Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Defence Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dt

Review of Infrared signature suppression systems using optical

blocking method
Nidhi Baranwal 1, Shripad P. Mahulikar*
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: With rapid advancements in Infra-Red (IR) detection techniques, the range from where the IR-guided
Received 26 June 2018 missiles are able to lock the target aircraft has increased. To avoid the detection and tracking by mod-
Received in revised form ern IR-guided missiles, the aircraft and helicopters also demand progress in its stealth techniques. Hence,
30 November 2018
study of Infra-Red Signature Suppression (IRSS) systems in aircraft and helicopters has become vital even
Accepted 17 December 2018
in design stage. Optical blocking (masking) is one of the effective IRSS techniques used to block the Line-
Available online 18 December 2018
Of-Sight (LOS) of the hot engine parts of the exhaust geometry. This paper reviews the various patents on
IR signature suppression systems based on the optical blocking method or a combination of IRSS tech-
Keywords:
IR signature suppression
niques. The performance penalties generated due to installation of various IRSS methods in aircraft and
Optical blocking helicopters are also discussed.
Performance penalty © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
IR signature level license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Engine back-pressure

1. Introduction guided weapons, which is an active device. A dual-band meta-

Survivability of modern fighter aircraft into hostile territory is
maximized by reducing detectability, minimizing susceptibility to
being hit if detected and minimizing vulnerability to being shot
down after being hit by the enemy. Aircraft's susceptibility can be
reduced by i) suppressing aircraft signatures; ii) destroying the
enemy's air defense system; iii) employing on-board and off-board
threat warning systems; and iv) electronic counter-measures [1].
But sometimes these electronic counter-measures and on-board
threat warning systems could make a stealth aircraft an easy
target. Hence, reducing aircraft signatures (e.g., Radar, IR, acoustic)
is the most important technique of enhancing survivability of
aircraft/helicopters in hostile environment. Aircraft signatures are
broadly classified into two categories: a) Active Signature; b) Pas-
sive Signature. Active signatures (e.g., Radar) use the reflected
signal to get the information about the target aircraft; whereas,
passive signatures (e.g., IR) are emitted by the target itself [37]. IR
waves scattered from target surfaces are utilized by the IR laser-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 22 25767122; fax: þ91 22 25722602.
E-mail addresses: nidhi@aero.iitb.ac.in (N. Baranwal), spm@aero.iitb.ac.in
(S.P. Mahulikar).
Peer review under responsibility of China Ordnance Society
1
Institute Post-doctoral fellow, Aerospace Engineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai,
India.
material perfect absorber with an MIM (Metaleinsulatoremetal)
structure can be used to reduce the target's IR signatures used by IR
laser-guided missiles [23]. Between 1967 and 1993, many aircraft/
helicopters were destroyed by the IR-guided or heat seeking mis-
siles. The IR-guided missiles passively acquire and intercept aircraft
by detecting their IR (heat) signature, and generally home to the
high temperature areas of the target aircraft for detection and
tracking purposes. In case of passive detection, target is unaware of
being detected [19]; therefore, the passive signatures are consid-
ered as more lethal than active signatures.
The aircraft is surrounded by the atmosphere and the atmo-
sphere plays a dual role in target detection, first as a medium of
propagation and second as a background source against which
target is often contrasts [38]. The propagation of IR radiation
through atmosphere largely depends upon local meteorological
conditions. Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the at-
mospheric constituent results in two major phenomenon: i)
extinction, i.e., attenuation of IR radiation by absorption and scat-
tering; ii) emission, either by thermal radiation of the atmospheric
constituents or by diffuse reflection [7]. The attenuation of IR ra-
diation passing through the atmosphere is greatly dependent on
the wavelength of radiation, temperature, concentration and dis-
tribution of radiation participating gases. The atmospheric gases
like CO2, H2O (vapor), O3, CO etc. are responsible for the absorption
and scattering of the IR radiation [17]. Though atmosphere is a good

