Introduction To Linear Metrology

A quality destination……..
LINEAR METROLOGY-An introduction.
ISOTECH METROLOGY SOLUTIONS, KANJIKODE,PALAKKAD.

info@isotech.in, Phone: 04912569950,Mob: 08547335615
09745457915, www.isotech.in
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PREFACE
Metrology is the back bone of quality control and assurance. In this modern era of globalisation
and standardization of products, a finished product should conform to the international
standard for the universal acceptance. Step by step inspection of the product right from the
raw material stage till its reduction to scrap is required to ensure total quality. Metrology and
calibration plays the vital role in quality control. Precision instruments used for measurements,
gauges, templates and other jigs and fixtures; all are contributing to the quality of a finished
product, its periodic calibration and validation is inevitable for any manufacturing industry.
Hence the services rendered by calibration laboratories within the country and overseas are
second to none for the delivery of quality products and services and thus the industrial
developments of any country. For maintaining a global acceptance and inter changeability of
spares ; units and measurements are to be traceable to a common accepted standard or a
natural constant, Keeping this in view ISO has formulated the slandered IS/ISO/IEC 17025:2005
for testing and calibration laboratories.
Few notes about the basics of linear metrology and calibration are put together here for the
benefits of the beginners in calibration and metrology. These chapters are only a guidelines and
a welcome notes to the students, which should not be taken as a reference.
Divakaran M Ali Otupara

Executive Director CEO
Isotech Metrology Solutions Isotech Metrology Solutions
Isotech Metrology Solutions

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CONTENTS
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 2
DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS IN METROLOGY
SECTION 3
METROLOGY AND CALIBRATION

ACCREDITATION
SECTION 4
ACCOMODATION AND ENVIRONMENT

HOUSE KEEPING AND 5‖S‖
SECTION 5
MASTER TESTERS.
METROSCOPE
CMM
SLIP GAUGES
CALIPER CHECKER
MICRIHITE 2D
SECTION 6
MEANINGS OF TERMS USED IN METROLOGY

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SECTION-1
INTRODUCTION
Metrology and calibration can be traceable back many millennia. Some of the
early examples are mentioned in the texts of Manusmrithi in India and in the
ancient Egyptian literatures. Metrology has undergone several industrial
revolutions leading to the complexities of modern day microprocessor-
controlled measurements. Today‘s technological evolution has made it
possible to measure parameters deemed impossible only a few years ago.
Improvements in accuracy, tighter control, and waste reduction have also
been achieved.
This book is specifically written as an introduction to modern day metrology

and calibration for the benefit of technical, vocational, or degree students,
and as a reference manual for managers, engineers, and technicians working
in the field of calibration. It is anticipated that the prospective student will
have a basic understanding of mathematics, and physics. This course should
adequately prepare a prospective technician, or serve as an introduction for
a prospective engineer wishing to get a solid basic understanding of
metrology and calibration. Metrology involves a wide range of technologies
and sciences, and they are used in an unprecedented number of
applications.
Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures

(BIPM) as "the science of measurement, including both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science
and technology. Core concept in metrology is traceability, defined as "the property
of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby it can be related
to stated references, usually national or international standards, through an
unbroken chain of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties." The level of
traceability establishes the level of comparability of the measurement: whether the
result of a measurement can be compared to the previous one, a measurement
result a year ago, or to the result of a measurement performed anywhere else in
the world.
Traceability is most often obtained by calibration, establishing the relation

between the indication of a measuring instrument and the value of a
measurement standard. These standards are usually coordinated by national
metrological institutes: National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi, etc.
Traceability, accuracy, precision, evaluation of measurement uncertainty are
critical features of a calibration management system.

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SECTION-2
DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS IN METROLOGY
International System of Units, SI
The system of units adopted and recommended by the General Conference on Weights and
Measure (CGPM).
The SI is based at present on the following seven base units:
Quantity SI base unit Symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Metrology
The science of measurement is called Metrology
Metrology includes all aspects both theoretical and practical with Reference
to measurements, whatever their uncertainty, and in whatever fields of
science or technology they occur.
Quality
The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear

on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Calibration
Set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationships

between values of quantities indicated by a measuring instrument or
measuring system and the corresponding values realised by standards.

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NOTES:
1. The result of a calibration permits either the assignment of values of
measurands to the indications or the determination of corrections with
respect to indications.
2. A calibration may also determine other metrological properties such as
the effect of influence quantities.
3.The result of a calibration may be recorded in a document, sometimes
called a calibration certificate or calibration report.
Sensitivity
Is the smallest difference in dimensions that the instrument can detect.
Accuracy
The ability of a measurement to match the actual value of the quantity being
measured.
Precision
the degree to which the instrument gives repeated Measurements of the
same standard.
High accuracy = Small systematic error. High precision = Small random error.

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Error
The deviation between the results of measured value to the actual value.
Absolute Error:
True absolute error: It is the algebraic difference between the
result of measurement and the conventional true value of the quantity
measured.
Alignment Error (Cosine Error):
This error is based on Abbes principle of alignment which states that the line
of measurement of the measuring component should coincide with the
measuring scale or axis of the measuring instrument. These errors are
caused due to non- alignment of measuring scale to the true line of
dimension being measured. Cosine errors will be developed generally while
measurement of a given job is carried out using dial gauge or using steel
rule.
The axis or line of measurement of the measured portion should exactly

coincide with the measuring scale or the axis of measuring instrument, when
the above thing does not happen then cosine error will occur. To measure
the actual size of the job L, using steel rule it is necessary that the steel rule
axis or line of measurement should be normal to the axis of the job as
shown in Figure. But sometimes due to non-alignment of steel rule axis with
the job axis, the size of job 1 measured is different than the actual size of
job L, as shown in Figure.

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Parallax Error (Reading Error):
The position of the observer at the time of taking a reading (on scale) can
create errors in measurement. For this two positions of the observers are
shown (X and Y), which will be the defect generating positions. Position Z
shows the correct position of the observer i.e. he should take readings by
viewing eye position exactly perpendicular to the scale.

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Contact Error:
The rings as show in Figure whose thickness is to be measured. Number of

times, the contact of jaws with work piece plays an
important role while measure in laboratory or work shops. The following
example shows the contact error. If the jaws of the instrument are placed
as shown in Figure the error 'e' is developed, which is because of poor
contact only.
Correction
The numerical value which should be added to the measured value to get
the correct result.
Traceability
Property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby

it can be related to stated references, usually national or international
standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons all having stated
uncertainties.
NOTES:
1 The concept is often expressed by the adjective traceable.
2 The unbroken chain of comparisons is called a traceability chain.

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Repeatability
Closeness of the agreement between the results of successive

measurements of the measurand carried out under the same
conditions of measurement. Conditions include: same procedure,
observer,instrument,conditions,location; and carried out over a short period
of time.
Reproducibility
Closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the

measurand under same conditions by two or more operators.
Uncertainty
Parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, that characterizes

the dispersion of values that could reasonably be attributed to the
measurand.
*The degree of doubt about a measurement!

* Parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, that characterises the
dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand.
Length : Meter
The metre (or meter), symbol m, is the base unit of length in the
International System of Units (SI). Originally intended to be one ten-
millionth of the distance from the Earth's equator to the North Pole (at sea
level),
The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
Symbol = m
It used to be one ten millionth of the distance of

the meridian through Paris.
Multification factors of Length

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ACCREDITATION (LABORATORY)
Formal recognition that a laboratory is competent to carry out specific tests
or calibrations.
Notes: 1. Accreditation is normally awarded following successful laboratory
assessment and is followed by appropriate surveillance.
2. The competence of the laboratory is stated in the accreditation decision,
covering: best measurement capability, physical quantity, calibration
method and measurement range.

