GEO-E-310L

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY LABORATORY

Session: Fall 2017

Instructor:
Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Awais Rashid
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
Instructor Information

Instructor: Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Awais Rashid, Assistant Professor

Office Location: Department of Geological Engineering
Telephone: Office: +92-42-99029297
E-mail: awais.rashid@uet.edu.pk

Office Hours: By appointment. Walk-ins welcome.

Course Identification

Course Number: GEO-E-310L

Course Name: Engineering Geology Laboratory
Credit Hours: Lab: 03
Course Location: Engineering Geology Lab
Class Times: Monday, Thursday 1-4pm

List of Experiments

Lab 1: Introduction to Engineering Geology laboratory equipment.

Lab 2: To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength of rock and concrete samples using L and N
Type Schmidt Rebound Hammer.

Lab 3: To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength using Point Load Test Apparatus.

Lab 4: Estimation of slaking potential of a given rock samples using Slake Durability Test
Apparatus.

Lab 5: To measure the percentage wear of the aggregates by using Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Apparatus.

Lab 6: Estimation of RQD, TCR, SCR and Fracture Index using given rock core samples.

Lab 7: Stereonet analysis of discontinuities and determination of possible failure modes by

manual plotting and using DIPS software.

Lab 8: Estimation of shear strength of discontinuities by using Robertson’s Rock Shear Box Test
Apparatus.
Lab 9: Estimation of dynamic elastic properties of a rock core samples by using Resonance
Frequency Meter Test Apparatus.
Lab 10: Estimation of angle of internal friction of various rock samples using Tilt Table Test
Apparatus.

Educational Objective:

At the end of this lab, students should be able to use different laboratory equipment to estimate
the various engineering properties of soil and rock and understand their significance to
environmental investigations and engineering projects including: dams, bridges and underground
structures.

List of Equipment/Workstations:
1. Schmidt Rebound Hammer
2. Point Load Test Apparatus
3. Slake Durability Test Apparatus
4. Los Angeles Abrasion Test Apparatus
5. Rock core Boxes for Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
6. Pocket Vane Shear Testers
7. Robertson’s Rock Shear Box Test Apparatus
8. Resonance Frequency Meter Test Apparatus
9. Tilt Table Test Apparatus

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the conclusion of this laboratory work, the students will be able to:

Sr. Assessment
CLO Assessment Tool
No. Level
Conduct various experiments to find
physical and engineering properties of Lab report, Quizzes and
1 Psychomotor 4
geological material by using international Viva
standards.

Graduate Attributes
Target Program Outcomes:
PLO – 1: Engineering Knowledge
Mapping of Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) to Program Learning Outcome (PLOs)

PLO/CLO CLO1

PLO – 1 X
Course Resources

Engineering Geology Lab Manual Reference Material

Various International standards and procedures (ASTM, ISRM etc.) are selected to conduct different
experiments.

Grading Scheme
Assessment
Grades will be based on the following:

Laboratory Experimental Report 25%

Quizzes 20%
Viva Voice Exam/Mini Project 30%
Psychomotor Assessment 25%
Total Points 100%

Semester Rules
The lab work follows the semester rules laid down by UET. Students are advised to know these
rules. These rules can be downloaded from the following link:

http://uams.uet.edu.pk/Public/DownloadForms.aspx

Attendance Policy:
(Given in semester rules) is pasted below for reference:
Students failing to maintain a minimum attendance of 75% in a subject during a semester shall
be awarded a "WF" grade. Chairman in consultation with the respective Dean shall review cases
of students seeking relaxation of up to 10% in attendance requirement. The relaxation shall be
allowed after approval by the Dean. Any relaxation in excess of 10% shall be forwarded to the
Vice Chancellor through the respective Dean for final decision.
Plagiarism Policy:
The course follows the academic integrity policy, laid down by UET, which encourages anti-
plagiarism. Any type of academic fraud may lead to failure or expulsion from the course.
Psychomotor Rubric for Engineering Geology Lab Experiments

Criteria Unacceptable Developing Functional Proficient Advanced

(1-2 Point) (3-4 Point) (5-6 Points) (7-8 Points) (9-10 Points)

1 Equipment Use Unable to use Cannot Successfully Successfully Successfully

/ Understanding equipment complete tasks completes completes completes
despite of and standard procedures procedures procedures
repeated efforts procedures with moderate with minimal independently.
without supervision. supervision.
intense
supervision.

2 Safety Adopts no Fails to notice Minor flaws in Practices most Practices

Measures safety measures important Safety. procedures safely, can
despite repeated information Requires safely work
instructions and safety constant conforms to independently
factors in the supervision. the lab and take
workplace. regulations initiative as
with minimal well as
supervision. cooperating
effectively in a
team.

3 Involvement Keeps no Performs with Performs with Shows good Show excellent
involvement in little energy, some energy, performance performance
the Group focus and no focus and with with unusual
Activity commitment. commitment. confidence, energy, is much
Needs energy and focused and
supervision commitment. shows
confidence and
full
commitment.

4 Care in Does not care in No Adequate Good Always

handling handling the demonstration demonstration demonstration demonstrates
equipment equipment low respect of respect and of respect and respect and care
and care for care for care for for equipment.
equipment. equipment. equipment.
Rubrics for Lab Report Checking/Assessment

Attribute [1-3 points] Poor [4-7 points] [8-10 points] Score

Acceptable Exceeds
Expectations

1 Report Completeness Poor quality and Moderate quality Excellent quality

incomplete. and partially and complete in all
complete. aspects.

2 Technical Accuracy Calculations and Calculations and Calculations and

data collection is data collection is data collection is
not done done with moderate done with complete
properly. accuracy. accuracy.

3 Report presentation & Poor presentation Moderate quality of Excellent

Writing Skills and writing skills. presentation. presentation and
writing skills.

4 Team work Group unable to Reasonable Cooperation both

work together. cooperation inside and outside
between group the group.
members.