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2018.12.002
2214-9147/© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439
absorber of IR radiation, the atmospheric windows, the 1.9e2.9 mm,
3e5 mm and 8e12 mm bands have good IR transparency; hence,
these bands are used for detection [16]. Outside atmospheric
windows, the attenuation of IR radiation is high, because of the
absorption and scattering by the H2O (vap.) and CO2 [6]. The IR
band is divided into three different regions: (i) SWIR (1e3 mm), (ii)
MWIR (3e5 mm) and (iii) LWIR (8e14 mm). These bands are used for
different purposes, e.g., the 1.9e2.9 mm band is used for the
detection of very hot sources or for solar reflections. The 3e5 mm
band is used for the high temperature surface detection (hot spots
of an aircraft). Whereas, the 8e12 mm band is used for the detection
of the part having comparatively lower temperature, e.g., rear-
fuselage skin [37]. The LWIR detector can detect the aircraft from
all aspect; whereas, MWIR detector can only detect the aircraft
from rear aspect. In addition, the 8e12 mm band can also be used for
surveillance of the sky.
IR detection technology has become very advanced in last few
decades. The advancements in IR detector technologies have
increased the ability of the IR-guided missiles to lock the target
aircraft from longer distances [46]. The HgCdTe (Mercury Cadmium
Telluride) and Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors (QWIPs) are
most widely used technologies for the IR detection purposes. They
offer high sensitivity with wavelength flexibility in MWIR and LWIR
spectral bands [41]. The cryogenically cooled InSb and HgCdTe
(Mercury Cadmium Telluride) arrays are most suitable for MWIR
spectral band [8]. Various emerging technologies are quantum dot
infrared photo-detectors (QDIPs), type-II strained layer super-
lattice, and QDIPs with type-II band alignment [22]. Such ad-
vancements in IR detector systems have increased the importance
of IR signature suppression systems in modern stealth aircraft.
Therefore, the IR signature suppression (IRSS) techniques are vital
for survivability enhancement of a target aircraft in hostile
environment.
1.1. Survey of IR signature suppression techniques
A growing importance of aircraft survivability requires in-depth
research in the field of IR signature suppression techniques. Air-
craft's gas turbine engine parts (tailpipe, turbine exit disc, nozzle
etc.) are crucial sources of IR emission from the rear aspect, espe-
cially in the 1.9e2.9 mm and 3e5 mm bands. The rear fuselage skin
radiates predominantly in the 8e12 mm band. The prime objective
of an IRSS system is to reduce the Infra-Red Signature Level (IRSL)
below the threshold level, while maintaining the engine perfor-
mance [39]. In addition to various aerospace vehicles, the IRSS
technology is also vital in marine vehicles. Schleijpen [42] has
discussed the various techniques of IR signature suppression and
lock-on range reduction of ships. The techniques of IR signature
suppression are based on following:
(i) Optical blocking (masking) of hot engine parts; reducing
the visibility of tailpipe and engine hot parts is one of the
most important methods of suppressing IR signature from
the rear aspect. This includes the modification in nozzle ge-
ometry, jet-pipe geometry and incorporation of some optical
block. The Optical Block Suppressor (OBS) discussed by Sully
et al. [49] provides full blockage of the view of hot engine
parts. Rectangular shaped nozzle became popular in stealth
aircraft (e.g., F-117A, B-2, F/A-22 etc.), because they increase
the ratio of perimeter to cross-sectional area. Using a 2-D
nozzle in aircraft restricts the visibility of engine hot parts
from the rear aspect. Placing the engine over the wings in B-2
bomber restricted the visibility of engine hot parts to a large
extent from the ground based IR seeker.
433
(ii) Peak temperature reduction of exhaust gases; several IRSS
systems work on cooling the hot engine parts and exhaust
plume, which are dominant sources of IR signature from the
rear aspect. Hudson [20] presented the exhaust temperature
contours of Turbo-Jet Engine (TJE) and TFE, and plume size of
TJE found to be more than the TFE (shown in Fig. 1). Tem-
perature of exhaust gases are generally reduced by
enhancing the mixing process with the surrounding air
[18,31,34]. This is achieved by altering the exhaust geometry
and by incorporating some device. Sully et al. [49] discussed
the concept of Film Cooled Tailpipe (FCT), which uses ejector
action to entrain secondary air for cooling of the tailpipe and
plume. After incorporating FCT, the side-on signature
reduced to approximately 30% of the baseline and rear view
signature reduced to approximately 40% of the baseline [49].
Dix et al. [14] performed a series of experiments using
spectro-radiometer to investigate the potential reduction in
IRSL from a TJE through the use of non-axisymmetric
notched nozzle. They compared the IRSL of simple nozzle
with 25 , 35 , 45 and 60 notched nozzles. A significant
reduction in IRSL near 4.3 mm was observed with the 60
notched nozzle, and 33% of the hottest part of the exhaust
plume was reduced [14]. The ejector type IR suppressors (e.g.,
lobed mixer-ejector) were used to increase the mixing pro-
cess outside the nozzle. Zhang et al. [52] performed experi-
ments on lobed forced mixers from IR signature suppression
consideration. They calculated total radiation intensity; a
significant reduction in IR signature was achieved through
lobed nozzle. Knowles & Saddington [24] have studied
various nozzle geometry modifications to increase mixing
relative to that from a circular nozzle. They also found that
lobed nozzles are efficient at promoting rapid mixing (200%
increase, compared with a circular nozzle, half of this being
due to increased perimeter). Shan and Zhang [43] performed
experiment on multi-lobed forced mixers, which enhances
the mixing of core flow and by-pass flow in the exhaust
system of a turbo-fan engine. They concluded that, (i) lobed
forced mixture increases the mixing efficiency by 65% rela-
tive to the confluent mixer, (ii) as By-Pass Ratio (BPR) in-
creases, the mixing efficiency increases; and at BPR ¼ 1, the
plume IR radiation is suppressed by 40%. High By-Pass Ratio
(BPR) engines resulted in lower plume length and that leads
to lower plume IR signature. Decher [12] concluded that the
increase in nozzle aspect ratio decreases the emitted radia-
tion of those parts of the spectrum where the optical thick-
ness (i.e., product of optical absorption coefficient and
emitting gas slab thickness) is small.
Fig. 1. Exhaust plume temperature distribution of TJE and TFE [20].
434 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439

