Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Abstract
This section discusses several special types of tanks and the design considerations
which set these tanks apart from a standard API 650 tank. Included are: elevated
temperature tanks with a discussion of the hazards of operating these tanks
(frothover, corrosion, pluming, and internal fires); low pressure tanks; underground
tanks with a list of typical services and manufacturers; aboveground vertical nonme-
tallic tanks; Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL) tanks and sulfur tanks. The discussion
of refrigerated and rubber or plastic-lined tanks has been deferred.
Contents Page
1213 Frothover
Definition
Frothover is the overflow of a tank occurring when entrained or bottoms water is
vaporized by the heat of the stock. This is distinct from a boilover which occurs
from a tank on fire when a “heat wave” reaches the bottoms water and vaporizes it.
Boilovers are not covered here but further information on them may be found in
Section 642 of the Fire Protection Manual.
– As dissolved water in the stock stream due to direct contact of the stock
with steam in a refining process.
– As dissolved or entrained water introduced into the stock stream from a
leaking process heater or cooler.
– As slugs of water or wet stock accumulated in extraneous piping
connections, dead ends, etc., and introduced into the stock stream during
transfers.
• The temperature of the stock in the tank or entering the tank must be high
enough to boil water under the conditions in the tank.
• Means must exist to transfer sufficient heat from the stock to the water to boil
it, under the conditions in the tank. Such means include:
– Pumping water or water-bearing stock into hot stock in a tank.
– Pumping hot stock into a tank containing a water layer, emulsion layer, or
wet stock. Pockets of water can be trapped by sediment, particularly at the
shell on coneup bottoms. There may be water in the bottom of a hot oil
tank, even when the bulk oil temperature is above the boiling point of
water, because of stratification of cooler, heavier fluid near the bottom
of the tank, and suppression of boiling by pressure of the liquid head in
the tank.
– Transfer of heat by conduction or convection from a hot stock layer to a
water or water-bearing layer.
Severity of Frothover
The severity of frothovers is variable, depending upon the amount of water present
and the heat available to vaporize it. In some cases frothover may result only in
some oil being discharged through vents; in other cases, the roof of the tank may be
ruptured. In extreme cases, the release may occur with considerable violence and
the froth discharged may spread to surrounding areas.
Controlling Frothover
The following discusses ways to minimize frothover.
Minimize Water in the Tank. A hot tank must contain water to froth. This section
discusses ways to minimize sources of water at the tank. Obviously, proper
operation and maintenance of upstream units is critical to avoid process upsets or
equipment failure which could send water to a hot tank. Following are some good
procedures for preventing water from entering or accumulating in a tank.
• Insulate the tank shell to prevent condensation of water vapor unless the tank is
designed to stratify cold and hot oil layers as outlined below. Insulate the tank
roof to prevent accelerated corrosion. See Section 1214 for more details.
• Avoid internal tank heaters. Consider the installation of an external tank heating
and circulating system with the oil-side pressure greater than the steam-side.
Similarly, consider making or changing process heater or cooler installations so
that the hot oil side of heat exchange units is maintained at a higher pressure
than the “wet” side.
• Avoid low spots and extraneous piping connections (dead ends, laterals,
alternate lines, etc.) in the piping system. Provide drains in unavoidable low
spots to eliminate settled-out water or water from hydrostatic testing. Consider
using high flash stocks as a testing medium when complete drainage of lines
cannot be assured.
• Install a cone down bottom with center sump or a single slope bottom with
maximum allowable slope of 1½% to 2½% to prevent water from
accumulating.
• Install an elbow-type bottom outlet at the shell so that water is continually
drawn off with the stock. Tanks too large in diameter for an economical single
slope design bottom should be cone down with center sump. The typical cone
down syphon outlet should be modified in accordance with Figure 1200-1.
Minimize the Effect of Heat Transfer in the Tank. Frothover occurs when heat
transfers between the hot stock and the water. This section discusses ways of
minimizing heat transfer.
Operate Below 200°F, if Possible. Upstream and downstream plants should be
designed to operate the tank below 200°F, if possible. Tanks should be operated
above 200°F only if required for economic reasons or to keep the stock fluid.