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SECTIONS-3
METROLOGY AND CALIBRATION
WHAT IS THE TIME NOW? A very common question
It is a very simple question but the answer is not so simple. What time is it
exactly and how do you know it? Most people are used to calibrating and
adjusting their watches whenever necessary. Working standards (i.e. clocks)
are visible almost everywhere and making a comparison calibration is easy
and almost an unconscious act. If the watch is slow or fast, we adjust it
according to the reference that may be a wall clock or friends watch. An
official time is often available by television or Internet. Calibration and
adjustment against official time provides us the traceability for time.
Imagine how the world would operate if we did not have a common source
for time? Everybody would have his or her own interpretation of time.It
would create an utter confusion.
The above narration is only about the parameter of Time. These calibrations
are required for all other parameters.
HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT OF LENGHT
Thousands of years ago the Egyptians and Babylonians used a unit of length
called cubit. Originally the cubit was defined as the length of a man‘s arm
from the elbow to the end of the middle finger(actual length of the cubit
varied from place to place and time to time) Local name for cubit during the
construction of pyramids was called ‖meh‖ and divided into units called
‖sheps‖ means palms there are seven sheps in a cubit and sheps inturn
divided into four parts called ―zebos‖
The ancient Greek cubit was about 20.7 inches but another unit of
measurement the foot was more widely used.
Standards of Measurements
The different types of standards of length are
1. Material Standards

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(a)Line Standard – When length is measured as the distance between

centers of two engraved lines.
(b)End Standard – When length is measured as the distance between to flat

parallel faces.
International Prototype Meter
International Prototype meter is defined as the straight line distance, at 0‘c

between the engraved lines of a platinum iridium alloy of 1020 mm of total
length.
Line and End Standards and differentiate between them.
Line Standards
When length is measured as the distance between centers of two engraved

lines, it is called Line Standards. Both material Standards, yard and metre
are line standards
E.g. Scale, Rulers, Imperial Standard Yard.

Characteristics of Line Standards :
(i) Scale can be accurately marked, but the engraved lines posses thickness
and it is not possible to accurately measure
(ii) Scale is used over a wide range
(iii) Scale markings are subjected to wear. However the ends are subjected
to wear and this leads to undersize measurements
(iv) Scale does not possess built in datum. Therefore it is not
possible to align the scale with the axis of measurement
(v) Scales are subjected to parallax errors
(vi) Assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required.
End Standards
When length is expressed as the distance between centers of two flat

parallel faces, it is called End Standards. Slip Gauges, End Bars, Ends of
micrometer Anvils.
Characteristics of End Standards

(i) Highly accurate and used for measurement of closed tolerances in
precision engineering as well as standard laboratories, tool rooms, inspection
departments.
(ii) They require more time for measurement and measure only

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one dimension.
(iii) They wear at their measuring faces
(iv) They are not subjected to parallax error.
Natural constant
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
Calibration:
It is very much essential to calibrate the instrument so as to maintain its

accuracy. Calibration is usually carried out by making adjustment such that
when the instrument is having zero measured input then it should read out
zero and when the instrument is measuring some dimension it should read it
to its closest accurate value. It is very much important that calibration of
any measuring system should be performed under the environmental
conditions that are much closer to that under which the actual
measurements are usually to be taken.
Calibration is the process of checking the dimension and tolerances of a

gauge, or the accuracy of a measurement instrument by comparing it to the
instrument/gauge that has been certified as a standard of known accuracy.
Calibration of an instrument is done over a period of time, which is decided
depending upon the usage of the instrument or on the materials of the parts
from which it is made. The dimensions and the tolerances of the
instrument/gauge are checked so that we can come to whether the
instrument can be used again by calibrating it or is it wear out or
deteriorated above the limit value. If it is so then it is to be taken for work
or it is scrapped.
If the gauge or the instrument is frequently used, then it will require more
maintenance and frequent calibration. Calibration of instrument is done prior
to its use and afterwards to verify that it is within the tolerance limit or not.
Certification is given by making comparison between the instrument/gauge
with the reference standard whose calibration is traceable to accepted
National standard.
Dimensional and Geometric Tolerance:
General Aspects:

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In the design and manufacture of engineering products a great deal of

attention has to be paid to the mating, assembly and fitting of various
components. In the early days of mechanical engineering during the
nineteenth century, the majority of such components were actually mated
together, their dimensions being adjusted until the required type of fit was
obtained. These methods demanded craftsmanship of a high order and a
great deal of very fine work was produced. Present day standards of
quantity production, interchange ability, and continuous assembly of many
complex compounds, could not exist under such a system, neither could
many of the exacting design requirements of modern machines be fulfilled
without the knowledge that certain dimensions can be reproduced with
precision on any number of components.
GD&T Symbols
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerance (GD&T) is a universal language of

symbols, much like the international system of road signs that advise drivers
how to navigate the roads. GD&T symbols allow a Design Engineer to
precisely and logically describe part features in a way they can be accurately
manufactured and inspected. GD&T is expressed in the feature control
frame. The feature control frame is like a basic sentence that can be read
from left to right. For example, the feature control frame illustrated would
read: The 5 mm square shape (1) is controlled with an all-around (2) profile
tolerance (3) of 0.05 mm (4), in relationship to primary datum A (5) and
secondary datum B (6). The shape and tolerance determine the limits of
production variability.

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There are seven shapes, called geometric elements, used to define a part
and its features. The shapes are: point, line, plane, circle, cylinder, cone
and sphere.There are also certain geometric characteristics that determine
the condition of parts and the relationship of features.
These geometric symbols are similar to the symbols used on maps to

indicate features, such as two and four lane highways, bridges, and
airports. They are like the new international road signs seen more
frequently on highways. The purpose of these symbols is to form a common
language that everyone can understand.
Geometric Characteristic Symbols
Straightness — A condition where all points are in a straight line,

the tolerance specified by a zone formed by two parallel lines.
Flatness — All the points on a surface are in one plane, the

tolerance specified by a zone formed by two parallel planes.
Roundness or Circularity — All the points on a surface are in a

circle. The tolerance is specified by a zone bounded by two
concentric circles.
Cylindricity — All the points of a surface of revolution are

equidistant from a common axis. A cylindricity tolerance specifies a
tolerance zone bounded by two concentric cylinders within which
the surface must lie.

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Profile — A Tolerancing method of controlling irregular surfaces,

lines, arcs, or normal planes. Profiles can be applied to individual
line elements or the entire surface of a part. The profile tolerance
specifies a uniform boundary along the true profile within which the
elements of the surface must lie.
Angularity — The condition of a surface or axis at a specified angle

(other than 90°) from a datum plane or axis. The tolerance zone is
defined by two parallel planes at the specified basic angle from a
datum plane or axis.
Perpendicularity — The condition of a surface or axis at a right

angle to a datum plane or axis. Perpendicularity tolerance specifies
one of the following: a zone defined by two planes perpendicular to
a datum plane or axis, or a zone defined by two parallel planes
perpendicular to the datum axis.
Parallelism — The condition of a surface or axis equidistant at all

points from a datum plane or axis. Parallelism tolerance specifies
one of the following: a zone defined by two planes or lines parallel
to a datum plane or axis, or a cylindrical tolerance zone whose axis
is parallel to a datum axis.
Concentricity — The axes of all cross sectional elements of a

surface of revolution are common to the axis of the datum
feature. Concentricity tolerance specifies a cylindrical tolerance
zone whose axis coincides with the datum axis.

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Position — A positional tolerance defines a zone in which the

center axis or center plane is permitted to vary from true
(theoretically exact) position. Basic dimensions establish the true
position from datum features and between interrelated features. A
positional tolerance is the total permissible variation in location of a
feature about its exact location. For cylindrical features such as
holes and outside diameters, the positional tolerance is generally
the diameter of the tolerance zone in which the axis of the feature
must lie. For features that are not round, such as slots and tabs,
the positional tolerance is the total width of the tolerance zone in
which the centre plane of the feature must lie.
Circular Run out — Provides control of circular elements of a

surface. The tolerance is applied independently at any circular
measuring position as the part is rotated 360 degrees. A circular
run out tolerance applied to surfaces constructed around a datum
axis controls cumulative variations of circularity and co
axiality. When applied to surfaces constructed at right angles to
the datum axis, it controls circular elements of a plane surface.
Total Run out — Provides composite control of all surface

elements. The tolerance applied simultaneously to circular and
longitudinal elements as the part is rotated 360 degrees. Total
runout controls cumulative variation of circularity, cylindricity,
straightness, co axiality, angularity, taper, and profile when it is
applied to surfaces constructed around a datum axis. When it is
applied to surfaces constructed at right angles to a datum axis, it
controls cumulative variations of perpendicularity and flatness.

