shows a phenotype that
is intermediate between the two homozygous
phenotypes
– neither allele is dominant over the other
EXAMPLE:
Snapdragon flowers come in many colors
If you cross a red
snapdragon(RR) with a

You get PINK flowers (Rr)!

Genes show incomplete dominance
when the heterozygous phenotype
is intermediate.
RR  rr
R
RED WHITE

Rr
(or RW)
PINK
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE – is the
blending of traits expressed by the alleles that
combine for any given characteristics
– a heterozygous shows a phenotype that is
intermediate between the two homozygous
phenotypes
– neither allele is dominant over the other
When F1 generation (all pink flowers) is
self pollinated, the F2 generation is 1:2:1
red, pink, white
R W Genotypic % =
R RR RW RR(25%) ; RW(50%) ; WW(25%)

W RW WW Phenotypic % =
Red(25%) ; Pink(50%) ; White(25%)

Incomplete Dominance
REVIEW:
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- is a form of intermediate
inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely dominant
over the other allele.
- the result in third phenotype in
which the expressed physical traits is
combination of the dominant and
recessive phenotypes.
RED x = PINK
CODOMINANCE
Both alleles are expressed
equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygous.
RED x = RED and
REMEMBER:
The genotypic ratio/percentage
also becomes the phenotypic
ratio/percentage.
Another good example of codominance is
roan fur in cattle. Cattle can be red (RR =
all red hairs), white (WW = all white
hairs), or roan (RW = red & white hairs
together)
MULTIPLE ALLELES
- when there is more than two
possible alleles
- this may also lead to more than
two phenotype
- blood type is the most common
example of multiple alleles
- in human, there are four blood
types (phenotypes) A, B, AB and O
- blood type is controlled by 3
alleles and these are A, B and O
- “O” is recessive, two “O”
alleles must be present for a person to
have type “O” blood
- “A” and “B” are codominant, if
a person receives an “A” allele and a “B”
allele, their blood type is “AB”

REMEMBER:
Blood type O = universal donor
Blood type AB = universal receiver
 Can
Blood Type Can donate
Genotype receive
(Phenotype) blood to:
blood from:
ii A, B,
O O
(Universal donor) (OO) AB & O

AB IAIB A, B,
AB
(Universal receiver) (AB) AB, & O
IAIA or IAi
A AB, A O, A
(AO)
IBIB or IBi
B AB, B O, B
(BO)

Write the genotype for each person

based on the description.
A. Homozygous for the “B” allele ____
B. Heterozygous for the “A” allele ____
C. Type “O” ____
D. Type “A” and had a type O parent ____
E. Type “ AB” ____
F. Blood can be donated to anybody ____
G. Can only get blood from a ____
type “O” donor
Pretend that Regine Velasquez is
homozygous for the B allele and Ogie
Alcacid is type O. What are the possible
blood types of their baby?

Make a punnett square showing all the

possible blood types for the offspring
produced by a type “O” mother and a type
“AB” father. What are the percentages of
each offspring?

Determine the possible blood types of the

offspring when:
A. Father is type “O”, mother is type “O”
B. Father is type “A”, homozygous;
Mother is type “B”, homozygous
C. Father is type “A”, heterozygous;
Mother is type “B”, heterozygous
D. Father is type “O”, Mother is type
“AB”
E. Father and mother are both type “AB”
 SEX CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOME – carries hereditary
information (gene)
- Humans have 46 chromosomes in each
cell.
- Observation of the human body cells
shows 23 pairs of chromosomes for
both male and female.
- Twenty-two (22) pairs are SOMATIC
CHROMOSOMES.
- The 23rd pair consists of SEX
CHROMOSOMES.

FEMALE MALE
- Human males and some other male
organisms, such as other mammals and
fruit flies, have non-identical sex
chromosomes (XY)
- Females have identical (XX) sex
chromosomes

SEX DETERMINATION
- If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y
chromosome, the offspring is MALE.
- When an egg is fertilized by a sperm
carrying an X chromosome, the
offspring is FEMALE.