Total ( /10)
 Engineering Geology Laboratory
(Detailed Semester Plan)
CLO to
Week
Activity be Details
No.
covered
Introduction to Engineering Geology laboratory
Lab 1 CLO – 1 1
equipment.
To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength of rock and
Lab 2 CLO – 1 concrete samples using L and N type Schmidt Rebound 2
Hammer.
To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength using Point
Lab 3 CLO – 1 3
Load Test Apparatus.
Estimation of Slaking potential of a given rock sample
Lab 4 CLO – 1 4
using Slake Durability Test Apparatus.
CLO - 1 Quiz 4
To measure the percentage of wear of aggregate by
Lab 5 CLO – 1 5
using Los Angeles Abrasion Test Apparatus.
Preparation of borehole logs using given rock core
Lab 6 CLO – 1 6
samples.
CLO – 1 Viva 7
Examination Mid Term 8
Estimation of Undrained/In-Situ Shear Strength of soils
Lab 7 CLO – 1 9
by using Pocket Vane Shear Testers.
Estimation of shear strength of discontinuities by using
Lab 8 CLO – 1 10
Robertson’s Rock Shear Box Test Apparatus.
CLO – 1 Quiz 11
Estimation of dynamic elastic properties of a rock core
Lab 9 samples by using Resonance Frequency Meter Test 12
Apparatus.
Estimation of angle of internal friction of different rock
Lab 10 CLO – 1 13
samples using Tilt Table Test Apparatus.
Lab 11 CLO – 1 Open ended lab 14-15
CLO – 1 Final Viva 15

Examination End Term 16

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 Table of Contents
Page
Activity Details
No.
To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength of rock and concrete
Lab 2 1
samples using L and N type Schmidt Rebound Hammer.
To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength using Point Load Test
Lab 3 7
Apparatus.
Estimation of Slaking potential of a given rock sample using Slake
Lab 4 12
Durability Test Apparatus.
To measure the percentage of wear of aggregate by using Los
Lab 5 16
Angeles Abrasion Test Apparatus.
Lab 6 Preparation of borehole logs using given rock core samples. 21
Estimation of Undrained/In-Situ Shear Strength of soils by using
Lab 7 26
Pocket Vane Shear Testers.
Estimation of shear strength of discontinuities by using Robertson’s
Lab 8 31
Rock Shear Box Test Apparatus.
Estimation of dynamic elastic properties of a rock core samples by
Lab 9 37
using Resonance Frequency Meter Test Apparatus.
Estimation of angle of internal friction of different rock samples
Lab 10 43
using Tilt Table Test Apparatus.

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LAB # 2
To estimate uniaxial compressive strength of rock and concrete samples using L and N
Type Schmidt Rebound Hammer.

INTRODUCTION

A Schmidt hammer, also known as a Swiss hammer or a rebound hammer, is a device to measure
the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface hardness and penetration
resistance. It was invented by Ernst Schmidt, a Swiss engineer.

The hammer measures the rebound of a spring-loaded mass impacting against the surface of the
sample. The test hammer will hit the concrete at a defined energy. Its rebound is dependent on
the hardness of the concrete and is measured by the test equipment. By reference to the
conversion chart, the rebound value can be used to determine the compressive strength. When
conducting the test, the hammer should be held at right angles to the surface which in turn should
be flat and smooth. The rebound reading will be affected by the orientation of the hammer, when
used in a vertical position (on the underside of a suspended slab for example) gravity will
increase the rebound distance of the mass and vice versa for a test conducted on a floor slab. The
Schmidt hammer is an arbitrary scale ranging from 10 to 100. Schmidt hammers are available
from their original manufacturers in several different energy ranges. These include: (i) Type L-
0.735 Nm impact energy, (ii) Type N-2.207 Nm impact energy; and (iii) Type M-29.43 Nm
impact energy.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The SH consists of a spring-loaded piston which is released when the plunger is pressed against a
surface. The impact of the piston onto the plunger transfers the energy to the material. The extent
to which this energy is recovered depends on the hardness (or impact penetration/damage
resistance) of the material, which is expressed as a percentage of the maximum stretched length
of the key spring before the release of the piston to its length after the rebound

THEORY

The earlier ISRM suggested method endorsed the use of only the L-type SH. However, for a
given plunger tip diameter and radius of curvature, the impact energy of the SH determines its
range of applicability. Accordingly, this limitation should be kept in mind in selecting the
hammer type. For instance, the standard L- and N-type hammers, with respective impact energies
of 0.735 and 2.207 Nm, should be used with caution when the UCS of the rock material or
discontinuity wall is outside the range of 20–150 MPa, where sensitivity decreases and data
scatter increases. The N-type hammer is less sensitive to surface irregularities and should be
preferred in field applications; while the L-type hammer has greater sensitivity in the lower range
and gives better results when testing weak, porous and weathered rocks.

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The use of different hammer types results in datasets which may not be readily correlated.
Although the standard L- and N-type hammers were shown to have demonstrably high
correlation coefficients, these correlations may not be equally convincing across the entire UCS
range because, they are based on the assumption that both types of hammers produce similar
modes of indentation at every point of impact. Furthermore, higher impact energy of N-type
hammer (corresponding to probing a larger volume of material by a deeper and wider
penetration) should reduce scatter in rebound values compared to L-type hammers.

Fig#1 (Schematic diagram of working of Schmidt Rebound Hammer)

METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

For Rock testing use L-type Schmidt Rebound Hammer and follow ISRM1 standards while for
concrete testing use N-type Schmidt Rebound Hammer and follow ASTM2 C805/C805M.

Test procedure for rock testing according to ISRM standards is given below

• Specimens should be intact (free of visible cracks), petrographically uniform and

representative of the rock mass domain (identified from cores or exposures) being
characterized. Test surfaces, especially under the plunger tip (impact points), should be
smooth and free of dust and particles. In the field, a medium-grained abrasive stone can be
used for local smoothing of rough surfaces in hard rock.
• Fine sandpaper can be used to smooth the surfaces of cores and block specimens, especially
when drilling or sawing produces visible ridges. Cores and blocks should be air dried or
saturated before testing. When this is not possible, the degree of moistness of the surface and
the specimen as a whole should be recorded as wet, moist or damp.

