1.

1 Nonwovens: What are they

Introduction to nonwovens

Nonwovens are known as engineered fabrics. They are created with a view to targeted structure and properties by
applying a set of scientific principles for a variety of applications.

Nonwovens are manufactured by high-speed and low-cost processes. As compared to the traditional woven and
knitting technology, a larger volume of materials can be produced at a lower cost by using nonwoven technology.

The manufacturing principles of nonwovens are manifested in a unique way based on the technologies of creation
of textiles, papers, and plastics (Figure 1.1), as a result, the structure and properties of nonwovens resemble, to a
great extent, to those of three materials.

Figure 1.1

Nonwovens are already found in many applications, but most are hidden and you do not

Figure 1.2

see them. Figure 1.2 displays a few products prepared by using nonwovens. The readers are suggested to identify
these products and their applications.

The most common products made with nonwovens listed by INDA include:

 Disposable nappies
  Sanitary napkins and tampons
 Sterile wraps, caps, gowns, masks, and curtains used in the medical field
 Household and personal wipes
 Laundry aids (fabric dryer-sheets)
 Apparel interlinings
 Carpeting and upholstery fabrics, padding and backing
 Wall coverings
 Agricultural coverings and seed strips
 Automotive headliners and upholstery
 Filters
 Envelops
 Tags
 Labels
 Insulation
 House wraps
 Roofing products
 Civil engineering fabrics/geotextiles

Definitions of nonwovens
Nonwovens are defined in many ways by different standards and different associations. They are stated below.

As per ISO 9092, nonwoven is defined as “manufactured sheet, web or batt of directionally or randomly oriented fibers,
bonded by friction, and/or cohesion and/or adhesion, excluding paper and products which are woven, knitted, tufted,
stitch-bonded incorporating binding yarns or filaments or felted by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needled. The
fibers may be of natural or man-made origin. They may be staple or continuous filaments or be formed in situ.

Note: To distinguish wet-laid nonwovens from wet-laid papers, a material shall be regarded as a nonwoven if

(a) more than 50 % by mass of its fibrous content is made up of fibers (excluding chemically digested vegetable fibers)
with a length to diameter ratio greater than 300; or, if the conditions in a) do not apply, then

(b) If the following conditions are fulfilled:

more than 30 % by mass of its fibrous content is made up of fibers (excluding chemically digested vegetable fibers) with a
length to diameter ratio greater than 300 and its density is less than 0.40 g/cm 3.”

The aforesaid definition of nonwoven, given by ISO 9092, has been adapted by CEN (EN 29092), and consequently by DIN,
AFNOR, and all standardization offices in the EU.

But, ASTM prefers to define nonwoven as “a textile structure produced by bonding or interlocking of fibers, or both,
accomplished by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or solvent means, and combinations thereof.

Note: the term does not include paper, or fabrics which are woven, knitted, tufted, or those made by wool or other felting
processes.”

This definition is available in many ASTM standards including D 123, D 1117, D 2646, D 3786, D 3787, D 5684, D 5732, D
5733, D 5734, D 5735, and D 5736.

Today, there are two leading associations of nonwovens in the world, namely EDANA (The European Disposables and
Nonwovens Association) and INDA (The North America’s Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry). They have been
the voice of the nonwoven industries in Europe and North America, respectively. Nonwovens are defined by them as well.
Though EDANA has adopted the ISO 9092 or CEN 29092 definition of nonwoven. but, INDA prefers to define nonwovens in
another way. According to INDA, “Nonwoven fabrics are broadly defined as sheet or web structures bonded together by
entangling fiber or filaments (and by perforating films) mechanically, thermally or chemically. They are flat, porous sheets
that are made directly from separate fibers or from molten plastic or plastic film. They are not made by weaving or knitting
and do not require converting the fibers to yarn.”

It is quite interesting to note that these definitions include raw materials, structures, and manufacturing processes
employed to prepare nonwovens. However, there is no unique definition of nonwovens found to exist in the world.
 1.2 Nonwovens: How do they look like?
It is often asked “Nonwovens: How do they look like?” This refers to the structure of nonwovens. It is necessary to have
a sense of structure of nonwovens also to make the study of nonwoven technology more meaningful. As in case of
woven and knit fabrics, the structure of the fabrics in conjunction with the properties of the constituent fibres and yarns
determine the properties of the fabrics, so is the case in case of nonwovens. While the structure of the woven fabrics
can be described in terms of the weave geometry and the density of warp and weft, similarly the knitted fabrics are
described in terms of the intermeshing structure and the density of courses and wales [1], the structure of nonwovens is
described primarily in terms of fibre packing arrangement and fibre directional arrangement. Sometimes, the geometry
of pores in nonwovens is also studied. Before developing a fundamental understanding of nonwoven structure, let us
first study the characteristics of the constituent materials, that is, fibres – the building block of fibre-based nonwovens.

Figure 1.3

Raw materials used for Nonwoven fabrication

Man-made fibres completely dominate nonwovens production, accounting for over 90% of total output. Man-made
fibres fall into three classes, those made from natural polymers, those made from synthetic polymers and those made
from inorganic materials. According to a study by Tecnon Ltd, the world usage of fibres in nonwovens production is:

• polypropylene 63%

• polyester 23%

• viscose rayon 8%

• acrylic 2%

• polyamide 1.5%

• other speciality fibres 3%.

The share of viscose rayon is thought to have increased due to its increased importance in the spunlace wipes market.
While the tonnage of man-made cellulosics sold into European nonwovens held remarkably constant for thirty or more
years and viscose rayon participated hardly at all in the massive growth of the industry and its market share by 2000 was
a tenth of the 1970 figure. Viscose rayon staple fibres were, in 1966, the cheapest man-made fibre but by 2000 were
around twice the price of the main synthetics without the ability to be easily spunlaid or thermally bonded. The solvent
spun cellulosic fibre, Lyocell is becoming increasingly important in the nonwovens industry partly as a result of its
absorbency and high wet strength. Polypropylene fibres are predominant in the nonwovens industry. Some of the
reasons for this include:
 • low density and specific gravity enabling lightweight fabrics to be produced

• low glass transition and melting temperature, which is attractive for thermal bonding

• inherent hydrophobicity that can be modified using fibre finishes and other treatments

• provides fabrics with good bulk and cover

• chemical stability

• biological degradation resistance (mildew, perspiration)

• stain and soil release

• good mechanical strength and abrasion resistance.

Polypropylene is available in a variety of grades and its surface chemistry, absorbency, mechanical properties,
degradation, softness, flame retardancy and colouration are modified by auxiliary chemicals and other treatments by
the fibre suppliers. Fibres having different cross-sectional configurations are also available, which affect the physical
properties of resulting fabrics. The unique combination of properties offers the manufacturers of nonwovens a valuable
high-performance nonwoven fibre for a competitive price.

1.3 Nonwovens: How are they created?

Basic nonwoven processes

Let us take that the nonwoven manufacturing technology that produces fibre-based nonwovens generally consists of four
basic nonwoven processes namely, fibre preparation process, web formation process, web bonding process and finishing
process. A brief summary of the nonwoven processes is illustrated in Figure 1.21.

Figure 1.21

The fibre preparation process prepares fibres for web formation process. It includes fibre opening and mixing and fibre
feeding to carding machine or air-lay machine. The web formation process, as the name implies, indicates those
processes that disperses the fibres or filaments to form a sheet or web and also stacks the webs to form multi-layered
webs, sometimes called as batts. The web bonding processes imparts integrity to the web and the resulting material is
often called as fabrics. Often, the fabrics undergo mechanical or chemical finishing or both in order to achieve enhanced
properties and appearance.

As expected, these processes along with the choice of fibres determine the structures and properties of the nonwoven
fabrics. It is often said that the nonwoven fabrics are engineered in a unique way by the nonwoven technology employed
and the fibre materials used so as to offer a set of targeted properties. Here, the word technology implies a system of
sequence of basic processes. As a nonwoven technologist, it is imperative to learn how these basic processes can be
arranged to engineer a wide spectrum of nonwoven fabrics for a wide variety of applications.

2.1 Fibre preparation processes

Introduction

The staple-fibre based processes include fibre preparation processes (opening and mixing processes), web formation by
carding or by air-lay or by wet-lay processes and then web stacking by parallel-lay, cross-lay, and perpendicular-lay
processes. The raw materials in the form of staple fibres are converted into a web or batt structure with a given basis
weight (weight per unit area). Virtually any staple fibre that can be carded or dispersed in air or water can be used in
these processes.

Raw materials

The conventional man-made and natural staple fibres and bicomponent staple fibres are primarily used for preparation
of carded nonwovens. The wood pulp is very popular for preparation of air-laid nonwovens. As noted earlier, manmade
fibres account for the majority of raw materials used in the nonwoven industry. Table 2.1 gives an overview of the staple
fibres along with their important properties used in carding and air-lay processes [1].

Table 2.1

In addition, the bicomponent fibres are also used for making carding and air-laid nonwovens. The b icomponent fibers
are produced by having two polymers simultaneously form a fiber. They are used as binder fibers for thermal bonding.
Some of the popular configurations of bicomponent fibres are shown in Figure 2.1.
 Figure 2.1

Out of the six configurations shown, the sheath-core arrangement is mostly used. Three sheath-core bicomponent fibres
are very popular. In the polyester core and copolyester sheath bicomponent fibre, the core melts at 250 degree Celsius,
but the sheath melts at 110 degree Celsius. In case of polyester core and polyethylene sheath bicomponent fibre, the
core melts at 250 degree Celsius, but the sheath melts at 130 degree Celsius. In case of polypropylene core and
polyethylene sheath bicomponent fibre, the core melts at 175 degree Celsius, but the sheath melts at 130 degree
Celsius.

The air-lay process utilizes wood pulp. The wood pulp is produced by thermomechanical process (TMP) or by chemical
process (Kraft process). TMP involves passing wood chips between rotating plates having raised bars at high
temperature and pressure. The heating softens the lignin, which is a natural phenolic resin holding the cellulose fibres
together, making it possible to separate the fibres. In contrast, the kraft process dissolves the lignin using suitable
chemicals such as caustic soda and sulphur under heat and pressure. TMP yields over 90 %, but krafting process yields
50-60%. The length of wood pulp ranges from 1.8-2.7 mm and the fineness of wood pulp ranges from 2.5-4.6 denier.

The following fibres are generally found to be used for making wet-laid nonwovens.

Natural cellulosic fiber, such as wood pulp

Regenerated cellulosic fibers, such as viscose and tencel

Synthetic fibers, such as polyester, polyamide, and polyolefins

Inorganic fiber, such as glass

Synthetic wood pulp such as polyolefins with branched configuration

The important physical properties of these fibres are listed in Table 2.2. It can be seen that viscose fibres have
remarkably low wet breaking strength as compared to their dry breaking strength, but they have excellent water
imbibition capacity.
 Table 2.2

Bale opener
The fibre preparation processes basically perform the following functions: fiber opening and fibre mixing. It can be noted
that the cleaning of fibers (separation of foreign matters) in not usually followed by the nonwoven industry. The natural
fibers such as cotton are generally purchased in a pre-cleaned form, and for medical application, bleached cotton is
used. Above all, as the manmade fibres are mostly used they do not require intensive cleaning.

Figure 2.2

The fibre preparation processes in the nonwoven industry closely resembles to that of the conventional blowroom
process. Figure 2.2 shows the diagram of a bale opening machine. The wide bale opening machine is used which can
accommodate several bales side by side. The individual bales may consist of the same raw material or several different
components to make up the blend. The fibres from such bales are opened and mixed together. There exist three types
of openers for bale opening machine: universal opener, single roll opener, and multi-roll opener. Figure 2.3 displays the
schematic diagram of these openers. The universal opener has three

Figure 2.3

different rollers and it is suitable for all fibres. It is also known as high performance opener. The single roll opener is
suitable for man-made fibres and it gives maximum protection to the fibres from damage. The multi-roll opener
provides progressive opening action and it is suitable for all difficult-to-pen fibres like bleached cotton. The intensity of
opening of these openers can be calculated by the amount of fiber mass per one spike or teeth of the opener for a given
rate of production and angular speed of the opener. This is expressed as follows
 Figure 2.4

where Io …intensity of opening of the opener, P…rate of production of the opener, n…angular speed of the opener,
N…no. of spikes or tooth on the opener, A…surface area of the opener, and η ...number of spikes or teeth density on the
opener. The intensity of opening of these openers is displayed in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.5
 Figure 2.6

fibrous material on the blending conveyor belt so as prepare a precise blend of fibers. Figure 2.5 shows the diagram of a
weighing pan bale opener. The sequence of working of this weighing pan bale opener is illustrated with a view to Figure
2.6.

1…Weight pan is being filled by the material at high speed.

2…The filling occurs at low speed when weight pan is almost full.

3…The closing flaps are being shut when the target weight is reached.

4…The materials is discharged on the blending conveyor belt.

5…The bottom flaps are being shut balancing of the scales.

6…Weight pan is being filled again by the material at high speed.

Multimixer
The multimixer is used to mix (homogenize) different varieties of same fiber or different types of fibers. Figure 2.7 shows
the diagram of a multimixer.

1…feed panel, 2…flap, 3…mixing chamber, 4…feed duct, 5…light barrier, 6…perforated plate, 7…delivery roller,
8…opening roller, 9…blending duct, 10…conveyor belt, 11…multi-roll opener

Figure 2.7

Hopper feeder
The hopper feeders with integrated weight control systems are used to feed fibers uniformly to the carding machine so
as to obtain carded webs with uniform basis weight. The most widely-used weight control systems are:

Weighing pan system

Roller weighing system

Scanfeed system

These control systems will be discussed now.