(iii) Modification in aircraft skin temperature ; matching of
aircraft IR radiance with the background IR radiance is
important to reduce the contrast (positive or negative) be-
tween target and the background. This is achieved by electric
heating of skin [15], heating and cooling of skin using
thermo-electric module [40], and reducing temperature of
visible exhaust pipe or hot parts using ambient air [32].
(iv) Surface property modification; IR contrast can also be
reduced by optimizing the emissivity of aircraft skin [13,28]
and reducing reflectivity of reflecting aircraft surfaces (when
earthshine/sunshine reflections are important) [27]. Emis-
sivity can be optimized by physical and chemical treatment
of the radiation surfaces. Mahulikar et al. [28] observed that
the IR signature is more sensitive to emissivity in the
8e12 mm band, as compared to the 3e5 mm band. This
method of IR signature suppression does not impose any
major performance penalties.
Most of the IR suppressors have some type of penalties associ-
ated with their incorporation. The major performance penalties
generated with incorporation of IRSS system are engine back-
pressure, additional weight, increased drag, higher cost and
complexity [26]. This paper reviews the various optical blocking
methods of IR signature suppression (mainly of aircraft and heli-
copters from rear aspect) and the penalties associated with them.
Advancements and developments in IRSS techniques in helicopters
have already been discussed by Zhang et al. [53] and Paszko [35].
Cooling of exhaust gases is a major technique employed to reduce
the IR emissions of a helicopter in flight [35]. The airframe, stag-
nation region of the aircraft nose and the leading edges of the wings
are prime sources of IR signature from the front and side aspect.
Plume emission is visible from much wider view angles than tail-
pipe or other engine hot parts. But they emit only in a few discrete
bands (4.15e4.20 mm band in non-afterburning mode) of the IR
spectrum [25]. From the front aspect (head on), the higher tracking
rate (as aircraft and missile are moving in opposite directions) leads
to increase in lethal range than from the rear aspect. As, in such
situation, the pilot does not get adequate time to react; hence, the
aircraft is more susceptible from the front aspect. In spite, the
reasons of focus of optical blocking method from rear aspect are
following: 1) the emissivity of the engine tailpipe and the turbine
exit disc (if visible) are considered as 0.9 i.e., behaves like a black-
body [45]. Therefore, for a fighter aircraft, the positive contrast in IR
radiation is more in the 1.9e2.9 mm and 3e5 mm from the rear
aspect; 2) the temperature of stagnation region of the aircraft and
wing leading edges are relatively lower than the temperature of
engine hot parts. Hence, only IR detector operating in the 8e12 mm
band can be used for locking aircraft from the frontal aspect; 3) the
paper focuses on IR signature suppressors based on optical blocking
method, which is mainly employed to provide blocking of engine
hot parts, and they are mostly visible from the rear aspect. There-
fore, focus of optical blocking method used for IR signature sup-
pression shifts towards rear aspect.
cooling of exhaust gases increases their density and hence, engine
back pressure penalty increases. The penalty generated with
incorporation of optical blocking method depends on its design.
The optical block should be designed in such a way that it should
not increase the engine back-pressure. This is achieved by reducing
the visibility of engine hot parts to a narrow range of view angle
with minimum flow restrictions. As flow restrictions increases the
engine back-pressure, which results in engine power loss, for a
given engine operating point. The engine exhaust geometry mod-
ifications, e.g., alteration in nozzle geometry (nozzle exit area
reduction) and fitment of new assembly (use of block element) are
some of the techniques used for optical blocking of the engine hot
parts. If a new assembly is used for optical blocking purposes then
either it should not get heated up or its visibility must be restricted
to a very narrow range of view angle; else, it will partly reduce the
effectiveness of optical blocking.
Sometimes, the optical blocking is accomplished by a bend in
the duct, to stop direct LOS to engine components. Some IR sup-
pressors redirect the exhaust gases into the main rotor to block the
direct view to the engine axis, but it has drawbacks in terms of
thrust, effective weight of the suppressor and unpredictable rotor
and airframe heating. Hence, the IR suppressors are objectionable
under non-combat conditions, as it causes penalties in aircraft
performance. Most of the IR suppressors generate some kind of
penalties, which objects its use during non-combat conditions.
Hence, some known suppressors have the facility of removal of the
IRSS system, when aircraft is operating in non combat conditions.
Various IR suppressors have been designed and patented till now.
Some IR signature suppression methods, which employ the optical
blocking technique, are discussed below:
2.1. Black Hole Ocarina (BHO) IRSS system designed by Barlow and
Petach [4]
This suppressor was first introduced in Hughes helicopter for
providing protection against heat-seeking missiles. This suppressor
uses a combination of black hole (blocks the visibility of engine hot
parts) and ocarina systems (provides the multiple outlets). As
shown in Fig. 2 (a), this system works on the principal of blocking