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LOBORATAORY ACCREDITATION
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL)

is an autonomous body under the aegis of Department of Science &
Technology, Government of India, and is registered under the Societies Act.
NABL has been established with the objective to provide Government,
Industry and Society in general with a scheme for third-party assessment of
the quality and technical competence of testing and calibration laboratories.
Government of India has authorized NABL as the sole accreditation body for
Testing and Calibration laboratories. In order to achieve this objective, NABL
provides laboratory accreditation services to laboratories that are performing
tests / calibrations in accordance with NABL criteria based on internationally
accepted standard for laboratory accreditation IS/ISO/IEC 17025:2005.
These services are offered in a non-discriminatory manner and are
accessible to all testing and calibration laboratories in India and abroad,
regardless of their ownership, legal status, size and degree of independence.
The concept of Laboratory Accreditation was developed to provide a Means

for third-party certification of the competence of laboratories to perform
specific type of testing and calibration. Laboratory accreditation provides
formal recognition of competent laboratories, thus providing a ready means
for customers to find reliable testing and calibration services in order to
meet their demands. Laboratory Accreditation enhances customer
confidence in accepting testing / calibration reports issued by accredited
laboratories. The globalization of Indian economy and the liberalization
policies initiated by the Government in reducing trade barriers and providing
greater thrust to exports makes it imperative for Accredited Laboratories to
be at international level of competence. Laboratory Accreditation provides
formal recognition of competent laboratories, thus providing a ready means
for customers to find reliable testing and calibration services in order to
meet their demands. Laboratory Accreditation enhances customer

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confidence in accepting testing / calibration reports issued by accredited

laboratories.
Potential increase in business due to enhanced customer confidence and

satisfaction. Savings in terms of time and money due to reduction or
elimination of the need for re-testing of products. Better control of
laboratory operations and feedback to laboratories as to whether they have
sound Quality Assurance System and are technically competent. Increase of
confidence in Testing / Calibration data and personnel performing work.
Customers can search and identify the laboratories accredited by NABL for
their specific requirements from the directory of Accredited Laboratories.
Users of accredited laboratories will enjoy greater access for their products,
in both domestic and international markets, when tested by accredited
laboratories.
The laboratories should be legally identifiable & appropriately registered.

They can be a part of a big organization or an independent entity. NABL can
provide accreditation to: Laboratories undertaking any sort of testing or
calibration in the specified fields. Private or government laboratories. Small
operations to large multi-field laboratories. Site facilities, temporary field
operations and mobile laboratories.
MICROMETERS

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A screw pitch gauge also known as a micrometer is a precision instrument. A

micrometer is used for measuring diameter of circular objects mostly wires,
with an accuracy of 0.001mm. It consists of a hollow cylinder mounted on a
U frame. The hollow cylinder leads to a ratchet which is meant for fine
adjustment. The U frame consists of a flat end known as stud and a screw
on the other side. This screw can be moved inside the nut by fitted in the U
frame by rotating the hollow cylinder called the thimble. This is called the
main scale.
Every micrometer prior to its use should be thoroughly checked for backlash
error or zero error.
Backlash error: Sometimes due to wear and tear of the screw threads,
it is observed that reversing the direction of rotation of the thimble,
the tip of the screw does not start moving in the opposite direction
immediately, but remains stationary for a part of rotation. This is
called back lash error.
Zero error: If on bringing the flat end of the screw(Spindle) in contact
with the stud(Anvil), the zero mark of the circular scale coincides with
the zero mark on base line of the main scale, the instrument is said to

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be free from zero error. Otherwise an error is said to be there. This

can be both positive and negative zero error.
What is least Count of Micrometer
Least count of any precision instrument is defined as the least distance

travelled by it. For a micrometer it is measured in the following manner.
Least count (L.C) of a screw gauge = Pitch/ Number of circular scale

division.
Pitch and Number of circular scale divisions are the two factors determining
the Least count of Micrometer
Calculation of least Count of Micrometer
Pitch = Every screw advances through a constant distance when it gives one
full rotation. This distance is called its pitch. Pitch is the distance between
two consecutive threads of a screw. This is usually measured in millimeters.
The pitch of a screw gauge can be 0.5 mm or 1 mm.
No. of circular scale division – The thimble of a micrometer is calibrated with

reading. Each of such reading coincides with the main scale and hence the
final observation is made. Corresponding to the pitch of the screw gauge
which may be 0.5 mm or 1 mm the number of circular division can be
accordingly 50 divisions or 100 divisions.Hence, least count is calculated by
the formula above:
VERNIER SCALES

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Description of Vernier Calipers: A Vernier callipers(150mm) consists of

mainly two parts i) A 2cm wide 15cm long rectangular metal strip .The left
end bottom side of this strip consists of a fixed jaw and at the same end jaw
at the top of this strip. On the strip a scale is graduated in Inches along the
upper edge and another scale is graduated in Centimeters along the lower
dge. This is called Main Scale ‗S‘
Theory : Principle of vernier calipers – N divisions on the vernier scale is

equal to (N-1) divisions on the main scale.

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N (V.S.D) = (N-1) M.S.D
1 V.S.D = M.S.D
Least count (L.C) of vernier calipers : Minimum length or thickness

measurable with the vernier calipers is called its least count.
Least count (L.C) = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
L.C = 1 M.S.D – M.S.D
L.C = 1 M.S.D [ 1- ]
L.C = =
Where S is the value of one Main scale division and N is the number of equal
divisions on the vernier scale.
Least count = 0.5/50 or 1/100 = 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm
DIAL INDICATORS
Dial indicators, also known as dial gauges and probe indicators, are
instruments used to accurately measure small linear distances, and are
frequently used in industrial and mechanical processes. They are named so
because the measurement results are displayed in a magnified way by
means of a dial.
A special variety of the dial indicator is the dial test indicator (DTI) which is
primarily used in machine setups. The DTI measures displacement at an
angle of a lever or plunger perpendicular to the axis of the indicator. A
regular dial indicator measures linear displacement along that axis.
Dial indicators may be used to check the variation in tolerance during the
inspection process of a machined part, measure the deflection of a beam or
ring under laboratory conditions, as well as many other situations where a
small measurement needs to be registered or indicated. Dial indicators
typically measure ranges from 0 to 25 mm to 300 mm (0.015 in to 12.0 in),
with graduations of 0.001 mm to 0.01 mm (metric) or 0.00005 in to
0.001 in (imperial)

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HIEGHT GAUGES
A height gauge is a measuring device used either for determining the

height of something, or for repetitious marking of items to be worked on.
The former type of height gauge is often used in doctor's surgeries to find
the height of people.
These measuring tools are used in metal working or metrology to either set
or measure vertical distances; the pointer is sharpened to allow it to act as a
scriber and assist in marking out work pieces.
They may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the
underside of the scriber as the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed
or the height gauge may have provision to adjust the scale, this is done by
sliding the scale vertically along the body of the height gauge by turning a
fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the
same level as the base, the scale can be matched to it. This adjustment

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allows different scribers or probes to be used, as well as adjusting for any

errors in a damaged or resharpened probe.
Types
There are two types of height gauges: Vernier height gauges and electronic
height gauges. The Vernier height gauge has the additional refinement of a
Vernier scale for greater accuracy in reading or setting the tool. The
electronic height gauge has a digital readout that gives the height
FEELER GAUGES
A feeler gauge is an instrument used to measure gap widths. Feeler gauges are mostly used in
engineering to measure the clearance between two parts.
They consist of a number of small lengths of steel of different thicknesses with measurements
marked on each piece. They are flexible enough that, even if they are all on the same hinge,
several can be stacked together to gauge intermediate values. It is common to have two sets for
imperial units (typically measured in thousandths of an inch) and metric (typically measured in
hundredths of a millimeter) measurements.
The lengths of steel are sometimes called blades, although they have no sharp edge.

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VERNIER DEPTH GAUGES
A Vernier depth gauge is used to measure the depth of holes,

recesses and distance from a plane surface to a projection. In Figure shown
a Vernier depth gauge in use. The Vernier scales, fixed to the main body of
depth gauge, and is read in the same way as vernier calipers. Running
through the depth gauge body is the main scale the end of which provides
the datum surface from which the measurements are taken. The depth
gauge is carefully made so that the beam is perpendicular to the base in
both directions. The end of the beam is square and flat, like the end of a
steel rule and the base is flat and true, free from curves or waviness.

