Gas Turbines

Introduction to Gas Turbines

Gas turbines have been used for electricity generation for many years. In the past, their
use has been generally limited to generating electricity in periods of peak electricity
demand. Gas turbines are ideal for this application as they can be started and stopped
quickly enabling them to be brought into service as required to meet energy demand
peaks. However, their previously small unit sizes and their low thermal efficiency
restricted the opportunities for their wider use for electricity generation.

There are two basic types of gas turbines - aeroderivative and industrial.

As their name suggests, aeroderivative units are aircraft jet engines modified to drive
electrical generators. These units have a maximum output of 40 megawatt (MW).
Aeroderivative units can produce full power within three minutes after start up. They are
not suitable for base load operation.

Industrial gas turbines range in sizes up to more than 260 MW. Depending on size, start
up can take from 10 minutes to 40 minutes to produce full output. Over the last ten
years there have been major improvements to the sizes and efficiencies of these gas
turbines such that they are now considered an attractive option for base-load electricity
generation. Industrial gas turbines have a lower capital cost per kilowatt installed than
aeroderivative units and, because of their more robust construction, are suitable for base
load operation.

How does a Gas Turbine Work?

Gas turbines use the hot gas produced by burning a fuel to drive a turbine. They are also
called combustion turbines or combustion gas turbines.

The main components of a gas turbine are an air compressor, several combustors (also
called burners) and a turbine.

The air compressor compresses the inlet air (raises its pressure). Fuel is mixed with the
high pressure air in burners and burnt in special chambers called combustors. The hot
pressurised gas coming out of the combustors is at very high temperature (up to
1,350°C). This gas then passes through a turbine, giving the turbine energy to spin and
do work, such as turn a generator to produce electrcity. As the turbine is connected to its
compressor, the compressor uses some (about 60%) of the turbine's energy.

Because some of its heat and pressure energy has been transferred to the turbine, the
gas is cooler and at a lower pressure when it leaves the turbine. It is then either
discharged up a chimney (often called a stack) or is directed to a special type of boiler,
called a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG), where most of the remaining heat
energy in the gas is used to produce steam.
The attached cross section of a typical large gas turbine and photo of a similar large gas
turbine with its top half casing removed, show these major components.

Air Compressor
The air compressors used in gas turbines are made up of several rows of blades (similar
to the blades on a household fan). Each row of blades compress and push the air onto
the next row of blades. As the air becomes more and more compressed, the sizes of the
blades become smaller from row to row. The row of largest blades can be seen at the left
end of the compressor in the photo above, with the smallest blades to the right (the
direction of air flow is from left to right). Note: A row of blades fixed to the outer casing
of the compressor is also located after each row of moving blades.

Filters are used to remove impurities from the inlet air. However, as they can never
completely eliminate all impurities, 'washing' of the compressor blades must be carried
out whenever blade fouling becomes too severe. This washing can be carried out on line
(with the gas turbine operating) or when the compressor is stopped. Demineralised
water and detergent are commonly used for washing. Erosion of the blades can be
caused by hard particles in the air entering the compressor. Inspections for fouling and
erosion are usually carried out at defined intervals of operating time.

This type of air compressor can change its capacity (mass of air sucked through the air
compressor) only by changing its speed of rotation. However, when the gas turbine is
used to generate electricity, the speed of rotation of the generator, gas turbine and air
compressor must remain constant (3,000 rpm in Australia). The mass of air being
compressed therefore remains constant regardless of the amount of air required for
combustion of the fuel at partial loads. The energy used to compress this excess air
accounts for most of the reduction in efficiency of a gas turbine at partial loads.

Fuel
Gas turbines can operate on a variety of gaseous or liquid fuels, including:

 Liquid or gaseous fossil fuel such as crude oil, heavy fuel oil, natural gas,
methane, distillate and 'jet fuel' (a type of kerosene used in aircraft jet engines);

 Gas produced by gasification processes using, for example, coal, municipal waste
and biomass; and

 Gas produced as a by-product of an industrial process such as oil refining.