2. IR signature suppression techniques using optical blocking

Optical blocking (masking) method is used to block the Line-Of-

Sight (LOS) of the hot engine parts of the exhaust geometry. Visible
areas of engine exhaust geometry and plume are major sources of
IR signature of an aircraft having gas turbine engine. Blocking the
visibility of aircraft engine hot surfaces partially/completely will
reduce the solid angle subtended by the hot parts on the detector,
which prevents the aircraft engine hot parts from IR detection.
Optical blocking can be considered as a more effective way of
reducing IR signature, as compared to cooling techniques. As Fig. 2. Black Hole Ocarina (BHO) IRSS system [4].
 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439 435

the engine hot parts and uses multiple exhaust technique to

dissipate the plume. The black hole system consists of finned nozzle
with internal bends to prevent the direct view of engine hot parts,
while presenting a metal at 200  F. The ocarina system of multiple
exhausts dissipates the exhaust plume and reduces its IR signature.
The finned nozzle is cooled by rotor downwash in hover and by the
turbulent air flow in forward flight. Fig. 2(b) shows the plot of
relative infrared intensity (RI) versus view angle (q). The incorpo-
ration of BHO system on YAH-64 helicopter resulted in 30% and 40%
reduction in IRSL from the hot engine parts and from the plume,
respectively.

2.2. Center body tailpipe (CBT) IRSS system designed by Thompson

et al. [50]

This IRSS system consists of a film cooled outer duct (as shown
in Fig. 3), which is surrounded by a film cooled center body and
followed by a film cooled diffuser. Being a discrete emitter, the
exhaust plume is the least contributor towards the total IR radiation
from the rear. The engine hot parts and other solid surfaces emit at
all wavelengths at all temperatures. Therefore, a center body was
proposed, which blocks the direct visibility of exhaust duct, and all
visible metal surfaces are convectively cooled. Thompson et al. [50]
designed this IR suppressor for the Bell-205 helicopter and it was
Fig. 4. Elevational view of exhaust mixer designed by Siefker et al. [44].
found that CBT reduced 70% IRSL from the side aspect in the
3e5 mm band and 80% from 30 off-tail.
exhaust gases with cooler air and reduces the noise level generated
2.3. IR suppressor designed by Chew et al. [10] by the gas turbine engine.

This IRSS system consists of unique arrangement of multiple
baffles that are connected together as a single baffle module. The
baffle arrangement breaks down the exhaust flow into separate
flow streams and permits mixing of hot and cool gas flows while
eliminating the line-of-sight of the hot turbine parts. This sup-
pressor provides a feature to easily remove the baffle modules
when IR suppression is not required.
2.4. IR suppressor designed by Siefker et al. [44]
This IRSS system consists of exhaust mixer coupled to the engine
along an outlet, which provides optical blocking by reducing the
visibility of hot parts. As shown in Fig. 4, the mixer consists of
several curved or twisting pattern of lobes (relative to a reference
axis) projecting radially away from the axis, which results in line-
of-sight blockage of the hot parts of the exhaust portion of the
engine. This multi-lobed mixture may additionally include a curved
pattern relative to the reference axis to enhance the line-of-sight
blockage. This suppressor also works by enhancing the mixing of
2.5. IR suppressor designed by Wollenweber [51]
This IRSS system requires mounting a core engine to a vehicle,
coupling a fuselage radially outward and around the core engine,
and coupling an exhaust nozzle to the core engine to channel
exhaust gases discharged from the core engine. The IR suppressor is
placed in flow communication with the engine exhaust nozzle for
channeling exhaust gases to facilitate suppressing exhaust IR
signature. This IRSS system consists of an access door and a flow
channel that is coupled to the access door, such that the flow
channel is movable with the access door from a closed position to
an open position. This IRSS system facilitates in reducing exhaust IR
signature.
2.6. IR suppressor designed by Steyer et al. [48]
The suppressor is mounted downstream from the aircraft en-
gine outlet, which helps in reducing the IR radiation emitted by the
engine. It consists of an elongated duct having a hollow interior
extending towards an axial centerline for transporting exhaust gas
emitted by the vehicle, and a baffle positioned inside the duct. The
baffles are used to obstruct the downstream end line-of-sight
observation of the engine hot components. The method also in-
cludes application of emissivity coating to at least one of the duct
and the baffle.