Weighing pan system: Figure 2.8 shows the diagram of weighing pan system. It works as follows.
 1…spiked lattice, 2…stripper roller, 3…trap door, 4…weigh pan, 5…conveyor belt

Figure 2.8

 When the weigh-pan achieves the pre-set weight, the spiked lattice is stopped and the trap doors are closed.
 The weight of the “in-flight” fibers, which are still in the air on their way to the weigh-pan, is constantly
monitored by adjusting the stop point in anticipation of a calculated weight of the fibers falling into the pan
when the lattice has stopped.
 Further checking of the weight of fibers in the pan is made and if this weight is found to be higher or lower than
the pre-set weight, the drop point is automatically adjusted to allocate more or less space on the card feed
sheet or the speed of the feed rollers in the carding machine is adjusted accordingly.

Roller weighing system: Figure 2.9 shows the diagram of roller weighing system. It works as follows.
 A unique twin weigh zone provides independent monitoring and control of both short-term and long-term
regularity.
 Lightweight rollers replaced heavyweight belts used earlier, and this brings out more precision in weight
measurement.
 Irregularities are automatically corrected at the card feed rollers, this is achieved by incorporating the correct
delay between the points of measurement and control.
 Figure 2.9

Scanfeed system: Figure 2.10 shows the diagram of scanfeed system. It works as follows.
 Fiber distribution in feed trunk is regulated by air flow.
 A series of spring-loaded flaps across the width of the trunk provide pressure regulation as they open and close
depending on the thickness of the fiber passing through.
 A series of spring-loaded sectional trays scan the thickness of the web in several zones over the width, control
values are determined and then transferred to servomotors that automatically change the position of the web
thickness adjustment flap on the corresponding profile box.

The system can provide short term control of both transverse and longitudinal feed uniformity.
Figure 2.10
 Module 2: Staple-fibre based processes
2.2 Staple fibre web formation processes
2.2.1 Carding process
The opened and blended fibres then undergo carding process. The functions of the carding process are

Individualization of fiber tufts to almost single fiber

Mixing of fibers to average out variations in fiber characteristics
Forming a homogenous web of uniform weight per unit area
In the case of short staple system, the revolving flat card is used, but for long staple system the roller top card is used. As the dry-
laid process mostly utilizes the long staple fibres the roller top card is often seen to be used in the nonwoven industry. Figure
2.11displays the diagram of a roller top card [2]. Though this card is similar to the revolving flat card in its basic features, but it
differs from the flat top card in several respects, including the fact that their main carding fields are designed differently. The flats are
replaced by pairs of rollers, as shown in

Figure 2.11
Figure 2.11; thus the name "roller top card" is given to it. Each roller–pair comprises a "worker (or roller)" and a "stripper (or
clearer)". Together with the cylinder surface, they form a "carding triad." The typical locations of the roller pairs and their directions
of motion are also shown in Figure 2.11. The basic principles of carding process are lying in carding action and stripping action. The
disentangling of fibres is done by carding action and the transfer of fibres is done by stripping action. In order to realize the carding
action between two surfaces, the wire points of the two surfaces must have opposite inclination, but in order to realize the stripping
action between two surfaces, the wire points of the two surfaces must have the same inclination. This is illustrated in Figure 2.12.
For carding action, the movement of the surfaces should be in either opposite or same direction. When in same direction, the surface
charged with material should move faster in the direction of inclination of its wire points.
 Figure 2.12
the fraction between wire and fibre. The carding action is found between cylinder to worker and cylinder to doffer, where as the
stripping action is found in taker-in to cylinder, worker to stripper, stripper to cylinder.
The carding process is often characterized by intensity of carding and delay factor. Intensity of carding is defined by the total number
of collections made by all workers during the entire period of time when a fiber is on the card. This is a measure of carding power of
a card. Intensity o carding is expressed as follows

where IC denotes intensity of carding, m indicates the number of workers, p is the fraction of material goes to the worker (collection
power of worker), and f is fraction of material moves to doffer (collection power of doffer). It can be noted here that the hi
gher pleads to better carding. It can be increased by increasing worker speed, besides keeping closer worker-cylinder distance. Use
of a small fancy roller in-between worker and clearer enables easy fiber transfer from worker to clearer, thereby increasing p. Delay
factor is defined by the average time taken by a large number of fibers for rotating along the surface of the cylinder, workers, and
strippers before they are ultimately removed form the cylinder by the doffer. These fibers get mixed with fresh fibers that are
continuously fed to the cylinder. The delay factor is a measure of mixing power of a card. It is expressed as follows

where ω is angular speed of cylinder and n is the number of revolution of cylinder that the fibers are held by a worker before being
returned to cylinder.
Besides the carding and stripping action, the feeding, doffing, and web forming are also important and many interesting
developments have been taken place in these regions so far [3].
 Figure 2.13
There exist two feed arrangements: dish feed arrangement or roller feed arrangement (Figure 2.13). The dish feed arrangement
results in relatively harsh treatment to fibers, but the roller feed arrangement results in relatively mild treatment to fibers. The
position of clearer roller depends on whether the taker-in is down-striking or up-striking.
Also, there are advancements going on in the doffing region. The double doffer system (Figure 2.14) tends to increase fiber transfer
from cylinder to doffers, thereby increase production.

Figure 2.14
However, the top doffer takes away more material than the bottom doffer that may cause to differ tension in the respective webs
which ultimately affect the structure and properties of the final nonwoven fabric. To balance the proportion of fibers taken by each
doffer, different diameter, tooth density and setting between doffer and cylinder are adopted.
 Figure 2.15
Further there exist four doffing systems for different orientation of fibres in the carded webs (Figure 2.15). The conventional
cylinder-doffer system (Figure A) produces webs with markedly anisotropic orientation of fibers in plane. A randomizer roller in Figure
(B) changes the direction of flow of fibers moving at high velocity resulting in almost isotropic web structure. A pair of condenser
rollers (C), moving slower than the doffer, causes sudden deceleration of fibers that results in fibers to stand up vertically, creating a
3D “condensed” web structure with almost isotropic orientation of fibers in plane.
The web formation region is also of interest for R&D. The oscillation frequency of the doffer comb is technologically limited, which in
turn limits doffer speed, hence production. High production cards run doffer at 25-40 rpm where the doffer comb can not be used for
stripping, but draw off rollers whose surface speed is slightly higher than that of doffer can be used to remove web through stripping
action. More advanced doffing system utilizes a draw off roller, perforated apron and suction system to control web transfer to the
apron.

1…doffer, 2…draw off roller, 3…perforated apron, 4…suction

system
Figure 2.16
2.2.2 Web stacking processes
There exist three web stacking processes, namely

Parallel-lay process (parallel-laid)

Cross-lay process (cross-laid)

 Perpendicular-lay process (perpendicular-laid)

Parallel-lay process
In parallel-lay process, the carded webs supplied by sequentially arranged parallel-cards are doubled on a common conveyor belt to
form parallel-laid batt. This is shown in Figure 2.17. The fibers in the parallel-laid batt are preferentially oriented in the carding
machine direction. The width of the parallel-laid batt is the same as that of the carded web. It produces batt with layered structure,
each layer of carded web can be made up of different fibers or different basis weight, etc.

Figure 2.17
Cross-lay process
The cross-lay process is very popular among the nonwoven industries. The functions of cross-lay process are as follows.

To obtain batt with higher basis weight than that of card web
To obtain batt with higher width than that of card web
To obtain batt with fibers preferentially oriented along the transverse
direction of it
To obtain batt with layered structure
There exist two types of cross-laying, camel back laying and horizontal laying. The camel back laying is shown in Figure 2.18. It is
so termed because of the shape of the web path used by this machine. In camel back laying, a conveyor transports the emerging
web from a card, upwards to a pivot point from which the conveyor system reciprocates to layer the web onto a cross conveyor. Such
systems utilized simple harmonic motion to reciprocate the web layering conveyor and as such, produced heavy edges at the end of
each traverse due to overfeed of the web as the mechanism decelerated and then accelerated at the sides. Here, the laying width can
be changed and it depends on machine height and the machine throughput is constant.

Figure 2.18
 Figure 2.19
Figure 2.19 illustrates the Jigger lattice horizontal laying. It utilizes a number of interacting conveyor aprons that operate in
conjunction with traversing carriages and drive rollers. The carding machine delivers the web to the in-feed conveyor, which
transports it onto the top sheet or belt assembly. The carriage reciprocates as the web is transported within the belts. The exiting
web is then layered concertina fashion onto a lower conveyor which runs perpendicular to the in-feed direction. The production rate
of horizontal cross-lappers is limited by the necessity to instantaneously reverse the conveyor mechanism, which develops a large
momentum as the carriage changes direction at the end of its traverse. In horizontal laying, the machine height does not depend on
laying width (constant). It also produces heavy edges at the end of the batt.
The problem may be partly compensated by setting the lay-down width slightly narrower than required. Nowadays, continuous belts
are used to make horizontal cross-lappers. One such cross-lapper is shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20
The heavy edges are avoided by controlled velocity variations in conveyor using variable speed drive. The principle of speed variation
can be understood from Figure 2.21.
 Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22 establishes the kinematics of cross-laying. Let the card web of width b1 is moving forward at a velocity v1. The cross-
lapper delivery rolls then lay the web on the cross apron back and forth with velocity v1 over width b2. During this time the cross
apron moves to the left at velocity v2. The interaction between these two motions results in shearing of the web as shown, the
rectangle ABCD becomes A’B’CD. If the angle of fiber inclination relative to the cross-direction of the cross-laid batt is taken as θ,
then it can be derived that

Figure 2.22

Perpendicular-lay process
The perpendicular-lay process is considered as a special laying process to obtain
 Figure 2.23
significant z-directional orientation of fibres in the batt. The resulting batt, often thermally bonded, offers excellent compression-
recovery properties that make them suitable for automobile seat squab and sound insulation applications. The perpendicular-laid batt
can be obtained by reciprocating lapper (Struto technology) or rotary lapper (Wavemaker technology). The struto technology is
illustrated in Figure 2.23 (a) Here, a reciprocating lapping device is used to continuously consolidate the carded web into a vertically
folded batt that is bonded by through-air bonding. It has low rate of production. The resulting structure of the batt is displayed
in Figure 2.23(b). The wavemaker technology is shown in Figure 2.24(a). Here, a rotary lapping device is used to continuously
consolidate the carded web into a vertically folded batt which is bonded by for through-air bonding. It has relatively high rate of
production. The resulting structure of the batt is displayed in Figure 2.24(b).

Figure 2.24
Air-lay proces
Description of air-lay process
The air-lay process was invented during 1940s with an aim to overcome the high degree of anisotropy of fibre direction in the
nonwoven fabrics prepared from carded webs. In this process, the fibres are dispersed in air and then deposited from a suspended
state onto a perforated screen to form a web. Figure 2.25 displays the schematic diagram of air-lay system.
 Figure 2.25
It consists of three units: feeding, opening and mixing, and web formation. The fibres are fed to an opening roller by a pair of feed
rollers. The fibres are gripped by the feed rollers and opened by the opening roller. The fibres are then transported by hooking around
the wire teeth on the roller and are subsequently removed by a high-velocity airstream directed over the wire teeth surface. In this
way, the fibres are mixed with air and transported with it to a perforated conveyor where the air is separated and fibres are deposited
to form a web.
Rando system
The rando system (Rando Machine Corporation, formerly the Curlator Corporation) is one of the oldest air-lay systems available in
the world. Figure 2.26 shows the diagram of a rando system. As shown it has four units, (i) Rando prefeeder, (ii) Rando opener and
blender, (iii) Rando feeder, and (iv) Rando webber. The fibres are pre-opened at an early stage of the process prior to the opening
and blending section. The opening and blending section opens out the fibres and then mixes them by using workers. The opened
fibres are then fed through the feeding unit to the web formation zone where they are further opened and individualized by the
actions of the licker-in. The feeding section is similar to a hopper feeder with an inclined lattice, evener condenser and stripper roller.
The opened fibres are then removed from the licker-in to the transport duct by means of a high velocity air stream and centrifugal
force generated due to the rotational speed of the licker-in. Finally, the fibres are deposited onto the cylindrical condenser to form an
air-laid web.
 Figure 2.26
The production of a rando system is calculated by using the following formula

Dan web system

There are air-lay systems that utilize drums to form webs. One such system is known as Dan web system ( Denmark). Figure
2.27displays the schematic diagram of this system. It comprises of two contra-rotating forming (perforated) drums situated
transversely above the forming wire and connected to fixed pipes. There is a rotating brush roll inside the drums and transverse to
the forming wire or conveyor belt that removes fibres from the transport airstream and directs them through the perforated drums.
 Figure 2.27
The fibres are then deposited onto the wire by means of a vacuum located underneath the forming head. It is claimed that the drum
forming design offers greater flexibility in terms of maximum fibre length (up to 15 mm) and reduced fibre build up in the system
and a completely uniform distribution of fibres across the web.
Air cards
The incomplete individualization of the fibres and inability to process longer fibres by licker-in of rando system resulted in
development of air cards. The K-12 air card introduced by Fehrer combined carding and air-laying. Figure 2.28 displays the
schematic diagram of this machine. In this machine, a batt of fiber flocks in the range of 300-500 g/m² is fed by a feed roller-nose
bar system to a high speed wire-wound cylinder, equipped with two pairs of workers and strippers.