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DEPTH MICROMETERS
It is also known as 'micrometer depth gauge'. Figure illustrates a depth

micrometer. The measurement is made between the end face of a
measuring rod and a measuring face. Because the measurement increases
as the measuring rod extends from the face, the readings on the barrel
reversed from the normal; the start at a maximum(when the measuring rod
is fully extended from the measuring face) and finish at zero (when end of
the measuring rod is flush with the face).
INTERNAL AND HIEGHT MICROMETERS
Height Micrometer:
Figure shows a height micrometer. The same idea as discussed under depth
micrometer is applied to the height micrometers.
Internal Micrometers:
These micrometers are used for measuring internal dimensions. The

micrometer can be a rod provided with spherical anvils as show in
Figure(a).The measuring range of this micrometer is from 25 to 37.5 mm
i.e.12.5 mm. By means of exchangeable anvil rods, the measuring capacity
can increased in steps of 12.5 mm up to 1000 mm. Another type of internal
micrometer is that shown in Figure (b),in which the measuring anvils are

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inverted . The measuring range of this micrometer is from 5 to 30 mm i.e.25

mm

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BEVEL PROTRACTOR
A circle can be divided into 360 equal angles. Each angle is called degree. So
a circle is 360 degrees. For calculation a degree is divided into 60 parts
called minutes and a minute is sub-divided into 60 parts called seconds.
The bevel protractor is used to establish and test angles to very close
tolerances. It reads to 5 minutes or 1/20 and can be used completely
through 360o.The bevel protractor consists of a beam, graduated dial and
blade which is connected to swivel plate (with Vernier scale) by thumb nut
and clamp.
When the edges of the beam and

blade are parallel, a small line on the swivel plate coincides with the zero line
on the graduated dial, and when any measurement of an angle between the
beam and the blade of 90 degrees or under is desired, the reading may be
obtained direct from the position of the line on the swivel plate with regard
to the graduation numbers on the dial. But remember this: To obtain the
measurement of the angle between the beam and the blade of over 90
degrees subtract the number of degrees as indicated on the dial from 180
degrees. This is because, the dial is graduated from opposite zero marks to
90 degrees each way
Since the spaces, both on the main scale and the vernier scale, are
numbered both to the right and to the left from zero, any angle can be
measured. The readings can be taken either to the right or to the left,
according to the direction in which the zero on the main scale is moved.

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The bevel protractor vernier scale indicates every five minutes or 1/20 of a
degree. Each space on the vernier scale is 5 minutes less than two spaces on
the main scale. Twenty four spaces on the vernier scale equal in extreme
length twenty three double degrees. Thus, the difference between the space
occupied by two degrees on a main scale and the space of the vernier scale
is equal to one twenty fourth of two degrees or one twelfth of one
degree(5minutes)
Read off directly from the main scale the number of whole degrees between
0 on this scale and the 0 of the vernier scale. Then count, in the same
direction, the number of spaces from the zero on the vernier scale to a line
that coincides with a line on the main scale; multiply this number by 5 and
the product will be the number of minutes to be added to the whole number
of degrees.
For example: Zero on the vernier scale has moved 28 whole degrees to the
right of the 0 on the main scale and the 3th line on the vernier scale
coincides with a line upon the main scale as indicated. Multiplying 3 by 5,
the product, 15, is the number of minutes to be added to the whole number
of degrees, thus indicating a setting of 28 degrees and 15 minutes.

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SECTION 4
ACCOMODATION AND ENVIRONMENT
Factors affecting Environment:
- temperature, humidity etc.,
- clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision,
- adequate illumination,
- temperature equalization between standard, work piece, and
instrument,
- thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights,
- heating elements, sunlight and people,
- manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
Vibration
The calibration area shall be adequately Free from vibrations generated by

central air conditioning plants,vehicular traffics and other sources to ensure
consistant and uniform operational conditions.The laboratory shall take all
special precautions like mounting of special apparatus on vibration free
tables and pillars etc.
Acoustic noice
Acoustic noice level in the laboratory shall be maintained to facilitate proper

performance of calibration work.A threshold noise level of 60 dBA is
recommended.
Illumination
The calibration area shall have adequate level of illumination.Where

permissible fluorescent lighting is preferred to avoid localized heating and
temperature drift. The recommended level of illumination is 450-700Lux .

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Environmental Conditions and monitoring
The environmental conditions for the activity of the laboratory shall be such
as not to affect the required accuracy of measurement. Facility should be
provided whenever necessary for recording temperature and humidity values
prevailing during calibration.
Entry to the calibration area
As far as possible, only the staff engaged in the calibration activity shall be
permitted entry inside the calibration area.
HOUSE KEEPING AND 5S
5S is the name of a workplace organization methodology that uses a list of

five Japanese words which are seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu and shitsuke.
translated into English, they all start with the letter "S". The list describes
how to organize a work space for efficiency and effectiveness by identifying
and storing the items used, maintaining the area and items, and sustaining
the new order. The decision-making process usually comes from a dialogue
about standardization which builds a clear understanding among employees
of how work should be done. It also instills ownership of the process in each
employee.
Phases of 5S
There are 5 primary phases of 5S: sorting, straightening, systematic
cleaning, standardizing, and sustaining. Additionally, there are three other
phases sometimes included; safety, security, and satisfaction.
Sorting (Seiri)
Eliminate all unnecessary tools, parts, and instructions. Go through all tools,
materials, and so forth in the plant and work area. Keep only essential items
and eliminate what is not required, prioritizing things as per requirements
and keeping them in easily-accessible places. Everything else is stored or
discarded.

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Straightening or setting in order / stabilize (Seiton)
There should be a place for everything and everything should be in its place.
The place for each item should be clearly labeled or demarcated. Items
should be arranged in a manner that promotes efficient work flow, with
equipment used most often being the most easily accessible. Workers should
not have to bend repetitively to access materials. Each tool, part, supply, or
piece of equipment should be kept close to where it will be used – in other
words, straightening the flow path. Seiton is one of the features that
distinguishes 5S from "standardized cleanup". This phase can also be
referred to as Simplifying
Shining or cleanliness / systematic cleaning (Seiso)
Clean the workspace and all equipment, and keep it clean, tidy and
organized. At the end of each shift, clean the work area and be sure
everything is restored to its place. This makes it easy to know what goes
where and ensures that everything is where it belongs. Spills, leaks, and
other messes also then become a visual signal for equipment or process
steps that need attention. A key point is that maintaining cleanliness should
be part of the daily work – not an occasional activity initiated when things
get too messy.
Standardizing (Seiketsu)
Work practices should be consistent and standardized. All work stations for a
particular job should be identical. All employees doing the same job should
be able to work in any station with the same tools that are in the same
location in every station. Everyone should know exactly what his or her
responsibilities are for adhering to the first 3 S's.
Sustaining the discipline or self-discipline (Shitsuke)
Maintain and review standards. Once the previous 4 S's have been
established, they become the new way to operate. Maintain focus on this
new way and do not allow a gradual decline back to the old ways. While
thinking about the new way, also be thinking about yet better ways. When
an issue arises such as a suggested improvement, a new way of working, a
new tool or a new output requirement, review the first 4 S's and make
changes as appropriate.

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SECTION 5
MASTER TESTERS
Metroscope
Application
The LMM 300 T – Length measuring machine is a digital metrological

instrument for direct measurements. Its high accuracy is not only obtained
by the exact adoption of the Abbe comparator principle, but also by using a
high Precision measuring principle. A rugged cat iron construction and
precise guide-ways also make for the high accuracy of the machine. The bed
is designed of high extension capability for numerous measurements. The
LMM 300 T is mainly used in gauge and manufacturing industries, in stand
rooms of engineering, automobile industries, calibration laboratories. Main
field of application is measurements of gauges, which will retain their
importance in
production and measurement control.
This includes:
Internal measurements of
• Plain ring gauges
• Thread Ring Gauges – Effective Diameter
• Taper plain ring gauges
• Taper Thread ring gauges – Effective Diameter
External measurements of
• Plain Plug gauges
• Thread Plug Gauges – Effective Diameter
• Taper Thread Plug Gauges – Effective Diameter
• Gauge Blocks, Pin Gauges etc
The LMM 300 T – Length measuring machine meets the increased demands
made
on accuracy, efficiency and ease of operation.
Specifications
Measuring unit : Abbe measuring head

Resolution : Horizontal axis : 0.0001mm

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Vertical axis : 0.001mm
Measuring range : Horizontal axis : 100mm Vertical axis : 50mm

Measuring Capacity : Horizontal axis : 300mm
Measurement Uncertainty : Horizontal axis : (0.5 + L/300)μm where L is
in mm.
Vertical axis : 2.0μm over 50mm
Measuring pressure : 20 gm
Length : 900mm
Width : 300mm
Height : 450mm
Weight : 75kg
Measuring Principle:
In order to ensure the high accuracy of the Length Measuring Machine, the
principles laid down by Ernst Abbe in 1980 have rigorously been complied
with. These principles are ……..
1. Measurement, line of sight setting must always be based on the use of

a graduate scale, with which the distance to be measured can directly
be compared.
2. The measuring instrument must be arranged that the distance to be

measured is a straight line continuation of the measuring scale. With
the length measuring machine lengths up to 100mm are directly
measured by comparing the part with a precision steel scale which is
sensed by the sensing head in Tran illumination. The scale is rigidly
connected with the hosing. The ruling is located in the extended
measuring axis, thus following the Abbe measuring principle. The
sensing head is rigidly connected with the measuring spindle so that
the sensing head automatically performs the axial displacements of the
spindle. These displacements are indicated by a display unit and are
read off as measuring values by the operator.

