Electrical modeling of InSb PiN photodiode

for avalanche operation

Cite as: J. Appl. Phys. 113, 183716 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4804956
Submitted: 01 March 2013 . Accepted: 29 April 2013 . Published Online: 14 May 2013

J. Abautret, J. P. Perez, A. Evirgen, F. Martinez, P. Christol, J. Fleury, H. Sik, R. Cluzel, A. Ferron, and J.
Rothman

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© 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.

 JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 113, 183716 (2013)

Electrical modeling of InSb PiN photodiode for avalanche operation

J. Abautret,1,2 J. P. Perez,1 A. Evirgen,1,2 F. Martinez,1 P. Christol,1,a) J. Fleury,3 H. Sik,3
R. Cluzel,2 A. Ferron,4 and J. Rothman4
1
Institut d’Electronique du Sud, UMR-CNRS 5214-Universit
e Montpellier 2, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05,
France
2
SOFRADIR, BP 21, 38113 Veurey-Voroize, France
3
SAGEM DEFENSE SECURITE, Etablissement d’Argenteuil, BP 72, 95101 Argenteuil Cedex, France
4
CEA-LETI, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble Cedex 9, France

(Received 1 March 2013; accepted 29 April 2013; published online 14 May 2013)
Current density-voltage (J-V) characteristics at 77 K of InSb pin photodiodes, in dark condition and
under illumination, were simulated in view to design an avalanche photodiode (APD). Theoretical
J-V results were compared with experimental results, performed on InSb diode fabricated by
molecular beam epitaxy, in order to validate the parameter values used for the modeling. Then, with
the assumption of multiplication induced by the electrons, an optimized separate absorption and
multiplication APD structure was defined by theoretically studying the absorber doping level and the
multiplication layer thickness. Calculated gain value higher than 10 was achieved at V ¼ 4.5 V.
This result shows the potentiality of InSb material as APD device. V C 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.

[http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4804956]

I. INTRODUCTION 12 V was achieved with a 6 lm thick multiplication layer.12

Unfortunately, InAs material, with a cut-off wavelength
For the past fifty years, the need in high performance
equal to 3.05 lm at 77 K, does not cover the entire MWIR
photodetectors operating in the midwave infrared (MWIR)
domain. An alternative of HgCdTe MWIR APD, with a nar-
spectral range (2–5 lm) has still been increasing, particularly
rowest bandgap than InAs, could be the use of InSb material.
for military and defense applications. Nowadays, an impor-
Indeed, the InSb remains the most used material for MWIR
tant effort concerns the improvement of those detectors
imaging, showing a cut-off wavelength at 5.5 lm at 77 K,
satisfying the SWaP (Size, Weight, and Power) criteria for
and its band structure seems to be favorable for the fabrica-
passive or active infrared imaging applications. In particular,
tion of single-carrier multiplication APD initiated only by
for scene with very low flux of infrared photons, high speed
electrons (SCM e-APD). Consequently, impact ionization
and sensitive infrared avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are
processes in this material have been theoretically
required, motivating important research activities.1,2
studied,13–17 leading to an ionization factor k ¼ b/a in the
Since the early works of Mc Intyre,3 it is well known
order of 102,17 comparable to that of InAs or HgCdTe
that the basic condition for a low excess noise factor F(M)
APDs. For one of the most recent studies, self-consistent 2-D
and high gain M APD, is that the photo-carriers injected in
Monte Carlo simulations were used to study the low noise
the multiplication region must be of only one carrier type,
and high gain potential of InSb e-APD.17 As a promising
electrons or holes, having the highest ionization coefficient,
result, it was found a gain value of around 60 at V ¼ 2.5 V
a or b, respectively. In the MWIR spectral range, impressive
for a 3.2 lm thick avalanche region. This theoretical result
performances have been obtained with Hg0.7Cd0.3Te e-APDs
indicates that low-noise avalanching could be a property of
having cut-off wavelength at 5 lm at 77 K Refs. 4–6 with a
InSb material but, paradoxically, up to now, no InSb APD
gain record value higher than 5000 at V ¼ 12.5 V without
has been fabricated.
additional noise.4 These results make HgCdTe APD to be
The main objective of this paper is to design an InSb pin
one of the most promising systems for the fabrication of
diode allowing its utilization as APD device. Section II is
focal plane arrays for active or hyperspectral infrared imag-
devoted to the simulation of the dark current-voltage of an
ing.2,7 Recently, extremely low noise InAs APD measure-
InSb pin photodiode. Model for currents available in Silvaco
ments have been reported8–12 with avalanche multiplication
ATLAS is described and simulated results are fitted with experi-
process dominated by impact ionization of electrons
mental results, performed on InSb diode fabricated by molec-
(e-APDs). Typical gain values M equal to 15 was measured
ular beam epitaxy (MBE), in order to extract carrier lifetimes
on pin diodes at V ¼ 12 V (77 K) without excess noise, for
at 77 K and residual carrier concentration of undoped absorb-
a 3.5 lm thick multiplication region.11 Thanks to improve-
ing zone. In particular, the high voltage behavior is theoreti-
ment of structure design and growth conditions, room tem-
cally investigated to evaluate the contribution of the band to
perature multiplication gain of 80 at high reverse bias of
band tunneling current on total current of the diode. Next, in
Sec. III, the modeling of a separate absorption and multiplica-
a) tion (SAM) APD structure, with multiplication induced by
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail:
philippe.christol@ies.univ-montp2.fr. Telephone: (33) 4 67 52 43 68. Fax: electrons, is carried out. By studying both the effect of the
(33) 4 67 54 48 42. absorber doping level and the multiplication layer thickness