Figure 2.28
The cylinder and the worker-stripper systems nearly individualize the fibers, which are then stripped off tangentially by a high speed
laminar flow air stream. After the stripping point the fibers come under the influence of suction beneath the collection (screen) belt,
and they tend to form, it is asserted, a nearly isotropic web.
In order to better orient the fibres in the thickness direction of the web and also to produce high loft webs, Fehrer developed another
air card, known as K12 air card. The schematic diagram of this card is shown in Figure 2.29 In this card, an additional air stream,
generated from inside a perforated drum, positioned atop the collection point, provides a mechanism to orient the fibers in the
thickness direction of the final web, the latter helps enhance the loft in the final web.

Figure 2.29
Benefits and limitations
The benefits of air-lay process are
It delivers webs with high isotropy, high loft (if required), and high porosity.
It can utilize short fibres which are not possible to be processed by using carding technology.

The limitations of air-lay process are

The fibre configuration in the air-laid web is relatively poor.
The basis weight uniformity of the produced webs is in general poor.
The webs with high anisotropy are hardly obtained by employing this process.

Applications
The air-laid nonwovens are found to be used in a wide variety of applications depending on the fibre compositions used and the
bonding methods employed. These include high-loft products for the clothing and furniture industry, wadding, medical and hygiene
fabrics, geotextiles and roofing felts, filters, insulation and barrier materials, wall and floor coverings, moulded products, wipes,
preformed automotive components, absorbent cores, acquisition and distribution layers, etc.

2.2.3 Wet-lay Porcess

Historical perspective
The wet-lay nonwoven process is known to be derived from the wet-laid paper making process. H. Fourdrinier developed a
papermaking machine that has been the basis for the most modern papermaking machines employing very short fibers. The
schematic diagram of this machine is shown in Figure 2.30.
 Figure 2.30

Figure 2.31
The wood pulp and water in the ratio of 0.003-0.007 (w/w) are mixed to make a good quality suspension of fibres and water. The
suspension is then pumped to the headbox which has a small opening, often called as slice. Through the slice, the fibre-water
suspension is dropped onto the moving perforated Fourdeinier wires. These wires contain a lot of perforations through which the
water gets drained to the vacuum and the fibres, deposited on the moving wires, formed a web. In this way, the wet-laid paper is
formed. But, by using this machine it was not possible to process relatively long fibers as the mentioned dilution ratio results in
inadequate fiber dispersion in water. In this regard, F. Osborne and C. H. Dexter proposed a solution. According to them, in order to
process longer fibres, the ratio of weight of fiber pulp and weight of water should be around 0.0005-0.00005 and in order to handle
such a huge quantity of water, the inclination of the forming wire to the base is required to be equal to 20°. The modified machine
had a large headbox (slice) opening with inclined wire machine is shown in Figure 2.31. This machine has been used to make papers
from long fibres and subsequently the basis for making nonwovens also.
Process description
The schematic diagram of a typical wet-lay process for making nonwovens is shown in Figure 2.32. The fibres are mixed with water
and it forms fibre-water suspension. It shows two mixing tanks for preparation of better fibre-water suspension. This suspension is
then pumped through the headbox to the perforated wire. The water is drained through the perforations and the fibres are laid on the
moving wire to form a web. The wet-laid web is then dried and bonded by using binder. It is again dried and finally wound on a roll.

Figure 2.32
Process model
It is often necessary to calculate process parameters in advance with an aim to obtain a specific structure of wet-laid nonwovens.
Because of this, it is often necessary to model the wet- lay process. The following section deals with a simple model of wet-lay
process. Figure 2.33 displays the schematic diagram of a headbox of a wet-lay nonwoven machine.

Figure 2.33

The velocity of water in relation to the velocity of wire determines the structure of the web. When both the velocities are equal then
the fibre lay-down is found to be practically random. When the velocity of wire is higher than the velocity of water then fibres are
found to be preferentially orientated in the machine direction, but when the velocity of wire is lower than the velocity of water then
fibres are found to be preferentially orientated in the cross direction.
Fabric defects
Typically there exist three types of defects in the wet-laid nonwoven fabrics. They are known as logs, ropes, and dumbbells. Figure
2.34 displays the schematic diagram of these defects. Logs are characterized by bundles of fibres with aligned cut ends that are
never dispersed. They are normally considered to be a fibre supply problem or can be the result of remarkably low under agitation of
the initial dispersion. Ropes are characterized by assemblages of fibres, with unaligned ends, that are clearly more agglomerated
than in the general dispersion. They are formed when fibres are encountered a vortex that facilitates in entangling the fibres to form
ropes. Dumbbells are characterized by paired clumps of fibres connected by one or more long fibres. The formation of dubbells
requires an excessively long fibre and a snag in the system piping. A long fibre snags in the system piping so that its free end whips
in the flow and accumulates normal fibres on each end and these fibre bundles become so large that the fluid drag plucks the
dumbbells from the snagged fibre. It is thus often said that the good quality of dispersion of fibres in water is a key to the good
quality of wet-laid webs.

Figure 2.34
Critical material characteristics and process factors
It is known that the fibre-water dispersion quality primarily dictates the quality of the wet-laid nonwovens. The important fibre
characteristics that determine this dispersion are fibre length, fibre aspect ratio, and fibre bending rigidity. The higher fibre length,
fibre aspect ratio, and fibre bending rigidity result in more fabric defects and vice-versa. The important process factors are known to
be the ratio of fibre-to-water weight or volume, dispersion time, and impeller speed. The higher is the relative volume occupied by
the fibres as compared to that occupied by the water results in more crowding of fibres at the time of dispersion that ultimately
results in poor quality of webs. This can be explained by the following expression of fibre crowding factor

In order to examine the effect of wet-lay process factors on the quality of the wet-laid nonwovens, an interesting study was
conducted by Vaidya et al. [4]. They prepared a set of wet-laid hydroentangled glass and polyester blended nonwovens by varying
the wet-lay process parameters and examined the effect of dispersion time on the frequency of logs and ropes in the nonwovens.
They observed that most fibers were inherently held together and form logs, agitation was required to break them. Excessive
agitation, however, led to rope formation. With the increase in dispersion time, the frequency of log was decreased, but the frequency
of rope was increased. The inherent stiffness of glass fibers resulted in formation of very few ropes at the start of agitation, but the
flexible of polyester fibers showed log reduction immediately accompanied by rope formation. It was found that the higher impeller
speed resulted in less frequency of logs.
Merits and demerits
The merits of wet-lay nonwoven process are

High through-put rate

Isotropic as well as anisotropic structures can be created.

Too brittle fibres, generally not suitable for textile applications, can be processed.

The demerits of wet-lay nonwoven process are

High capital intensive process

High energy intensive process

High fiber quality requirements.

Applications
The wet-laid nonwovens are finding many applications in diversified areas, namely surgical clothing and drapes, bed linen, table
linen, cloths, and napkins, towels, kitchen wipes. In addition, the wet-laid technical nonwovens are found to be used in many
specialized applications, including glass fibre roofing substrate, glass fibre mat for flooring, glass fibre mat for printed circuit boards,
wall covering, insulation materials, battery separators, RFI shielding veils, etc.
 Module 3: Web bonding processes
3.1 Mechanical Bonding Processes
3.1.1 Needlepunching process
Principle

Needlepunching is a nonwoven process by which the fibres are mechanically entangled to produce a nonwoven fabric by repeated
penetration of barbed needles through a preformed dry fibrous web. The machine which accomplishes this process is known as
needle loom. Figure 3.1 displays the schematic diagram of a needle loom. The fibrous web, which is unbonded and therefore
thick and voluminous, is fed to the machine by a pair of feed rollers.

Figure 3.1
It then goes to the working zone of the machine and passes in-between a pair of perforated bed plates. The needles are arranged
in a needle board in width-wise rows. The needle board is mounted on a beam which is given an up and down reciprocating
motion by means of an eccentric crank mechanism. In the down stroke mode, the needles descend through the perforations of the
top bed plate, through the web, and through the perforations of the bottom bed plate. During the upstroke, the barbed needles
withdraw upwards and the bed plate strips the web off the needles. As a result, the fibres are mechanically interlocked, thereby
providing the mechanical strength. The needle bonded nonwoven is delivered by a pair of delivery rollers.

Needle
Needles are the heart of the needlepunching process. The schematic diagram of a typical needle is shown in Figure 3.2. As
shown, a needle has the following parts: crank, shank, taper, blade, barb, and point. The shank locates in the hole in the
needleboard and the crank is clamped between upper surface of the needleboard and the needlebeam, thus holding it firmly and
vertically aligned in the loom. Traditionally, the cross-section of a needle is triangular and carries a total of nine barbs, three per
apex. The dimensions of the barbs and their relative arrangement vary depending on the application and machine operation.
 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3
In general, the nonwoven industry uses two types of needles, known as single reduction needle and double reduction needle. They
are shown in Figure 3.3. The single reduction needle has two sections, shank and blade. But the double reduction needle has an
intermediate section in-between the shank and the blade. This is a transition stage between the different diameters of the shank
and the blade. The single reduction needle is much stiffer than the double reduction needle. The single reduction needle is usually
made only for coarser gauge needles. The single reduction needle is used for stiff fibres (waste fibres, shoddy, etc.)
Figure 3.4
 Figure 3.5
The barb is known to be the main working component of a needle. The schematic diagram of a barb along with its important parts
is shown in Figure 3.4. A barb is characterized primarily by kick-up, spacing, angle, and depth. As far as the kick-up is concerned,
there exist high kick-up (‘K’ barb), low kick-up (‘NK’ barb), and no kick-up (‘B’ barb). These barbs are shown in Figure 3.5. The
fibre carrying capacity decreases from ‘K’ barb to ‘NK’ barb to ‘B’ barb. Based on the spacing, the barbs are categorized by regular
barb (RB), medium barb (MB), close barb (CB), and high density barb (HDB). These barbs are shown in Figure 5.6. The high
density barb provides maximum aggressive punching, followed by the close barb, medium barb, and regular barb. At the same
time, the surface of the fabric is found to be maximum uneven with the high density barb, followed by the close barb, medium
barb, and regular barb. There exist barbs with different angles, as shown in Figure 3.6.
 Figure 3.6

In nonwoven industry, a wide variety of needles are used. They vary in their cross-sectional shape as well as the geometry of the
point of the needle. The blade cross-section of classical needles is triangular, with three barbs formed on the apex. This is shown
in Figure 3.7(a). The star bladed needles have four apices and a cruciform cross-section. This needle is intended to carry an
increased number of fibres per penetration as compared to the standard triangular needle, which can increase fabric strength. This
is shown in Figure 3.7(b).
 Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8
Besides there are fork needles used for structuring and patterning pre-needled fabrics. The crown needles are designed to be used
in conjunction with random velour needleloom to introduce fibre loops that protrude from the surface of the fabric. These needles
are shown in Figure 3.8 .

Selection of needle
The selection of needle is very important for getting good quality nonwoven fabrics. It is decided by many factors, discussed
earlier, along with the fineness of the fibres required to be processed.

Fibre linear density (denier) Needle gauge (SWG)

0.5-1.5 42
1.5-6.0 38-40
6-10 38
10-18 36-34
18-30 36-32
 >30 30-coarser
Table 3.1
Table 3.1 lists the gauge of the needles for different finenesses of fibres. The higher is the gauge of the needle, the finer is the
needle and vice-versa.

Arrangement of needle boards

The modern machine manufacturers offer various arrangements of needle boards in needle looms. Figure 3.9 displays the
different arrangements of needle boards. Typical applications of these arrangements are filtration media, synthetic leather, floor
coverings, underlay, automotive headliners, and blankets, etc.

Figure 3.9
Critical process parameter
The quality of the needle bonded nonwoven fabric is decided not only by the design of the needles, but also by the punch density
of the needles. Punch density is defined by the number of needle penetrations per unit area of the resulting fabric. If ξ is punch
density, n is the number of needles per unit width of needleboard, A is the fibre web advance per stroke, P is the rate of
production, and m is the number of punches per unit time, then

Therefore, when the needle board density is constant and for a given stroke frequency, the punch density is determined by
adjusting the fabric throughput rate. To obtain higher punch density of a finished fabric it usually requires two or more
needlelooms. Depending on the scale of production, these passages may take place as separate operations or may form a
continuous production line.

Applications
Today the needle-bonded nonwovens are finding a wide variety of applications, including geosynthetics, filter media, synthetic
leather, waddings and paddings, floor coverings, automotive fabrics, insulation, blankets, wipes, roofing, etc.

3.1.2 Hydroentanglement process

Principle
Hydroentanglement, spunlacing, hydraulic entanglement, and water jet needling are synonymous terms describing the process of
mechanically bonding the fibres in a web by means of high energy water jets. The machine which accomplishes this is known as
hydroentanglement or spunlace machine. The basic elements of this machine are shown in Figure 3.10. A series of multiple high
pressure columnar water jets is produced by pumping water through a series of fine nozzles in a jet strip clamped into an injector
(manifold). The high velocity water jets are directed to the unbonded web, which is supported on a moving perforated conveyor.
The conveyor may have a flat bed surface or cylindrical surface. The entanglement among the fibres is introduced by the
combined effects of the incident water jets and the turbulent water created in the web which intertwines neighbouring fibres. The
conveyor sleeve being permeable enables most of the de-energised water to be drawn into the vacuum box for recycling and
reuse.