Maintain Uniform Temperature Above the Boiling Point of Water. If it is necessary
to operate above 200°F at any level in the tank, design facilities to ensure a uniform
tank temperature safely above the maximum possible boiling point of water under
the tank conditions. For safety, this temperature should be at least 10°F above the
boiling point of water under the static pressure equivalent to a full tank. In
establishing the uniform minimum temperature at which a particular tank is to be
maintained consider the effect of fluctuations due to such factors as weather
extremes, thermometry errors, and operating upsets which may change the
temperature of stocks entering the tank. The uniform high temperature may be
reached and maintained by a combination of two or more of the following means:
• Insulating the tank shell (See Section 1214.)
• Heating and circulating the stock. Take suction on the bottom outlet line, pump
stock through an external heater and return to the tank through an insulated
externally mounted circulating line with multiple shell inlet nozzles. Shell
nozzles should have internally mounted directional nozzles designed to heat
and circulate the stock on the bottom of the tank. The tank fill system should
permit filling through the regular shell fill nozzle (hot feed) or the circulating
and heating system (cold feed).
• Circulating stock by means of a shell mounted variable angle tank mixer
designed for high temperature service
• Feeding and drawing the tank from connections at or very near the tank bottom
• Introducing “cold” stock into a “hot” filling line at a location which will allow
thorough mixing before entering the tank
• Installing Venturi-type inlet connections on the tank
Design for Stratification. If it is necessary to operate the tank at temperatures
below and above the boiling point of water under tank conditions, design an
installation which will prevent agitation of the “cold” stock with the “hot” stock
entering the tank, thereby maintaining a layer of cold stock in the tank. This cold
layer will insulate unavoidable water in the tank bottom against the hot stock layer.
An example of a satisfactory design is shown in Figure 1200-2, “Schematic Layout
of Appurtenances for a Tank Operating Both Above and Below the Boiling Point of
Water.” This design provides the following features:
• A single slope or cone down bottom with a slope of 1½% to 2½% to drain all
water towards the water draw
• A suction weir 3 feet above bottom
• A filling swing pipe set to discharge upward not less than 5 feet above bottom
• A 6-point temperature recorder to measure and record the temperatures from
the tank bottom to the 5 foot level at least 5 feet from the tank shell. In small
tanks (20 feet maximum diameter) and in insulated tanks, however, long
bayonet-type shell dial thermometers may give satisfactory temperature
readings.
• In addition to fitting the tank with these features, it should be operated with the
low operational level in the range of 7 to 10 feet
Chemical Injection. Silicone anti-foaming agents sometimes reduce the hazard of
frothover. These materials, however, poison certain process catalysts, so their use in
specific cases must be thoroughly investigated.
Minimize the Effect of Frothover in Hot Oil Tanks. In locating and designing hot
oil tanks subject to frothover, attempt to minimize the effect of a frothover as
follows:
• Locate new hot oil tanks in relatively isolated positions separated from other
tanks and facilities by the maximum distance practicable. Give consideration to
Fig. 1200-2 Schematic Layout of Appurtenances for Tank Operating Both Above and Below the Boiling Point
of Water
• Provide firewalls so that each hot oil tank is isolated from the next. Tanks of
40-feet diameter or less, however, may be suitably grouped to effect firewall
cost savings. Design the impounding basin to contain a volume at least equal to
that of the tank or tanks.
Arrange the layout of firewalls to direct possible overflow to a suitable
drainage area. Metal copings atop firewalls will turn the flow of oil back upon
itself and may be used on both tank and diversional firewalls.
1214 Corrosion
Causes of Corrosion
Accelerated corrosion occurs in cool spots where moisture can condense. The
condensed moisture will combine with H2S or SO2 to make acid which attacks the
carbon steel. Accelerated corrosion will also occur underneath the tank bottom if
water is allowed to contact the bottom.
– Avoid installing hot tanks in areas with a high water table. The heat tends
to pull the moisture up through the ground.
– As with all tanks, drainage of rainwater away from the tanks and sealing
the tank bottom to the foundation are critical to prevent entry of rainwater
and humid air under the bottom.
1215 Pluming
Causes
Pluming, or visible emissions from the tank, can be caused by introducing low
specific gravity (light) stocks into a hot tank. These volatile emissions can be a
serious fire hazard if ignition sources are in the area.
The major ways light stock can be mistakenly routed to a hot tank are 1) by process
upsets or mismanifolding, or 2) by plant shutdowns and subsequent line washes.