When natural gas is used, power output and thermal efficiency of the gas turbines are
higher than when using most liquid fuels.

The fuel must be free of chemical impurities and solids as these either stick to the blades
of the turbine or damage the components in the turbine that operate at high
temperature.

The fuels used in gas turbines power generation plants are often relatively more
expensive and in smaller quantities than those required by power generation plants using
other fuels (such as coal).

Inlet Air
The air coming into the compressor of a gas turbine must be cleaned of impurities (such
as dust and smoke) which could erode or stick to the blades of the compressor or
turbine, reducing the power and efficiency of the gas turbine. Dry filters or water baths
are usually used to carry out this cleaning.

The power and efficiency ratings of a gas turbine are usually based on the inlet air being
at ISO conditions of 15° C and 65% relative humidity. If the inlet air is hotter and drier
than ISO conditions, the power of the gas turbine decreases. This effect can be reduced
by cooling the air (by equipment similar to air conditioners) or, more usually, by passing
the air through an evaporative cooler (the air evaporates droplets of water, thus cooling
the air).

The inlet air is usually passed through silencers before it enters the compressor.

Burners and Combustors

The compressed air and fuel is mixed and metered in special equipment called
burners. The burners are attached to chambers called combustors. The fuel and air
mixture is ignited close to the exit tip of the burners, then allowed to fully burn in the
combustors. The temperature of the gas in the combustors and entering the turbine can
reach up to 1,350°C. Special heat resistant materials (such as ceramics) are used to line
the inside walls of the combustors. The area between the combustors and the turbine are
also lined.

A photo showing the burner and combustor components of a typical large gas turbine is
attached.

Water or steam can be injected into the combustors to reduce the concentration of NOx
(oxides of nitrogen) in the exhaust gas (by reducing the temperature of the flame).
Special burners (usually called 'dry low NOx burners') are used to reduce the
concentration of NOx in the exhaust gas to less than 25 ppm at full load, without the use
of water or steam injection. These dry low NOx burners usually cannot operate effectively
below about 60% load. At this point, another type of burner takes over and allows the
fuel to be burnt stably down to low loads. These 'low load' burners produce significantly
higher concentrations of NOx (over 100 ppm). Some burners incorporate both types of
burner into the one arrangement (called 'hybrid' burners). Note: the values of NOx
concentrations and loads depend on the design of the equipment and on the fuel used.

When a gas turbine starts, the combustor quickly heats up. When the gas turbine shuts
down, the combustor cools. This rapid heating and cooling produces stresses in the
combustor and can cause cracking, particularly in the heat resistant lining material. The
combustors must be inspected for cracks after a certain number of starts.
Turbine
The turbine (also called the 'power' turbine) consists of several rows of blades (the
'moving' blades) that are fastened to the rotating shaft of the turbine. A row of 'fixed'
blades is located after each row of the 'moving' blades. These fixed blades are attached
to the casing of the turbine and do not rotate.

As the hot gas from the combustors passes through the moving and fixed blades of the
turbine, energy is transferred from the hot gas to the turbine, causing it to rotate. This
energy transfer reduces the pressure of the gas and causes the gas to become cooler as
it passes through the turbine. The blades of the turbine become larger from row to row to
accommodate the expansion of the gas as its pressure reduces. The smallest row of
blades can be seen at the left end of the turbine in the photo of the gas turbine with its
top half casing removed, with the largest blades to the right (the direction of gas flow is
from left to right).

