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18th International Conference on Sheet Metal, SHEMET 2019
18th International Conference on Sheet Metal, SHEMET 2019
Investigation of the effects of femtosecond laser metal surface
Investigation of the effects of femtosecond laser metal surface
texturing
Manufacturing Engineering onInternational
Society bondingConference
of PA 6 2017,
to steel
MESIC 2017, 28-30 June
texturing on bonding of PA  6
2017, Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain
to steel
Victoria Zinneckera,b,
a,b,
*, Christopher Stokes-Griffinaa, Steve Maddenbb, Andrei Rodebb,
Victoria Zinnecker *, Christopher Stokes-Griffin
Compstonaa ,in Steve Madden , Andrei Rode ,
Costing models for capacityPaul optimization
Paul Compston Industry 4.0: Trade-off
between used capacity and operational efficiency
ARC Training Centre for Automated Manufacture of Advanced Composites, Research School of Engineering, Australian National University,
a

a
Canberra
ARC Training Centre for Automated Manufacture of Advanced 2600, Australia
Composites, Research School of Engineering, Australian National University,
b
Laser Physics Centre, Research School of PhysicsCanberra
and Engineering, Australian National University, Canberra 2600, Australia
2600, Australia
b
A. Santana , P. Afonso , A. Zanin , R. Wernke
Laser Physics Centre, Research School ofa Physics and Engineering,
a,* Australian bNational University, bCanberra 2600, Australia

a
University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
Abstract b
Unochapecó, 89809-000 Chapecó, SC, Brazil
Abstract
This paper investigates the effects of femtosecond laser surface texturing on the interfacial bond strength of steel and a
This paper investigates
thermoplastic polymer PA the effects
6 film. of femtosecond
Ultimately the textureslaser
will surface texturing
be used for hybridson thatthe
areinterfacial
manufactured bond strength
using of steel (NIR)
a near-infrared and a
Abstract
thermoplastic automated
laser-assisted polymer PA tape 6 film. Ultimately
placement (ATP)the process
textures and
will carbon
be usedfibre
for hybrids that are manufactured
/ PA 6 composites, therefore theusing a near-infrared
NIR absorptance (NIR)
of the
laser-assisted
textured metalautomated
substrate is tape placement
also (ATP)
of interest. process the
To identify and influence
carbon fibre / PA 6 composites,
of different thereforeonthe
surface structures theNIR absorptance
bonding of the
strength, lap
Under
textured
shear the
samplesconcept
metal substrate
were ofis"Industry
manufactured 4.0",
also of interest.
with laserproduction
To textures theprocesses
identify varyinginfluence will
of
in pulse be pushed
different
length, surface
hatch tostructures
distancebe and
increasingly
on interconnected,
the bonding
ablated depth strength,
and tested lap
by
information
shear samples
ASTM D 3165.basedThe on
were a realstructures
manufactured
surface timewith
basis
wereand,
laser necessarily,
textures
analysed varying
with much
white more
in light
pulse efficient.
length, hatch In
interferometry this and
distance
(WLI) context, capacity
andscanning
ablated depth optimization
and
electron tested by
microscopy
ASTM
(SEM).
goes DAdditional
beyond3165.
theThe surface measurements
optical
traditional structures were inanalysed
aim of capacity with white
the infrared
maximization, light range
radiation interferometry
contributing of 900
also (WLI)
nm to and
for organization’s1100scanning electron
nmprofitability
were microscopy
executed
and with a
value.
(SEM). Additional
spectrophotometer
Indeed, tooptical
lean managementevaluatemeasurements
the
and laser in theimprovement
absorptance
continuous infrared
for the NIRradiation
automated range ofsuggest
900 nm
tape placement
approaches to 1100
process.
capacity Thenm were strength
lap shear
optimization executed withofa
increased
instead
spectrophotometer
to the highest value to evaluate
of 31.9 MPathe laser
with aabsorptance
tooth shaped for the
laser NIR automated
texture using a tape
275 placement
fs laser
maximization. The study of capacity optimization and costing models is an important research topic that deserves process.
pulse width, The
a lap
hatch shear strength
distance of increased
600 μm an
to the highest
ablated depth value
of 40 of 31.9
μm. Also MPa
the with a toothfor
absorptance shaped
this laser texture
sample using
increased by aapproximately
275 fs laser pulse13% width,
to 73% a compared
hatch distance
to theofunprocessed
600 μm an
contributions from both the practical and theoretical perspectives. This paper presents and discusses a mathematical
ablated depth
pickled steel. of 40 μm. Also the absorptance for this sample increased by approximately 13% to 73% compared to the unprocessed
model for capacity management based on different costing models (ABC and TDABC). A generic model has been
pickled steel.
developed and it was used to analyze idle capacity and to design strategies towards the maximization of organization’s
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2019The
value. The Authors.
trade-off Published
capacity bymaximization
Elsevier B.V. vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown that capacity
© 2018
This The
is an Authors.
open accessPublished
article by Elsevier
under B.V.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This is an openmight
optimization accesshidearticle under the CC
operational BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
inefficiency.
This is an and
Selection openpeer-review
access article under
under the CC BY-NC-ND
responsibility of the license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
organizing committee of of SHEMET
SHEMET 2019. 2019.
©Selection
2017 The and peer-review
Authors. underby
Published responsibility
Elsevier B.V. of the organizing committee
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SHEMET 2019.
Peer-review
Keywords: laserunder responsibility
texturing; of the
thermoplastic scientificmetal-composite
composite; committee of hybrid;
the Manufacturing
interfacial bondEngineering Society
strength; optical International Conference
properties
2017.
Keywords: laser texturing; thermoplastic composite; metal-composite hybrid; interfacial bond strength; optical properties