Figure 3.10
Selection of fibres
Both natural fibres and synthetic fibres are used in hydroentanglement process. The wood pulp is often blended with staple fibres
and used in hydroentanglement process. Viscose fibre has been found to be mostly used. The important fibre properties for this
process have been fibre flexural rigidity and fibre hydrophilicity. Viscose rayon has a low wet modulus and this partly explains the
ease with which this fibre can be hydroentangled as compared to polypropylene fibres that have higher modulus. As the coarser
fibres offer higher flexural rigidity as compared to the finer fibres, the former require more hydroentagling energy as compared to
the latter in order to have the same degree of bonding. Effective hydroentanglement requires uniform and rapid wetting of the
web. That is why the manmade fibres are often treated with hydrophilic finishes before hydroentanglement.

Critical process factors

The critical process factors of the hydroentanglement process are specific energy and jet impact force.

Specific energy is defined as the energy expended per unit time for unit mass of fabric processed per unit time. As the
hydroenglement process deals with transfer of kinetic energy from the water jets to the web, the specific energy is very important
in deciding the degree of bonding of fibres. It is possible to derive the following expression of specific energy
Nozzle
The nozzles used in hydroentanglement process are capillary cone nozzles, where the nozzles are usually operated in the cone-
down rather than the cone-up position. This type of nozzles is known as cone-down nozzle. Besides the cone-down nozzle there
are cone-up and cylindrical nozzles available. Figure 3.11 shows the geometry of these three nozzles. It is of interest to know the
discharge coefficient of the nozzles and the resulting break-up length of the jets.

Figure 3.11
Discharge coefficient is defined by the ratio of the actual mass flow rate to the ideal mass flow rate of water. Break-up length is
defined by the length of jet at which it breaks after exiting from the nozzle. The higher is the break-up length, the higher is the
energy transmitted to the web. The cone-up nozzle has a remarkably higher discharge coefficient than the cone-down and
cylindrical nozzles. This can be explained by the natural consequence of the geometry of the nozzles. The images of the jets after
exiting from the three different nozzles for different pressures are displayed in Figure 3.12 [1].

Figure 3.12
The break-up length profile of these nozzles is displayed in Figure 3.13. It can se seen that the break-up length of the cone-down
nozzle is the lowest among the three nozzles. At lower pressure, the break-up length of the cone-down and cylindrical nozzles is
practically the same, but at higher pressure the cone-down nozzle shows higher break-up length than the cylindrical nozzle. This
can be explained by the constricted water jet issued from the cone-down nozzle, while the water jet issued from the cone-up
nozzle is non-constricted. In constricted jet, water is in contact with the ambient air and not the orifice wall, but in non-constricted
jet, water is in contact with the orifice wall.
 Figure 3.13

Web support system

The webs in the working field of the hydroentanglement machine are supported by forming wires whose s urface topography has a
direct influence on the appearance of final product.

Jet streak
One of the major problems associated with the quality of the hydroentangled nonwoven is related to the jet marks or jet strip.
This is undesirable as it spoils the aesthetic appearance of the fabric and reduces the mechanical properties of the fabric. This is
shown in Figure 3.14. This effect can be reduced by having the staggered arrangement of the nozzles having one row with higher
nozzle diameter and other row with lower nozzle diameter.

Figure 3.14
Applications
The hydroentangled nonwovens are used in a wide variety of applications, including wipes, surgical fabrics, medical gauge, filter
cloths, artificial leather, automotive fabrics, linings and clothes, etc.
 Module 3: Web bonding processes
3.2 Thermal Bonding Processes
Introduction
It is known that the fibres in the webs can be bonded thermally in order to have sufficient resistance to mechanical deformation. The
basic concept of thermal bonding was introduced by Reed in 1942. He described a process in which a web consisting of thermoplastic
and non-thermoplastic fibres was made and then heated to the melting or softening temperature of the constituent thermoplastic fibres
followed by cooling or solidify the bonding area. Since then many developments have been made in thermal bonding processes. Today
the thermal bonding processes include calender bonding, through-air bonding, infrared bonding, and ultrasonic bonding. Thermal
bonding requires a thermoplastic component to be present in the web in the form of homofil fibre, powder, film, hot melt or as a part
(sheath) of bicomponent fibre. The thermoplastic component becomes viscous under the application of thermal energy. The polymer
flows to fibre-to-fibre crossover points where bonding regions are formed. The bonding regions are fixed by subsequent cooling. The
thermal bonding process is environmental-friendly, as no latex binder is required. The thermal bonding process consumes less energy
compared to foam bonding or hydroentanglement bonding.

Principle of thermal bonding

The formation of a bond during thermal bonding follows in sequence through three critical steps:

(1) heating the web to partially melt the crystalline region,

(2) repetition of the newly released chain segments across the fibre-fibre interface, and

subsequent cooling of the web to re-solidify it and to trap the chain segments that diffused across the
(3) fibre-fibre interface.

The time scales for these processes closely match commercial practice.

The formation of a bond requires partial melting of the crystals to permit chain relaxation and diffusion. If, during bonding, the
temperatures are too low or if the roll speeds are too high, the polymer in the mid-plane of the web does not reach a high enough
temperature to release a sufficient number of chains or long enough chain segments from the crystalline regions. Thus, there will be
very few chains spanning the fibre-fibre interface, the bond itself will be weak, and the bonds can be easily pulled out or ruptured under
load, as observed. Under-bonding occurs when there are an insufficient number of chain ends in the molten state at the interface
between the two crossing fibres or there is insufficient time for them to diffuse across the interface to entangle with chains in the other
fibre. Over-bonding occurs when melting occurs and many chains have diffused across the interface and a solid, strong bond has been
formed. If the web reaches a sufficient temperature, many chains or chain segments are released from the crystal, repeat across the
fibre-fibre interface, and form a strong bond. The fibres within the bond spot have lost their orientation and their strength. At the same
time, the polymer chains within the fibres located in the vicinity of the bond also lose some of their molecular orientation (and strength)
at the fibre-bond interface.

In well-bonded webs, failure occurs at the bond periphery because the bridging fibres are weak in the region adjacent to the bond, but
strong elsewhere. If the bridging fibres have the same strength over their entire length, including the region at the bond periphery,
better load sharing would lead to a stronger web.

Raw materials
The thermal bonding processes utilize either thermoplastic fibres alone or blends containing fibres that are not intended to soften or flow
on heating. The non-binder fibre components may be referred to as the base fibres or sometimes, carrier fibres. Commercially, a variety
of base fibres are used. The binder fibre component normally ranges from 5-50 % on weight of the fibre depending on the targeted
properties of the final product made thereupon.

Fibre Melting temperature

(degree Celsius)
PET 245-265

PP 160-175
PA 210-230
PE 115-135

PE/PET 130/250
PE/PP 130/175

CoPET/PET 110/250

Table3.2
The base fibres can be of n atural or synthetic or mineral or metallic origin. The binder fibres can be momocomoponent (homofil) like
polyester (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), and polyethylene (PE) and bicomponent (sheath-core) like PE/PET, PE/PP, and
CoPET/PET. Looking at the thermal bonding process, it is important to note down the melting temperature of these fibres.

Calender bonding process

In thermal calender bonding process, the fibrous web containing thermoplastic fibres is passed through a heated calender nip that is
created by two rolls (cylinders) pressed against each other (Figure 3.15).

Figure 3.15
One or both rolls are heated internally to a temperature that usually exceeds the melting point temperature of the binder fibres to
ensure there is sufficient hear transfer to induce softening at the prevailing line speed. As the web passes between the calender nip,
fibres are heated and compressed. This causes the binder fibres to become soft and tacky and induces polymer flow in and around the
base fibres. The fluid polymer tends to collect at the fibre crossover or contact points and bonding sites are formed. Cooling leads to
solidification of the polymer and bonding.

Principle
 Figure 3.16
It can be seen that the convergence of the series depends on dimensionless time and there is a significant temperature that exists in-
between center and surface of the web.

Types of calender roller

There exist two types of calender rollers, that is, embossed calender and flat calender. These calender rollers are shown in Figure 3.17.

Figure 3.17
It is generally known that the point bonding results in softer fabric and the area bonding results in stiffer fabric.

Heating arrangement
The roll surfaces are heated from inside by direct electrical heat or through the use of heated oil. Heated oil is preferred because it leads
to more uniform temperature distribution along the nip. In some configurations a fixed quantity of oil is sealed inside the roll and it is
heated electrically. Thermal inertia of internally heated systems with or without oil is generally high. As a result heating by circulating oil
systems is much preferred. The calender roll systems must be so designed as to provide very uniform temperature and nip pressure
profiles all along the nip length. This is an engineering challenge of major proportions. As a result the technology of making rolls for
calender bonding is quite complex.
Critical process parameters
The critical process parameters of thermal calender bonding process are r oller temperature, roller nip pressure, and contact time.

Roller t emperature should be adjusted in such a way that the “sintering” of fibre surfaces can be achieved while avoiding complete fibre
melting and film formation. Increasing bonding temperature up to a certain point increases the tensile properties of the fabric due to the
formation of well-developed bonding structure. Further increase in temperature reduces the tensile properties which may be attributed
to the loss of fibre integrity and the formation of film like spot as well as the reduction in load transfer from fibre to bonding point. Over-
bonding of this kind leads to “popping” of the structure under tensile load as the fabric fails at the bond locations.

Figure 3.18

where t is contact time, h is nip width, and v is roller velocity. In general, the contact time for light weight fabrics is kept to be 0.001 s,
but for medium weight fabric, it is kept at 0.1-0.7 s.
Process description
Figure 3.19 displays the schematic diagram of the through-air bonding machine. The main component of this system is an air
permeable drum with a high open area onto which the web is transferred and supported by a travelling/carrying wire.

Figure 3.20
The perforated drum is covered with a hood from where the heat is delivered; the hot air is drawn through the web cross-section by
means of a suction fan.

Types of through-air bonding machine

Generally three types of through-air bonding machines are used. They are perforated drum though air bonding machine, perforated
conveyor (flat bed) through air bonding machine, and impingement (air jetting) through air bonding machine.
 Figure 3.21
Figure 3.20 shows the schematic diagram of a perforated drum though air bonding machine. Here the web is carried by a permeable
screen around a perforated drum enclosed in a chamber. The upper part of the chamber serves as a plenum into which heated air is
blown in. Inside the drum, there are baffles covering the circumference except the portion through which heated air can be sucked in
through the fabric. The air suction is aided by suction boxes located inside the drum. The sucked-in air is then re-heated and circulated
back to the heating zone. This system is suitable for light weight webs of 10 g/m 2 to heavy but permeable webs up to 3000 g/m 2.

Figure 3.21 shows the schematic diagram of a perforated conveyor though air bonding machine. Here the web to be bonded moves on
a permeable support screen over a flat bed. Above the flat bed is a plenum into which heated air is blown in. Below the flat bed are
vacuum units which suck the heated air from the plenum above, through the passing fabric over the flat bed. The air is circulated back
into the heating zone after re-heating. This system is particularly suitable for bulky, low-density webs.

Figure 3.22 shows the schematic diagram of an impingement through-air bonding machine. In impingement bonding, the web is
carried over a permeable screen into an oven. In the oven are a series of boxes (plenums) positioned across the web passage. Hot air is
pumped into the boxes from one end, the other being closed.
 Figure 3.22
The lower surface of the box contains an evenly spaced series of nozzles through which jets of hot air impinge on the surface of the web
passing beneath. While some hot air may diffuse through the web most of it is deflected in different directions on the surface. Maximum
bonding occurs at the surface and decreases as one goes into the thickness. In the case of denser webs, or to obtain symmetry of
bonding in the web, boxes containing nozzles may be placed below the web carrying screen. In these cases, the nozzles are aimed
upward so that hot air jets. This is mainly used for denser webs or webs that must be bonded gently.

Infrared bonding process

Figure 3.23 shows the schematic diagram of an infrared bonding machine. The mechanism is thermal radiation.
 Figure 3.23
The IR emitting bulbs (heaters) are used to radiate electromagnetic energy in part of the IR wave length (0.7-300 μ m) which then
translates to heat by the receiving /absorbing material. The heat flux emitted by a heater is E= εσ T4, where E…heat flux (W/m2), σ is
Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2), ε is emissivity (0 to 1) and T is absolute temperature (K). It does not require any medium, but
does not penetrate deep into a structure. For thinner webs, it is not economical. This is mainly used for glazing the surface of thick
nonwovens.

Ultrasonic bonding process

Figure 3.24 shows the schematic diagram of an ultrasonic bonding machine. Here the web is compacted between an embossed
patterned roller (anvil) and an ultrasonic horn.

Figure 3.24
horn is vibrated at a frequency of 20-40 KHz. The friction between horn and web surface heats fibers above the raised points on the
anvil. Mechanical energy is converted into thermal energy. This is mostly used for joining nonwoven laminates.
 Module 3: Web bonding processes
3.3 Chemical Bonding Processes
Introduction
In chemical bonding, chemical binders (adhesive materials) are used to hold the fibers together in a nonwoven fabric. Chemical binders are
polymers that are formed by emulsion polymerization. The mostly used binders today are water-borne latexes. They are applied in a number
of different ways to nonwovens and because of their viscosity is close to that of water they can easily penetrate into nonwoven structure by
emulsion. After application of binder by, for example, immersion, they are dried and the water evaporates. The binder then forms an
adhesive film across or between fibre intersections and fibre bonding takes place.