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Coordinate measuring machine
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the

physical geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine may be
manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled.
Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of
this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light,
amongst others.
Description
The typical "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, an X, Y and Z. These

axes are orthogonal to each other in a typical three dimensional coordinate
system. Each axis has a scale system that indicates the location of that axis.
The machine will read the input from the touch probe, as directed by the
operator or programmer. The machine then uses the X,Y,Z coordinates of
each of these points to determine size and position with micrometre
precision typically.
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in

manufacturing and assembly processes to test a part or assembly against
the design intent. By precisely recording the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the
target, points are generated which can then be analyzed via regression
algorithms for the construction of features. These points are collected by
using a probe that is positioned manually by an operator or automatically via

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Direct Computer Control (DCC). DCC CMMs can be programmed to

repeatedly measure identical parts, thus a CMM is a specialized form of
industrial robot.
Coordinate-measuring machines include three main components:
The main structure which include three axes of motion

Probing system
Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine
controller, desktop computer and application software.
The machines are available in a wide range of sizes and designs with a
variety of different probe technologies. They can be operated manually or
automatically through Direct Computer Control (DCC). They are offered in
various configurations such as benchtop, free-standing, handheld and
portable.
Portable Coordinate Measuring Machines
Portable CMMs are different from "traditional CMMs" in that they most
commonly take the form of an articulated arm. These arms have six or
seven rotary axes with rotary encoders, instead of linear axes. Portable arms
are lightweight (typically less than 20 pounds) and can be carried and used
nearly anywhere. The inherent trade-offs of a portable CMM are manual
operation (always requires a human to use it), and overall accuracy is
somewhat to much less accurate than a bridge type CMM. Certain non-
repetitive applications such as reverse engineering, rapid prototyping, and
large-scale inspection of low-volume parts are ideally suited for portable
CMMs.

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SLIP GAUGES
A gauge block (also known as a gage block, Johansson gauge, slip

gauge, or Jo block) is a precision ground and lapped length measuring
standard. Invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist Carl E. Johansson,[1]
they are used as a reference for the calibration of measuring
equipment used in machine shops, such as micrometers, sine bars,
calipers, and dial indicators (when used in an inspection role). Gauge
blocks are the main means of length standardization used by industry.

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Each gauge block consists of a block of metal or ceramic with two opposing
faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance apart. Standard
grade blocks are made of a hardened steel alloy, while calibration grade
blocks are often made of tungsten carbide or chromium carbide because it is
harder and wears less. Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks of various
lengths, along with two wear blocks, to allow a wide variety of standard
lengths to be made up by stacking them. The length of each block is actually
slightly shorter than the nominal length stamped on it, because the stamped
length includes the length of one wring film, a film of lubricant which
separates adjacent block faces in normal use.
In use, the blocks are removed from the set, cleaned of their protective
coating (petroleum jelly or oil) and wrung together to form a stack of the
required dimension, with the minimum number of blocks. Gauge blocks are
calibrated to be accurate at 68 °F (20 °C) and should be kept at this
temperature when taking measurements. This mitigates the effects of
thermal expansion. The wear blocks, made of a harder substance like
tungsten carbide, are included at each end of the stack, whenever possible,
to protect the gauge blocks from being damaged in use.
Wringing

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36 Johansson gauge blocks wrung together easily support their own weight.
Wringing is the process of sliding two blocks together so that their faces
lightly bond. Because of their ultra flat surfaces, when wrung, gauge blocks
adhere to each other tightly. Properly wrung blocks may withstand a 75 lbf
(330 N) pull. While the exact mechanism that causes wringing is unknown.
The process of wringing involves four steps.
1. Wiping a clean gauge block across an oiled pad .

2. Wiping any extra oil off the gauge block using a dry pad
3. The block is then slid perpendicularly across the other block while
applying moderate pressure until they form a cruciform.
4. Finally, the block is rotated until it is inline with the other block.
Various types of Gauge blocks
Steel
Steel gauge blocks have proven their reliability for more than hundred years.
This raw material remains the most commonly accepted for length
standards. Steel gauge blocks provide high resistance to wear associated
with a good property to adhere to other gauge blocks. However, steel must
be protected against corrosion. Provided gauge blocks made from this
material are properly handled, they will remain reliable for many years.
steel gauge blocks have the following key features:
• Highly alloyed steel
• Hardness guaranteed to 800 HV

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• Artificially aged for optimum form and dimensional stability

• Coefficient of thermal expansion: (11,5 ± 1,0) x 10-6 K-1
Tungsten Carbide
Gauge blocks in tungsten carbide are 10 times as much resistant as steel

gauges. They are intended for frequent use, also where superior wringing
quality is required. Tungsten carbide gauge blocks provide:
Ceramic
Ceramic gauge blocks are extremely resistant to wear and scratches. Due to
the properties of this material, any minor damage is unlikely to affect the
wringability of their meas uring faces. Being corrosion resistant, these gauge
blocks are insensitive to sweaty hands, among others. Manufactured from
stabilised zirconia, ceramic gauge blocks have the following key features:
• Non-magnetizable

Grades of slip gauges
Grade 2
These gauge blocks are commonly used as «Working Standards» in

inspection rooms within the
production to set and calibrate measuring instruments and other equipment
as well as to inspect
tools, fixtures and machines.
Grade 1
Gauge blocks of this class are mainly used as «Working Standards» to set
and calibrate plug
gauges and measuring instruments in measuring rooms or inspection areas
within the production.

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Grade 0
These gauge blocks are designated for use as «Company Standards» in

calibration laboratories or
environmentally controlled inspection room to set and calibrate plug gauges
as well as measuring
equipment.
Calibration grade K
Gauge blocks of this tolerance class are intended for use as «Reference
Standards» in metrology
oriented laboratories of National Institutes, precision measuring rooms and
other laboratories of
National Calibration Services, whether officially accredited or not. They
should be used as masters
to calibrate gauge blocks, length standards of same accuracy and measuring
instruments as well.
CALIPER CHECKER
Used for the calibration of Venire Calipers and Height Gauges, Caliper
Checker is designed to check accuracy of Main Scale at regular intervals
through out the range, which meets the requirements of IS Standards.
The instrument is sufficiently rigid and consists of stepped slip gauges

permanently fixed in inner casing .The Caliper Checker is ideal for in house
periodic calibration of measuring instruments i.e. Venire Caliper and Height
Gauge.

