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Author(s): D. G. Mead
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Feb., 1961), pp. 152-156
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2312485 .
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INTEGRATION
D. G. MEAD, PrattInstitute
Althoughwe frequentlythinkofindefiniteintegrationas being morecomplex
than the determinationof roots of algebraic equations, we shall see that in some
respects this is not the case. It is well known that solutions of some algebraic
equations cannot be writtenin termsof radicals, and also that certain functions
do not possess elementaryintegrals. However, due to the lengthand depth of
the proofsof these facts,fewtexts go beyond merelyexhibitingsome examples.
Confusinga sufficient conditionwith one whichis both necessaryand sufficient,
many a student findssecurityin knowingthat -allequations of degree ? 4 have
been solved. With respectto integration,however,he is well aware of his rather
unhappy position, that of knowing that some functionscannot be integrated
(in finiteterms) but of possessingno way of determiningwhethera particular
functionis in this class or not. This latter situation need not be accepted, for
Liouville obtained a test [1] which is both necessary and sufficientfor the
integrabilityof any one of a ratherlarge class of functions.We shall recall this
test and show both how it can be applied by the college freshmanand its utility
as an integrationtechnique.
The foundation for the test is the followingtheorem which is sufficiently
"natural" to be readily accepted and easily remembered.
is an elementary
LIOUVILLE'S THEOREM. If ffeodx f andg arerational
function,
ofx, and thedegreeofg>0, then
functions
whereR is a rationalfunction
ofx.
This is actually a special case of Liouville's original theorem (see [1] page
114 or [2] page 47), but it is sufficiently
general forour purposes.
61 f(x)dx = f =
CMf(x)dx f u(x)dx,
Using the fact that the multiplicitiesof 1 as a zero of the left and rightsides
must be the same, we see that r = 1; i.e. Q = (x - 1). In the last equation we can
cancel a common factorof (x -1)2 fromboth sides, giving
(x2 + ax + b) - (x - 1)P' - (x - 1)P = P,
(x - 1)P' + (x - 2)P = x2 + ax + b.
P is clearly linear,P = cx+d, which means
CX - C + CX2 + dx - 2cx - 2d = x2 + ax + b.
Since these two polynomialsare identical,the coefficients
of like powers are the
same, c=1, d-c=a, -c-2d=b, whence b= -2a-3.
Consequently f[(x2+ax+b)ex/(x- 1)2]dx is elementary if and only if
b= -2a-3, in which case the integralis el(x+a+1)/(x-1)+C.
By usingone unprovedtheorem,we have seen how it is possible foreven the
beginningcalculus student to test the integrabilityof certain transcendental
functions,and the logical structureof the test, though not trivial,is sufficiently
similar to others he has seen for it to be easily grasped (e.g., the test for the
rationalityof say \/2). Although it is obvious that a table of functionswhich
cannot be integratedcould be constructedby a carefulanalysis of examples, to
do so forthe studentwould be no betterthan is done at present.Rather we feel
that the student, by applying the test to a few functions,will have a fruitful
introductionto differentialequations and will gain well-foundedconfidencein
his abilityto followand reconstructproofsrequiringmorethan one or two steps.
Also, the last example illustrates the usefulnessof the test as an integration
technique.
References
1. J. Liouville,Memoiresur l'integration
d'une classe de fonctions
transcendantes,
J. Reine
Angew.Math.,vol. 13, 1835,pp. 93-118.
2. J. Ritt,Integration
in FiniteTerms,New York,1948.