0021-8979/2013/113(18)/183716/7/$30.00 113, 183716-1 C 2013 AIP Publishing LLC

V
183716-2 Abautret et al. J. Appl. Phys. 113, 183716 (2013)

on the electro-optical performances of the SAM structure, an

optimized structure design was defined showing gain values
suitable for APD operation.

II. InSb PHOTODIODE MODELING

InSb technology is the historical and always the emblem-
atic material system for the MWIR domain.18 InSb infrared
photodiodes operating at 77 K are commonly fabricated by
standard planar method where the p-n junction is formed by
ion implantation on one side of an InSb bulk substrate.
Epitaxial growth techniques can be also used to create the p-n
junction where the photodiode is defined by mesa etch.19
Models performed on InSb photodiodes were made in order
to understand the dominant dark current mechanisms limiting
performances20–22 and to define optimum device struc-
tures.22,23 More recently, performance evaluation of InSb
photodiodes for high temperature operation was made by FIG. 1. InSb pin structure defined for the ATLAS simulator.
using device simulators.24,25 In addition, numerical simula-
tions have also been performed to understand photoresponse ATLAS manual.29 The InSb material parameters are summar-
characteristics of InSb photodiode in order to optimize the ized in Table I. All this study was performed at 77 K with a
thickness of the absorption layer26 and to reduce crosstalk.27 bandgap Eg(77 K) ¼ 0.235 eV. The carrier lifetime values
In this work, numerical simulations were performed were first taken in the order of the microsecond for the elec-
using the ATLAS software from SILVACO. This is a commer- tron (sn ) and the nanosecond for the hole (sp ) (Ref. 22)
cial tool often used in the development of advanced semicon- before to be adjusted when compared with experimental
ductor devices.28 It gives some physically based simulations measurements (see sec. II D). Finally, the electron and hole
of the electrical properties of a semiconductor structure, mobilities were defined using a mobility model depending
defined on a 2D or 3D mesh, and provides much information both on carrier concentration and temperature.17,30
about the internal physical mechanisms. To simulate the
transport of carriers through the pin structure, a set of differ- B. Model for current simulation
ential equations, such as Poisson and drift-diffusion equa-
tions, carrier continuity, Fermi-Dirac statistics onto the grid For the total dark current of the diode, several contribu-
of the structure, are used. It directly derived from Maxwell’s tions have to be considered: diffusion current (JDiff),
laws and means that the electrical performance of the device generation-recombination current (JGR), trap assisted tunnel-
can be modeled in DC, AC, or transient operation modes. ing current (JTAT), and band-to-band tunneling current
(JBTB). For InSb epi-diode operating at 77 K, dark current is
A. Material parameters clearly dominated at low reverse bias (V < 100 mV) by JGR
before to be limited by JTAT and JBTB that appear at higher
The basic InSb pin mesa structure on n-type (100) InSb reverse bias applied.22
substrate used in the simulation is depicted in Fig. 1. It con- The diffusion current contribution is obtained by solving
sists of a 400 nm thick n-doped (n ¼ 1  1017 cm3) buffer the drift-diffusion model using the following expression:
layer, followed by 1 lm thick of a non-intentionally doped
(nid) absorbing layer, and finally capped with a p-doped Jn;p ¼ qðn; pÞln;p E 6 qDn;p rn;p ; (1)