The moving blades in the turbine are subjected to extreme temperature (from the hot
gas exiting the combustors) and stress (from the combination of their rotation and the
pressure of the hot gas). The efficiency of the gas turbine improves if the hot gas
temperature rises. New materials and techniques used to manufacture the turbine blades
have resulted in a significant increase in operating temperatures. Currently, turbine
blades are made from exotic alloys that retain their strength at the high temperatures
experienced in the turbine. Ceramic blades offer the possibility of still higher operating
temperatures. However, materials to withstand the higher temperatures are usually
more expensive than those that can withstand lower temperatures. The materials for the
turbine blades (and other components of the turbine) are therefore selected to give a
balance between hot gas temperature (and efficiency) and material selection (and cost).
Research into better (and cheaper) materials for these high temperature, high stress
duties is ongoing.

Turbine blades can be manufactured with passages inside the blades that allow air to
pass through the blades to keep them cool. The compressor section of the gas turbine
provides this cooling air. This allows the blades to operate in combustion temperatures
that would otherwise be too hot for the material of the blades.

At these high operating temperatures, hard particles and chemical impurities in the air
and fuel (even at extremely low levels) can damage the blades of the turbine, thus
reducing their effectiveness. The ability of the gas turbine to do work and the efficiency of
the gas turbine are consequently reduced. Some of this reduction can be regained by
maintenance of the gas turbine. The type and cleanliness of the air and fuel used
therefore has a major impact on the amount of maintenance performed on the gas
turbine. Various coatings for turbine blades have been developed as another way to
minimise this high temperature damage to the blades.

The hot components of the turbine, particularly the blades, are also subject to 'creep'
failure. Metals at high temperature & high stress gradually change their metallurgical
properties and plastically deform ('creeps'). This deformation could result in the moving
parts touching the fixed parts with possible catastrophic results. The turbine components
most subject to conditions causing creep are regularly inspected and tested.

Exhaust Gases
The temperature of the exhaust gas from the gas turbine is typically in the range of
500°C to 640°C, depending on the design of the gas turbine and the fuel used. The heat
energy in this gas can be extracted in a HRSG to produce steam that can be used to
produce electricity (Combined Cycle generating plant) or used for process heating.
If the exhaust gas is not passed to a HRSG, it is ducted through a silencer and then
discharged up a stack.

The exhaust gas is usually visually clear and free of particles. Refer to 'emissions' for
information on the chemical compositions of the exhaust gas.

Emissions
The main chemical emissions from a gas turbine are dependent on the type of fuel
used. However, some generalisations can be made.

NOx can be controlled either by injecting water or steam into the combustors or by using
special dry low NOx burners. Further details of these are given in the 'burners and
combustors' section above.

SOx (oxides of sulphur) are usually not a problem as most fuels used in gas turbines
have low sulphur contents.

The concentration of CO2 (carbon dioxide) in the exhaust gas is dependent on the carbon
content of the fuel used. The amount of CO2 produced per unit of electrical energy is also
highly dependent on the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine.

Power Output
Gas turbine output power values are usually given for ISO conditions of 15°C, 60%
relative humidity and an atmospheric pressure equivalent to average sea level conditions.
Variations in these conditions during the operation of the gas turbine will result in
changes to the power output of the gas turbine as indicated below.

In general, the power output from the gas turbine is influenced by:

 The energy used by the air compressor - if less energy is used to compress the
air, more energy is available at the output shaft;

 The temperature of the hot gas leaving the combustors - increased temperature
generally results in increased power output;

 The temperature of the exhaust gas - reduced temperature generally results in

increased power output;

 The mass flow through the gas turbine - in general, higher mass flows result in
higher power output;

 The drop in pressure across the inlet air filters, silencers and ducts - a decrease in
pressure loss increases power output;

 The drop in pressure across the exhaust gas silencers, ducts and stack - a
decrease in pressure loss increases power output; and

 Increasing the pressure of the air entering or leaving the compressor - an

increase in pressure increases power output.