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Range(mm) Height Measurement External Internal Measurement

Measurement
0-300 370 300 300
0-600 670 600 600
0-1000 1070 1000 1000
MICROHITE 2D
Made to measure any size in in the form of internal, external, height,

depth, step and distance dimensions of geometric part features having
either a flat, parallel or cylindrical surface. Automatic capture of the
culmination point on bores or shafts
1) Measuring Range : 0-615 mm

2) Application Range
With standard Accessory: 0-770mm
With probe inset holder No.00760057: 0-825mm
With probe inset holder No.S07001622: 0-995mm
3) Accuracy : 2+1.5L μm (L in m)

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4)Repeatability: 0.5μm on flat surfaces and 1μm into bores

5)Least Count: 0.1 μm
6)Frontal, Mechanical : 7 μm
7)Rugged nickel plate gauge base having 3 resting points, finely lapped.
8)Built-in air bearing for easy move of the column over the surface plate.
9)Incremental glass scale with datum point, 20 grating division .Opto-
electric data acquisition
10) Special Feature: _Measuring head mounted on a ball-bearing.
_Motorized head displacement at a varying speed
from 7- 40mm/s
_Manual displacement: ≤600mm/s

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SECTION 6
MEANINGS OF TERMS USED IN METROLOGY
Absolute accuracy The accuracy stated as a definite amount, i.e., not as a

percentage.
Absolute position measurement Position measured from a fixed point.
Absolute pressure Pressure measured with reference to a perfect vacuum.
Accelerometer A sensor for measuring acceleration or the rate of change of
velocity.
Accuracy A measure of the difference between the indicated value and the
true value.
Actuator A device that performs an action on one of the input variables of a
process according to a signal received from the controller.
ADC An analog-to-digital converter that converts an analog voltage or
current into a digital signal.
Alarm A warning that a variable has exceeded set limits.
Alternating current Current that flows in one direction during one half of a
regular time period and the opposite direction during the other half.
Ammeter An instrument for measuring electrical current or electron flow.
Ampere The unit of current or electron flow.
Amplifier An electrical circuit that increases the magnitude of a signal.
Analog A continuously varying signal.
Aneroid barometer Abarometer which uses an evacuated capsule as a
sensing element.
Anticipatory action See Derivative action.
Aqueous solution A solution containing water.
Atmospheric pressure The pressure acting on objects on the earth‘s
surface caused by the weight of the air in the earth‘s atmosphere, normally
measured at sea level.
Barometer An instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Bellows A pressure sensor that converts pressure into linear displacement.
Bernoulli equation A flow equation based on the conservation of energy
which includes velocity, pressure, and elevation terms.
Beta ratio The ratio of the diameter of a restriction to the diameter of the
pipe containing the restriction.
Bimetallic A thermometer with a sensing element made of two dissimilar
metals with different thermal coefficients of expansion.
Binary Two values, or a numbering system using the base 2.
Bit A binary digit.

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Bourdon tube A pressure sensor that converts pressure to movement. The

device is a coiled metallic tube that straightens when pressure is applied.
Bridge A network of passive components arranged so that small changes in
one of the components can be easily measured.
British thermal unit A measure of heat energy, i.e., the amount of heat
required to raise 1 lb of water 1°F at 68°F and atmospheric pressure.
Buffer amplifier Acircuit for matching the output impedance of one circuit
to the input impedance of another.
Buoyancy The upward force on an object floating or immersed in a fluid
caused by the difference in pressure above and below the object.
Byte Eight bits of binary information.
Calorie A measure of heat energy, i.e., the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
Capacitance A measure of a device‘s ability to store electrical charge.
Capacitance probe An instrument using the capacitance between two
metal plates for measuring fluid level.
Capacitor A device that can store electrical charge.
Cell Asimple power source that provides emf, usually by means of a
chemical reaction.
Celsius One of the commonly used temperature scales.
Coefficient of heat transfer Aterm used in the calculation of heat transfer
by convection.
Coefficient of thermal expansion A term used to determine the amount
of linear expansion due to heating or cooling.
Comparator A device which compares two signals and outputs the
difference.
Concentric plate A plate with a hole located at its center (orifice plate)
used to measure flow by measuring the differential pressures on either side
of the plate.
Conduction The movement of heat energy in a material by the transfer of
energy from one molecule to another.
Conductivity probe An instrument using two electrodes to measure fluid
level.
Continuity equation A flow equation which states that, if the overall flow
rate is not changing with time, the flow rate past any section of the system
must be constant.
Continuous level measurement A level measurement that is continuously
updated.
Controlled variable The variable measured to indicate the condition of the
process output.
Controller The element in a process control loop that evaluates any error of
the measured variable and initiates corrective action by changing the
manipulated variable.

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Convection The movement of heat by the motion of warm or hot material
Converter A device that changes the format of a signal but not the type of
energy used as the signal carrier, i.e., voltage to current.
Correction signal The signal to the manipulated variable.
DAC A device that converts a digital signal into an analog voltage or current.
Dead weight tester A device for calibrating pressure-measuring devices
which uses weights to provide the forces.
Decibel (dB) A unit used to compare amplitude or power levels.
Density The amount of mass in a unit volume.
Derivative action Action that is proportional to the rate at which the
measured variable is changing.
Dew point The temperature at which the water vapor in a mixture of water
vapor and gas becomes saturated and condensation starts.
Dielectric constant The factor by which the capacitance between two
plates changes when a material fills the space between the plates.
Differential amplifier An amplifier that amplifies the difference between
two inputs.
Digital Signals having two discrete levels.
Dry-bulb temperature The temperature indicated by a thermometer whose
sensing element is dry.
Dynamic pressure That part of the total pressure in a moving fluid caused
by the fluid motion.
Dynamometer An instrument used for measuring torque or power.
Eccentric plate An orifice plate with a hole located below its center to allow
for the passage of suspended solids.
Effective value The dc voltage or dc current that would produce the same
power in a load as the ac voltage or ac current being measured.
Electromagnetic flow meter Aflow-measuring device which senses the
change in a magnetic field between two electrodes as a fluid flows between
them.
Electromagnetism The relationship between magnetic fields and electric
current.
Electromotive force (emf) The force that causes electrons to move, and is
measured in volts.
Error signal The difference in value between a measured signal and a set
point.
Fahrenheit One of the commonly used temperature scales.
Farad The unit of capacitance.
Feedback (1) The voltage fed from the output of an amplifier to the input in
order to control the characteristics of the amplifier. (2) The measured
variable signal fed to the controller in a closed-loop system, so that the

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controller can adjust the manipulated variable to keep the measured variable
within set limits.
Fiber optics The transmission of information through optical cables using
light signals.
Flow nozzle Adevice placed in a flow line to provide a pressure drop that
can be related to flow rate.
Flow rate The amount of fluid passing a given point in a given interval of
time.
Flume An open-channel flow-measuring device.
Form drag The force acting on an object due to the impact of fluid.
Foundation fieldbus Process control bus used in the United States.
Free convection Movement of heat as a result of density differences.
Free surface The surface of the liquid in an open-channel flow that is in
contact with the atmosphere.
Frequency The number of cycles completed in 1 s.
Gauge pressure The measured pressure above atmospheric pressure.
Gas thermometer Atemperature sensor that converts temperature to
pressure in a constant volume system.
Hall-effect sensor A transducer that converts a changing magnetic field
into a proportional voltage.
Head Sometimes used to indicate pressure, i.e., 1 ft of ―head‖ for water is
the pressure under a column of water 1 ft high.
Heat A form of energy related to the motion of atoms or molecules.
Heat transfer The study of heat energy movement.
Henry (H) The unit of inductance.
Hertz (Hz) A measure of frequency in cycles/second.
Hot-wire anemometry A velocity-measuring device for gas or liquid flow
that senses temperature changes, due to the cooling effect of gas or liquid
moving over a hot element.
Humidity A term to indicate the amount of water vapor present in the air or
a gas.
Humidity ratio The mass of water vapor in a gas divided by the mass of
dry gas in the mixture.
Hydrometer An instrument for measuring liquid density.
Hydrostatic paradox The fact that pressure varies with depth in a static
fluid, but is the same throughout the liquid at any given depth.
Hydrostatic pressure The pressure caused by the weight of static fluid.
Hygrometer A relative humidity-measuring device.
Hygroscopic Amaterial that absorbs water and whose conductivity changes
with moisture content.

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Hysteresis The non reproducibility in an instrument caused by approaching

a measurement from opposite directions, i.e., going from low up to the
value, or high down to the value.
Impact pressure The sum of the static and dynamic pressure in a moving
fluid.
Impedance An opposition to ac current or electron flow caused by

inductance and/or capacitance.
Incremental position measurement An incremental position
measurement from one point to another, absolute position is not recorded,
and position is lost if the power fails.
Indirect level-measuring device A device that extrapolates the level from
the measurement of another variable, i.e., liquid level from a pressure
measurement.
Inductance An electrical component that opposes a change in current or
electron flow.
Inductor A device that exhibits inductance.
Instrument A device used to measure a physical variable.
Integral action The action designed to correct for long-term loads.
Kelvin The absolute temperature scale associated with the Celsius scale.
Kirchoff’s current law The sum of the currents flowing at a node is zero.
Kirchoff’s voltage law The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed path
is zero.
Ladder logic The programmable logic used in PLCs to control automated
industrial processes.
Lag time The time required for a control system to return a measured
variable to its set point.
Laminar flow A smooth flow in which the fluid tends to move in layers.
LED Light emitting diode
Linearity A measure of the direct proportionality between actual value of
the variable being measured and the value of the output of the instrument to
a straight line.
Load The process load is a term used to denote the nominal values of all
variables in a process that affect the controlled variable.
Load cell A device for measuring force.
Loudness A subjective quantity used to measure relative sound strength.
LVDT A linear variable transformer that measures displacement by
conversion to a linearly proportional voltage.
Magnetorestrictive element (MRE) A magnetic field sensor that converts
a changing magnetic field into a proportional resistance.
Manipulated variable The variable controlled by an actuator to correct for
changes in the measured variable.