(p ¼ 5  1017 cm3) layer (500 nm). Next, different thick-
nesses and doping values of nid and p-doped layers will be where J represents the current density, q is the electronic
considered in the simulation and then in the MBE fabrica- charge, l is the mobility, E is the electric field, D is the diffu-
tion. In order to reduce the computational time, the simulated sion constant, and n and p are the electron and hole concen-
structures have a 10 lm  10 lm cross section while square tration, respectively.
mesa diodes with a cross-section of 200 lm  200 lm have
been fabricated.
Because of its cylindrical symmetry (mesa configura- TABLE I. InSb material parameters used in the ATLAS simulator at 77 K.22,29
tion), the simulation can be considered as quasi 1-D with
Bandgap Egð77 KÞ ¼ 0:235 eV
constant mesh size in the x radial direction and different
Effective masses me ¼ 0:014m0 mh ¼ 0:43m0
mesh sizes in the y axial direction (Fig. 1). The mesh
Effective density of states in Nc ð77 KÞ ¼ 5:40  1015 cm3
presents lower resolution in the x-direction and is more
conduction and valence bands Nv ð77 KÞ ¼ 9:25  1017 cm3
refined in the y-direction at each interface where there are
Intrinsic carrier concentration ni ¼ 1:6  109 cm3
different doping layers and space charge regions. Permittivity e ¼ 17:7e0
Next, we have to define and/or improve material param- Auger coefficients 5  1026 cm6s1 for electron and hole
eters of the InSb structure for the device simulation. Most of Carrier lifetimes sn ¼ 1 ls sp ¼ 300 ns
them are well known in the literature22 or proposed in the
183716-3 Abautret et al. J. Appl. Phys. 113, 183716 (2013)

The generation-recombination process is described by evolution in the structures varying both the cadmium compo-
the well-known SRH recombination rate31,32 sition and the temperature.37,38 We have chosen this model,
available in the ATLAS simulator, to add the impact ionization
pn  n2ie process in the simulations. The main issue for this modeling
RSRH ¼ h  i h  i ; (2)
t Ei Ei Et comes from the fact that an experimental gain measurement
sp n þ nie exp EkT L
þ sn p þ nie exp KTL
is needed. As there is no experimental measurement
achieved on InSb avalanche photodiode with a defined multi-
with n, p, and nie the electron, the hole, and the intrinsic car-
plication layer thickness, we supposed e-APD with no addi-
rier concentration, respectively; Et is the trap energy level
tion of excess noise and used the following expression
which is set equal to Ei the intrinsic Fermi level, k is the
(Eq. (7)) for the electron impact ionization process:
Boltzmann constant, and TL is the lattice temperature. sn and
sp are the electron and hole carrier lifetime.  
c b
The current density is then given by aðEÞ ¼ aE exp  ; (7)
E
ð
JGR ¼ q RSRH dy: (3) where a, b, and c are the Okuto-Crowel parameters and E is
W
the electric field.
The a, b, c parameters are directly related to the gain
Then, we modeled the JTAT by using the Eq. (4), similar to evolution: a is referred to the slope of the gain curve, b to the
the previous one (Eq. (2)), but including a field effect factor beginning of the avalanche effect, and c a fitted parameter.
C (Ref. 32) in order to modify the SRH trap lifetime. This As mentioned before, an experimental gain measurement is
modification especially includes the effect of phonon- needed in order to fit the data with the following expression:
assisted tunneling on the emission of electrons and holes
M ¼ e½aV w1c expðbw
V Þ
C
from a trap ; (8)