Chemical binders
There are various chemical binder polymers used including vinyl polymers and copolymers, acrylic ester polymers and copolymers, rubber
and synthetic rubber, and natural binders, principally starch. These are usually applied in aqueous dispersions but can be supplied as
polymer solutions providing they have sufficiently low viscosity to allow penetration into the web.

Commercially, latex polymers are the most commonly encountered binder because of their availability, variety, versatility, ease of application,
and cost-effectiveness. The latex polymers are prepared by emulsion polymerization by controlled addition of several components. These
components include monomers (building block), water (medium), initiator (decomposes to form free radicals to start the polymerization
process), surfactant (to prevent particle attraction and thus stabilize the emulsion particles) and chain transfer agent (to control the final
polymer molecular weight). The process of latex formation starts with a distribution of monomer droplets in water, stabilized by emulsifiers
that have accumulated at the interface to the water phase. The emulsifier molecules have the hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
In Figure 3.25, the dot indicates the hydrophilic head and the line represents the hydrophobic tail of emulsifier molecule. If the
concentration of the emulsifier is above a critical value, a spheroidal collection of them is formed. This is called micelle and it typically
contains about a hundred emulsifier molecules.

Figure 3.25
The initiator added is decomposed to form water-soluble free radicals. When a free radical encounters monomer molecules dissolved in
water, it reacts successively with several to form a short polymer chain. This short chain, called oligomer radical, is no longer soluble in
water. It precipitates and is stabilized by the emulsifier, which accumulates at the newly formed interface. This is now called a latex particle.
When there are enough oligomer radicals formed they grow into latex particles. Also, it is possible for a growing oligomer radical to meet a
monomer droplet and initiate polymerization to form a latex particle. In this case, the latex particle would be large. In addition, when the
oligomer radical meets an emulsifier micelle where monomer molecules are diffused in, the monomers polymerize and form another latex
particle. This can occur only if the concentration of emulsifier is enough high, that is, above the critical micelle concentration. Once the
formation of latex particles is completed, their growth starts. The monomers flow from water to the latex particles where the polymerization
occurs. The latex particle grows larger and contains hundreds or thousands of closely packed molecules in one particle. As propagation
proceeds more latex particles are added in layers to form a larger latex particle. Sometimes it is desirable to limit the molecular weight of the
polymer by introducing a chain transfer agent. The growing polymer radical combines with the chain transfer agent to stop the chain growth.
Methods of binder application
The most common methods of applying a binder to a dry-laid web are saturation, foam, spray, and print bonding methods. For wet-laid
nonwovens, most of the same methods can be used but bonding must be applied after partial drying. For printing, the web must be dry.

Saturation bonding process

Saturation chemical bonding involves complete immersion of the nonwoven web in a bath containing binder. The excess binder can be
removed by a pair of nip rolls. Figure 3.26 shows the basic methods of saturation using horizontal padding (a) and vertical padding (b). The
nonwoven web is guided through the saturation bath by rollers and then presses between a pair of nip rolls to squeeze out excess liquid. The
amount of binder taken up by the nonwoven depends on the basis weight of the nonwoven, length of time spent in the bath, wettability of
the fibres and nip pressure. This method can provide higher binder to fibre levels uniformly throughout the nonwoven. But as it includes
short wetting time, the method is more suitable for lightweight and highly permeable nonwovens.

Figure 3.26
This method also compresses the nonwoven web, hence reduces the thickness of the ultimate fabric.
Foam bonding process
Figure 3.27 illustrates the foam bonding process. Here, air or water is used to dilute the binder and as a mean to carry the binder to the
fibres. One advantage of diluting binder with air rather than with water is that drying is faster and energy cost is reduced remarkably. Foam
is generated mechanically and can be stabilized with a stabilizing agent to prevent collapse during application.

Figure 3.27
Foam can be applied so as to remain at the surface or can be made to penetrate all the way through the fabric cross-section. One or two
reciprocating foam spreaders are commonly used to distribute the foam across the width of the fabric. The excess foam is sucked through
the porous portion of the fabric and the perforations of the web carrying medium to the vacuum extractor as shown in Figure 3.27 The key
advantage of foam bonding is more efficiency drying and the ability to control fabric softness. The disadvantages include the difficulty in
achieving adequate foaming and in controlling the process to give a uniform binder distribution. Sometimes, non-stabilized foams, called
froths, are formed.

Spray bonding process

Figure 3.28 illustrates a typical spray bonding process. Here the binder is sprayed onto a moving web in fine droplet form through a system
of nozzles, which can be statically mounted across the machine or transverse from one side to the other side of the machine. It is used to
make highly porous and bulky products. This is possible because the substrate does not need to pass between nip rollers.
 Figure 3.28
The liquid is atomised by air pressure, hydraulic pressure, or centrifugal force and is applied to the upper surfaces of the web. The depth of
penetration of the binder into the substrate depends on the wettability of the fibres, permeability of the web, and amount of binder. The main
advantage of this method is that the nonwoven is not compressed and the original bulk and structure is retained. The disadvantages include
lack of control of the uniformity of spraying, poor binder penetration, high level of overspray and waste, and possible lack of shear stability of
the binder.

Print bonding process

The print bonding process applies the binder only in predetermined areas as dictated by the pattern of the printing surfaces. Figure
3.29displays the print bonding process where the latex is transferred to the web via feed roll and engraved roll. As the web passes the
engraved roll, it is pressed against the surface by a rubber roll, transferring binder to the fabric.

Figure 3.29
The excess latex is removed by a doctor blade. This method is suitable only for applying low levels of binder to the surface where a textile-
like handle is needled.

Methods of drying
After the binder is applied, the web is dried to evaporate the latex carrier (water) and allow the latex particles to bond the nonwovens.
Crosslinking (if crosslinking groups are present in the binder formulation) is usually carried out in the same dryer. During drying, film forming
or coagulation takes place as well as evaporation of the water and cross-linking occurs. There are several types of dryers available such as
drum dryer (Figure 3.30a), flat belt dryer (Figure 3.30b), stenter-based dryer (Figure 3.30c), and infrared dryer (Figure 3.30d).

Figure 3.30
In drum or belt drying, the web is guided over a perforated conveyor surface through which hot air passes. Air is then withdrawn from the
inside of the drum or through the perforations of the belt and mostly reused. The fabric shrinkage is one of important disadvantages of these
methods. This can be overcome by stenter dryer. In infrared dryer, water is marked absorbed by infrared energy as it rapidly converts water
into heat leading to evaporation. It requires less capital investment but high running cost. They are often used for pre-dry the surface to
prevent the coating of binder on the first drum of a drum dryer and to coagulate the binder to prevent migration or post-dry the surface to
complete crosslinking.