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• Cores should be of at least NX size (X54.7 mm) for the L-type hammer. Block specimens
should be at least 100 mm thick at the point of impact. It is essential that impact energy is not
dissipated in the form of wave scatter or cracking because the impact points are too close to
the specimen boundaries. In order to provide similar degrees of confinement in all directions,
impact points should be one radius away from the nearest end of core specimens and half the
thickness away from block boundaries.
• Length of cores and surface area of blocks should be large enough to accommodate these
suggestions; for example, if a 2 cm spacing of impact points is chosen, a core length of 43.5
cm (for NX size) or a block surface area of 268 cm2 (for 10 cm thickness) is required to
gather 20 readings.
• The test is generally nondestructive for rocks of at least moderate strength (480 MPa), and
the same sample can be used for the determination of the UCS and E. However, potential
micro cracking, grain crushing and pore collapse in friable, porous and weathered rocks
necessitate use of different samples.

Now test procedure for concrete testing according to ASTM C805/C805M is given below

Hold the instrument firmly so that the plunger is perpendicular to the test surface. Gradually push
the instrument toward the test surface until the hammer impacts. After impact, maintain pressure
on the instrument and, if necessary, depress the button on the side of the instrument to lock the
plunger in its retracted position. Read the rebound number on the scale to the nearest whole
number and record the rebound number. Take ten readings from each test area. No two impact
tests shall be closer together than 25 mm [1 in.]. Examine the impression made on the surface
after impact, and if the impact crushes or breaks through a near-surface air void disregard the
reading and take another reading.

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OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

L-Type Schmidt Hammer N-Type Schmidt Hammer

Sr # Rock Samples Sr # Concrete Samples

Rebound Number UCS (MPa) Rebound Number UCS (MPa)

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

13 13

14 14

15 15

16 16

17 17

18 18

19 19

20 20

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 Fig#2 (Schmidt Hardness chart for L-Type Hammer)

Fig#3 (Schmidt Hardness chart for N-Type Hammer)

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CONCLUSION

Schmidt rebound Hammer is a portable device that can be utilized for both rock and concrete to
find their hardness, in lab as well as in field also. This indirect way to determine the Uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) of rock and concrete is easiest and comprehensive than traditional
direct method, which is long tedious and time consuming. To know about the strength of rocks,
is very useful in practical rock engineering.

LIMITATIONS

• It became less effective on jagged and undulating surfaces

• Evaluates only the local point and layers over which it is applied
• Unreliable for the detection of flaws

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

REFERENCES

1. ISRM Suggested method for determination of the Schmidt hammers rebound hardness,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 627–634.
2. ASTM C805 / C805M-13a, Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened
Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2013, www.astm.org.

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LAB # 3
To estimate Uniaxial Compressive Strength using Point Load Test Apparatus

INTRODUCTION

The point load test (PLT) is an accepted rock mechanics testing procedure used for the
calculation of a rock strength index. This index can be used to estimate other rock strength
parameters. The focus of this lab is to present the data analysis used to correlate the point load
test index (Is50) with the Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS), and to propose appropriate Is50
to UCS conversion factors for different rocks. The rock strength determined by the PLT, like the
load frame strengths that they estimate, is an indication of intact rock strength and not
necessarily the strength of the rock mass.

THEORY

This index test is performed by subjecting a rock specimen to an increasingly concentrated load
until failure occurs by splitting the specimen. The concentrated load is applied through coaxial,
truncated conical platens. The failure load is used to calculate the point load strength index
(Broch and Franklin 1972)1. The point load strength index can be used to classify the rocks. A
common method used is by estimating the uniaxial compressive strength (Z.T. Bieniawski
1975)2.

General—A basic point load tester consists of a loading system typically comprised of a loading
frame, platens, a measuring system for indicating load, P, (required to break the specimen), and a
means for measuring the distance D, between the two platen contact points at the start of testing
and after failure. The equipment shall be resistant to shock and vibration so that the accuracy of
readings is not adversely affected by repeated testing. The loading system shall have a loading
frame with a platen-to-platen clearance that allows testing of rock specimens in the required size
range. Typically, this range is between 30 to 100 mm, or the maximum opening size of the load
frame, so that an adjustable distance is available to accommodate both small and large
specimens. The loading capacity shall be sufficient to break the largest and strongest specimens
to be tested. Point load strength of rock is usually an order of magnitude lower than the
compressive strength of rock. The load frame shall be designed and constructed so that it does
not permanently distort during repeated applications of the maximum test load, and so that the
platens remain coaxial within 60.2 mm throughout testing. No spherical seat or other non-rigid
component is permitted in the loading system. Loading system rigidity is essential to avoid
slippage when specimens of irregular geometry are tested.

A load measuring system, for example a load cell or a hydraulic pressure gage, that will indicate
failure load, P, required to break specimen.

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Measurements of failure load, P, shall be to a precision of 5 % or better of full-scale load-
measuring system, irrespective of the size and strength of specimen that is tested. Failure is often
sudden, therefore, and a peak load indicator is required so the failure load can be recorded after
each test. If required, the system should be capable of using interchangeable, mechanical or
electronic gauge, load measuring devices in order to be consistent with the estimated strength of
rock and have the desired reading accuracy.

The distance measuring system, an electronic or vernier direct reading scale, should connect to
the loading frame for measuring the distance, D, between specimen-platen contact points at the
start of testing and just prior to failure. Measurements of D shall be to an accuracy of 2 % or
better of distance between contact points, irrespective of the size and strength of specimen that is
tested. The measuring system shall allow a check of the “zero displacement” value when the two
platens are in contact and should include a zero adjustment and a means to record or measure any
penetration of the specimen by the point load platens during testing. An instrument such as a
caliper or a steel rule is required to measure the width, W, of specimens for all but the diametric
test.

