Valves:

In general, blood flows into the heart from a vein, goes into an atrium, then a ventricle, and
out through an artery.

The heart contains valves to prevent the blood flowing backwards:

 the right side has a tricuspid valve (a valve with three flaps)
 the left side has a bicuspid valve (a valve with two flaps)
 Both sides have semi-lunar valves (at the entrances to the pulmonary artery and aorta).

 The left ventricle has thicker walls than the right because it needs to pump blood to most of
the body while the right ventricle fills only the lungs.
 The ventricles of the heart have thicker muscular walls than the atria. This is because blood
is pumped out of the heart at greater pressure from these chambers compared to the atria.
 The septum keeps blood from the right (deoxygenated) and left (oxygenated) sides of the
heart from mixing. This is important because the blood in the left ventricle is loaded with
oxygen for the rest of the body to use.
 In pumping the blood, the muscle in the walls of the atria and ventricles contracts and
relaxes. The atria walls contract first and force blood into the ventricles. Then the ventricles
contract and send blood into the arteries.
 Valves prevent blood flowing backwards during or after heart contractions.

The activity of the heart may be monitored by:

 ECG (electrocardiogram)
 Pulse rate
 Heart sound using a stethoscope, ‘lub-dub’ sound caused by the closure of the valves

Electrocardiograms (ECG)
The electrical activity in a heart is monitored and recorded by an ECG which produces a
trace. Electrodes are attached to a person’s chest and limbs to record the electrical currents
produced during the cardiac cycle. When there is a change in polarisation of the cardiac
muscle, there is a small electrical current that can be detected on the skin. An ECG is
usually performed on a patient at rest.
 In the right atrium wall, muscle tissue is present called the sinoatrial node (SAN) which
acts as a pacemaker. T

 P wave = contraction of the atria

 QRS complex = contraction ) of the ventricles
 T wave – relaxation/recovery ( of the ventricles
 PR interval – time for impulses to be conducted from SAN across the atria to the ventricles,
through the AVN

You can work out the time for one complete cardiac cycle by multiplying the number of
squares between the QRS complex by 0.2 then doing 60 divided by the answer.

Abnormal ECGs can be used to diagnose heart problems. Doctors compare patient’s
ECGs with a normal trace to diagnose problems with the heart rhythm such as CVD.

The effect of physical activity on the pulse rate:

 At rest, the heart beats about 70 times a minute, but varies according to age, gender and
fitness.
 An increase in physical activity increases the pulse rate, up to 200 beats per minute.
 After exercise has stopped, the pulse rate gradually drops to its resting state, the rate
depends on the fitness of the person.
 During exercise, the muscle cells need more energy than usual. They therefore need to
respire more and, as a consequence, need more oxygen and glucose, and they produce
more waste, carbon dioxide.
 If the muscle does not get enough oxygen, it will start to respire anaerobically, producing
lactic acid, which cause muscle fatigue, leading to cramp.
Arteries and veins
This table lists the arteries and veins that are associated with the lungs, liver and kidneys.

Organ Towards organ Away from organ

Lung Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Liver Hepatic artery Hepatic vein

Kidney Renal artery Renal vein

Arteries Veins

Always carry blood away from the heart Carry blood to the heart

Carry oxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary Always carry deoxygenated blood, except for
artery the pulmonary vein

Carry blood under high pressure Carry blood under low or negative pressure

Have thick muscular and elastic walls to pump and Have thinner walls - less muscular tissue than
accommodate blood arteries

A type of supporting tissue called connective

Have less connective tissue than arteries
tissue provides strength
 Arteries Veins

The channel in the blood vessel that carries blood

Have a wide lumen
- the lumen - is narrow

Veins contain pocket valves to stop the

Arteries do not contain pocket valves
backflow of blood

Capillaries
Arteries branch to become smaller arteries called arterioles, these arterioles branch to become
capillaries. The capillaries connect the smallest branches of the arteries (arterioles) and the
smallest branches of veins (venules).

Capillaries form extensive networks throughout the body so that all cells are near a capillary and
the concentration gradients can be maintained for the delivery of substances and the removal of
waste around cells.

The walls of capillaries are just one cell thick. Capillaries therefore allow the exchange of
molecules between the blood and the body's cells - molecules can diffuse across their walls. This
exchange of molecules is not possible across the walls of other types of blood vessel. Capillaries
form extensive networks so that every cell is near a capillary carrying blood.

Exchange of molecules
 Oxygen diffuses through the capillary wall into the tissue fluid and the cells.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the tissue fluid, then across the capillary walls into
the blood plasma.
  Glucose diffuses from the blood plasma across the capillary walls to the tissue fluid and then
to the cells.
 The waste product urea diffuses from the cells of the liver to the tissue fluid and then across
the capillary walls into the blood plasma.

Coronary heart disease:

 The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle. These may become blocked by a
buildup of fatty plaques containing cholesterol, resulting in coronary heart disease.
 If a coronary artery is blocked, the blood supply to part of the heart muscle is cut off. That
part of the heart cannot continue to contract, causing a heart attack.