Applications
The chemical bonding process is used to develop nonwovens used as wipes, interlinings, hygiene and medical products, footwear,
automotives, and homefurnishing products.
 Module 4: Polymer-EXTRUSION based Technologies
4.1 Spunbond technology
The two important polymer-extrusion based technologies that are mainly used to convert the molten polymer into
nonwoven fabrics are spunbond technology and meltblown technology.
4.1 Spunbond technology
In the spunbond technology, usually a thermoplastic fibre forming polymer is extruded to form fine filaments fibres of
around 15–35 micrometer diameter. The filaments are attenuated collected on a conveyor belt in the form of a web. The
filaments in web are then bonded to make spunbond nonwoven fabric.
Raw materials
Spunbond technology uses preferably thermoplastic polymers with high molecular weight and broad molecular weight
distribution such as polypropylene (PP) and polyester (PET) [1]. To a small extent, other polyolefins such as polyethylene
of high density (HDPE) and linear polyethylene of low density (LLDPE) as well as a variety of polyamides (PA), mainly PA 6
and PA 6.6 are found. Out of these polymers, polypropylene is mostly used primarily due to its low price and advantageous
properties such as low density, chemical resistance, hydrophobicity, sufficient or even better strength. The fibre grade
polypropylene (mainly isotactic) is the principal type of polypropylene which is used in spunbond technology. The important
raw material parameters for polypropylene to be a suitable candidate for spunbond technology are melt flow index (MFI) of
about 20–40 g/10 min and polydispersity ratio (M w/M n) of around 3.5–7.
The molecular weight can be around 180000. On the other hand, the important raw material parameters for polyester are
intrinsic viscosity of about 0.64, low share in COOH-groups, high crystallinity, and low water content (as low as 0.004%).
Spunbond nonwovens are exclusively made from crystalline polyester. Crystallinity influences pre-drying and extrudability
as well as filament drawing orientation, which is basic to make products that meet the requirements and that are of proper
strength. Pre-drying is inevitable as PET at thermal strain is subject to hydrolytic degradation when extruded. In addition,
low water content avoids air pockets in the melt that might cause filament breakage. Frequently, requirements can only be
met by means of polymer modification. Except for the mechanical properties, UV-resistance and flame-retardancy are
important with technical applications.
Nowadays, the bicomponents are found in spunbond fabrics. The cross-section of these bicomponent filaments has at least
two different polymer components. Figure 4.1 shows different geometry of cross-sections of the bicomponent filaments.
Sometimes the bicomponent filaments are splitted or fibrillated into microfibres by means of hydroentangling energy. The
resulting fabrics are extremely soft, particularly after finishing, and have therefore been considered for use in clothing,
hygiene, and medical dressing components. In addition, bicomponent fibres with eccentric sheath core arrangement are
used to develop crimp in spunlaid fabrics by differential thermal shrinkage of the two polymer components.
Process sequence
Figure 4.1 displays a schematic diagram of spunbond machine. The spunbond technology, in its simplest form, consists of
four processes namely, spinning, drawing, web formation, and web bonding. The spinning process largely corresponds to
the manufacture of synthetic fibre materials by melt-spinning process. In the drawing process, the filaments are drawn in a
tensionally locked way. The web formation process forms a nonwoven web. Web bonding is generally possible by means of
the web bonding processes discussed earlier. The bonding process includes mainly thermal calender bonding. Mechanical
bonding and
 Figure 4.1
chemical bonding of spunlaid webs are also reported. The sequence of processes is as follows: polymer preparation --->
polymer feeding, melting, transportation and filtration ---> Extrusion ---> Quenching ---> Drawing ---> Laydown --->
Bonding ® Winding.
The first step to spunbond technology involves preparation of polymer. It involves sufficient drying of the polymer pellets or
granules and adequate addition of stabilizers/additives. The drying of the polymer is carried out particularly for polyester
and polyamides as they are relatively high hygroscopic than polypropylene. The stabilizers are often added to impart melt
stability to the polymers. Then, the polymer pellets or granules are fed to an extruder hopper by gravity-feeding. The
pellets are then supplied to an extruder screw, which rotates within the heated. As the pellets are conveyed forward along
the hot walls of the barrel between the flights of the screw, the polymer moves along the barrel, it melts due to the heat
and friction of the viscous flow and the mechanical action between the screw and barrel. The screw is divided into feed,
transition, and metering zones. The feed zone preheats the polymer pellets in a deep screw channel and conveys them into
the transition zone. The transition zone has a decreasing depth channel in order to compress and homogenize the melting
plastic. The melted polymer is discharged to the metering zone, which serves to generate maximum pressure for pumping
the molten polymer. The pressure of the molten polymer is highest at this point and is controlled by the breaker plate with
a screen pack placed near the screw discharge. The screen pack and breaker plate also filter out dirt and unmelted
polymer lumps. The pressurized molten polymer is then conveyed to the metering pump.
A positive displacement volume metering device is used for uniform melt delivery to the die assembly. It ensures the
consistent flow of clean polymer mix under process variations in viscosity, pressure, and temperature. The metering pump
also provides polymer metering and the required process pressure. The metering pump typically has two intermeshing,
counter-rotating, toothed gears. The positive displacement is accomplished by filling each gear tooth with polymer on the
suction side of the pump and carrying the polymer around to the pump discharge. The molten polymer from the gear pump
goes to the feed distribution system to provide uniform flow to the die nosepiece in the die assembly.
The die assembly is one of the most important elements of the spunbond technology. The die assembly has two distinct
components: the polymer feed distribution section and the spinneret.
The feed distribution in a spunbonding die is more critical than in a film or sheeting die for two reasons. First, the
spunbonding die usually has no mechanical adjustments to compensate for variations in polymer flow across the die width.
Second, the process is often operated at a temperature range where thermal breakdown of polymers proceeds rapidly. The
feed distribution is usually designed in such a way that the polymer distribution is less dependent on the shear sensitivity
of the polymer. This feature allows the processing of widely different polymeric materials using just one distribution
system. The feed distribution balances both the flow and the residence time across the width of the die. There are basically
two types of feed distribution that are employed in the spunbonding die, the T-type (tapered and untapered) and the coat-
hanger type. An in-depth mathematical and design description of each type of feed distribution is given by Mastubara [2-
5]. The T-type feed distribution is widely used because it gives both even polymer flow and even residence time across the
full width of the die.
From the feed distribution channel the polymer melt goes directly to the spinneret. The spinneret is one of the components
of the die assembly. The web uniformity partially hinges on the design and fabrication of the spinneret, therefore the
spinneret in the spunbonding process requires very close tolerances, which has continued to make their fabrication very
costly. A spinneret is made from a single block of metal having several thousand drilled orifices or holes. The orifices or
holes are bored by mechanical drilling or electric discharge machining (EDM) in a certain pattern. The spinnerets are
usually circular or rectangular in shape. In commercial spunbonding processes, the objective is usually to produce a wide
web (of up to about 5 m), and therefore many spinnerets are placed side by side to generate sufficient fibers across the
width.21 The grouping of spinnerets is often called a block or bank. In commercial production lines, two or more blocks are
used in tandem in order to increase the coverage of the filaments.
The proper integration of filament spinning, drawing, and deposition is critical in the spunbonding process. The main
collective function is to solidify, draw, and entangle the extruded filaments from the spinneret and deposit them onto an
air-permeable conveyor belt or collector.
Filament drawing follows spinning. In conventional extrusion spinning, drawing is achieved using one or more set of draw
rollers. While roller drawing can certainly be used in spunbonding, a specially designed aerodynamic device such as a
Venturi tube is commonly adopted.
Filament deposition follows the drawing step. Filament deposition is also frequently achieved with the aid of a specially
designed aerodynamic device referred to as a fanning or entangler unit. The fanning unit is intended to cross or translate
adjacent filaments to increase cross-directional web.
Filament deposition follows the drawing step. Filament deposition is also frequently achieved with the aid of a specially
designed aerodynamic device referred to as a fanning or entangler unit. The fanning unit is intended to cross or translate
adjacent filaments to increase cross-directional web
Production systems
The concept of spunbond technology was developed sometime in late 1950s simultaneously in Europe and USA. Since then
numerous innovations are disclosed on spunbond production system. This technology is derived from filament spinning
technology. Many patents were granted on filament spinning technology. The basic principles involved in it, as proposed by
Hartman [6], are explained with the help of Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2a illustrates a system of filament formation. Here air as hot as melting temperature emerges from closely to the
nozzle holes, takes the filaments and draws them. The emerging air, at the same time, intermingles with the ambient air. It
uses longitudinal spinnerets, with air slots on both sides for the expulsion of the drawing gas ‘1’ (primary air). The room air
(secondary air) ‘2’ is carried along and after lay down of the filaments, the air is removed by suction ‘3’. This process is
well suited for tacky polymers, such as linear polyurethene. The continuous filaments after web collection bond themselves
(self-bond) at their crossover points due to their inherent tackiness. Crystallization, which then sets in, subsequently
eliminates the stickiness of the filaments after bonding.
 Figure 4.2
Figure 4.2b describes another system. Here the emerging air and the filaments are taken to a drawing channel. Blowing
in additional pressed air the drawing effect can be realized. It uses higher draw ratio, which results in increased molecular
orientation of filaments. Filaments are drawn with several air or gas streams using drawing conduits. The air is removed by
suction ‘4’ after the web is formed.
Figure 4.2c depicts one more system. Here the cooling and drawing air are separated. It operates with regular cooling
duct ‘1’ and drawing jet ‘3’. The drawing and cooling arrangements can be operated to give very high spinning speeds with
the result that highly oriented filaments are produced. The room air ‘2’, of controlled temperature and moisture content,
can be entrained to control the development of filament properties. The air is removed by suction ‘4’ after web formation.
Figure 4.2d illustrates another system that has a mechanical drawing step ‘2’ between the spinneret and lay down zones.
This route is similar to conventional spinning and is especially useful for polymers, which in regular air drawing do not give
optimum filament ‘4’. Webs with high strength and low elongation are generally made using this particular system.
Some of the commercial spunbond production systems are Docan system, Lutravil system, Ason/Neumag system, Reicofil
system and Rieter system. We will discuss one system, the interested readers can learn about other systems
from [1]. Figure 4.3 displays the schematic diagram of Reicofil spunbond system. The polymer pellets or granules are
vacuum fed to dosing station on top of the extruder. Inside the extruder the polymer pellets are melted and homogenised.
The molten polymer is then passed through a filter system and a spin punp, the melt is distributed by a coathanger die,
feeding the spinneret which forms a curtain of filaments. The filaments are cooled by means of a stream of air in a blowing
area, drawn by aerodynamic forces and then transported to the downstream discharge channel. Here, the primary blow
ducts, located below the spinneret block, continuously cool the filaments with conditioned air. The secondary blow ducts,
located below the primary blow ducts, continuously supply the auxiliary air at room temperature.
 Figure 4.3
A ventilator operating across the width of the machine, generates under-pressure and sucks the filaments together with
the mixed air down from the spinnerets and cooling chambers. The filaments are swirled around and then deposited on the
wire mesh belt as a random nonwoven material. This is transferred to the heat bonding calender which by heat and
pressure sets the physical properties as tensile and elongation of the final product. After calendering the material is cooled
by a water-cooled pair of rolls and then wound up. The continuous filaments are sucked through a Venturi (high velocity
low pressure zone) to a distributing chamber, where fanning and entangling of the drawn filaments takes place. Finally, the
entangled filaments are deposited on a moving suctioned mesh belt to form a web. Filament orientation in the web is
influenced by turbulence in the air stream, which generally serves to increase randomization.
Key process factors
The key process factors of spunbond nonwoven technology are p olymer throughput rate, polymer melting temperature,
quench air temperature, quench air velocity, and lay-down velocity. These process factors play important roles in deciding
the morphology and diameter of the filaments which are the building block of any spunbond nonwovens. The bonding
parameters are also important and their effects are already discussed earlier.
The polymer throughput rate determines the morphology and diameter of the filaments. The morphology of the filaments
spun at lower throughput rate is better developed than those at higher throughput rate. Because the rhelogical conditions
are more favorable for crystallinity and orientation of the filaments spun at lower throughput rate. The filaments spun at
lower throughput rate are thus more stable than those spun at higher throughput rate. The filament diameter increases
with increasing throughput rate.
The polymer melting temperature influences on the drawing of the filaments through the spinneret that in turn decides the
diameter of the filaments. The lower polymer melting temperature results in increase in melt viscosity of the polymer that
leads to difficulty in drawing of the filaments. On the other hand, the higher melting temperature results in decrease in the
melt viscosity of the polymer that makes drawing easier. Too high polymer melting temperature can cause polymer
degradation leading to filament breakages.
There is a great debate going on the effect of quench air temperature on the diameter and morphology of the filaments.
One group of researcher argues that the lower quench air temperature results in increase of viscosity that leads to slower
draw-down which finally resulting in higher filament diameter. As the draw-down takes place slowly, an increase in
crystallinity and orientation is observed. The other group argues that lower quench air temperature is helpful in generating
higher spinline stress that leads to reduction in filament diameter. As the draw-down takes places under higher stress, an
increase in crystallinity and orientation is observed.
The quench air pressure has a role to decide filament diameter. Higher quench air pressure increases spinline draw ratio
that in turn reduces filament diameter. The pressure drop is known to be proportional to air velocity.
The web is formed by the pneumatic deposition of the filament bundles onto a moving belt. In order to obtain maximum
uniformity and cover, the individual filaments must be separated before reaching to the belt. This can be accomplished by
inducing an electrostatic charge onto the bundle while under tension and before deposition. This can be achieved by high
voltage corona discharge. The belt is usually made of an electrically grounded conductive wire, which discharge the
filaments upon deposition. Sometimes mechanical or aerodynamic forces can also separate filaments. If the lay-down
conveyor belt is moving and filaments are being rapidly traversed across the direction of motion, the filaments are being
deposited in a zig-zag pattern on the surface of the moving belt.

Applications
The spunbond nonwovens are finding applications in a variety of end uses. Today they are used both for durable and
disposable applications. The main applications for spunbond nonwovens are in automobiles, civil engineering, hygiene,
medical, packaging, and agriculture.
 Module 4: Polymer-EXTRUSION based Technologies
4.2 Meltblown technology
The meltblown technology is based on meltblowing process, where, usually, a thermoplastic fibre forming polymer is
extruded through a linear die containing several hundred small orifices. Convergent streams of hot air (exiting from the top
and bottom sides of the die nosepiece) rapidly attenuate the extruded polymer streams to form extremely fine diameter
fibres (1–5 micrometer). The attenuated fibres are subsequently blown by high-velocity air onto a collector conveyor, thus
forming a fine fibered self-bonded meltblown nonwoven fabric.
Raw materials
Polypropylene has been the most widely used polymer for meltblown technology. Besides, a variety of different polymers
including polyamide, polyester, and polyethylene are used. It is known that polyethylene is more difficult to meltblow into
fine fibre webs than polypropylene, but polyamide 6 is easier to process and has less tendency to make shot (particles of
polymers that are larger than fibres) than polypropylene. In general, the requirements of polymers for meltblown
technology are high MFR or MFI (300-1500 gm/10 min), low molecular weight, and narrow molecular weight distribution.
Process sequence
Meltblown technology converts polymeric resin to fine fibered nonwoven fabric. The schematic diagram of this technology is
shown in Figure 4.4. It works as per the following sequence.

Figure 4.4

Prepares polymers for extrusion

Extrude low viscosity polymer melt through fine capillaries

Blow high velocity hot air to the molten polymer and attenuate the polymer melt

Cool the molten polymer by turbulent ambient air to form fine fiber

Deposit the fibers onto a collecting device to form useful articles like fabric.