Fig#1 (Schematic diagram of point load test apparatus)

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METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

ASTM3 D 5731-08 is adopted as standard procedure for this test

• Core specimens with length/diameter ratio greater than one are suitable for diametral testing.
• Insert a specimen in the test device and close the platens to make contact along a core
diameter. Ensure that the distance, L, between the contact points and the nearest free end is at
least 0.5 times the core diameter.
• Determine and record the distances D and L.
• Steadily increase the load such that failure occurs within 10 to 60 s, and record failure load,
P. The test should be rejected if the fracture surface passes through only one platen loading
point.
• The procedures in previous clauses are repeated for each specimen of the rock type.
• Core specimens with length/diameter ratio of 1⁄3 to 1 are suitable for axial testing. Suitable
specimens can be obtained by saw-cutting or chisel-splitting the core sample, or by using
suitable pieces produced by carefully planned diametric tests.
• Insert a specimen in the test machine and close the platens to make contact along a line
perpendicular to the core end faces.
• Record the distance D, between platen contact points. Record the specimen width W,
perpendicular to the loading direction, with an accuracy of 5%.
• Steadily increase the load such that failure occurs within 10 to 60s, and record the failure
load, P. The test should be rejected if the fracture surface passes through only one loading
point.
• Previous clauses are repeated for each test specimen of the rock type.

OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

The following formulae are used for calculating UCS:

P = Applied Load
D = Diameter / Distance of specimen
Is = Uncorrected point load index = P/De2

For axial core De2 = 4𝐴/𝜋 (A= w × d)

For diameter core De2 =D2
F = size correction factor = (De/50)0.45 OR (De /50)1/2 in case if diameter is near to 50mm

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 Sr# Sample D P Is = P/De2 F= Is50=Is×F UCS =
(MPa) (De/50)0.45 Is50×24
(mm) (N)
(MPa)

CONCLUSION

The point load test is very useful in lab as well as in field to determine UCS of the rock
specimens indirectly. The direct way to calculate UCS is only possible in lab because its machine
is heavy while in the case of point load the machine or device is portable. In a net shell the point
load test is a comprehensive or easiest way to calculate the UCS of the rock specimens to
anticipate about their strength. To know about the strength of rocks, is very useful in practical
rock engineering.

LIMITATIONS

• If the core diameter is greater than NX size, results may vary

• Loading rate should moderate, at higher loading rate greater value of UCS might be expected

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

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REFERENCES

1. Broch and Franklin (1972) International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences &
Geomechanics Abstracts Volume 9, Issue 6, November 1972, Pages 669-676
2. Z.T. Bieniawski (1975) Engineering Geology Volume 9, Issue 1, March 1975, Pages 1-11
3. ASTM D5731-08, Standard Test Method for Determination of the Point Load Strength Index
of Rock and Application to Rock Strength Classifications, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2008, www.astm.org

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LAB # 4
Estimation of slaking potential of a given rock sample by using Slake-Durability Test
Apparatus

INTRODUCTION

This test typically uses two terms “Slaking” and “Durability”. Slaking can be defined as the
process in which earth materials disintegrate and crumble when exposed to moisture while
Durability can be defined as the ability of an earthen material to resist against the impact of
environmental factors. It measures the resistance of a rock sample to weakening and
disintegration resulting from a standard cycle of drying and wetting. The main purpose of this
‘slake-durability test’ is to evaluate the weathering resistance of shales, mudstones, siltstones and
other clay-bearing rocks Franklin and Chandra (1972)1.

THEORY
Slake Durability Device—the drum shall be made of 2.00 mm (No. 10) square-mesh, woven-
wire cloth, conforming to the requirements of Specification. It shall be cylindrical in shape, with
a diameter of 140 mm (5.5 in.) and a length of 100 mm (3.9 in.). The ends shall be rigid plates,
with one removable end. It must be sufficiently strong to retain its shape during use, but neither
the exterior of the mesh nor the interior of the drum shall be obstructed by a support. The drum
shall be able to withstand a temperature of 110°C.

A trough shall support the drum in a horizontal manner such that the drum is free to rotate about
its axis. The trough shall be capable of being filled with slaking fluid to 20 mm (0.8 in.) below
the drum axis and shall allow at least 40 mm (1.6 in.) unobstructed clearance between the trough
and the bottom of the mesh. The drum shall be rotated by a motor capable of maintaining a speed
of 20 rpm, constant to within 5 %, for a period of 10 min. Devices conforming to these
requirements are commercially available.

Fig#1 (Schematic diagram of Slake-Durability Test Apparatus)

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METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

ASTM D 4644-08 is adopted in this test procedure

• Photograph specimen prior to placement in drum.
• Determine the water content of each test specimen before testing. This shall be done with the
shale fragments in the drum to be used for the actual testing.
• Mount the drum in the trough and couple to the motor. Fill the trough with distilled water at
room temperature to 20 mm (0.8 in.) below the drum axis. Rotate the drum at 20 rpm for a
period of 10 min. Record the water temperature at the beginning and end of the run.
• Remove the drum from the trough immediately after the rotation period is complete and dry
the drum and the specimen retained in the oven the same as in second step and obtain the
oven-dried mass.
• Repeat step third and fourth to obtain a final oven-dried mass for the second cycle
• Photograph specimen retained and file a copy of the photo with the laboratory report, or
record standard verbal descriptions, as follows
1. Type I—Retained specimen remains virtually unchanged.
2. Type II—Retained specimen consist of large and small fragments.
3. Type III—Retained specimen is exclusively small fragments.
• See for representative photographs of the three types.