pn  n2ie and to extract the Okuto-Crowel parameters.

RSRH ¼ h  i h  i ;
sp t Ei sn Ei Et Using recent gain measurements realized on InAs
n þ nie exp EkT þ p þ nie exp
1þCp L 1þCn KTL e-APD8–11 and HgCdTe gain modeling,37,38 the following
(4) Okuto-Crowel values a ¼ 27, b ¼ 3000, and c ¼ 0.6 for InSb
material were first estimated. These values will be adjusted
with when experimental results will be available.
It is well-known that the conduction band of InSb mate-
ð1  
DEn;p DEn;p 3 rial is non-parabolic,24,39 but the impact of non-parabolic
Cn;p ¼ exp u  Kn;p u du;
2 (5) effects in our current modeling for APD diode is marginal
kTL kTL
0 because the impact ionization, initiated by the electrons,
begins at low reverse bias near the minimum of the conduc-
where DEn,p is the energy range in which tunneling can occur tion band. Moreover, the possible non-parabolic character is
for an electron or a hole, and u is the variable of integration. taken into account in the modeling through the choice of the
Kn and Kp are factors including the reduced tunnel mass mt pertinent Okuto-Crowel (a and b) parameters (Eq. (7)).
and given by the following expression:33
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi C. Pin modeling
3
4 2:mt :DEn;p
Kn;p ¼ ; (6) Fig. 2 displays dark current density simulations at 77 K
h
3 q 2p jEj for the pin InSb structure shown in Fig. 1. Four n-type

with mt ¼ 0.0135m0 and E is the electric field.