• Install temperature indicators and low temperature alarms on both ends of the
feed line to the tank. In addition to monitoring temperature changes in the line,
these indicators will also help the operators monitor line flushes.
• Steam trace and insulate the line to avoid the need for flushing before shutting
down.
1221 Standards
API Standard 620, Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large
Welded Low Pressure Storage Tanks
API Standard 620 is used for the design and construction of tanks with low internal
pressures up to 15 psig. This Standard would not normally be used to design tanks
with small internal pressures of 2.5 psi and below, if they are cylindrical tanks with
flat bottoms. API 620 can be used to design cylindrical tanks with flat bottoms for
internal pressures above 2.5 psi. API 620 requires the design of tank shells by stress
analysis that includes the biaxial stress state, in contrast to the relatively simple
formulas and rules in API Standard 650.
Shell Thickness
API Standard 620 requires using free-body diagrams to determine the summation of
forces in each component of the tank shell (API 620, Paragraph 3.10.2). Above the
maximum liquid level, only the forces resulting from the internal pressure need be
considered (API 620, Paragraph 3.3.1). Forces resulting from both the internal
pressure and the hydrostatic head of the liquid must be considered below the
maximum liquid level (API 620, Paragraph 3.3.2). Other significant loads, such as
those resulting from the support of the tank, piping connections, insulation, snow,
wind, and earthquake, should also be considered (API 620, Paragraph 3.4). Figure
1200-4 illustrates the use of a free-body diagram to determine the forces acting upon
typical tank shell components. See also Section 500 of this manual.
The minimum required thickness for each component of the shell is calculated for
the largest tensile force determined by the free-body diagram and the allowable
design stress of the steel used for construction (API 620, Paragraph 3.10.3). If the
Fig. 1200-4 Some Typical Free-Body Diagrams for Certain Shapes of Tanks
From API 620, Fig. 3.4. Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute
free-body diagram reveals both tensile and compressive forces, the minimum
thickness required is the larger of the two thicknesses calculated to resist the tensile
force or to resist buckling by the compressive force. The capability of a tank shell
component to resist buckling under a compressive force in one direction is reduced
by the coexistence of a tensile force in another direction, and, therefore, the
allowable stress in compression is lower than that in tension. The corrosion
allowance, which can be different above and below the maximum liquid level, must
be added to the minimum required thicknesses determined for the forces in each
shell component.
A joint efficiency for weld seams is incorporated into the calculation of the
minimum thickness required for tank shell components (API 620, Paragraph
3.26.3). The joint efficiency used depends upon the extent of radiographic
inspection performed to verify the quality of construction. The weld seams in tank
shell components will normally be double-welded butt joints, and 100% joint
efficiency is permitted when full radiography of a weld seam is performed. The
joint efficiency is reduced to 85% if spot radiography is used. Lap joints are
permitted, but they cannot be properly inspected by radiography, and their joint
efficiencies are very low.
Fig. 1200-5 Internal and External Structural Support From API 620. Courtesy of American
Petroleum Institute
Internal or external structural support must be provided if a tank designed for low
internal pressures could distort significantly under the various conditions of loading
that it will be subjected to in service (API 620, Paragraph 3.13.2.1). It may not be
feasible nor economical to design the tank shell to be thick enough to resist
distortion under all possible combinations of loading that it could be subjected to,
and, therefore, additional internal and external structural support may be necessary.
API 620 does not give the methodology for designing internal or external structural
support. It requires that the structural support be designed in accordance with good
structural engineering practices (API 620, Paragraph 3.13.2.1), and that it must
maintain the tank in static equilibrium without undue elastic straining under all
combinations of loading (API 620, Paragraph 3.13.2). Consult with the CRTC Civil
and Structural Team for assistance in the structural support design.
Emergency Venting
The design of the roof-to-shell joint according to API 620 differs significantly from
that in API 650, Appendix F. A frangible joint that is required to fail at an internal
pressure below the maximum allowable design pressure is not permitted by API
620 to be substituted for emergency pressure relieving devices.
As discussed in Section 740, Appurtenance Design, emergency venting devices
should be sized in accordance with the requirements of NFPA No. 30, Flammable
and Combustible Liquids Code, and API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and
Low Pressure Storage Tanks. These standards cover emergency venting
requirements for fire as well as other possible upset or emergency conditions, such
as polymerization, decomposition, vaporization of condensate, or self-reactivity.