The preparation of the polymers for extrusion in meltblown technology is the same as that in spunbond technology. The e
xtruder for melt blown technology is longer L/D (30+) so that more external heating surface is available. The energy for
melting comes mostly from barrel heating and practically no viscous shear heating when high MFR resins are used. Also,
the longer extruder can achieve a higher output rate and better melt homogeneity than the shorter extruder. Further,
longer extruder offers good barrel support and allowance for thermal expansion due to high screw speed and high barrel
temperature. The extruder should be able to provide heating and cooling. Air cooling for barrel zones is usually sufficient
for melt blown technology. High watt density heaters are desirable, especially at the first half of the extruder. Extruder
throat should be cooled to assist feeding and prevent melting when the extruder is shutdown. The design of the extruder
screw must be such that a deeper feed section should be used for better feeding and it should have ability to receive
granule and pellets. A shallower metering section is required for higher shear and better pumping. The compression ratio
must be greater than 3.5. The screws with chrome platting with normal flight tip hardening are preferable. In the
transition/melting section, the barrier flight can improve melting rate and melt quality.
For melt filtration, a screen changer down stream of extruder is must. Fine mesh screen (325 mesh screen) is
recommended to remove undispersed pigment, carbonized materials, etc. A metering pump is needed to maintain a
constant output rate, otherwise the extruder may not be able to provide sufficient pressure due to low melt viscosity. The
pump inlet pressure is lower than the typical fiber spinning/melt blown process. This is important for maintaining product
quality. A static melt mixer may be used at the entrance to the die Maintain good melt temperature homogeneity.
The compressed air has been the major cost component of the process. The lower the process pressure requirement, the
lower the energy cost. The requirement for air is typically 500-1500 m 3/h/m die width. Air handling around the process
area is very important. The handling of the make up air and the exhaust air are important.
The die system is known to be one of the important components of meltblown technology. There are generally two die
systems used. The “exxon” die system was developed in early 60’s by Exxon Chemical Company. It was a coat hanger die
feeding a single row of capillaries and one piece die tip construction. There were 25-35 capillaries per inch of die width. The
advantage of this system is that higher quality web can be produced, but the disadvantage is that the output per unit die
width may be limited. The “biax-fibrefilm” die system has multiple rows of spinning nozzles and concentric air holes. There
are around 200 capillaries per inch of die width up to 12 rows of capillaries. The advantage of this system is that higher
output per unit die width may be obtained (higher hole density), but the disadvantage is that it is more challenging to
maintain uniformity at each hole (air and polymer flow rate and temperature) and it results in broader fiber size
distribution.
The design of air plate is also important. The air gap and set-back are adjustable. Typical air gap is around 0.5-1.0 mm. A
smaller air gap results in higher air velocity, but lower air volume. A larger air gap results in lower air velocity, but higher
air volume. The en trapment of secondary air for cooling is also required. Typical set-back is around 0.8-1.2 mm
Ambient air is often used for cooling. Auxiliary cooling devices are also used. Water spray or cold air is used. In w ater
spray, multiple nozzles create a fine water mist. This has been an excellent way of quenching fibers. It can be used to
incorporate hydrophilic agent. Its position must be as close to die tip as practical. The water must be sprayed uniformly
across the whole width. It is however difficult to keep all nozzles clean and functioning and used mostly in sorbent product
where high output is a must. The cold air works in the same principle as that of water spray. It is however less effective as
compared to water spray.
While forming webs, the f ibers are distributed (spread) on a moving belt or rotating drum. The suction underneath the
forming web removes drawing air and holds the fiber to the web. The distance to forming web (die to collector distance)
affects the web properties. The belt collector provides good fiber support and retention as well as good web release. It
should have minimum wire mark onto the web and proper air flow (maximum air flow with minimum openings). The most
of the belts are constructed of 100% polyester strand materials. The drum collector is generally used in small lines, less
critical applications. Its advantages are simpler, lower cost, easier to operate, less space requirement, etc. But, its
disadvantages are lying in the difficulty to dissipate heat (metal screen).
Key process factors
The key process parameters in meltblown technology are p olymer melt temperature, polymer throughput rate, process
(primary) air temperature, process (primary) air flow rate, and die-to-collector distance. The aforesaid process variables
play important roles in deciding the morphology and diameter of the fibers which are the building block of the meltblown
nonwovens.
Melt temperature controls the melt viscosity of polymer at die. To increase melt temperature, increase the die temperature,
the extruder barrel temperatures (last 2-3 zones) and all zones between die and extruder. Melt temperature decreases with
increasing screw speed /output rate, this needs to compensate for lower melt temperature by using a higher barrel
temperature at high screw speed/output rate. Higher melt temperature results into finer fiber, more tendency to produce
“shots”, higher energy cost (heating and cooling), shorter die tip life (degradation of pigment, polymer, etc.) The PP with
1500 MFR has a very low melt viscosity (< 10 pa-sec at normal processing temperature). The viscosity stays fairly
constant over a wide range of shear rate (close to Newtonian fluid)
The polymer throughput rate can be increased by increasing the screw speed. Typical throughput rate is 0.2-0.8
g/hole/min for most of the applications (e.g. battery separator, filtration media, etc.), but for some other applications (e.g.,
wipe, oil sorbent, etc.), it varies from 0.8 g/hole/min to 3 g/hole/min. The output rate affects fiber size, the higher is the
output rate, the more is the size of the fibers. With higher output rate, it is more difficult to achieve good quality web.
The process air temperature offers limited range. It is typically kept to be the same or slightly higher than die temperature
(depending on thermocouple location). The lower air temperature results in b etter fiber cooling, less shots, whereas
higher air temperature results in finer fiber diameter and more energy cost.
Primary airflow affects fiber entanglement significantly. Increasing primary airflow rate reduces fiber entanglement,
especially when DCD is shorter. Fine fiber bundles are affected more than coarse fiber bundles when the primary airflow is
changed. The influence of primary airflow rate on fiber entanglement is reduced at larger airflow rates. Increasing primary
airflow rate generally increased global orientation of fibers in the machine direction. Increasing primary airflow rate
reduces pore cover in the webs substantially. This is thought to occur because the increased airflow decreases fiber
entanglement and reduces fiber diameter.
The die to collector distance plays an important role on the quality of meltblown nonwoven. The higher distance results in h
igher fiber entangling, bulkier and softer web, better fiber cooling, less tendency to disturb fiber lay down, less web
uniformity, and is used for heavy basis weight fabric (sorbent products, etc.). The lower distance results in less fiber
entangling, more compact/stiffer web, balance of process air and suction capability, more uniformed web with better
barrier properties, and is used for light basis weight fabric, especially light weight spunmelt composites.
Applications
Owing to the smaller fibres and larger surface area occupied by the fibres the meltblown nonwovens offer enhanced
filtration efficiency, good barrier property, and good wicking property. They are finding applications in filtration, insulation,
and liquid absorption.
Spunbond versus Meltblown
It is interesting to note the differences between the spunbond and meltblown technologies and products thereof. The
meltblown technology requires polymers with considerably lower melt viscosity as compared to the spunbond technology.
The initial investment for spunbond technology is three to four times higher than that for meltblown technology. The
meltblown technology consumes more energy than the spunbond technology because of the usage of compressd hot air.
The meltblown nonwoven is generally found to be costlier than the spubnnond nonwoven.
 Module 5: Finishing Processes
5.1 Introduction
Similar to woven and knitted fabrics, nonwoven fabrics also undergo finishing processes in order to develop certain
desirable properties. The desired properties are developed primarily looking upon the intended end-use of the produced
fabric. This is said to be a procedure which adds maximum value to a semi-manufactured fabric, so it plays a vital role in
the nonwoven industry. This is the last step in nonwoven fabric manufacturing technology where the final quality is
established. As in woven and knitted fabrics, the term finishing in nonwoven technology is not restricted to chemical
processing alone since any operation for improving the appearance or usefulness of the fabric after it leaves from bonding
machines can be considered as a finishing process.
As suggested by Tomasino [1], finish can be either chemicals that change the aesthetic or physical properties of the fabrics
or make changes in texture or surface characteristics by physically manipulating the fabrics with mechanical devices. It can
also be a combination of both. Finishing can be categorised broadly into two types as mechanical finishing and chemical
finishing. Mechanical finishes are those finishes in which the fabric develops certain properties by physically manipulating
the fabric with mechanical devices. By this, special changes in surface and handle properties are achieved. On the other
hand, chemical finishes are those finishes which rely on the application of certain chemicals to the fabric by different
methods of application.
 Module 5: Finishing Processes
5.2 Mechanical finishing
5.2.1 Splitting and winding
This process is used to produce nonwoven fabrics of high density, that is, high basis weight and low thickness. On the basis
of economical aspects it is advantageous to produce fabric of high basis weight and then split it into required thickness.
This process of separating one high basis weight and high thickness fabric into two fabrics of high basis weight and lower
thickness is known as splitting. The two layers are splitted by different roller outfeed configuration and a rotating hoop
knife placed between two rollers. Heavily bonded needle punched fabrics and chemically bonded fabrics can also be splitted
by mechanical adjustment of the rollers responsible for splitting. This process is generally used to produce thin, supple,
leather-like nonwoven fabrics that can be used as belts, shoe linings, outer materials for bags, etc. [2].
5.2.2 Perforating
This process of finishing is used to enhance the wicking property as well as softness and drape of fabrics. Perforation in
nonwoven fabric can be of varying profile achieved by the help of heated needles or modified calendar rollers. For some
exceptional cases like chemically bonded nonwovens, this process enhances fabric strength instead of reducing it. In this
case, the penetration of hot needles promote cross-locking of the resin bonding agents.
5.2.3 Drying
During the process of manufacturing the nonwoven fabrics are subjected to tension, which cause the fabrics to distort
dimensionally. That is the fabrics get stretched in length and shrunk in width. This phenomenon is more pronounced for the
case of hot and wet webs. The dimensional instability of the webs sometime causes shrinkage at later stage. To overcome
this problem faced by nonwoven fabrics, the process of drying has been introduced. It is also occasionally used for
coagulation of thermo sensitive binders and sintering of binder powders in the fabrics. The process of drying varies in many
ways based on the type of fabric being dried and also type of application for which the fabric is supposed to be used. The
drying process can be realized in stenter frames, fusion ovens, can drying, drum drying, hot flue dryers, infra-red heaters,
etc.
In stenter frames the fabric is clipped at the edges with the frame in order to make it open width wise. This frame feeds
the fabric continuously to the drying chamber. The width dimensions set can be controlled by the adjustment of rail or
chain carrying the fabric. To allow length shrinkage fabric is overfed to the stenter pins. Stenters are equipped with sensors
to control uniform air flow, moisture and temperature. Through air drum drying and heat setting is one of the most
adopted methods for the process of drying. It can be carried in varying arrangements like single drum, twin drum or
multiple drum configurations. The arrangement of the drums can be vertical or horizontal in succession. The hot air is
regulated through the fabric by high capacity radial fan which regulates the hot air in and out the drum with the help of
some heating elements (which are responsible for heating the air). The fabric is overfed to the drum in order to allow
relaxation and shrinkage to take place. This process helps producing fabric with bulk and softness. The process is known
offer have high heat and mass transfer through the fabric, making it more efficient with minimum energy consumption.
5.2.4 Compressive finishing
Some of nonwoven fabrics have papery like feel, hence lacking in handle and drape properties. Such properties when
demanded by the consumers are deliberately introduced in the fabric to give the material more volume and softness. This
process is carried out by the mechanical finish process known as compressive finish. The Micrex and the Clupak processes
are the two processes which have been largely adopted by the nonwoven industry. The general principle of this process is
to pass pre-wetted fabric nonwoven fabric around a heated cylinder by the help of belt or blanket. The Micrex process is
illustrated in Figure 5.1. has been briefly discussed.
 Figure 5.1
The fabric is fed to the roller shown in figure which has got a cavity zone, where the process of compaction is carried out.
There is a retarder blade which is etched with grooves to provide zones in which fabric can be compacted. The pressure
plate acts as an aid to create proper contact of the fabric with the main roller and let it fall in the cavity. But here the fabric
is processed in dry state and not pre-wet unlike Clupakprocess. The temperature of treatment is therefore kept relatively
lower than the process of Clupak. This process provides fabric with a 3 dimensional crepe texture enhancing softness,
drape, bulk and extensibility. The degree of compaction achieved can be calculated from the following formula: compaction
= change in length of fabric / original length of fabric. It can be noted here that stretch is related to compression and it can
be calculated from the following formula: stretch=change in length of fabric / modified length of fabric.
5.2.5 Calendering
The process of calendering can be said to be more severe form of compaction process. The purpose of calendaring is to
make the fabric compact with decreased thickness and smooth surface. Calendering can be both hot and cold type.
Calendering is carried out by feeding the fabric between the nip of two rollers known as calender rollers, which vary in their
design. Basically there are two types of calendar roller arrangement i.e. L type and I type. In I type arrangement the
rollers are placed one above the other vertically in line whereas in L type arrangement the bottom roller is placed slightly
forward. The uniform distribution of nip line pressure across the width of fabric being fed is of prime importance. The
rollers are designed keeping this factor in mind. There are rollers having bulge surface i.e. diameter in the middle is
greater than the diameter at the edges. The rollers are also covered with resilient material for proper pressure distribution.
Hot calendering is carried out by hot rollers which are heated by the help of heated oil. Belt calendering is another modified
form of calendering which gives fabric less stiff in nature. In this method the nonwoven fabric is pressed against a heated
drum with the aid of a tensioned belt or blanket and hence the pressure is applied. The pressure applied is slower than the
conventional calendering but the contact time of the fabric with heated element (drum) is greater than the conventional
calendering.
5.2.6 Singeing
The process of singeing helps in removing protruding fibres from the surface of the fabric. Singeing of fabric is normally
done when smooth and clean (not hairy) surface is required like in printing or coating. The method of singeing is basically
categorised as direct and indirect singeing. Direct singeing involves the exposure of fabric moving with a high speed over
gas burners flames. In indirect singeing the fabric is passed over panels heated by burners. The later method is found to
be more advantageous as it provides uniform singeing with lower risk of fabric damage. The process of singeing can
further be varied by its process parameter like flame height and intensity, flame distance from the fabric, fabric speed and
singeing angle. Singeing is followed by rapid cooling and washing in order t prevent after burn treatment and remove
singeing residues.
5.2.7 Shearing
hearing is a process of removing surface fibres from the fabric by the help of cropping or cutting. Shearing is an alternative
to singeing. Unlike singeing, only partial surface fibre removal is achieved as the variation in fabric surface topography
determines the cutting height. Figure 5.2 shows a shearing machine. The shearer head consists of a spiral blade revolving
on its own axis in contact with a ledger blade. This creates a shearing action similar to that produced by a pair of scissors.
When fibres are presented to this cutting head, they will contact the ledger blade and be cut off by the rotating blade.

Figure 5.2
The fabric travels over a cloth rest in front of the ledger blade and the design is such that an acute angle is formed by the
fabric. This sharp angle causes the pile to stand erect and be more easily cut. The distance between the bed and the ledger
blade is adjustable so the height of the pile can be regulated.
5.2.8 Flocking
Flocking is a process of producing three dimensional piles on the surface of a nonwoven backing fabric. In order to adhere
flock to the base fabric, the base fabric is pre-treated with an adhesive resin. The resin is applied either to the whole area
or to predefined areas to produce patterns. Flocking can be done mechanically by shaking or sprinkling. The process can
also be done electrostatically where fibres are lined up vertically in an electrostatic field as they land on the backing fabric.
Electrostatic flocking is adopted for high quality velvet like finish as it is more uniform, whereas mechanical flocking
produces a randomised pile on the fabric surface. Flocking can be also be carried out over the whole surface of the fabric or
decoratively in a pattern form, according to the application of the adhesive.
5.2.9 Raising
Raising is a process to create fibrous pile structures on the surface of a pre-formed fabric. The fabric is passed tangentially
over a series of small rotating cylinder arranged around a large rotating drum. These small cylinders consist of fillet raising
wire. The wire raises fibres from the surface of the fabric to produce dense collection of pile. The process can be varied by
various process parameters like varying cylinder configuration, speed, direction and wire type. Raising increases the bulk
and improves the look and feel of nonwovens.
5.2.10 Sueding
Sueding is another process, which is very similar to the process of raising. But unlike raising, fabric surface is abraded by
emerising fillet and not the raising wire. This process produces dense pile with good softness and subdued appearance.
Sometimes a sueder is referred to as a sander since it consists of one or more rolls covered with sand paper as the
abrasive. Fabrics travelling over these rollers develop a very low pile and the material’s surface can be made to feel like
suede leather. There are two basic categories of sueders, multi-cylinder and single cylinder machines. The multi-cylinder
machine usually has five rotating cylinders, each independently driven and they can be rotated clockwise and counter
clockwise. The single cylinder sueder has one abrasive covered metallic roller and one rubber covered pressure roller. To
keep the abrasive covered cylinder from expanding from the heat generated from friction, water is circulated through the
cylinder interior to keep it cool. The pressure roller presses the fabric against the abrasive cylinder and is micrometer
adjustable. The abrasion of the fibres on the surface of the fabric takes place in the nip between the pressure roller and the
abrasive cylinder.
5.2.11 Polishing
This process helps in improving the surface lustre in fabrics with a pile surface. The fabric carried by a blanket to bring in
contact with a heated drum which is etched with deep spiralled grooves. Surface fibres are reoriented in one preferred
direction thus increasing the lustre. To stabilise the finish, reducing agents are used occasionally and for the case of natural
hygroscopic fibres the process is carried in wet condition. Figure 5.3 shows the schematic diagram of a polisher machine.
It consists of a fluted heated cylinder driven by a variable speed motor and an endless felt blanket.