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Measured variable The variable measured to indicate the condition of the

process output.
Meniscus The convex or concave surface of a column of liquid in a tube.
Moment The effect of a force acting at a given perpendicular distance from
a point.
Natural convection The movement of heat as a result of density
differences.
Newtonian fluid A fluid in which the velocity varies linearly across the flow
section between parallel plates.
Node A junction of three or more conductors.
Noise The term usually used to indicate unwanted or undesirable sounds.
Nutating disk meter A flow-measuring device using a disk that rotates and
wobbles in response to the flow.
Offset The nonzero output of a circuit when the input is zero.
Ohmmeter An instrument used to measure resistance.
ON/OFF control A system in which a process actuator has only two
positions, i.e., on and off.
Open-channel flow The flow in an open conduit (e.g., as in a ditch).
Operational amplifier A circuit used to amplify electronic signals.
Orifice plate A plate containing a hole which when placed in a pipe causes a
pressure drop which can be related to flow rate.
Over pressure The term used to describe the maximum amount of pressure
a gauge can withstand without damage or loss of accuracy.
Overshoot The overcorrection of the measured variable in a control loop.
Parabolic velocity distribution Occurs in laminar flow when the velocity
across the cross-section takes on the shape of a parabola.
Parallel transmission Simultaneous transmission of a number of binary
bits.
Pascal Pressure reading units (SI), i.e., newtons per square meter
Pascal’s law The pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to
every part of the fluid.
Percent of reading The accuracy given in terms of the percentage of the
reading.
Percentage full-scale accuracy The accuracy determined by dividing the
accuracy of an instrument by its full-scale output taken as a percentage.
Period A fixed amount of time during which alternating current is
completing one full cycle and is the inverse of the frequency in Hertz.
pH A term used to indicate the activity of the hydrogen ions in a solution, it
helps to describe the acidity or alkalinity of the solution.
Phase A term used to describe the state of matter, i.e., solid, liquid, or gas.
Phons A unit for describing the difference in loudness levels.
Photodiode A sensor used to measure light intensity by measuring the
leakage across a pn junction.

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PlD Proportional control with derivative and integral action.

P&ID Stands for piping and instrument diagrams.
Piezoelectric effect The electrical voltage developed across certain
crystalline materials when a force or pressure is applied to the material.
Pitot-static tube A device used to measure the flow rate using the
difference between dynamic and static pressures.
PLC Programmable logic controller.
Pneumatic System that employs gas for control or signal transmission.
Poise The measurement unit of dynamic or absolute viscosity.
Potentiometer (Pot) An adjustable resistance device.
Precision The smallest division that can be read on an instrument.
Pressure The magnitude of a force divided by the area over which it acts,
i.e., psi or Pa.
Pressure differential The difference in pressure amplitudes at two
locations.
Process A sequence of operations carried out to achieve a desired end
result.
Process control The automatic control of certain process variables to hold
them within given limits.
Processor A digital electronic computing system that can be used as a
control system.
Profibus Process control bus used in Europe
Proportional action A controller action in which the controller output is
directly proportional to the measured variable error.
Psychrometric chart A chart dealing with moisture content in the
atmosphere.
Pyrometer An instrument for measuring temperature by sensing the radiant
energy from a hot body.
Radiation The emission of energy from a body in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
Range The lowest to the highest readings that can be made by a sensing
device.
Rankine The absolute temperature scale associated with the Fahrenheit
scale.
Rate action See Derivative action.
Reactance The opposition to an ac current or electron flow caused by a
capacitor or an inductor.
Relative humidity The amount of water vapor present in a given volume of
a gas, expressed as a percentage of the amount that would be present in the
same volume of gas under saturated conditions at the same pressure and
temperature.
Reluctance The opposition in a material to carrying magnetic flux, it is the
magnetic equivalence to resistance.

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Repeatability A measure of the closeness between several consecutive

readings of a value.
Reproducibility The ability of an instrument to produce the same reading of
a variable with repeated readings.
Reset action See Integral action.
Resistance A measure of the opposition to electron or current flow in a
material.
Resistance thermometer (RTD) A temperature sensor that provides
temperature readings by measuring the resistance of a metal wire (usually
platinum).
Resistivity Atemperature-dependent ―constant‖ that reflects a material‘s
resistance to electron flow.
Resistor A component that exhibits resistance.
Resolution The minimum detectable change of a variable in a
measurement.
Reynolds Number A dimensionless number indicating whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
Rotameter A flow-measuring device in which a float moves in a vertical
tapered tube.
Saturated The condition when the maximum amount of a material is
dissolved in another material at the given pressure and temperature
conditions, i.e., water vapor in a gas.
Sealing fluid An inert fluid used in a manometer to separate the fluid whose
pressure is being measured from the manometer fluid.
Segmented plate An orifice plate with a hole located so as to allow
suspended solids to pass through.
Sensitivity The ratio of the change in output to input magnitudes.
Sensor A device that can convert a physical variable into a measurable
quantity.
Serial transmission A sequential transmission of digital bits.
Set point The reference value for a controlled variable in a process control
loop.
Signal conditioning The conversion of a signal to a format that can be
used for transmission.
Single-point level measurement Indicates when a particular level has
been reached.
Sling psychrometer A device for measuring relative humidity.
Smart sensor Integration of a processor directly into the sensor assembly
to give direct control of the actuator and digital communication to a central
controller.
Sone A unit for measuring loudness.
Sound pressure level The difference between the maximum air pressure at
a point and the average air pressure at that point.

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Span The difference between the lowest and highest reading for an
instrument.
Specific gravity The ratio of the specific weight of a solid or liquid material
and the specific weight of water, or for a gas, the ratio of the specific weight
of the gas and the specific weight of air under the same conditions.
Specific heat The amount of heat required to raise a definite amount of a
substance by one degree, i.e., 1 lb 1°F or 1 g 1°C.
Specific humidity The mass of water vapor in a mixture divided by the
mass of dry air or gas in the mixture.
Specific weight The weight of a unit volume of a material.
Static pressure The part of the total pressure in a moving fluid not caused
by the fluid motion.
Stoke The measurement unit of kinematic viscosity.
Strain gauge Asensor that converts information about the deformation of
solid objects when they are acted upon by a force into a change of
resistance.
Sublimation Passing directly from solid to vapor or vapor to solid.
Telemetry The electrical transmission of information over long distances
usually by radio frequencies.
Temperature The term used to describe the hotness or coldness of an
object.
Thermal conductivity A measure of the ability of a material to conduct
heat.
Thermal expansion The expansion of a material as a result of its being
heated.
Thermal time constant The time required for a body to heat or cool by
63.2 percent of the difference between the initial temperature and the
aiming temperature.
Thermistor A temperature sensing element made from a metal oxide that
usually has a negative temperature coefficient.
Thermocouple Atemperature sensing device that uses dissimilar metal
junctions to generate a voltage proportional to the differential temperature
between the metal junctions.
Thermometer An instrument used to measure temperature.
Thermopile A number of thermocouples connected in series.
Time constant (electrical) The amount of time needed for a capacitance
C, to discharge or charge through a resistance R, by 62.3 percent of the
difference between the initial voltage and the aiming voltage; the product of
RC gives the time constant in seconds.
Torque The name given to a force moment that tends to create a twisting
action.
Torr The pressure caused by the weight of a column of mercury 1 mm high.
Total flow The amount of flow past a given point over some length of time.