2.7. IR suppressor designed by Mahulikar et al. [29]

This IRSS system conceals the source of IR signature, and cam-

Fig. 3. Schematic of center body tailpipe used in Bell-205 helicopter [50].
ouflages the exposed surfaces with the background radiation. The
IRSS system completely blocks the visibility of the exhaust duct's
outer surfaces and visibility of inner surfaces are restricted to a
narrow range of view angle. This IRSS system is developed in two
Modules (shown in Fig. 5); Module 1 is located over the engine
exhaust duct using stiffeners, and module 2 is located over the
436 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439
Fig. 5. IRSS system designed by Mahulikar et al. [29] for the helicopter engine exhaust
duct.
Module 1. The inner surface of the Module 2 has a thin metallic
layer followed by glass-wool insulation. This glass wool insulation
is covered by the same composite Kevlar-Nomex-Kevlar as in
Module 1. This system reduces the solid angle subtended by the
inlet disk surface and the inner surface of the hot exhaust duct, and
also the range of the viewing aspect angle over which they are
visible. The weight penalty is reduced by using lightweight com-
posite and glass wool; both have low thermal conductivity, which
reduces their thicknesses.
2.8. IR suppressor designed by Chapkovich et al. [9]
This IRSS system consists of a double walled exhaust duct and
double walled septum. Double walled structure provides path for
the secondary cooling air flow, where cooling air passes through
the spiral septum slots to cool the surfaces and mixes with the
exhaust gases downstream to cool the exhaust plume. A spiral
septum is in the shape of helix extended up to the exhaust duct and
rotating 360 that fully masks the line of sight to the heated exhaust
components. This spiral septum arrangement minimizes the
exhaust flow restrictions and hence, power loss associated with the
engine is reduced.
2.9. IR suppressor designed by Sokhey and Kornegay [47]
This IRSS system consists of a center body inside the discharge
nozzle and a conduit enclosing the center body as shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Side sectional view of the IRSS system designed by Sokhey and Kornegay [47].
The center body is symmetrical about the reference axis and con-
sists of cooling slots, which emits fluid like ambient air or air from
the compressor. The rings depicted in Fig. 6 are disposed upstream
of the apex that helps the center body in blocking the view of
turbine from the outside observer. These rings are in airfoil cross-
sectional shaped, symmetrical about the axis and include cooling
plenums to receive cooling fluid from the cooling passageway.
2.10. Nozzle exit area reduction [3]
Reduction in nozzle exit area results in a decrease in visible
planer area, which leads to decrease in solid angle subtended by the
hot engine parts. A reduction in the nozzle's exit area reduces the
visibility of the jet-pipe's and converging nozzle's inner surfaces
from the rear side. The solid angles subtended by separate parts of
the exhaust geometry are calculated using a parallel ray projection
method [30], from different viewing angles (0  f  90 ). The u-
subtended by visible projected planer area (Apl) of the engine hot
parts on the plane normal to the LOS (Line of Sight) is calculated as
u ¼ Apl/LOS2 [33]. The study is performed by considering two
different cases: i) constant turbine exit temperature (TET) (Case 1);
ii) constant design point thrust (Case 2). For a fixed TET (Case 1), the
percentage decrease in IRSL relative to IRSLdp (DIRSL1%), due to the
reduced solid angle subtended by the hot engine parts, is almost
same as the percentage reduction in Ane relative to Ane,dp (DAne,red%)
(Fig. 7). When the engine thrust level is maintained at the design
point value (Case 2), a reduction in the choked Ane relative to Ane,dp,
results in a higher TIT (Turbine Inlet Temperature).
3. IR signature suppression penalties
IR suppressors are meant to effectively reduce IR signature from
different view angles, but with low performance penalties [26], as
incorporation of IR-suppressors increases the power required to
overcome IR signature suppression penalties. For constant engine
power, the mission power decreases, as the power required to
overcome IR signature suppression penalties increases [3]. Pres-
ence of center body (e.g., Center body tailpipe) results in distur-
bance to the exhaust flow, in addition to the weight penalty. Active
cooling of the center body should be avoided, as active version
takes power from the main engine for its operation, which will
further reduce the power available for the mission. As discussed in
the previous section, the black hole system of BHO IRSS system
consists of finned nozzle with internal bends to prevent the direct