Fig#2 (Type I, Type II and Type III retained sample as described in ASTM D 4644-08)

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OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

Calculate the natural water content using this formula:

w = [(A – B)/(B – C)]×100
w = percentage of water content
A = mass of drum plus sample at natural moisture content (g)
B = mass of drum plus oven-dried sample before the first cycle (g)
C = mass of drum (g)
WE = mass of drum plus oven-dried sample retained after the first cycle, (g)
WF = mass of drum plus oven-dried sample retained after the second cycle, (g)
Calculate the slake durability index (first and second cycle) as follows
Id (1) = [(WE – C)/(B – C)]×100
Id (2) = [(WF – C)/(B – C)]×100

Description Sample #1 Sample#2 Sample#3 Sample#4

Drum #

Mass of Sample (g)

Oven-dried Sample before the 1st cycle (g)

Moisture Content (%)

Water Temperature at the beginning of the

1st run (ºC)

Water Temperature at the end of the 1st

run (ºC)

Oven-dried sample retained before the 2nd

cycle (g)

Slake Durability Index (first cycle) (%)

Water Temperature at the beginning of the

2nd run (ºC)

Water Temperature at the end of the 2nd

run (ºC)

Oven-dried sample retained after the 2nd

cycle (g)

Slake Durability Index (second cycle) (%)

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 Fig#3 (Gamble3 Slake-Durability classification chart)
CONCLUSION

Estimation of slaking potential of clay bearing rocks increase ability to anticipate behavior of
rocks. It plays vital role in practical Rock Mechanics, Tunneling, Engineering Geology and
Geotechnical Engineering while dealing with clay bearing rocks.
LIMITATIONS

• This test is not applicable to mud stone and rock salt as they are very unstable and soluble in
fluids (water)
• Pieces of rocks should be round as sharp edge effect mesh of drum
• Water level in the trough should be at 20mm
REMARKS

•
•
•
•
REFERENCES
1. J.A. Franklin, R. Chandra (1972). “The slake-durability test”, International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts Volume 9, Issue 3, May 1972,
Pages 325-328.
2. ASTM D4644-16, Standard Test Method for Slake Durability of Shales and Other Similar
Weak Rocks, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016, www.astm.org
3. Gamble, J.C (1971) “Durability and Plasticity Classification of shales and other Argillaceous
Rocks”, Ph.D. Thesis University of Illinois, USA p159

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LAB # 5
To measure the percentage wear of the aggregates by using Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Apparatus

INTRODUCTION

This test is a measure of degradation of mineral aggregates of standard grading resulting from a
combination of actions including abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding in a rotating steel
drum containing 12 steel spheres. As the drum rotates, a shelf plate picks up the sample and the
steel spheres, carrying them around until they are dropped to the opposite side of the drum,
creating an impact-crushing effect. The contents then roll within the drum with an abrading and
grinding action until the shelf plate picks up the sample and the steel spheres, and the cycle is
repeated. After the prescribed number of revolutions, the contents are removed from the drum
and the aggregate portion is sieved to measure the degradation as percent loss.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

To produce the abrasive action by use of standard steel balls which when mixed with the
aggregate and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolution cause impact on aggregate.
The %age wear due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and is known as abrasion value.
Prepare the sample by the portion of an aggregate sample retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve
and place in a large rotating drum that contains a shelf plate attached to the outer wall.

THEORY

Los Angeles Machine—A Los Angeles machine, conforming in all essential characteristics to
the design shown in Fig. 1, shall be used. The machine shall consist of a hollow steel cylinder,
with a wall thickness of not less than 12.4 mm closed at both ends, conforming to the dimensions
shown in Fig. 1, having an inside diameter of 711 ± 5 mm (28 ± 0.2 in.), and an inside length of
508 ± 5 mm (20 ± 0.2 in.).

The cylinder shall be mounted on stub shafts attached to the ends of the cylinder but not entering
it and shall be mounted in such a manner that it rotates with the axis in a horizontal position
within a tolerance in slope of 1 in 100. An opening in the cylinder shall be provided for the
introduction of the test sample. A suitable, dust-tight cover shall be provided for the opening
with means for bolting the cover in place. The cover shall be so designed as to maintain the
cylindrical contour of the interior surface unless the shelf is so located that the charge will not
fall on the cover or come in contact with it during the test. A removable steel shelf extending the
full length of the cylinder and projecting inward 89 ± 2 mm (3.5 ± 0.1 in.) shall be mounted on
the interior cylindrical surface of the cylinder, in such a way that a plane centered between the
large faces coincides with an axial plane.

16 | P a g e
 The shelf shall be of such thickness and so mounted, by bolts or other suitable means, as to be
firm and rigid. The position of the shelf shall be such that the sample and the steel spheres shall
not impact on or near the opening and its cover, and that the distance from the shelf to the
opening, measured along the outside circumference of the cylinder in the direction of rotation,
shall be not less than 1270 mm (50 in.). Inspect the shelf periodically to determine that it is not
bent either lengthwise or from its normal radial position with respect to the cylinder. If either
condition is found, repair or replace the shelf before further tests are conducted.

The machine shall be so driven and so counterbalanced as to maintain a substantially uniform

peripheral speed. If an angle is used as the shelf, the direction of rotation shall be such that the
charge is caught on the outside surface of the angle.

Sieves, conforming to Specification E 11 Balance—a balance or scale accurate within 0.1 % of

test load over the range required for this test.