In addition, we define the Auger recombination rate
by RAuger ¼ Cn(pn2  nnie2 ) þ Cp(np2  pnie2 ) with Cn and
Cp the Auger recombination coefficients both equal to
5  1026 cm6s1 according to the literature.34
Finally, for the band to band tunneling rate, we used
a non-local model, taking into account the spatial variation
of the energy bands, and the fact that the generation-
recombination of opposite carrier types are not spatially
coherent.35 This model requires a second mesh in the region
where the band to band tunneling can occurs.
The last phenomenon, required for accurate current sim-
ulation under medium to high electric field, is the impact
ionization process. The Okuto-Crowel model35,36 has
shown very good results in modeling the gain evolution of FIG. 2. Simulated dark current density as a function of the bias voltage of the
Hg1xCdxTe APD, with the possibility to predict the gain InSb pin structure for different active zone residual doping levels at 77 K.
183716-4 Abautret et al.
FIG. 3. InSb pin structure: Simulated energy band diagram at 0 V (a) and
Electric field in the depleted region at 3 V (b) for different doping levels in
the nid layer.
residual doping concentration values in the nid absorbing
zone have been investigated: 5  1014 cm3, 1  1015 cm3,
5  1015 cm3, and 1  1016 cm3.
This figure clearly shows the influence of the doping
level of the intrinsic zone on the dark current values and on
the apparition of the JBTB current. This could be explained
by the energy bands curvature appearing earlier with the
increase of the residual doping (Fig. 3(a)) and by the electric
field which is stronger at higher residual doping level (Fig.
3(b)). It is to note that once this dark current contribution
appears, we can no longer discriminate the avalanche phe-
nomenon from the tunneling one. Consequently, the control
by MBE of the residual doping concentration in the intrinsic
nid absorbing zone is essential for the realization of an InSb
pin structure operating at high voltage.
FIG. 4. Schematic InSb pin structure realized by MBE.
J. Appl. Phys. 113, 183716 (2013)
FIG. 5. InSb pin structure: C-V curve performed at T ¼ 77 K of 200  200
lm2 diode size (solid line) and (A/C)2 associated curve (dashed line).
D. Comparison with experimental measurements
In order to valid the simulation, we have fabricated the
structure by MBE shown on Fig. 4, on a VARIAN Gen II
solid-source MBE system equipped with antimony-valved
cracker cell providing Sb2 species. Beryllium (Be) and tellu-
rium (Te) were used as dopants in order to provide p-type
and n-type layers, respectively. After MBE growth, mesas
diodes were prepared using standard photolitography techni-
ques. Ti (20 nm)/Pt(20 nm)/Au (200 nm) contact layers were
deposited on top of the mesa (p-type InSb layer) and on the
back of the InSb n-type substrate. A citric acid/hydrogen
peroxide-based wet etching process40 has been used to gen-
erate mesa sidewalls with mesa size of 200 lm  200 lm.
Typical passivation is made by 300 nm SiO coating using
thermal vapor deposition.
Then, photodiodes were electrically characterized
by current density-voltage (J-V) and capacitance-voltage
(C-V) measurements at 77 K. Typical C-V measurement at
a frequency of 1 MHz is presented on Fig. 5. A residual
doping level in the nid layer between 8  1014 cm3 and
1  1015 cm3 was usually extracted from 1/C2 curves.41
J-V curve of such diode is reported in Fig. 6 and com-
pared with simulation where the doping level in the nid layer
is set to 1  1015 cm3.
FIG. 6. InSb pin structure: Experimental (solid line) and simulated (dashed
line) dark current densities as a function of the bias voltage for a residual
doping level of 1  1015 cm3 at 77 K. Carrier lifetimes values sn ¼ 30 ls
and sp ¼ 20 ns, are extracted for electrons and holes, respectively.
183716-5 Abautret et al.
FIG. 7. Schematic structure used for the SAM-APD simulation. The p-type
absorber zone is made of different doping values while for the n-type multi-
plication region several thicknesses are studied.
We observed quite good agreement between experimen-
tal data and simulation. The carrier lifetimes were adjusted
to fit the measurements leading to the following values
sn ¼ 30 ls and sp ¼ 20 ns, for electron and hole, respectively.
Those values are coherent with carrier lifetime measure-
ments performed in n-type InSb42 and will be used for the
following simulations. As a first result, the reduction of the
band to band tunneling current is achieved with the ability to
realize by MBE InSb pin structure with a background doping
level under 1  1015 cm3.
III. DESIGN OPTIMIZATION FOR AVALANCHE
PHOTODIODE OPERATION
In this part, we propose to describe different ways to
optimize the reduction of the band to band tunneling current
and to improve the benefit of the avalanche phenomenon in
InSb photodiode. The typical structure on n-type InSb sub-
strate is defined on Fig. 7.
The doping levels of the n-type t-thick multiplication
layer and the 400 nm-thick buffer layer are, respectively,