Keywords: Cost Models; ABC; TDABC; Capacity Management; Idle Capacity; Operational Efficiency

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-2-6125-1418
E-mail
*The address:
Corresponding
cost victoria.zinnecker@anu.edu.au
author.
of idle Tel.: +61-2-6125-1418
capacity is a fundamental information for companies and their management of extreme importance
E-mail address: victoria.zinnecker@anu.edu.au
in modern production systems. In general, it is defined as unused capacity or production potential and can be measured
2351-9789 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
in several ways: tons of production, available hours of manufacturing, etc. The management of the idle capacity
This is an open
2351-9789 access
© 2018 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC BY-NC-ND
Published license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
by Elsevier B.V.
* Paulo Afonso.
Selection Tel.: +351 253 responsibility
510 761; fax: of
+351
the 253 604 741committee of SHEMET 2019.
This is an and
openpeer-review
access under
article under the CC BY-NC-ND organizing
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
E-mail address: psafonso@dps.uminho.pt
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SHEMET 2019.

2351-9789 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review
2351-9789 © under
2019responsibility
The Authors. of the scientificbycommittee
Published Elsevier of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SHEMET 2019.
10.1016/j.promfg.2019.02.143
314 Victoria Zinnecker et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 29 (2019) 313–320
2 Victoria Zinnecker / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Motivation and Introduction

In recent years, the awareness for the importance of climate protection has increased. Therefore on November, the
4th in 2016, the Paris Agreement entered into force to ensure the contribution of every party to mitigate global
warming. One aspect to reach this target is to reduce CO2 emissions for passenger cars [1]. Several studies have been
executed to measure the impact of vehicle weight reduction to CO 2 emission. Data measured by Japan’s Ministry of
Transport [2] derives that 100 kg vehicle weight reduction leads to a CO2 emission reduction of 20 g/km, whereas the
latest report of the European Federation for Transport and Environment (AISBL) [3] reports about 5.4 to 6.9 g/km for
100 kg weight reduction. Although these give a great range of the effectiveness, it is clear that weight reduction is an
important parameter. Consequently, the automotive industry is interested in reducing the total weight of new cars with
the help of new materials and composites for instance.
One of the most promising lightweight approaches is using partial load path adjusted carbon fibre reinforcements
on metallic components, also known as metal-composite hybrids. The benefit of these hybrid structures is the
opportunity of using the best material properties, such as fatigue, impact and overall strength, especially in fibre
direction, of each material involved.
As for the automotive industry the cycle time is a critical parameter, it is crucial to focus on automated
manufacturing processes and fast curing composites. One possibility is to build metal-composite hybrids with a
thermoplastic matrix system in a near infra-red (NIR) laser-assisted automated tape placement (ATP) process [4,5].
The challenge is to automate several processes of the manufacturing in one, as it should include several technological
operations, such as heating the thermoplastic just before the bonding and processing the steel surface for improving
the strength of the thermoplastic-metal hybrid.
To improve the bonding strength on the interface between the metal substrate and the composite, the influence of
different surface textures to enlarge the surface area and to provide mechanical interlocking within the interface are
analyzed. The most studies regarding the bonding behavior of metals and polymers are conducted for laser-based
joining of thermoplastic metal hybrids. All of them used continuous wave laser or ~ 10 nanosecond-pulsed
(1 ns = 10-9 s) laser for the texturing process. [6–10]. However, laser ablation of metals with relatively long pulse
lasers deposit considerable heat load into the objects being processed, as the primary ablation method is thermally
activated. This creates residual tensile stress, which in turn leads to accumulation of microcracking and overall
reduction of the ultimate material stress limit and material fatigue. Emerging ultra-short pulse laser techniques, which
use powerful picosecond and sub-picosecond ( 10-12 s) lasers to create a cold ablation process, provide an effective
solution to this problem [11]. The pulse duration is shorter than the energy transfer from electrons to ions, it is too
short for heat and shock waves to propagate into the material. As a result, ultrashort pulse ablation eliminates heat
related effects such as charring, surface melting, cracking, and chemical modifications. At the same time, the nonlinear
nature of the laser-matter interaction offers the possibility of removing layers of material at nanometer scale with very
high precision and control.
In this paper, we apply femtosecond (1 fs = 10-15 s) laser processing for structuring steel substrates and study their
bonding to polymer behavior. First, we will be focussing on improving the bonding strength between the metal and
the thermoplastic polymer and in a later step the influence of the composite fibres will be addressed. For this, lap shear
test samples will be produced using a hot embosser process and tested following the ASTM D 3165 standard. The
textured surfaces will be analyzed by white light interferometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Additionally, optical measurements will be conducted to analyze the influence of different surface pre-treatments on
the NIR laser absorptance for the ATP process.

