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1050
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A Research-Guided Response
The National
Institute of
Education
U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare
Washington, D.C. 20208
■I
1
The Research and Development Exchange
The Research and Development Exchange (RDx) is an emerging federal effort
to bring the worlds of educational research and school practice closer together.
The Exchange, operated by a consortium of regional educational laboratories
and a university-based research and development center, is supported with
funding from the National Institute of Education. Currently the R&D Exchange
consists of four central support services, including the Research and
Development Interpretation Service and seven Regional Exchanges working
through 42 cooperating state departments of education. The Regional
Exchanges and their cooperating states are listed below:
Appalachia Educational Laboratory Alabama, Florida, Kentucky,
(AEL) Mississippi, North Carolina,
P.O. Box 1348 South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia,
Charleston, West Virginia 25325 West Virginia
CEMREL, Inc. Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan,
3120 59th Street Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio,
St. Louis, Missouri 63139 Wisconsin
Mid-Continent Regional Educational Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska,
Laboratory (McREL) North Dakota, South Dakota
Colorado Women's College Wyoming
Curtis Hall
Denver, Colorado 80020
Northwest Regional Educational Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho,
Laboratory (NWREL) Montana, Oregon,
Lindsay Building Washington
701 S.W. Second Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97204
Research for Better Schools, Inc. Delaware, Maryland,
(RBS) New Jersey, Pennsylvania
1700 Market Street
Suite 1700
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103
Southwest Educational Development Arkansas, Louisiana,
Laboratory (SEDL) New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
211 East Seventh Street
Austin, Texas 78701
SWRL Educational Research and Arizona, California,
and Development Nevada, Utah
4665 Lampson Avenue
Los Alamitos, California 90720
Supporting the Regional Exchanges are four central support services: a Dis
semination Support Service, provided by the Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory; the Research and Development Interpretation Service, provided
by CEMREL, Inc.; a Resource and Referral Service, provided by the National
Center for Research in Vocational Education at Ohio State University; and a
System Support Service, provided by the Far West Laboratory for Educational
Research and Development, San Francisco.
Research Within Reach
A Research-Guided Response
to Concerns of Reading Educators
Phyllis Weaver
Harvard University
with
Fredi Shonkoff
Harvard University
o
Research and Development Interpretation Service
CEMREL, Inc. • 3120 59th Street • St. Louis, MO • 63139
The material in this publication was prepared under a grant with the
National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare. Its contents do not necessarily reflect the views of the
National Institute of Education or of any other agency of the United
States Government.
Foreword v
Preface vii
Harriet Doss Willis
Reading Readiness
Skills that Enhance Reading Acquisition 29
Teaching Letter Names 34
Visual Perceptual Training 39
Effects of Sesame Street and The Electric Company 43
on Reading
Fredi Shonkoff and Phyllis Weaver
Reading Readiness Tests 49
v
Foreword
I.iiutn Ree;d
Director. R&D Interpretation Service
W. E.Ellis
Assistant Director
Regional Program
National Institute of Education
vi
Preface
vii
Preface
viii
Preface
ix
Preface
x
Preface
xi
Preface
xii
Preface
xiii
Preface
bility for the content. Their purpose has not been to give the final
analysis on any of these topics. Research is being conducted now
that will require that we take a close look at them again in the
near future.
The hope of the authors and of RDIS project staff is that this
document will prove useful to practitioners now. If you find it
thought-provoking or have suggestions concerning the content
of the document or the process used, please let us know. We need
your input if we are to succeed in our goal of increasing
communication between the research and development com
munity and educational practitioners.