view of engine hot parts. Sharp bend in nozzles leads to mission
power loss, for a given engine operating point [29]. To keep the
mission power constant, engine power must be increased with
incorporation of IR suppressor, which leads to increase in temper-
atures of the tailpipe, exhaust plume and all engine heated surfaces,
 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439
Fig. 7. Polar plot for percentage decrease in IRSL for 5% and 10% reductions in Ane
relative to Ane,dp, in 1.9e2.9 mm and 3e5 mm bands for constant TET [3].
and results in increase in IRSL. Hence, the optical block should be
designed in such a way that it should not increase the engine back-
pressure. As, penalties associated with IRSS systems can partly
reduce the effectiveness of optical blocking. Major performance
penalties associated with installation of IR suppressors are
following:
3.1. Additional weight of IR suppressors
Additional weight of IR suppressors results in much greater
stresses on the rotor blade and shift in engine operating point. So, in
order to bring it back to its design point, more thrust is needed to
support the additional weight of the suppressor. A center plug in
the exhaust duct, which is used for blocking the line-of-sight to the
hot engine parts from the rear aspect, increases the engine weight.
Several stealth paints like ferrite-based coating, MX-410 on some
aircraft made it too heavy to fly [21]. Long mixing and diffuse
sections are required to enhance the mixing of exhaust gases with
the cold ambient air. A long diffuser, used for IR suppression would
be too bulky for helicopter applications [36]. Many passive IR
suppressors based on optical blocking and mixing of exhaust gases
with ambient air, add to the weight and results in available engine
power loss (Table 1). To compensate the loss of power, engine
operating point shifts to a higher temperature and reduces the
effectiveness of the IR suppressor. The IR suppressor designed by
Mahulikar et al. [29] reduces weight penalty by using lightweight
composite and glass wool; both have low thermal conductivity,
which reduces their thicknesses.
3.2. Increase in engine back-pressure
Engine back-pressure is the pressure downstream to the flow,
due to which pressure gradient is reduced and it is often caused by
Table 1
Increase in weight and engine power loss due to IR suppressor installation on various helicopter [11].
Helicopter Bell 212/412 AS 332
Weight increase/kg 10.88 86.18
Power loss 2% in hover OGE <2% at MCP
437
the obstruction in flow. The presence of center body, baffle
arrangement, diversion of the exhaust flow or any obstruction in
the flow increases the engine back-pressure. The IR suppressors
having cooling air pump actions results in back-pressure penalty
[5]. Increase in back-pressure penalty is the major drawback of
various IR suppressors, e.g., CBT. Presence of center body in the CBT
and cooling of exhaust gases in flow path (results in increase in
their density); both results in increase in engine back-pressure [29].
From Table 1, the effect of this increased engine back-pressure due
to CBT IRSS system in Bell-205 (UH-1H) helicopter is about 3%
power loss, for the engine operating point corresponding to 940
SHP. Incorporation of 2-D nozzles also increases the engine back-
pressure significantly, which decreases the available mission po-
wer for a given engine operating point. Baranwal and Mahulikar [3]
have performed the quantitative study of the effect of engine back-
pressure penalty on IRSL due to choked nozzle exit area reduction.
The effect of engine back-pressure penalty on IR lock-on range has
also been studied [2]. In Fig. 8, DIRSL2% represents the percentage
increase in IRSL relative to the design point IRSL (IRSLdp) at constant
thrust. A significant increase in IRSL due to the nozzle exit area
reduction is seen for both of the bands (i.e., 1.9e2.9 mm and
3e5 mm) when thrust was maintained at the design point value
(Fig. 8). This is due to the shift in engine operating point to higher
temperature to maintain the same design point thrust. The
increased temperature based IR radiance (due to shift in engine
operating temperature) from the tail-pipe dominates the decreased
IR radiance due to reduction in the visible area of the hot engine
parts [3].
3.3. increase in cost and complexity
Installation of IR suppressor increases cost and system
complexity, which reduces its reliability. Fitment of various types of
jet mixing systems, presence of optical block, cooling pump, altered
Fig. 8. Polar plot for percentage increase in IRSL for 5% and 10% reductions in Ane
relative to Ane,dp, in 1.9e2.9 mm and 3e5 mm bands for constant thrust [3].
Bell 407 Bell 205 (UH-1H) Mi 17
12.24 13.6 108.86
<1% in hover OGE <3% at 940 SHP <3% at MCP
438 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439