Note that there is a 50 PERCENT chance

of having a male or female offspring. The
greater the number of offspring, the
greater is the chance of getting the
expected 1:1 ratio of male and female.
SEX-LINKED GENES
- genes or traits that are located on sex
chromosomes.
- sex-linked traits are inherited through
the X chromosomes

REMEMBER!
- Females have two X chromosomes;
therefore they can inherit or carry the
traits without being affected if it acts in a
recessive manner.
- Males have only one X chromosomes;
thus, if they inherit the affected X, they
will have the disorder.
Genes located on the X chromosomes
are called X-LINKED GENES.
Examples:
A. HEMOPHILIA – a serious disease that
causes a person who has been cut or
injured to keep bleeding for a very long
time. It can cause death due to loss of
blood.
B. COLOR BLINDNESS – inability to
distinguish between certain color.

GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
XX Normal female
Normal female, carrier of
XX C
the gene
XC XC Color-blind female
XY Normal male
XC Y Color blind male
- For female to become color-blind, she
must be homozygous (XC XC) for the
color-blind genes. Therefore, color-blind
is recessive in females.
- If a female has only one X chromosome
with the allele for color blindness, she
becomes normal but can pass on the
traits to her offspring. She is therefore a
carrier of the traits.
- For male the gene for color blindness is
ALWAYS BE EXPRESSED because it
does not have an allele to hide or prevent
its expression since males have only one
X chromosomes. Thus, the male will be
color-blind. This is the reason why color
blindness is more common in males than
in females
Genes located on the Y chromosomes
are called Y-LINKED GENES.
Example:
A. HYPERTRICHOSIS PINNAE AURIS – a
genetic disorder in humans that causes
hairy ears.
- Since the trait is found in the Y
chromosomes, then only males can have
the trait.
- A father who has the condition will pass
it on to all his sons, and they, in turn, will
pass it on their own sons
REVIEW:
A. The number of chromosomes in each
human cell.
B. The 23rd chromosome is called ______.
C. What do you call the first 22nd pairs of
chromosome?
D. The sex chromosomes for male.
E. The sex chromosomes for female?
F. If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a
Y chromosome, the gender of the
offspring will become ________.
G. The offspring will become female,
when an egg is fertilized by a sperm
carrying an ____ chromosome.
H. What is the probability of having a
male or female offspring?
I. It carries the hereditary information
called gene.
J. Gender for the offspring will be
determined by _______ parent.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A color-blind man has a child with
woman who is carrier of the disorder.
Using the punnett square determine the
probability of having children who will
have normal vision and children who will
be color-blinded.

2. Using the punnett square, solve the

possible offspring of a color-blind man
who is married to a normal woman.

3. What is the possible result if normal

man marries a color-blind woman?

4. Show the cross between a color-blind

father and mother. What is the probability
that their children will have the same
diseases?

5. A woman who is carrier of the gene for

color-blind marries a normal man.
 GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
XX Normal female
Normal female, carrier of
XX H
the gene
XH XH Female with hemophilia
XY Normal male
XH Y Male with hemophilia
Solve the following.
A. Show the cross of a man who has
hemophilia with a woman who is a
carrier. What is the probability that their
children will have the same diseases?
B. A woman who has hemophilia marries
normal man. How many of their children
will have hemophilia, and what is their
sex?
C. A woman who is a carrier marries a
normal man. Show the cross between
them. What is the possibility that their
children will have hemophilia? What sex
will a child in the family with hemophilia
be?
SEX-LIMITED TRAITS
- traits that are generally AUTOSOMAL,
which means that they are NOT FOUND on
the X and Y chromosomes
- traits that are expressed exclusively in
only one sex
REMEMBER:
The genes for these traits behave exactly
same way that any autosomal gene
behaves. The difference here comes in the
expression of the genes in the phenotype of
the individual.
- an example for this is the “lactation in
cattle”
Female Genotype Female Phenotypes
XL XL Female lactating
XL XI Female lactating
Xl Xl Female not lactating
Male Genotypes Male Phenotypes
XL YL Male not lactating
XL Yl Male not lactating
Xl Yl Male not lactating
- The gene for lactation (L) is dominant over
the non-lactating gene (l)
- These genes are carried by both males and
females, but it is only expressed in females
- If female cattle have at least one gene pair
for lactation (L), the female cattle still
produces milk
- If female cattle have two recessive genes
for non-lactating, then the female cattle will
not produce milk
- In male cattle, it does not matter if they
possess one or two genes for lactation, still
they will not produce milk
OTHER EXAMPLES OF SEX-LIMITED TRAITS
The fanlike tail feather The horns that are
in peacocks that is exclusively found in
never expressed in males of certain sheep
peahens species
SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS
- are also AUTOSOMAL, it means that their
genes are not carried on the sex
chromosomes
- traits that are expressed in both sexes but
more frequently in one than in the other
sexes
REMEMBER:
Again, what makes these traits unusual
is the way they are expressed
phenotypically. In this case, the difference
is in the ways the two genders express the
genes.