2. Materials and experimental setup

2.1. Materials

For the experiments, pickled, skin-passed low carbon steel (BlueScope BRIGHTFORM®) with a thickness of 2 mm
and an unfilled polyamide 6 (PA 6) film (Folien GmbH Monheim, Germany) with a thickness of 100 µm are used. To
remove contaminants from the surface the samples are cleaned in an ultrasonic bath with acetone.
 Victoria Zinnecker et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 29 (2019) 313–320 315
Victoria Zinnecker / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 3

2.2. Laser texturing

The pickled steel is textured by a femtosecond laser (Coherent Monaco) with a variable pulse width from tp = 275 fs
to 10 ps, a wavelength of λ = 1035 nm and a laser output power of P = 42.3 W. For the experiments, a repetition rate
of Rrep = 500 kHz and a single pulse energy of Ep = 80 µJ have been used. The scanning system consists of a 10 facet
polygon mirror and a galvanometer scanner for 2D area scanning. The laser pulses are focused on the sample with a
500 mm focal length scanning lens (Sill Optics) down to the spot diameter ~42 µm (FWHM) providing the level of
laser fluence up to 6 J/cm2 on the surface.
Different surface textures are performed to investigate the influence on the bonding strength between steel and
PA 6. The different parameters can be seen in Table 1, where the hatch distance h relates to the distance between
adjacent scanning lines in polygon direction. The polygon scanner axis, and therefore the orientation of the grooves,
was aligned with the load axis for the lap shear test (Fig. 1). The laser textured (LT) samples are compared to a non-
processed sample made of the same steel. All experiments are carried out in air under ambient pressure.

Table 1: Laser texturing parameters

Surface type Texturing Texturing Pulse width tp Hatch distance h Ablated depth dabl
method geometry [fs] [µm] [µm]
Structure A pickled area - - -
Structure B LT area 275 4 10
Structure C LT area 10000 4 3
Structure D LT grooves 275 600 40
Structure E LT grooves 275 600 60
Structure F LT grooves 275 1200 40

Fig. 1. Lap shear test adherend configuration showing the bonding surfaces. The grooved textures are aligned parallel to the load axis.

2.3. Lap shear sample manufacture

An EVG®520HE Semi-Automated Hot Embossing System was used to bond the steel/PA 6 lap shear samples. The
samples were heated up to 260 °C under vacuum, kept at that elevated temperature for 10 minutes and afterwards
cooled down to room temperature with a cooling rate of 1 °C/min. For this joining technique, no further adhesive is
needed. The adhesion between the dissimilar materials is achieved through the melted polymer filling the laser
textured surface structures and that leads to mechanical interlocking.