1233 Manufacturers
The two primary suppliers of underground FRP storage tanks are:
O/C Fiberglass
Fiberglass Tower
Toledo, Ohio 43659
(419) 248-6567
Xerxes Corporation
7901 Xerxes Avenue South
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55431
(612) 887-1890
Both manufacturers make tanks approved by Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc., and
by Factory Mutual Laboratories. These tanks are available in many standard sizes
ranging from 550 to 12,000 gallons. Larger tanks can be fabricated for unique
applications.
The composite tank (also UL-approved) is supplied by:
Joor Manufacturing, Inc.
1189 Industrial Avenue
Escondido, California 92025
(619) 745-0333
1234 Design
The standard tank (FRP or composite) is now a double-walled tank with leak
detection for the annulus. This design is used to avoid groundwater contamination
from leaks. Piping is also double walled.
1236 Cost
As is the case for aboveground tanks, underground FRP tanks are generally more
expensive than carbon steel tanks. However, with the requirement for external
corrosion protection of underground steel tanks, the costs are now much more
comparable.
Materials
Crosslinked polyethylene is preferred over non-crosslinked because the latter mate-
rial is more prone to tearing of the shell wall.
Tank Construction
The basic polyethylene tank is produced by the rotational molding process. This
process depends on mold movement, heat, and gravity to mold a part. No pressure is
applied. In the process, hollow molds are loaded with a predetermined weight of
powder. The weight is determined by the wall thickness required. The charged mold
is put into a hot air oven or other heat source and simultaneously rotated at slow
speed (1 to 20 rpm) on two perpendicular axes. As the mold heats, the powder sticks
to the mold surface to form the part. After all the powder has completely adhered to
the mold, additional heating time causes the powder to melt and fuse together to
develop the resin properties. Parts not properly cured (crosslinked) will crack or
shatter when impacted.
Controlled heating of the mold by adding insulating material to some of its exterior
will cause the amount of powder that sticks to the mold to vary in different loca-
tions; in this way a tapered wall tank can be produced (thinner at the top than near
the bottom). After fusing, the mold is removed from the heat source, cooled, and the
part demolded. A separate mold is required for each tank size.
Fittings. Virtually all fittings are installed in the tank after demolding. Fittings are
of the bulkhead or thru-bolted type, installed by cutting a hole in the tank. Polyeth-
ylene foam gasketing is used between the fitting and tank wall. Bulkhead fittings are
available in polypropylene or PVC; thru-bolted fittings are Type 304 or 316 stain-
less steel with studs and nozzle neck welded to the inside plate. The nature of the
fitting requires a threaded end; a threaded flange could be placed on it. There is no
additional tank wall thickness for opening reinforcement.
Restraints. There are no tank hold-downs molded into the tank or attached later.
For vertical tanks the recommended restraint consists of steel posts installed around
the tank with a slack cable strung between the posts.
Design calculations. Design calculations are commonly limited to wall thickness
based on hoop stress and the post/cable restraint system for wind and seismic loads;
resistance of the tank wall to buckling from seismic loads (a frequent deficiency in
FRP tanks) is not normally checked.
Thru-bolted stainless steel fittings will solve the first two problems, but the piping
connection on these fittings must always be threaded because of the nature of the
fittings.
Clips—Polyethylene cannot be joined by adhesives. Therefore, piping support clips,
ladder clips, and platform clips could not be attached to the tank unless bolted
through the tank wall.
Flat, bolted-on tops always sag, so rain and wash water collects and then runs
freely into the tank through gaps around the access opening; the tank must be
entered to tighten or replace the bolts that attach the top to the tank.
Irregularities in tank molds produce offsets in the tank wall up to 5/8 inch and
noticeable “hourglassing” of some cylindrical sections.
Pinholes through the tank wall, the most common defect, are repaired by the
manufacturer with a hot glue gun. The material used for repairs is not defined.
Adhesives do not bond to polyethylene and are not a good repair material.
Improper cure (crosslinking) can result in poor impact resistance. Impact tests on
tank cutouts are not normally made but can be made at added cost.