Figure 5.3
The fabric passes over the endless blanket which is adjustable and brings the fabric face in contact with the heated
cylinder. The serrations on the cylinder draw through the fibres to raise and parallelize them. Heat facilitates the
straightening process and sets the fibres. Polished fabric appears more lustrous because the parallel fibres result in more
uniform light reflection.
5.2.12 Softening
This process aims at enhancing bulk, softness and drapability of fabric by reducing its stiffness. The fabric is transported
pneumatically, impacting against baffle plates to fall at the bottom of the machine and relax over there. In order to
increase fabric softness further they are also sometimes treated with enzymes and chemicals. Otherwise, occasionally low
pressure hydroentanglement is also carried after manufacture of fabric by thermal or chemical bonding.
5.2.13 Heat setting
Heat setting is carried out to achieve the dimensional stability of nonwoven fabric containing thermoplastic fibres. Usually
the fibres undergo various kinds of stress while manufacturing and as a result, any subsequent heat treatment produces
stress relaxation that show up as shrinkage or change of dimensions. The heat setting process is carried out to achieve a
desired stress-free form of the fibres making up the nonwoven fabric. The pin stenter is an ideal machine for heat setting
of fabric if it provides a complete control of width and length of the fabric. It is important to set the desired heat setting
temperature for the fabric. Generally, the recommended heat setting temperatures for nylon is 200-220ºC, polyester
150ºC, and acrylics 140ºC. Once the heat setting temperature is reached, however, the time required is very short. Cooling
before removing fabric from the pins is essential. The reduction in stress produced by setting can lead to major changes in
fabric handle. However, if the same fabric were to be heat set under tension these changes would be much less noticeable,
and fabric handle may even be stiffer because of fibre adhesions. As an economic consideration, the maximum safe
running speed can be attained by continuous monitoring of fabric temperature. Nowadays automatic microprocessor
control of speed is well established which ensure quality with economy.
 Module 5: Finishing Processes
5.3 Chemical finishing
5.3.1 Types of chemical finishes
Antistatic agent
These finishing agent helps to prevent the static charge build up specially on synthetic fibres. It can be of two form one
which increases the surface conductivity of fabric by addition of hydrophilic compounds to the surface and other generates
charge opposite to the one present in the fabric.
Antimicrobial finishes
These types of finishes are used to prevent the biological degradation of fabric by bacterial or fungal growth. This fabric is
specially applied to bedding components, sportswear, healthcare products, etc. This finishes also help to reduce odour
emission caused by biological degradation. Mostly these finishes comprise of metallic compounds containing silver or
natural biopolymers like chitosan.
Lubricants
These are mostly used to reduce friction, whether it is fibre to fbre or fibre to metal. They also help imparting softness to
certain fabrics.
Flame proof finishes
Flame proof finishes helps to reduce flame propagation and suppresses smoke emission. They are mainly made of nitrogen
phosphorous compound. Many of these finishes are available in fibre form to be blended in the fabric during the process of
manufacturing. They are also present in polymer dispersion form to be applied through coating. The disadvantage of
applying flameproof finish is that it leads to yellowing of the fabric, decreased tensile strength, and colour change.
Water proof finishes
This type of finish is used to inhibit wetting of fabrics. They mainly comprise of silicone or fluorocarbon compounds.
Conventionally wax finishes were applied which used to reduce the breathability of fabrics. The fluorocarbon compounds
also provide repellency to oil diesel and gasoline to synthetic fibres. They can be applied through spraying, padding in
aqueous dispersion form.
Softeners
They provide softness to the fabric and are mostly applied in fabric for which softness is of prime importance like sanitary
coverstocks, wipes and other skin contact applications. Softeners which are hydrophilic in nature also increase the
wettability of the fabric.
Stiffeners
Stiffeners are the finishes which help to add stiffness to the fabric. They are introduced to increase abrasion resistance by
welding of adjacent fibres. They also provide dimensional stability through welding of adjacent fibres in the fabric. They are
applied in the form of polymer dispersion through padding, spraying or knife coating. They are of self-cross linking
UV stabilizers
UV stabilizers are used to protect the adhesives and polymers used as binders in the fabric from being degraded by
harmful ultra violet light. The hindered amine stabilisers form complex reaction protecting the polymers from chemical
break down.

5.3.2 Methods of chemical finishes

There are various methods by which the chemical finishes mentioned in section 5.3.1 (and some others also) are applied to
the nonwoven fabric. These methods have been discussed briefly in the following sections.

5.3.2.1 Dyeing
Dyeing of nonwoven fabrics is carried by dyes and pigments like any woven and knitted fabrics. Dyeing of nonwoven
fabric is carried out in open width form to avoid crease formation. There are principally three methods of colouration
which have been discussed briefly in this section.
Dope dyeing is one of the procedures where the dye or pigments are added to the molten polymer before melt
extrusion. This method provides excellent colour fastness but the colour has to be achieved at a very early stage of
fabric production.
Pigments are applied to the fabric by finely grounding it in powder form and making a dispersion of it. This helps in
achieving uniform colouration and minimum variation in shade. The pigments are fixed to the fabric by the help of
fixation done by binders which are later removed by drying and curing. They have good fastness to perspiration but
poor fastness to rubbing. The most commonly used is the common dyestuff colouration. This is done either by batch or
by continuous process. Dyeing of nonwoven fabric is easier as the more fibre surface is available for dye stuff to get
attached due to the open structure of nonwoven fabrics. The dye type varies based on the type of fibre the fabric is
made up of i.e. natural or synthetic.
Continuous dyeing of fabrics is carried in beam form and in jig also. Dyeing in beam form is done by spreading the
fabric width wise over a beam and passing this through a chamber kept at high temperature and pressure. This also
assists in increasing dimensional stability of fabric through thermal stabilisation. In jig dyeing, the fabric moves through
the dye liquor as it passes between one roll and a second roll and reverse, when the receiving roll has filled its fabric
capacity. Dyeing of nonwoven fabric can also be done by padding which is again of two types, cold pad batch dyeing
and continuous pad steam dyeing. In cold pad batch process the fabric is immersed in dye liquor and then the excess
liquor is squeezed off. After this the fabric is batched on a roll to allow dyestuff fixation. Sometimes the fabric is also
heated for a predetermined time period based on the dyestuff type. Later the fabric is washed to remove unfixed dye.
In continuous pad – steam dyeing the nonwoven fabric is first padded and then exposed to steam or subjected to
thermo fixation. Then after the fabric is washed and dried.

5.3.2.2 Printing
Printing of nonwoven fabric is mostly carried out for its application in home furnishing area. Printing is done by
pigments being applied in varying form. The various techniques of printing are rotary and flat screen printing, discharge
printing, transfer printing and ink jet printing. Pigments are applied after combining suitable binder, thickener, cross
linking catalysts for the softeners and binders. Printing is followed by drying and curing to remove the binders and fix
the pigments to the fabric.

5.3.2.3 Padding
In this method of finishing, finish is impregnated with treatment liquor or foam by the help of squeeze rollers. The
squeezing of fabric is done to an extent where required pick-up or add-on is achieved. The level of pick-up is
predetermined based on the application and fibre type of the fabric. Padding is followed by drying in order to remove
excess of water present in the liquor prepared. So the process has to be regulated to have minimum energy loss for
drying and minimum chemical migration during the process of drying. Padding can be of two types wet on wet padding
and wet on dry padding. In wet on wet padding the fabric to be padded is pre wet. This process must take care of
sufficient interchange of treatment liquor with water present in pre wet fabric, in order to have proper chemical add on.
In wet on dry padding the fabric is in dry state and it is impregnated with pad liquor. In this process de-aerating of
fabric is required as the fabric gets very less time to expel air from the fabric and interchange it with padding liquor, in
order to achieve uniform application of finish. Similar to the process of calendering this process also need the roller
designs to be made in a way that they maintain uniform nip line pressure. The formulation for liquor is done by the help
of formula given below.

The pick-up can be established by the help of short piece of fabric. The pressure settings have to be noted for a
particular pick up achieved. After deciding the treatment level (add-on) pad solution must be prepared.

5.3.2.4 Coating
Coating is the process of application of finishes in the form of solutions or dispersions. They are generally aqueous
based. For the coating of nonwoven fabric special attention has to be given to the rate of fabric let-off in order to reduce
stretching of fabrics. Coating is followed by drying and curing when aqueous coating is applied to the fabric. Drying can
be done by various methods as discussed in the topic “Drying”. A fabric can be applied a single layer coating or multiple
number of coatings depending upon the nature of coating required. Single layer coating provide more uniform and
proper thickness coating. However, increasing the number of coatings helps in mending up the faults of coating in a
fabric like holes or gaps.
Coating is generally applied by the aid of rotating roller (Slop padding or kiss roll) varying in its arrangement depending
upon the extent of coating to be done. The slop padding roll is partially immersed in the coating and the fabric is
allowed to pass over the roller. The process pick-up percentage can be varied by parameters like speed of slop padding
roll, depth of roller penetration in the coating solution and direction of roller rotation. The fabric can be passed both in
the direction of roller or against the direction of roller. When the fabric is passed in the direction of roller rotation
penetration of coating solution is greater. For the case where fabric is passed against the direction of roller rotation,
additional arrangement has to be made. The set up consists of pair of rollers one known as applicator roller and the
other as support roller. The fabric is passed into the nip between these two rollers. Nip setting also governs the level of
application. The application of coating is regulated by the help of scraper (which removes excess of coating), doctor
blade, helically wound wire metering rods, bar profile and others. There is also knife present to evenly distribute the
coating throughout the width of the fabric. The design of knife can also be varied to vary the extent of coating
application. Figure 5.4 shows the schematic diagram of slop padding (kiss roller) roller.

Figure 5.4
There are many other methods of coating application. Few to name them are rotogravure coating, rotary screen
coating, extrusion coating and non contact coating. Rotogravure coating is carried out to produce patterned coatings
with the help of rotogravure rollers. The rollers are mostly in heated state to help fusing of thermoplastics. Rotary
screen coating is used for applying hot-sealing coatings to fusible nonwoven interlinings. This process has higher
production rate. Here both aqueous and non aqueous coating can be used. One can even go for using powder form of
coating chemical if the size of the holes in screen is comparable to the particle size of the powder and if the particle is
spherical in shape. This process can also be used for patterned coating by using fine meshed screens. In extrusion
coating the coating is done by extrusion of thermoplastics. This type of coated products is often referred as laminate.
This is practiced where the fabric acts as an impermeable barrier layers. Non contacting coating is the method where
the coat is applied by spraying it on the fabric without making contact with it. It is specially used for coating nonwoven
fabrics which are dimensionally less stable and do not have a smooth surface. Non contacting coating can also be done
by vapour deposition with sprayable metals in a high vacuum. This type of method offers lower add-on percentage to
the fabric.
5.3.2.5 Lamination
Lamination is the process of joining two or more pre-formed nonwoven fabrics or nonwoven fabrics with films, scrims or
any other fabric. For the process of lamination at least one of the fabrics needs to have adhesive property or an
external adhesive has to be applied in order to join the fabrics permanently. Lamination of nonwoven fabric is carried
out specially to inculcate two dissimilar but advantageous properties of individual fabrics. Few such properties to name
are barrier properties, surface properties and dimensional stability. Lamination is of two type wet lamination and dry
lamination. The lamination process in which the adhesives are applied in solvent or dispersion form is known as wet
lamination.
They are applied by spraying, slop padding, printing, etc. Dry lamination is carried out by the help of thermo plastic
resins that are placed between two substrates to be joined. They are heated to the level the adhesive reaches their
glass transition temperature and joins the two surfaces when in molten state. The process of lamination can also be
categorised on the basis of the method it follows. Few types of laminating methods to name are extrusion lamination,
flame lamination, flat bed lamination. In flame lamination foam is passed over an open flame. A thin layer of molten
polymer is produced on the surface of the foam which helps in combination of the foam with the fabric whilst foam is in
molten state. Figure 5.5 displays the schematic diagram of a flame laminator. In flat bed lamination the fabric and the
adhesive layer/film are combined together and passed through a heated chamber carrying the assembly by belts or
plates. Then they are cooled to solidify and get combined together. This process offers greater time for heating and
pressing. They are also suitable for dimensionally less stable structure. In extrusion lamination the thermoplastic
polymers are extruded to form thin continuous molten film to adhere fabric substrate on either side of itself.

Figure 5.5
5.4 Unconventional finishing
5.4.1 Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic bonding is the methods where the webs are bonded by the help of high frequency alternating current in the
range of 20kHz. The high frequency AC is converted to mechanical vibration of a hammer. This hammer bonds the fibres
lying between it and the anvil by the heat produced by the hitting of hammer with a lift of 50-100 micro metre. Normally
nonwovens made of thermoplastic fibres are used so that they bond due to melting followed by cooling. This technique is
mainly used for manufacture of tea bags, sanitary towels, panty liners, diapers and incontinence products.
5.4.2 Plasma
Plasma is a high energy ionised gas which is used to modify the properties of fibre surface chemically. In this method, the
surface of the polymer is partially etched or surface is activated by an increase in surface energy or some material is
deposited on the surface of the polymer. This treatment is mostly used to convert fabrics into hydrophilic state from
hydrophobic state. This process is considered to be advantageous as it consumes low energy and has no waste causing no
disposal problem.
5.4.3 Microencapsulation
Microencapsulation helps in delivery of active compounds in a controlled manner. A small amount of chemical is surrounded
by a coating to form a capsule which is later delivered by various mechanisms like wall fracture and diffusion. Generally
perfumes, cosmetic lotions, phase change materials (PCMs) and antimicrobial chemicals, are applied to fabrics in the form
of microcapsules.