Charge—the charge shall consist of 12 steel spheres averaging approximately 47 mm in

diameter, each having a mass between 390 and 445 g, and having a total mass of 5000 ± 25 g.
The charge, depending upon the grading of the test sample as described in test procedure, shall
be as follow

Table#1 (Showing grading of samples)

Fig#1 (Schematic diagram of Los Angeles machine as described in ASTM C131)

17 | P a g e
METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

ASTM1 C-131 is standard test procedure for small coarse aggregate

ASTM2 C-535 is standard test procedure for large coarse aggregate

• Wash the reduced sample and oven dry at 110 ± 5°C (230 ± 9°F) to substantially constant
mass, separate into individual size fractions, and recombine to the grading of Table 2 most
nearly corresponding to the range of sizes in the aggregate as furnished for the work. Record
the mass of the sample prior to test to the nearest 1 g.
• Place the test sample and charge in the Los Angeles testing machine and rotate the machine
at 30 to 33 (r/min) for 1000 revolutions. After the prescribed number of revolutions,
discharge the material from the machine and make a preliminary separation of the sample on
a sieve coarser than the 1.70-mm (No. 12) sieve. Sieve the finer portion on a 1.70-mm sieve
in a manner conforming to Test Method C 136. Wash the material coarser than the 1.70-mm
sieve and oven dry at 110 ± 5°C (230 ± 9°F) to substantially constant mass, and determine
the mass to the nearest 1 g.
• If the aggregate is essentially free of adherent coatings and dust, the requirement for washing
after the test is optional.
• However, in the case of referee testing, the washing procedure shall be performed.
Elimination of washing after test will seldom reduce the measured loss by more than about
0.2 % of the original sample mass.

Table#2 (Showing grading of sample as described in ASTM C535)

OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

W1 = Sample

W2 = Tray weight

W3 = Sample Weight after test

% 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = [100− (W3/W1)] ×100

18 | P a g e
 Sr# W1 W2 W3 % 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

(kg) (kg) (kg)

10

11

12

13

14

15

CONCLUSION

Hardness is the aggregate’s resistance to abrasion (wear) hardness is an important property for
aggregates in pavement surfaces tested by LA Abrasion. Measure of resistance of coarse
aggregate to degradation (breakdown) by impact, abrasion and grinding LA Abrasion test is not
just a measure of abrasion. Same materials with different mineral composition can show different
% loss, so it totally depends on mineral aggregate of material. Soft rock has high % loss and
Hard rock has low % loss.

19 | P a g e
LIMITATIONS

• Results are not so good with very large coarse aggregate

• Optimum speed of drum to get good results is 30 to 33 (r/min)
• Varying spheres steel balls are suitable for specific aggregate

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

REFERENCES

1. ASTM C131 / C131M-14, Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2006.
2. ASTM C535-16, Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse
Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2016, www.astm.org

20 | P a g e
LAB # 6
To estimate RQD, TCR, SCR and Fracture Index of given rock core samples.

INTRODUCTION

The rock quality designation (RQD) is a commonly used index for the description of rock mass
fractured state. The RQD was initially introduced for civil engineering applications, and it has
been quickly adopted in mining, engineering geology as well as geotechnical engineering. The
success of the RQD is in great part, due to its simplicity.

The rock quality designation, RQD, was initially proposed by Deere (1963)1 as an index of
assessing rock quality quantitatively, and it has since then been the topic of various assessments
(e.g., Deere et al. 1967, 1988; Deere 1989)2, mainly for civil engineering projects.

Its application has also been quickly extended to other areas of rock mechanics, and it has
become a fundamental parameter in geotechnical engineering (e.g. Hoek& Brown 1980; Hoek
and Bray 1981)3. The success of the RQD is due, in large part, to its simple definition, which is
the ratio (percentage) of intact core pieces longer than 10 cm over the total drilling length.
However, this index is affected by a number of known limitations. For instance, its value can be
different for a given location when obtained from cores with different drilling orientations. In
addition, the RQD may be affected by the rock strength and core size.

Total core recovery

Total core recovery (TCR) is the borehole core recovery percentage.

TCR is defined as the quotient:

Solid core recovery

Solid core recovery (SCR) is the borehole core recovery percentage of solid, cylindrical, pieces
of rock core5.

21 | P a g e
Fracture Index

Fracture index is the no. of discontinuities per 0.5meter length of core.

F.I = no. of discontinuities / 0.5 m length of core

THEORY

Rock-quality designation (RQD) Rough is the measure of the degree of jointing or fractures in a
rock mass, measured as a percentage of the drill core in lengths of 10 cm or more. High-quality
rock has an RQD of more than 75%, low quality of less than 50% (Table 1). Rock quality
designation (RQD) has several definitions.

The most widely used definition was developed in 1967 by D. U. Deere to provide a quantitative
estimate of rock mass quality from drill core logs. It is the borehole core recovery percentage
incorporating only pieces of solid core that are longer than 100 mm in length measured along the
centerline of the core. In this respect pieces of core that are not hard and sound should not be
counted though they are 100 mm in length. RQD was originally introduced for use with core
diameters of 54.7 mm (NX-size core) drilled with a double-tube core barrel.

Core run in the most basic usage, the length of the interval measured from the depth each core
sample was started to the depth at which drilling stopped and the sample was recovered from the
core barrel. If required, the core run can also be defined to cover a specific length or lithology in
the core samples.

Drill breaks any mechanical or man-made break in the core that is not natural occurring.

Intact core any segment of core between two open, natural discontinuities.

Sound core any core which is fresh to moderately weather and which has sufficient strength to
resist hand breakage.

22 | P a g e
 Fig #1 (Schematic diagram of borehole log and RQD calculation)

METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

ASTM4 D 6032 is most adopted standard to determine RQD of a given Rock sample. Test
procedure is in accordance with this standard.

• Determining a core run it is important to be consistent throughout a drill hole and to

document how the core run was defined.