Inspection
Shop inspection is not warranted on small tanks. For tanks over 500 gallons, one
shop visit for final inspection is sufficient. The Quality Assurance section of
Purchasing performs the shop inspection, which includes the following:
• Visual inspection of all surfaces inside and outside for significant flaws
• Dimensional check, including elevations and orientations of all fittings
• Verification that tank fittings are the size and type specified
• Witnessing of the hydrostatic test (may require separate visit)
Tank Construction
Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) is a composite non-homogeneous material
made of a thermosetting resin reinforced with glass fibers in various forms. Tanks
are normally made on molds that correspond to the inside surface of the tank.
Nozzles and other appurtenances are attached to the tank later, by means of overlays
of glass fiber material that is wetted with resin. The tank laminate normally consists
of an inner corrosion barrier (or liner) for corrosion resistance and a structural
layer for strength.
There are three principal methods of building the structural part of the tank wall.
1. Hand layup using chopped glass, often with interspersed layers of woven glass
filaments.
2. Filament winding using continuous glass filaments with a defined helix angle;
reinforcement in the axial direction is usually provided by interspersing layers
of woven glass filaments or unidirectional filaments in the axial direction.
3. Hoop winding using continuous glass filaments without a helix angle; this
construction always requires interspersing layers of glass for axial strength.
For all three construction methods the glass fiber material is thoroughly saturated
with resin before or during its application.
Hoop winding is the most commonly used method for the structural part of the tank
wall since it requires the least amount of material for required hoop strength and
permits a tank shell to be built quickly with low capital expenditure for the vendor’s
plant equipment.
The inner corrosion barrier is applied to the mold before the structural layer and
consists of glass or synthetics to reinforce this resin rich layer (pure resin is brittle
and would crack without reinforcement). Continuous filaments or woven filaments
are never used in the inner corrosion barrier.
Inspection
Since an FRP tank is a composite structure that essentially is hand made, inspection
must be done much more carefully than on a metal tank where welds are the
principal concern. It is difficult to find qualified FRP inspectors. Consequently,
inspection costs for FRP tanks will be higher than for metal tanks. The Quality
Assurance section of Purchasing performs (or hires out) shop inspection that
includes the following.
1. A pre-inspection meeting to review the purchase order, specifications, and our
inspection requirements.
2. Visual inspection of the first course of the tank when it is removed from the
mold.
3. Inspection during joining of shell courses.
4. Inspection during installation of nozzles.
5. Final inspection inside and outside of all surfaces (to the specified or approved
acceptance standard for flaws) when the tank is complete but prior to
application of exterior color coat. Barcol hardness tests and acetone sensitivity
tests are witnessed at this time.
6. Inspection after application of exterior color coat.
7. Witnessing of hydrostatic test. Hydrostatic tests are very important and, if not
obtainable in the shop, should always be done in the field before the tank is put
in service. Hydrostatic tests should be held for 8 or more hours, and all surfaces
of the tank inspected for leaks, seeps, or weeps.
1251 General
UL tanks are primarily intended for the atmospheric storage of non-corrosive flam-
mable and combustible liquids. They must be fabricated and tested before being
shipped from the factory. This requirement limits their size. The maximum diam-
eter of horizontal tanks is 12 feet and the maximum height of vertical tanks is 35
feet. The maximum capacity of a UL tank is about 1000 barrels.
Within their size limits, both horizontal and vertical steel tanks are used extensively
for aboveground storage in bulk plants. They may be acceptable for use in other
services such as small tanks in process plants. Vertical aboveground UL tanks are
frequently less expensive than the corresponding API 650, Appendix J tank, a result
both of less stringent requirements of UL standards and the standardization inherent
in UL tank designs.
Other Regulations
Tanks fabricated in accordance with the above UL standards comply with the Occu-
pational Safety and Health Standards (OSHA) of the U. S. Department of Labor.
They also comply with the NFPA 30 “Flammable and Combustible Liquid Code.”
Internal Corrosion
Moisture condenses in the tank, combining with H2S and SO2 to make acid which
attacks the carbon steel. Moisture can enter the tank in the following ways:
• Through the steam smothering system
• Through leaks in jacketed nozzles and lines
• Through leaks in the internal steam coil
External Corrosion
Water-soaked insulation on roof and shell causes severe external corrosion. It can
also cool the metal off enough to promote internal corrosion, as mentioned above.