nozzle geometry etc. increases the overall complexity of the Greek Scripts
exhaust duct. Sometimes they require changes in the exhaust sys- D difference operator/
tem geometry also. But, this increase in cost of stealth aircraft or DIRSL1 /% percentage decrease in IRSL relative to IRSLdp at
helicopter can be justified by the increase in its survivability in constant turbine exit temperature
hostile environments. DIRSL2 /% percentage increase in IRSL relative to IRSLdp at constant
thrust
3.4. Influence on other signatures f viewing aspect angle (f ¼ 0 for direct rear view along
engine axis)/
Mixing of free stream with exhaust gases at high-speed, u solid angle/Sr
obstruction in the flow result in broad-band jet noise; conse-
quently, aural signature increases. Noise suppression can be ach- Abbreviations
ieved by increasing the surface area of the jet stream. Screech liners BHO Black Hole Ocarina
in afterburner and sandwich composite skins with pyramidal BPR By-Pass Ratio
structures pointing inward are being used to absorb engine noise CBT Center Body Tailpipe
[21]. FCT Film Cooled Tailpipe
IR Infra-Red
IRSL Infra-Red Signature Level
4. Conclusions
IRSS Infra-Red Signature Suppression
IRST Infra-Red Search and Tracking
Incorporating an IR suppressor in a combat aircraft is the first
LOS Line-Of-Sight
step towards increasing its survivability. Many IR suppressors use
LWIR Long Wave Infra-Red
optical blocking method to avoid the detection of aircraft's engine
MCP Maximum Continuous Power
hot parts from IR detectors. This paper focuses on IR signature
MIM Metal Insulator Metal
suppressors based on optical blocking method, which is mainly
MWIR Mid Wave Infra-Red
employed to provide blocking the view of engine hot parts. Optical
OBS Optical Block Suppressor
blocking can be considered as a more effective way of reducing IR
OGE Out-of-Ground Effect
signature, as compared to cooling techniques. As cooling of exhaust
QDIP Quantum Dot Infrared Photo-detector
gases increases their density and hence, engine back pressure
RCS Radar Cross Section
penalty increases. The penalties generated with incorporation of
SHP Shaft Horse Power
optical blocking method depend on its design. The optical block
SWIR Short Wave Infra-Red
should be designed in such a way that it should not result in in-
TET Turbine Exit Temperature
crease in engine back-pressure. From the study, it can be said that
TFE Turbo-Fan Engine
the penalties generated due to the incorporation of IR signature
TJE Turbo-Jet Engine
suppression techniques can adversely affect the target aircraft
performance in various ways. Hence, the penalties generated in the
References
form of increased engine back-pressure, weight, cost, complexity
and other signatures (like Radar and acoustic) should be minimum [1] Ball RE. The fundamentals of aircraft combat survivability analysis and design.
after implementation of IR suppressor. The visibility of engine hot second ed. New York: AIAA Education Series; 2003.
parts should be in a narrow range of view angle with lower flow [2] Baranwal N, Mahulikar SP. “Aircraft engine's infrared lock-on range due to
back pressure penalty from choked convergent nozzle. Aero Sci Technol
restrictions; because flow restrictions increases engine back- 2014;39:377e83.
pressure that results in engine power loss, for a given operating [3] Baranwal N, Mahulikar SP. Infrared signature of aircraft engine with choked
point. Keeping in view the capabilities of recent IR-guided missiles, converging nozzle. AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer
2016;30(4):854e62.
the incorporation of IRSS system should generate minimal pen-
[4] Barlow B, Petach A. Advanced design of infrared suppressor for turbo shaft
alties. The best optical blocking method should not involve engines. In: Proceedings of 33rd annual national forum of the American he-
following: a) increase in engine back-pressure; b) active cooling of licopter society, Washington DC, paper no. 77; 1977.
[5] Birk AM, Davis WR. Suppressing the infrared signatures of marine gas tur-
engine hot parts or heated part of the optical block, as active
bines. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 1989;111(123).
version takes power from the main engine for its operation, which [6] Burch DE, Gryvnak DA. Laboratory measurement of the infrared absorption by
decreases the available mission power. In addition to this, heated H2O and CO2 in regions of weak absorption. In: Proceedings of SPIEdthe in-
part of the optical block should not be visible and weight of the ternational society for optical engineering: optical properties of the atmo-
sphere, vol. 142. Bellingham, WA, USA: SPIE; 1978. p. 16e24.
optical block should be minimal. [7] Caniou J. Passive infrared detection: theory and applications. Springer US;
1999.
[8] Corsi C. History highlights and future trends of infrared sensors. J Mod Optic
Acknowledgements 2010;57(18):1663e86.
[9] Chapkovich, J.S., Voegeli, H.E., Blair, N.C., and Math, J.A. (2013) “Infrared
The authors thank the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay's Suppression System with Spiral Septum,” US Patent no. 8341934 B2.
[10] Chew, T., Steyer, W., Moore, C.C., and Harrold, M.C. (2001) “Removable Baffle
Post-Doctoral Research Program, vide appointment no. AO/Admn- Infrared Suppressor,” US Patent no. 6253540 B1.
1/33/2018 dated 10.Aug'2018 for providing funding. [11] Davis WR. Engineering ltd,” ottawa, Canada. 2005.
[12] Decher R. Infrared emissions from turbofans with high aspect ratio nozzles.
J Aircraft 1981;18(12):1025e31.
Nomenclature [13] DeSteese, J.G., Anatoniac, Z.I., White, M., and Peters, T.J. (2004) “Structure and
Method for Controlling the Thermal Emissivity of a Radiating Object,” US
Patent no. 6713774.
Ane nozzle exit area/m2
[14] Dix J, Saddington AJ, Knowles K, Richardson MA. Infrared signature reduction