23 | P a g e
• The RQD should be logged on site or lab when the core is retrieved.
• Close visual examination of core pieces is required for assessing the type of fracture (that is,
natural or drill break).
• Measure all core piece lengths that are intact and greater than 100 mm (4 in.) to the nearest 1
mm (0.04 in.) and record on an RQD data sheet.
• Only those pieces of rock formed by natural fractures (that is, joints, shear zones, bedding
planes, or cleavage planes that result in surfaces of separation) shall be considered for RQD
purposes. The core pieces on either side of core breaks caused by the drilling process shall be
fitted together and counted as one piece. Drilling breaks are usually evident by rough fresh
surfaces.
• In some cases, it may be difficult to differentiate between natural fractures and drilling
breaks. When in doubt, count a fracture as a natural fracture. If for some reason there is not
100 % core recovery for a drill run, the length of core left in the borehole should be taken
into account by adding it to the run in which it was cored rather than the run in which it was
retrieved.
• Record the top and bottom depths of each core run.
• Sketch core features such as natural fractures, drilling breaks, lost core, highly weathered
pieces, and so forth.
• Include remarks concerning judgment decisions such as whether a break in a core is a natural
fracture or a drilling break or why a piece of core longer than 100 mm (4 in.) was not
considered to be intact.
• Record the sum of intact core pieces longer than 100 mm (4 in.) long, and calculate the RQD
value for the core run being evaluated.
• Indicate the rock quality description for the core run using the rock quality table.

24 | P a g e
OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

Fig #2 (Data sheet in ASTM D 6032)

25 | P a g e
SCR

TCR

Fracture Index

F.I = no. of natural discontinuities / 0.5m length of core

CONCLUSION

In this Lab the rock quality designation, RQD, SCR, TCR and fracture index have been proved
useful in logging rock core. The results of RQD have shown that the qualities of rock masses
range from very bad to very good quality in a continuous and progressive manner, which gives a
better representation of the actual quality of rock masses. The use of RQD lowers operating costs
by simply employing simple tools to assess the quality of the rock masses.

26 | P a g e
LIMITATIONS

• RQD gives no information of the core pieces < 10cm excluded, i.e. it does not matter
whether the discarded pieces are earth-like materials or fresh rock pieces up to 10cm length
• Gives wrong values where joints contain thin clay fillings or weathered material
• Does not take direct account of joint orientation
• RQD = 0 where the joint intercept (distance between the joints in the drill cores) is 10cm or
less, while RQD = 100 where the distance is 11cm or more

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

REFERENCES

1. Deere, D U (1964). "Technical description of rock cores", Rock Mechanics Engineering

Geology, 1 (16-22).
2. Deere, D U (1989). "Rock quality designation (RQD) after twenty years", U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers Contract Report GL-89-1, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS (67).
3. Hoek E.; Brown E.T. (1980). Underground Excavations in Rock. London: Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy.
4. ASTM D6032 / D6032M-17, Standard Test Method for Determining Rock Quality
Designation (RQD) of Rock Core, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017,
www.astm.org
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_recovery_parameters

27 | P a g e
LAB # 7
Stereonet analysis of discontinuities and determination of possible failure modes by manual
plotting and using DIPS software.

INTRODUCTION

Stereonets are used for graphical kinematic analysis. Stereonets are circular graphs used for
plotting planes based on their orientations in terms of dip direction (direction of inclination of a
plane) and dip (inclination of a plane from the horizontal). Orientations of discontinuities can be
represented on a stereonet in the form of great circles, poles or dip vectors. Clusters of poles of
discontinuity orientations on stereonets are identified by visual investigation or using density
contours on stereonets (Hoek and Bray, 1981). Single representative orientation values for each
cluster set is then assigned. These single representative orientation values, can be the highest
density orientation value within a cluster set, or the mean dip direction/dip of a pole cluster as
calculated using equations in Borradaille (2003).

THEORY

Kinematic analysis is a method used to analyze the potential for the various modes of rock slope
failures (plane, wedge, toppling failures), that occur due to the presence of unfavorably oriented
discontinuities. Discontinuities are geologic breaks such as joints, faults, bedding planes,
foliation, and shear zones that can potentially serve as failure planes. Kinematic analysis is based
on Markland’s test which is described in Hoek and Bray (1981). According to the Markland’s
test, a plane failure is likely to occur when a discontinuity dips in the same direction (within 20 0)
as the slope face, at an angle gentler than the slope angle but greater than the friction angle along
the failure plane (Hoek and Bray, 1981). A wedge failure may occur when the line of intersection
of two discontinuities, forming the wedge-shaped block, plunges in the same direction as the
slope face and the plunge angle is less than the slope angle but greater than the friction angle
along the planes of failure (Hoek and Bray, 1981). A toppling failure may result when a steeply
dipping discontinuity is parallel to the slope face (within 300) and dips into it (Hoek and Bray,
1981). According to Goodman (1989), a toppling failure involves inter-layer slip movement. The
requirement for the occurrence of a toppling failure according to Goodman (1989) is “If layers
have an angle of friction Φj, slip will occur only if the direction of the applied compression
makes an angle greater than the friction angle with the normal to the layers. Thus, a pre-
condition for interlayer slip is that the normals be inclined less steeply than a line inclined Φj
above the plane of the slope. If the dip of the layers is σ, then toppling failure with a slope
inclined α degrees with the horizontal can occur if (90 - σ) + Φj < α”.

28 | P a g e
 Fig#1 (Slope failures associated with unfavorable orientation of discontinuities)

29 | P a g e
 Fig#1 (Stereographic plot showing requirements for a plane failure)

If the dip vector (middle point of the great circle) of the great circle representing a discontinuity
set falls within the shaded area (area where the friction angle is higher than slope angle), the
potential for a plane failure exists (figure created using RockPack).

30 | P a g e
 Fig#2 (Stereographic plot showing requirements for a wedge failure)

If the intersection of two great circles representing discontinuities falls within the shaded area
(area where the friction angle is higher than slope angle), the potential for a wedge failure exists
(figure created using RockPack software).

31 | P a g e
 Fig#3 (Stereographic plot showing requirements for a toppling failure)

The potential for a toppling failure exists if dip vector (middle point of the great circle) falls in
the triangular shaded zone (figure created using RockPack software).

METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Data collection: data are often collected by measuring the dip and dip direction of all the
discontinuities intersecting a line drawn across an exposed rock face.

Plotting data: poles to the discontinuities are plotted.

Contouring data: in order to make the data more manageable, particularly for the construction of
possible wedges formed by the intersection of joint sets.