2.4. Surface analysis

The textured surfaces are analyzed by white light interferometry (WLI). Scans were performed with a Veeco Wyko
NT9100 optical profiler with a 50× objective and a 0.55× field-of-view multiplier. The vertical scanning interferometry
(VSI) mode was used as it is most suitable for rough surfaces. Three samples of each surface texture were scanned.
The ISO 25178-2 3D surface parameters were determined to quantify the surface texture. Additionally, SEM images
of the unprocessed and the processed surfaces were taken.
316 Victoria Zinnecker et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 29 (2019) 313–320
4 Victoria Zinnecker / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

2.5. Bond strength characterization

To characterize the influence of the different surface textures on the bonding strength lap shear tests according to
ASTM D 3165 were carried out. A total of three samples for each parameter set were tested. The samples have a
10 mm × 10 mm lap region and a total length of 75 mm. A schematic sketch is shown in Fig. 1.

2.6. Optical Characterization

Optical characterization was performed on the substrates to analyze the influence of different surface pre-treatments
on the laser absorptance (A) as the textured samples will be ultimately used for hybrids that are manufactured using a
near-infrared (NIR) laser-assisted automated tape placement (ATP) process. Optical measurements were performed
on a Perkin Elmer Lambda 1050 V/Vis/NIR spectrophotometer equipped with a 150 mm integrating sphere. Angular
dependent measurements were performed at incident angles from 10° to 85°. The 100% baseline was performed with
a NIST traceable 99% reflectance (R) standard mounted in the reflectance port. The transmittance (T) of the substrates
was found to be zero at the wavelength of the laser (1060 nm). From the conservation of energy:

𝑇𝑇 + 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅 = 1 (1)

As the transmittance is zero, the absorptance is the complement of the reflectance:

𝐴𝐴 = 1 − 𝑅𝑅. (2)

Therefore, the absorptance can be determined indirectly from reflectance measurements.

3. Discussion

3.1. Surface Analysis

The results of the profile analysis are shown in Fig. 2. The textured surfaces with 275 fs laser pulses (Structure B)
show a rougher surface structure compared to the 10 ps treated samples (Structure C). In the 10 ps pulse regime, the
ablation is not only achieved through cold ablation, but with an additional thermal component. This leads to melting
of the material and therefore to less rough surface structures. For Structures D, E and F a tooth shaped ablated area
with a clear defined hatch distance of 600 µm and 1200 µm respectively can be seen. The tooth shape is due to the
accuracy tolerances of the polygon mirror, as the different facets are not perfectly aligned. This results in laser pulses
being differently distributed and a different ablation depth per treated spot is achieved. Therefore it is not straight
forward to define the real ablation depth. Nevertheless, the increase of surface area and the induced mechanical
interlocking with this cross-section could be even more promising than a regular grooved shaped structure.

Fig. 2. Surface cross-section profiles of textured surfaces.

 Victoria Zinnecker et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 29 (2019) 313–320 317
Victoria Zinnecker / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 5

The SEM images, see Fig. 3, of the structured samples show the same smooth surface for Structure B including
some holes that could be trapped air from the boiling process, and an exemplary image for the tooth shaped structures.
Here, the darker lines in the groove indicate the deeper ablated areas. Also, the unprocessed steel can be seen in
between the trenches.

100 μm
(a) 100 μm (b)

Fig. 3. SEM images: (a) Structure C (LT, area, tp = 10 ps, h = 4 μm); (b) Structure E (LT, grooves, tp = 275 fs, h = 600 μm).

Table 2 summaries the most relevant ISO 25178-2 3D surface parameters for the unprocessed and the different
structured samples. All structures with tooth shaped ablation pattern (Structure D, E, and F) have 5 to 8.5 times greater
values regarding the height parameters compared to Structure A, B and C. Also, it is clearly seen on the texture aspect
ratio, that the uniformity of the structure is higher for Structure D, E and F as the texture aspect ratio converge to zero.
Interestingly, Structure B and C are for all parameters in the same magnitude range as the unprocessed Structure A.

Table 2: 3D surface parameters of the laser textured steel samples.

Symbol Description Unit Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure
A B C D E F
Height parameters
Sq Root mean square height µm 1.41 1.49 1.32 15.86 20.06 14.59
Sp Maximum peak height µm 3.56 4.45 4.47 15.86 18.11 13.36
Sv Maximum pit height µm -8.51 -12.78 -10.77 -64.77 -74.50 -52.46
Sz Maximum height µm 12.08 17.23 15.24 78.66 92.61 65.82
Sa Arithmetical mean height µm 1.14 1.17 1.06 13.54 16.81 9.51

Spatial parameters
Sal Autocorrelation length µm 48.90 32.51 49.44 120.01 116.83 50.89
Str Texture aspect ratio - 0.79 0.29 0.61 0.13 0.00 0.06