equal to 1  1015 cm3 and 1  1017 cm3. This structure
was designed to operate like a SAM-APD. Indeed, the 2 lm-
thick p-type InSb layer allows to absorb the major part of the
incoming photon flux43 and to inject only electrons in the
n-type multiplication layer. For the photocurrent simulation,
J. Appl. Phys. 113, 183716 (2013)
FIG. 9. InSb SAM-APD structure: Gain as a function of the bias voltage for
n-type layer thickness of 1 lm and for different doping values of p-type
absorbing layer.
a 1.55 lm frontside monochromatic light (intensity of
0.01 W/cm2) is used.
A. Influence of the p-type absorber doping level
To study the influence of the p-type absorber doping
level, the thickness of the multiplication layer is first taken
equal to 1 lm. Fig. 8 shows the simulated dark current den-
sities (a) and the simulated current densities under illumina-
tion at a wavelength of 1.55 lm at 77 K (b). One can remark
the important band to band tunneling dark current at reverse
bias equal to 2V, limiting the potential gain of such diode
design, as shown in Fig. 9. The associated gain curves
obtained by Eq. (9) (Ref. 2) for different p-type doping pro-
files of the 2 lm thick APD absorber are presented in Fig.
10. One of them consists of a p-type linear-graded doping
layer from 5  1016 cm3 to 1  1018 cm3 (from bottom to
top). This doping profile leads to both a small reduction of
the electric field and a suppression of eventual spikes.
Therefore, the tunneling current contribution appears at
higher reverse bias. Results displayed in Fig. 8 show that the
absorber doping level has a small influence on the gain
value. Whatever the doping profile, the gain value is close to
3 at 2.5 V, but a small shift in the apparition of the band to
FIG. 8. InSb SAM-APD structure:
Simulated dark current density (a) and
simulated current density under illumi-
nation (b) as a function of the bias volt-
age for n-type layer thickness of 1 lm
and for different doping values of p-type
absorbing layer at 77 K.
183716-6 Abautret et al.
band tunneling is observed. The more favorable doping
seems to be the graded one
Itot ðVÞ  Idark ðVÞ
M¼ : (9)
Itot ðV; M ¼ 1Þ  Idark ðV; M ¼ 1Þ
B. Influence of the multiplication layer thickness
We propose in this part to study the dark current density,
the photocurrent density, and then the gain value as a func-
tion of the multiplication layer thickness. The structures con-
sist of a 2 lm-thick p-type absorber layer with the graded
doping previously shown, a multiplication layer with a
n-type background doping level of 1  1015 cm3 whatever
its thickness, and a 400 nm-thick n-type buffer layer doped at
1  1017 cm3.
Fig. 10(a) clearly shows the reduction of the band to
band tunneling current contribution while increasing the
multiplication layer thickness. This trend is explained by the
reduction of the electric field in the structure inducing a
weaker available energy for the tunneling process (Fig.
10(b)).
We have also realized simulations under illumination
and extracted the gain value, presented in Fig. 11. It is worth
noting that there is no band to band tunneling current
FIG. 11. InSb SAM-APD structure: Gain as a function of the bias voltage
for p-type graded layer and for different multiplication layer thicknesses t.
J. Appl. Phys. 113, 183716 (2013)
FIG. 10. InSb SAM-APD structure:
Simulated dark current density as a func-
tion of the bias voltage (a) and electric
field in the structure at 4.5 V (b) for
p-type graded layer and for different mul-
tiplication layer thicknesses t at 77 K.
contribution for the 3 lm-thick multiplication layer structure
up to 4.5 V with a predictable gain value higher than 10.
That demonstrates the importance of increasing the multipli-
cation layer thickness in order to reduce the band to band
tunneling current in InSb pin structures. A useful gain value
near 3 for a 1 lm-thick multiplication layer rises over 10 for
the 3 lm-thick one.
IV. CONCLUSION
Using the Silvaco ATLAS simulator, current-voltage char-
acteristics of InSb pin diode and APD devices were modeled.
The simulated results were fitted with InSb pin photodiode
grown by MBE on n-type InSb substrate having a residual
background carrier concentration in the undoped region
around 1  1015 cm3. In the case of an electron-initiated av-
alanche process, different (SAM) APD designs were theoret-
ically investigated, in order to put off the band to band
tunneling current apparition. Results show the influence of
the p-type absorber doping level and the necessity to increase
the multiplication layer thickness to reduce the contribution
of the band to band tunneling current. As a result, an opti-
mized SAM APD structure was defined. It consists of a
2 lm-thick p-type grading absorbing layer and a 3 lm-thick
n-type multiplication layer with a background doping level
under 1  1015 cm3, achieving a gain value higher than 10
at 4.5 V at 77 K. This performance evaluation will be soon
compared with experimental characteristics performed on
MBE grown InSb APD structure.
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