Ane,dp design point nozzle exit area/m2 study on a small-scale jet engine. Aeronaut J 2005;109(1092):83e8.
Apl planar projected area of discretized elements of engine [15] Engelhardt, M., (1989) “Apparatus and Method for Electrical Heating of
components/m2 Aircraft Skin for Background Matching,” US Patent no. 4801113.
[16] Gebbie HA, Harding WR, Hilsum C, Pryce AW, Roberts V. Atmospheric
RI relative infrared intensity/% transmission in the 1 to 14 mm region. In: Proceedings of royal society of
IRSLdp design point IR signature level (W`Sr-1) london series A, vol. 206; 1951. p. 87e107. 1084.
 N. Baranwal, S.P. Mahulikar / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 432e439
[17] Hackforth HL. Infrared radiation. ” McGraw-Hill Book Co; 1960.
[18] Hammond, M.H., and Presz Jr, W.M. (2000) “Multi-Stage Mixer/Ejector for
Suppressing Infrared Radiation,” US Patent no. 6016651.
[19] Howe D. Introduction to the basic technology of stealth aircraft: Part 1-basic
considerations and aircraft self-emitted signals (passive considerations). J Eng
Gas Turbines Power 1991;113(1):75e9.
[20] Hudson RD. Infrared system engineering. Hoboken, New Jersey: ” John Wiley
& Sons; 1969. p. 85e7.
[21] Jones J. Stealth technology: the art of black magic. first ed. Tab Books; 1989.
[22] Karim A, Andersson JY. Infrared detectors: advances, challenges and new
technologies. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2013;51, 012001. https://doi.org/
10.1088/1757-899X/51/1/012001.
[23] Kim J, Han K, Hahn JW. Selective dual-band metamaterial perfect absorber for
infrared stealth technology. Sci Rep 2017;7:6740.
[24] Knowles K, Saddington AJ. A review of jet mixing enhancement for aircraft
propulsion applications. Proc IME G J Aero Eng 2006;220(2):103e27.
[25] Mahulikar SP, Rao GA, Sane SK, Marathe AG. Aircraft plume infrared signature
in nonafterburning mode. J Thermophys Heat Tran 2005;19(3):413e5.
[26] Mahulikar SP, Sonawane HR, Rao GA. Infrared signature studies of aerospace
vehicles. Prog Aero Sci 2007a;43(7e8):218e45.
[27] Mahulikar SP, Potnuru SK, Rao GA. Study of sunshine, skyshine, and earth-
shine for aircraft infrared detection. J Optic Pure Appl Optic 2009;11(4).
[28] Mahulikar SP, Rao GA, Kolhe PS. “Infrared signatures of low flying aircraft and
their rear fuselage skin's emissivity optimization. J Aircraft 2006;43(1):
226e32.
[29] Mahulikar SP, Prasad HSS, Potnuru SK. “Infrared signature suppression of
helicopter engine duct based on “conceal and camouflage. J Propul Power
2008;24(3):613e8.
[30] Mahulikar SP, Potnuru SK, Kolhe PS. Analytical estimation of solid angle
subtended by complex well-resolved surfaces for infrared detection studies.
Appl Opt 2007b;46(22):4991e8.
[31] Mathiasson, U. (2005) “Device for Reducing the Signature of Hot Exhausting
Gases,” US Patent no. 6937181 B2.
[32] Means JL, Grace LC. Suppression of thermal emission from exhaust compo-
nents using an integrated approach. In: Proceedings of the ground target
modeling and validation conference, houghton, Michigan; 2002.
[33] Modest MF. Radiative heat transfer. New York: ” McGraw Hill; 1993.
[34] Papamoschou, D. (2003) “Mixing Enhancement Using Axial Flow,” US Patent
no. 6666016 B2.
[35] Paszko M. Infrared signature suppression systems in modern military heli-
copters, vol. 248; 2017. p. 63e83. No. 3, 2017.
439
[36] Power GD, McClure MD, Vinh D. Advanced IR suppressor design using a
combined CFD/test approach. In: 30th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion
conference, indianapolis; 1994.
[37] Rao GA, Mahulikar SP. Integrated review of stealth technology and its role in
airpower. Aeronaut J 2002;106(1066):629e41.
[38] Rao GA, Mahulikar SP. Effect of atmospheric transmission and radiance on
aircraft infrared signatures. J Aircraft 2005a;42(4):1046e54.
[39] Rao GA, Mahulikar SP. New criterion for aircraft susceptibility to infrared
guided missiles. Aero Sci Technol 2005b;9(8):701e12.
[40] Reynolds, R.F. and Kinsell, M.J. (2002) “Thermal and Visual Camouflage Sys-
tem,” US Patent no. 6338292 B1.
[41] Rogalski A. Recent progress in infrared detector technologies. Infrared Phys
Technol 2011;54(3):136e54.
[42] Schleijpen HMA. Evaluation of infrared-signature suppression of ships. In:
Proceedings of SPIE 2742, targets and backgrounds: characterization and
representation II; 1996.
[43] Shan Y, Zhang JZ. Numerical investigation of flow mixture enhancement and
infrared radiation shield by lobed forced mixer. Appl Therm Eng
2009;29(17e18):3687e95.
[44] Siefker, R.G., Baily, R.V., Baker, V.D., Khalid, S.A., and Loebig, J.C. (2003)
“Exhaust Mixer and Apparatus Using Same,” US Patent no. 6606854 B1.
[45] Siegel R, Howell JR. Thermal radiation heat transfer. fourth ed. New York:
Taylor & Francis; 2002. p. 835e40.
[46] Sizov FF. Infrared detectors: outlook and means. Semicond Phys Quantum
Electron Optoelectron 2000;3(1):52e8.
[47] Sokhey, J., and Kornegay, B. (2014) “Techniques to Reduce Infrared Detection
of a Gas Turbine Engine,” US Patent no. 8776527 B1.
[48] Steyer, W., Kieffer, C.M., Jasany, J.M., and Hoffman, J. (2006) “Method and
Apparatus for Suppressing Infrared Signatures,” US Patent no. 6988674 B2.
[49] Sully PR, VanDam D, Bird J, Luisi D. Development of a tactical helicopter
infrared signature suppression (IRSS) system. In: Proceedings of the flight
vehicle integration panel symposium, AGARD CP-592, ottawa, Canada; 1996.
[50] Thompson J, Birk AM, Cunningham M. Design of infrared signature suppressor
for the Bell 205 (UH-1H) helicopters, Part I: aerothermal design,. In: Seventh
CASI propulsion symposium; 1999.
[51] Wollenweber, G.C. (2005) “Method and Apparatus for Exhausting Gases from
Gas Turbine Engines,” US Patent no. 6971240 B2.
[52] Zhang J, Li L, Gao C, He W. An experiment study on a lobed nozzle of an
infrared suppression system. J Aero Power 1997;12(2):212e4.
[53] Zhang JZ, Pan CX, Shan Y. Progress in helicopter infrared signature suppres-
sion. Chin J Aeronaut 2014;27(2):189e99.