The water soaked insulation results from:
• Leaks from roof steam coil
• Poor roof sealing and flashing
• Leaks from jacket nozzles
• Failure of the roof weathercoat system
1262 Foundation
• Install the tank on a concrete pad to avoid settling in the center of the tank
• Install a single slope bottom with a slope of 2 inches in 10 feet. This helps
empty the tank when it is being taken out of service. Any sulfur left in the tank
usually must be hydroblasted out—which accelerates internal corrosion.
1265 Shell
• Install the outlet nozzle flush with the bottom mounted on an API 650 flush-
type cleanout door. See Figure 1200-6. This arrangement helps empty the tank
and prevents damage from hydroblasting when the tank is cleaned. The outlet
nozzle must be completely encapsulated with insulation that is protected from
outside moisture—especially from ground moisture.
• Be liberal with the corrosion allowance on the shell plate. Richmond used
¼ inch.
• For new tanks, minimize shell height. A large vapor space results in cooler
metal and increased corrosion at the top of the tank.
• Consider a self-supporting stairway. Stairway-to-shell attachments can act like
fins cooling the metal surface and thereby accelerating corrosion.
• Minimize the penetrations through the insulation. Insulate all necessary
penetrations.
1266 Roof
Corrosion Protection
• Consider adding corrosion allowance above that normally required. This added
allowance increases the rafter size and gives more protection against corrosion
and damage to the roof during a fire.
• If the diameter of the tank permits, install a self- supporting dome or externally
supported roof. This design allows coating of the internal surfaces of the roof,
eliminating iron sulfide corrosion.
• Richmond added a condensate collection header on the roof to keep the tubing
runs shorter and more effective. Each tubing run was trapped. The number of
cells depends on the length of tubing run.
1267 Insulation
Shell Insulation
• Normally use 3 inches of fiberglass insulation with aluminum weather
jacketing. See the Insulation and Refractory Manual Section 130 for guide-
lines and specifications.
• Install extra insulation on the upper part of the shell. This is needed to elimi-
nate the fin effect from the top angle. (See Figure 1200-7.)
• Install extra insulation on nozzle and valve bodies to cut down on stockside
corrosion.
Roof Insulation
• The standard Owens Corning Roof Deck insulation is used (see Insulation and
Refractory Manual). Richmond used 4-inch thick insulation.
• Sealing is very important. In the past, a tar and gravel sealer has been applied
on top of the insulation. This sealer, however, does crack and allow moisture to
leak into the insulation; and it inhibits moisture already in the insulation from
permeating out.
As an alternative to tar and gravel sealer, Richmond used a Belzona Flexible
Membrane over the Roof Deck insulation. This membrane is flexible yet allows
some permeation of water vapor. Experience with this type of membrane is limited.
Other refineries have had some experience with a metallic Thermacon weather-
coating system held in place by cables. This looks like an excellent product. Consult
the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit if you have any questions on
this subject.
Flashing
The roof-to-shell flashing design is extremely important. Figure 1200-7 shows a
cross section of the flashing detail at the roof-to-shell joint. The major feature here
is a 6-inch, 10-gauge, 304 stainless steel strip continuously seal welded to the top
angle. This strip prevents moisture underneath the roof insulation from migrating
under the shell insulation. This strip must also be insulated so that it does not act as
a fin and actually cool the shell, causing corrosion problems.
Blanketing
• Some plants have used N2 blanketing to keep the tank inert. This is not
recommended because it allows pyrophoric FeS to build up, resulting in fire
when oxygen enters the tank.
• We recommend installing six 8-inch vents on the roof every 60 degrees around
the tank. An eductor pulls an air sweep into the vents through the tank and out
the eductor line located at the center of the roof. This air sweep provides
enough oxygen to continuously oxidize the FeS, preventing it from building up.
The vents need to be capped to keep the rain out. The educted air usually goes
to a caustic scrubber for removal of the H 2S.
1269 Operations
Operate the tank with a minimal vapor space. This method keeps the top warmer
and provides less volume to sweep.
Corrosion of Aluminum
Aluminum’s corrosion resistance is due to a thin aluminum oxide film which forms
quickly when aluminum is exposed to oxygen and some aqueous solutions. Anod-
izing the surface by treating it with certain acids simply builds a thick oxide layer.
Because the tenacious oxide film forms so readily, it will renew itself when abraded
away or chemically removed.
Aluminum responds to crevice corrosion by building up voluminous quantities of
“white rust” or aluminum oxide. This is common where an aluminum surface is
tightly pressed against another surface. Potential for crevice corrosion is high in
tank bottoms because these are often lap welded and corrosion starts from the
underside.