Various methods that have been used to achieve an increase in power output include:

 Using the exhaust gas to heat the air from the compressor (mainly used in cold
weather conditions);
  Divide the compressor into two parts and cool the air between the two parts;

 Divide the turbine into two parts and reheat the gas between the two parts by
passing the gas through additional burners and combustors located between the
two parts;

 Cooling the inlet air - mainly used in hot weather conditions;

 Reducing the humidity of the inlet air;

 Increasing the pressure of the air at the discharge of the air compressor;

 Inject steam or water into the combustors or turbine;

 Wash or otherwise clean the fouling from the blades of the air compressor and
turbine at regular intervals; and

 Combinations of the above methods.

However, all these methods increase costs and some decrease the thermal efficiency of
the gas turbine. The methods used are therefore a compromise between cost, power and
efficiency for each application.

Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine is the proportion of the energy in the fuel that is
converted to mechanical energy in the output shaft. Gas turbine efficiency values are
usually given for ISO conditions of 15°C (dry bulb), 60% relative humidity and an
atmospheric pressure equivalent to average sea level conditions. Variations in
temperatures and relative humidities during the operation of the gas turbine will result in
changes to the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine as indicated below.

In general, thermal efficiency is influenced by:

 The energy used by the air compressor - if less energy is used to compress the
air, more energy is available at the output shaft;

 The temperature of the hot gas leaving the combustors - increased temperature
generally results in increased efficiency;

 The temperature of the exhaust gas - reduced temperature generally results in

increased efficiency;

 The mass flow through the gas turbine - in general, higher mass flows result in
higher efficiencies;

 The drop in pressure across the inlet air filters, silencers and ducts - a decrease in
pressure loss increases efficiency;

 The drop in pressure across the exhaust gas silencers, ducts and stack - a
decrease in pressure loss increases efficiency.

Various methods have been used to achieve the above goals:

 Using the exhaust gas to heat the air from the compressor (mainly used in cold
weather conditions);
  Divide the compressor into two parts and cool the air between the two parts;

 Divide the turbine into two parts and reheat the gas between the two parts by
passing the gas through additional burners and combustors located between the
two parts;

 Cooling the inlet air - mainly used in hot weather conditions;

 Reducing the humidity of the inlet air;

 Increasing the pressure of the air at the discharge of the air compressor;

 Inject steam into the combustors or turbine;

 Wash or otherwise clean the fouling from the blades of the air compressor and
turbine at regular intervals; and

 Combinations of the above methods.

However, all these methods increase costs and some decrease the amount of power able
to be output by the gas turbine. The methods used are therefore a compromise between
cost, power and efficiency for each application.

Reliability
The reliability of a gas turbine depends mainly on the design of its components and the
selection of materials used in critical components. Operational factors such as the
cleanliness of the fuel and inlet air, the way the gas turbine is operated and the quality of
the maintenance practices also have an effect of reliability.

New models of gas turbines often have significant changes to critical components in an
effort to improve power output, increase thermal efficiency and reduce costs. However,
the use of unproven designs and technologies can result in unforseen failures. The
manufacturers analyse these failures and improve the component. The reliabilities of the
models improve as these types of failures are designed out.

Noise
Gas turbines are very compact and occupy small ground area. Statutory limits on noise
levels at site boundaries can be achieved either by increasing the distance from the
boundary to the plant or by installing noise abatement equipment on the machines.
Silencers are usually fitted in the inlet air and exhaust gas ducts.
(drawing courtesy of Siemens Ltd)

The inlet air (blue) enters the compressor at the left. The exhaust gas (red) leaves the
turbine at the right. The burners and combustors are located between the compressor
and turbine.

(photo courtesy of Siemens Ltd)

The photo shows what such a gas turbine looks like when its top half casing has been
removed for inspection or maintenance. The air compressor is on the left and the turbine
is on the right. The section that would hold the burners and combustors is between the
compressor and the turbine. Note: The large bolts that are used to hold the two halves of
the casing together.
(photo & diagrams courtesy of Siemens Ltd)

The photo shows, for a large gas turbine, the cross-section of a typical burner/combustor
combination, the arrangement of these combustors and the area between the combustors
and the turbine. The heat resistant ceramic tiles used in these hot areas can be clearly
seen.

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