xiv
The Nature of Reading
to Reading Instruction
3
Nature of Reading
5
Nature of Reading
6
Subskill and Holistic
7
Nature of Reading
8
Integration and Sequence
of Sub skills in Reading
9
Nature of Reading
10
Integrating/ Sequencing Subskills
11
Nature of Reading
12
Integrating/ Sequencing Subskills
13
Nature of Reading
14
Integrating/ Sequencing Subskills
15
The Role of Word Recognition
in Reading
16
Word Recognition
17
Nature of Reading
18
Word Recognition
19
Nature of Reading
20
Rules of Syllabication
21
Nature of Reading
22
Syllabication Rules
23
Nature of Reading
25
Nature of Reading
26
Reading Readiness
Skills that Enhance
Reading Acquisition
29
Reading Readiness
30
Acquisition Skills
33
Teaching Letter Names
34
Letter Names
35
Reading Readiness
36
Letter Names
37
Reading Readiness
38
Visual Perceptual Training
39
Reading Readiness
40
Visual Perception
41
Reading Readiness
42
Effects of Sesame Street and
The Electric Company on Reading
43
Reading Readiness
44
Reading and TV
45
Reading Readiness
46
Reading and TV
47
Reading Readiness
49
Reading Readiness
50
Readiness Tests
52
Readiness Tests
53
Developing Reading Skill
(Early Stages of Reading)
The Relationship between Decoding
and Comprehension
57
Early Stages
58
Decoding and Comprehension
59
Early Stages
60
Decoding and Comprehension
61
Phonics or Whole Word Approach
to Beginning Reading
62
Phonics or Whole Word
63
Early Stages
64
Phonics or Whole Word
65
Early Stages
66
Language Experience as an Approach
to Beginning Reading
67
Skills instruction, particularly phonics, is not nec
essarily excluded from the language experience ap
proach. But, rather than being systematically taught
to all students, skills typically are taught as the need
for them arises, using the materials the children
create, and only to those students who need such
instruction.
Given the present state of research on the language
experience approach, we can draw only tentative
and limited conclusions about its effectiveness as a
method of reading instruction. The research com
paring methods of instruction has some serious
difficulties (see also Developing Reading Skill:
Phonics or Whole Word Approach to Beginning
Reading). For example, results of research often
reveal greater variability within one method of
instruction than between different methods. More
over, the teacher and the quality of instruction
appear to affect reading achievement more than the
particular method used to teach reading. Results
such as these make it very difficult to offer research-
based suggestions for evaluating the language
experience approach.
The specific comparison of language experience and
phonics approaches is further complicated by the
fact that the language experience approach has not
been researched and developed as extensively as
have the approaches that emphasize coding skills,
such as phonics. Approaches emphasizing phonics
have been subjected to much research-based
development and evaluation. Comparing any of
them to the language experience approach, which
has not been as systematically developed and
tested, seems inappropriate. To draw instructional
implications and make educational recommenda
tions from such a comparison would not be
desirable.
Language Experience
71
Standard Black English and
Reading Interference
76
Dialect and Interference
77
Early Stages
78
Dialect and Interference
79
Teaching Black Children to Read
80
Black English Readers
81
Early Stages
82
Black English Readers
83
Early Stages
84
Reading Comprehension
!:
D;
I
i
I
Nature of Reading Comprehension
and Its Instruction
88
Comprehension Instruction
89
Reading Comprehension
90
Comprehension Instruction
91
Question-Asking Strategies
93
Reading Comprehension
95
Reading Comprehension
96
Questioning Strategies
97
Reading Comprehension
98
Cloze Tasks and Improving
Reading Comprehension
99
Reading Comprehension
101
may be beneficial. Therefore, we tentatively suggest
use of the cloze technique as one part of a program of
teaching reading comprehension.
103
Reading Comprehension
104
Improving Reading Comprehension
Test Scores
105
Reading Comprehension
106
Test Scores
108
Difficulties in Developing
Reading Skill
Reading and Learning Disabilities
ill
Difficulties
112
Reading/ Learning Disabilities
114
Reading/Learning Disabilities
115
Distinguishing Reading Problems
from Linguistic Differences among
Speakers of Standard Black English
117
Difficulties
118
Linguistic Differences
119
Difficulties
120
Linguistic Differences
121
Listening while Reading as a
Technique for Developing Fluency
122
Listening while Reading
123
Difficulties
124
Listening while Reading
125
Difficulties
126
Listening while Reading
128
Reading Comprehension Problems
129
Difficulties
131
Difficulties
132
Comprehension Problems
133