- One classic example of a sex-influenced

trait is the “pattern baldness” in humans,
though the condition is not restricted to
males.
- This gene has two alleles, “bald (B)” and
“non-bald (b)”
- These genes are highly influenced by the
hormones called “testosterone”
- All humans have testosterone, but males
have much higher levels of this hormone
than females do.
- Therefore, in males, the baldness allele
behaves like a dominant allele, while in
females it behaves like a recessive allele.
Male Genotype Male Phenotypes
XB YB Male bald
XB Yb Male bald
Xb Yb Male non-bald
Female Genotypes Female Phenotypes
XB XB Female bald
XB Xb Female non-bald
Xb Xb Female non-bald
NOTE:
If you look at the heterozygous gene pair
for baldness (Bb), males express baldness,
while females do not.
Baldness may be expressed in females
but it occurs more frequently in males. Such
trait is sex influenced because of the
substance that is not produced equally in
males and females.
Solve the following.

A. Predict the genotype, phenotype and

probability in the offspring if the mother is
homozygous bald and the father is not bald.
Perform a cross using a Punnett square.

B. Determine the offspring if a heterozygous

male bald marries with homozygous female
non-bald.

C. What is the offspring of a homozygous

male bald who marries with heterozygous
female non-bald?

D. Heterozygous male bald crosses with

heterozygous female non-bald. Determine the
genotype, phenotype and probability of their
offspring.

E. What offspring will be produced if a

homozygous male bald marries with a
homozygous female non-bald?
PART I. Identify the following terms being asked.
(GENETICS,HEREDITARY,GREGOR MENDEL)
1. It is a branch of biology that deals with
heredity and variation of organisms.
2. It is the passing of traits from parent to
offspring.
3. He was considered as the Father of Modern
Genetics.
(ALLELE, DNA, GENE, CHROMOSOME)
4. It carries hereditary information (gene).
5. It is a macromolecule that forms double helix
structures that are twisted around each other
like a spiral staircase.
6. It refers to the different form of a gene that
controls a certain traits.
7. It is a section of DNA sequence encoding a
single protein.
(DOMINANT, RECESSIVE)
8. These are traits that manifested more often
than others.
9. These are traits that are hidden or gene
that shows up less often in a cross.
(PHENOTYPE, GENOTYPE)
9. It is the external or physical expression of
a trait.
10. It refers to the gene combination for a trait.
 (HOMOZYGOUS, HETEROZYGOUS)
11. It is a gene combination involving 2
dominant genes or 2 recessive genes.
12. It is a gene combination of one dominant
and one recessive allele.
(MONOHYBRID CROSS, PUNNETT SQUARE,
DIHYBRID CROSS)
13. It is a cross involving a single trait.
14. It is a cross involving two traits.
15. It is a useful tool to do genetic crosses.
(INCOMPLETE, CODOMINANCE,
MULTIPLE ALLELE)
16. It is the blending of traits expressed by the
alleles that combine for any given
characteristics.
17. When there are more than two possible
alleles that will lead to more than two
phenotype.
18. It is when both alleles are expressed equally
in the phenotype of the heterozygous.
(TYPE O, TYPE AB)
19. It is considered as universal receiver.
20. It is considered as universal donor.
 (SEX-LINKED, SEX-LIMITED,
SEX-INFLUENCED)
21. It refer to the traits that are expressed
exclusively in only one sex
22. It refer to the genes or traits that are located
on sex chromosomes.
23. It refer to the traits that are expressed in both
sexes but more frequently in one than in the
other sexes
(XX, XY, SOMATIC CHROMOSOMES, SEX
CHROMOSOME)
24. The sex chromosomes for male.
25. The sex chromosomes for female.
26. The 23rd pair of chromosome.
27. The 22 pairs of chromosomes
(MALE, X, 50%, Y, FEMALE, 25%)
28. If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y
chromosome, the gender of the offspring
will become ________.
29. The offspring will become female, when an
egg is fertilized by a sperm carrying an ____
chromosome.
30. What is the probability of having a male or
female offspring?