Hybrid parameters
Sdq Root mean square gradient ° 12.87 13.66 11.22 22.48 26.09 29.48
Sdr Developed interfacial area % 2.52 2.80 1.91 6.56 8.75 11.87
Sds Summit density 1/ mm 2
292.43 231.50 273.95 329.21 317.60 336.08

Functional parameters
Vvc(p,q) Core void volume µm3/ µm2 1.68 1.68 1.53 9.30 12.31 4.05
318 Victoria Zinnecker et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 29 (2019) 313–320
6 Victoria Zinnecker / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

3.2. Bond strength characterization

The effect of different laser textures on the lap shear strength are presented in Fig. 4. The highest lap shear strength
was achieved with Structure D (31.9 MPa) which is 11% higher than the average value for the unprocessed pickled
steel (Structure A, 28.78 MPa). This value outperforms the reported lap shear strength of a grit blasted texture with
the same steel/PA 6 combination, which was measured to be 30.7 MPa [12].
Both structures with a hatch distance of 4 μm (Structure B and C) achieved only 70.6% and 61.6% respectively of
the initial strength, whereas the structures with a hatch distance of 600 μm (Structure D and E) over or almost
equivalent perform as the reference sample. Considering structure E’s large standard deviation of 5.6 MPa, there is a
need to rule out any defects in the bonding manufacturing process as one of the tested samples underperformed the
other samples by almost 10 MPa. Noticeable is that the other samples failed at a lap shear strength of 27.5 MPa and
27.49 MPa respectively. This indicates that tailored structures can increase the bonding strength between metals and
thermoplastic polymers. But with not optimized parameters tailored structures can also degrade the bonding strength
as demonstrated with Structure F (hatch distance 1200 μm, 52.7%).

35.00

30.00
Lap shear strength [MPa]

25.00 Structu re A

Structu re B
20.00
Structu re C

Structu re D
15.00
Structu re E

10.00 Structu re F

5.00

0.00

Fig. 4. The effect of different laser texturing on the lap shear strength.

3.3. Optical Characterization

The angular dependent absorptance of the different textured surface structures for a wavelength of 1060 nm is
plotted in Fig. 5. The most important band of the incident angle is between 60° and 70° as the ATP laser irradiates the
substrate in this range. The smoothest generated surface (Structure C) is the most reflecting one compared to the other
samples. The both tooth shaped structures D and E show a very even absorptance of 73% and 78% respectively over
nearly the whole measured incident angle range. This equates to an improvement in absorptance of 30 % for laser
Structure E compared with the pickled reference sample (Structure A). Compared to measurements for grit blasted
samples, the tailored laser structures increase the absolute absorptance by 13% and 18% respectively [5].
 Victoria Zinnecker et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 29 (2019) 313–320 319
Victoria Zinnecker / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 7

Fig. 5. Angular dependent absorptance of different laser textured surface structures.

4. Conclusion and Outlook

In this paper, the effect of femtosecond laser processed pickled steel on the bonding behavior to thermoplastic PA 6
film is investigated. Therefore experiments with varied laser parameters are conducted. The surface structures were
analyzed by white light interferometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Additionally, optical measurements
were performed to analyze the influence of different surface pre-treatments on the laser absorptance for the automated
tape placement (ATP) process. To measure the bonding strength, lap shear test samples were produced using a hot
embosser process and tested by ASTM D 3165.
It was found that the highest lap shear strength of 31.9 MPa was achieved with a tooth shaped laser texture using a
hatch distance of 600 μm and an ablated depth of 40 μm. This value outperforms the reported lap shear strength of a
grit blasted texture with the same steel/PA 6 combination, which was measured to be 30.7 MPa and it is also 11%
higher than the average lap shear strength for unprocessed pickled steel. This structure shows a very evenly distributed
absorptance for a wavelength of 1060 nm of approximately 73%.
In future, further investigations have to be done to understand the maximum and limits of surface area increase on
the bonding strength by femtosecond laser ablation. The performance of the surface treatment should also be assessed
for laser ATP process by performing placement trials with CF/PA 6 composites.

Acknowledgements

This project was conducted within the ARC Training Centre for Automated Manufacture of Advanced Composites
(IC160100040), supported by the Commonwealth of Australia under the Australian Research Council’s Industrial
Transformation Research Program. The authors acknowledge the facilities, and the scientific and technical assistance,
of the Australian Microscopy & Microanalysis Research Facility at the Centre of Advanced Microscopy, The
Australian National University. This work was performed in part at the ANFF ACT node of the Australian National
Fabrication Facility, a company established under the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy to
provide nano- and micro-fabrication facilities for Australia’s researchers.

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