The corrosion chemistry of aluminum is complex. For example, 0.1% water in
methanol prevents corrosion, even at high temperatures, whereas a trace of water
accelerates corrosion. However, because aluminum is immune to the corrosive
effects of many chemicals, it is a candidate for tank construction.
Aluminum tends to pit with water that has chloride ions in it. Levels as low as
.1 ppm of copper or of iron in water can react with aluminum, depositing metallic
copper or iron at local sites, which initiate pitting. Therefore, aluminum is not suit-
able for any tanks which may have trace heavy metals in the stored liquid.
Cladding aluminum is an efficient way of reducing through-wall pitting. Alclad
products are high strength alloy cores, in sheet or tubing form, that have clad layers
of pure aluminum or aluminum alloys bonded to the core. The cladding is
engineered to be anodic, or sacrificial to the core, and essentially creates a built-in
cathodic protection system. The clad material is usually less than 10% of the
thickness of the total material and is non-heat treatable. Because of the sacrificial
cladding, the corrosion progresses through the cladding but stops at the core.
Alloys
Numerous alloys are available for industrial applications, each in a broad range of
tempers. The Aluminum Association has established a system of numerical
designations for all alloy grades in general commercial use. These designations
Applications
Aluminum is commonly used in hoppers and silos for plastics and resin storage. It is
commonly used in the chemical industry for storage of fertilizers. Because
aluminum shows no low-temperature embrittlement, it has been used in cryogenic
storage. The non-spark characteristics of aluminum alloys make is useful for some
applications where flammability is involved. Figure 1200-8 is a list of chemicals
typically stored in aluminum.
Water Storage
Because aluminum is compatible with pure water, distilled water, deionized water,
uncontaminated rainwater and heavy water used in nuclear reactors, aluminum
storage tanks are a cost effective material for these applications. There is virtually
no metal contamination of waters. For potable water, the amounts of dissolved
aluminum and salts are considered safe. Because surface preparations and coatings
are not necessary, the aluminum storage tank will often be competitive with coated
carbon steel storage systems.
Costs
Cost considerations for aluminum tanks include materials cost, labor costs and
recurring maintenance costs. From the long-term viewpoint, the recurring costs of
recoating or repainting becomes significant. From a short-term view, the initial-
installed cost is all that matters. Other factors that could affect cost are plant
shutdowns caused by unexpected failure of materials due to corrosion, fatigue, or
mechanical failure.
Recommendations
For some applications aluminum may be cost-competitive with stainless steel tanks
if prices continue their downward trend. When aluminum tanks are shop fabricated,
the costs per-unit-volume of storage capacity should be lower because of the
controlled conditions needed for welding and fabrication of aluminum. Another
significant advantage to shop fabricated tanks is that the bottom may be coated so
that pitting on the underside is not a problem.
Because even trace quantities of various elements can accelerate corrosion in
aluminum, a compatibility study must be conducted before using aluminum
storage tanks.
1280 References
• ASME, B96.1, “Welded Aluminum Alloy Storage Tanks”
• Alcoa Structural Handbook
• Aluminum Association: “Aluminum in Storage”
• Aluminum Association: “Specifications for Aluminum Structures”
• Aluminum Association: “Aluminum Standards and Data 1990”
• Aluminum Association: “Specifications for Aluminum Sheet”
• American Society of Metals, “Metals Handbook, Desk Edition,” 1985 LaQue
and Copson, “Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys,” 2nd ed, American
Chemical Society Monograph Series, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, NY,
1963
• Editor: Hatch, “Aluminum Properties and Physical Metallury” American
Society for Metals, 1984
• Editor: Uhlig, “The Corrosion Handbook,” Wiley and Sons, 1948
• Jawad and Farr, “Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment”
• Moody, “Analysis and Design of Plastic Storage Tanks” Transactions of the
ASME May 1969 pp. 400
• Uhlig, “Corrosion and Corrosion Control, An Introduction To Corrosion
Science and Engineering,” 2nd ed, John Wiley and Sons, 1963
• Reynolds Metal Company, “Structural Aluminum Design,” 1962
• Metal Handbook, Ninth Edition, Volume 2, “Properties and Selection: Nonfer-
rous Alloys and Pure Metals,” American Society for Metals, copyright 1979