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Total pressure The sum of the static and dynamic pressures in a moving
fluid.
Transducer A device that changes energy from one form to another.
Transfer function An equation that describes the relationship between the
input and output of the function.
Transmission The transferring of information from one point to another.
Transmitter A device that conditions the signal received from a transducer
so that it is suitable for sending to another location with minimal loss of
information.
Turbine flow meter A flow-measuring device using a turbine wheel.
Turbulent flow An agitated flow in which there are random velocity
fluctuations on top of the average flow.
U-tube manometer A glass tube in the shape of the letter U that is used to
measure pressure or pressure differences.
Ultrasonic probe An instrument using high-frequency sound waves to
measure fluid levels.
Vacuum (pressure) The amount that the measured pressure is below
atmospheric pressure.
Velocity Ameasure of speed, and in a flow is the average speed across the
flow and the direction of movement of a liquid.
Vena contracta The narrowing down of the fluid flow stream as it passes
through an obstruction.
Venturi tube Aspecially shaped restriction in a section of pipe that provides
a pressure drop which can be related to flow rate.
Viscometer (viscosimeter) An instrument for measuring viscosity.
Viscosity The term describing the resistance to flow of a fluid.
Volt The unit of electromotive force.
Voltage An electromotive force that causes electrons or a current to flow.
Voltage drop The difference in voltage between two points.
Vortex Swirling or rotating fluid motion.
Wavelength The time for an alternating source to complete a full cycle.
Weir An open-channel flow-measuring device.
Wet-bulb temperature The temperature indicated by a thermometer
whose sensing element is kept moist.
Wheatstone bridge The most common electrical bridge circuit used to
measure small changes in the value of an element.

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CALIBRATION FACILITY
Instruments/ Gauges Range Master tester

Least
Count
Up to 25mm
0.001mm
Above 25mm up
to and 100mm Slip gauge grade „0”
External Micrometers
Up to 25mm
0.01mm
Above 25mm up
to and 100mm
0.001mm Metroscope
Internal Micrometers(Micrometer
0 to 50 mm
head)
0.01mm Metroscope
Extension rods 0 to 270 mm Metroscope
Up to 300mm 0.01mm Caliper Checker and Slip gauges 0 grade
Above 300 and

0.01mm Caliper Checker and Slip gauges 0 grade
Vernier callipers up to 600mm
Up to 300mm 0.02mm Caliper Checker and Slip gauges 0 grade
Above 300 and

up to 600mm
0.01mm
Up to 300 mm
0.02mm
Vernier depth gauge(Dial,Digital)
0.01mm
Caliper Checker and Slip gauges 0 grade
300 to 600mm
0.02mm

Page 66 of 71

Depth micrometer Up to 100 mm
Tubular micrometers Up to 1000 mm ULM
0.001mm
Upto 300mm
0.01mm
0.02mm
Height Gauges Caliper checker & Slip gauge o grade
0.001mm
Above 300mm
0.01mm
up to 600mm
0.02mm
Upto 100mm
Metroscope
Plain Plug Gauges
Up to 300 mm
Pin Gauge Up to 20mm Metroscope
Upto 100mm
Thread Plug Gauges Metroscope

Upto 300mm
Up to 100mm
Plain Ring Gauges Metroscope

Up to 300mm
Thread Ring Gauges Upto 100 mm Metroscope

Page 67 of 71
Up to 250mm
Feeler gauges
Up to 2mm Metroscope
Metroscope,
Miscellaneous Measurements Linear 300mm Vernier calipers,
Micrometers
Up to 50 mm 0.002mm
0.001mm
Plunger dial gauges Up to 50mm
0.01mm
Lever dial gauges 0.001mm
0.002mm Metroscope
Up to 2mm
0.01mm
0.001mm
Bore dial gauges Up to 2mm Metroscope

0.01mm
(Transmission)

Page 68 of 71
Up to 100 mm --- Metroscope

Snap gauges
100 to 300mm --- Metroscope
0.001mm Metroscope
Groove dial gauges Up to 100mm
0.01mm Metroscope
0.001mm Slip gauge grade “0”

Up to 25 mm
External 0.01mm Slip gauge grade “0”
Micrometers(Blade,Flange,Point,Ball
and pin) 0.001mm Slip gauge grade “0”
Above 25 to 200
mm
0.01mm Slip gauge grade “0”
Electronic height gauge Up to 600mm 0.0001mm Caliper checker
0.01/0.001
Dial thickness gauge Up to 50mm Slip gauges grade “0”
mm
Push pull gauges Up to 150 Kg 1 gram M1 Class wieghts
Class III
Weighing balance Up to 150 Kg M1 Class wieghts
and IV
Measuring tapes and scales Up to 1000mm 0.5 mm Caliper checker and Slip gauges
Thickness foils Up to 2 mm
ULM
Slip gauges(Gr II) ULM & 0 grade slip gauge
Up to 1000 2
2 0.1 Kg/cm Digital pressure sensor
Kg/Cm
Pressure gauges
Up to 1000 2
2 1 Kg/cm Digital Pressure sensor
Kg/cm
Special jigs and fixures Up to 300 mm ULM, Slip gauges, Micrometers
Volume Measures( Cylinders , Jars,

Up to 2000ml 0.1 ml Measuring Cylinders & pipettes
Beakers, Pipettes &Burettes)
All other measuring instruments Will be calibrated from other labs

Page 69 of 71
ON THE JOB TRAINING PROGRAM ON METROLOGY

AND
CALIBRATIONS.
(At NABL Accredited calibration Laboratory as per IS/ISO/IEC 17025:2005)
We offer a two day training program for Technical personnel at our Laboratory
Eligibility: ITI, Diploma or BE/B.Tech, Bsc (Physics)
Personnel presently working in QA/QC departments irrespective of qualifications also eligible.
Course will be an added advantage for Engineers working in QA/QC,

maintenance and
production departments.
Training dates can be flexible as per the convenience of candidates and faculty.
SUBJECTS
Calibration Techniques, Requirements of IS/ISO/IEC: 17025:2005, Handling of precision
instruments
Housekeeping and 5”S”, Introduction to linear Metrology, Metrological terms and definitions.

E mail :-info@isotech.in
divakaranmullath@isotech.in
Phone:04912569950
Mob:-08547335615
References:-Catalogues and web sites of various metrology equipments

manufactures.
ISOTECH METROLOGY SOLUTIONS, KANJIKODE,PALAKKAD.

info@isotech.in, Phone: 04912569950,Mob: 08547335615
09745457915, www.isotech.in
Page 70
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Introduction To Linear Metrology

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LINEAR METROLOGY-An introduction.

ISOTECH METROLOGY SOLUTIONS, KANJIKODE,PALAKKAD.

Divakaran M Ali Otupara

Isotech Metrology Solutions

DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS IN METROLOGY

METROLOGY AND CALIBRATION

ACCOMODATION AND ENVIRONMENT

MEANINGS OF TERMS USED IN METROLOGY

Isotech Metrology Solutions

This book is specifically written as an introduction to modern day metrology

Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures

Traceability is most often obtained by calibration, establishing the relation

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DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS IN METROLOGY

International System of Units, SI

The SI is based at present on the following seven base units:

Quantity SI base unit Symbol

The science of measurement is called Metrology

The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear

Set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationships

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Isotech Metrology Solutions

True absolute error: It is the algebraic difference between the

result of measurement and the conventional true value of the quantity

Alignment Error (Cosine Error):

The axis or line of measurement of the measured portion should exactly

job L, as shown in Figure.

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Parallax Error (Reading Error):

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The rings as show in Figure whose thickness is to be measured. Number of

Property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby

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Closeness of the agreement between the results of successive

Closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the

Parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, that characterizes

*The degree of doubt about a measurement!

It used to be one ten millionth of the distance of

Multification factors of Length

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Isotech Metrology Solutions

METROLOGY AND CALIBRATION

WHAT IS THE TIME NOW? A very common question

HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT OF LENGHT

The different types of standards of length are

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(a)Line Standard – When length is measured as the distance between

(b)End Standard – When length is measured as the distance between to flat

International Prototype Meter

International Prototype meter is defined as the straight line distance, at 0‘c

Line and End Standards and differentiate between them.

When length is measured as the distance between centers of two engraved

E.g. Scale, Rulers, Imperial Standard Yard.

When length is expressed as the distance between centers of two flat

Characteristics of End Standards

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It is very much essential to calibrate the instrument so as to maintain its

Calibration is the process of checking the dimension and tolerances of a

Dimensional and Geometric Tolerance:

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In the design and manufacture of engineering products a great deal of

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerance (GD&T) is a universal language of