Stability check: centers of pole concentration are transferred to a new diagram together with
poles of lines of intersection.

Interpretation: interpretation of plotted data.

32 | P a g e
LIMITATIONS

• Do not contour sparse data

• Contouring may over simplify a complex situation and result in critical data being
overlooked
• When analyzing a slope using the centers of sets determined by contouring, always examine
the original, uncontoured data

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

REFERENCES

BORRADAILE, G., 2003, Statistics of Earth Science Data: Springer, New York, 351p.

GOODMAN, R. E., 1989, Introduction to Rock Mechanics: John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
562 p.

HOEK, E. and BRAY, J. W., 1981, Rock Slope Engineering: The Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, London, England, 358 p.

33 | P a g e
LAB # 8
Estimation of shear strength of discontinuities of given rock sample by using Robertson’s
Rock Shear Box Test Apparatus

INTRODUCTION

This test method establishes requirements and laboratory procedures for performing direct shear
strength tests on rock specimens. It includes procedures for both intact rock strength and sliding
friction tests which can be performed on specimens that are homogeneous, or have planes of
weakness, including natural or artificial discontinuities. Examples of an artificial discontinuity
include a rock-concrete interface or a lift line from a concrete pour. Discontinuities may be open,
partially or completely healed or filled (that is, clay fillings and gouge). Only one discontinuity
per specimen can be tested. The test is usually conducted in the undrained state with an applied
constant normal load. However, a clean, open discontinuity may be free draining, and, therefore,
a test on a clean, open discontinuity could be considered a drained test. During the test, shear
strength is determined at various applied stresses normal to the sheared plane and at various
shear displacements. Relationships derived from the test data include shear strength versus
normal stress and shear stress versus shear displacement (shear stiffness).

THEORY

Determination of shear strength of a rock specimen is an important aspect in the design of

structures such as rock slopes, dam foundations, tunnels, shafts, waste repositories, caverns for
storage, and other purposes. Pervasive discontinuities (joints, bedding planes, shear zones, fault
zones, schistosity) in a rock mass, and genesis, crystallography, texture, fabric, and other factors
can cause the rock mass to behave as an anisotropic and heterogeneous discontinuum. Therefore,
the precise prediction of rock mass behavior is difficult. For nonplanar joints or discontinuities,
shear strength is derived from a combination base material friction and overriding of asperities
(dilatancy), shearing or breaking of the asperities, and rotations at or wedging of the asperities.
Sliding on and shearing of the asperities can occur simultaneously. When the normal force is not
sufficient to restrain dilation, the shear mechanism consists of the overriding of the asperities.
When the normal load is large enough to completely restrain dilation, the shear mechanism
consists of the shearing off the asperities.

34 | P a g e
METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

• Moisture Condition: If required, the moisture condition of the shear zone are determined and
reported according to Test Method D2216.
• Cross-Sectional Area of Regular Geometrical Shapes: The relevant dimensions of the
specimen at the shear zone cross section are measured to the nearest 0.025 mm (0.001 in.)
using caliper or micrometer. Then, the apparent cross-sectional area of the intact specimen is
calculated. For inclined core the apparent area can be determined by measuring the diameter
and angle of tip θ.
• Cross-Sectional Area of Non geometrical Shape: The outline of the cross-sectional area of
the specimen or shear plane is traced on paper and the area measured with a planimeter.
• Joint Roughness of a Clean Discontinuity: Before and after testing, a carpenter contour gauge
is used to measure joint roughness in the direction of anticipated shear displacement. When
all the prongs of the gauge are lowered on a flat and hard surface, the tips of the prongs will
fall on a straight line. Place this straight-line pronged gauge onto the shear plane and lower
all the prongs to make contact with the shear surface. Remove the gauge. The tips of the
gauge trace the shear plane surface along the line of shearing. Trace the tips of the prongs
onto paper, and compare this tracing to match with one of the lines on Fig. 3; then, select and
record the corresponding joint roughness coefficient.
• Joint Roughness for partially or fully Healed Discontinuity: After failure occurs in a shear
test, contour gauges and the standard roughness chart are used to determine the joint
roughness coefficient.
• Take before and after test photographs of each specimen.
• Specimen Encapsulation: Place a thick plastic sheet on a suitable level surface. Place the
lower half of the specimen holding ring on the plastic sheet.

35 | P a g e
 Fig 3 (Roughness Profiles and Corresponding JRC Values Associated with Each One)
• For a Specimen Containing a Discontinuity—Position the lower half of the specimen (if the
discontinuity is gapped, that is, open jointed) centrally in the lower half of the specimen
holder. Ensure that the shear horizon to be tested is secured in the correct position and
orientation so that the shear force will be in the same plane as the test zone. Ensure that the
bottom of the lower half of the specimen is resting on the plastic sheet. Provide adequate
support to the specimen so that it is maintained in its position while the encapsulating
material cures. Pour the encapsulating material carefully into the annular space between the
lower half of specimen and the lower half of the specimen holding ring. Stop pouring just
below the general plane of the test zone. Do not disturb the specimen holding ring assembly
after pouring the encapsulating compound. After the bottom encapsulated material has
sufficiently cured, place a split spacer plate of specified thickness on the lower ring such that

36 | P a g e
 its cutout edge encircles the encapsulated lower half of the specimen and encompasses the
test zone thickness. If needed, apply a layer of silicon grease over the surface of the
encapsulated material. Place the upper half of the test specimen onto the encapsulated lower
half. Fill the annular space between the specimen testing surface and the semicircular or
circular edge of the spacer plate with modeling clay. Adjust the position of the upper half of
the specimen until the surfaces of the test horizon are correctly mated. Lower the upper half
of the specimen holder onto the split spacer plate without disturbing the position of the top
half of the specimen. Connect the two halves of the specimen holding ring with bolts. Pour
encapsulating compound into the annular space between the top half of the specimen holder
and the top half of the specimen. Do not disturb the assembly until the encapsulating
compound cures. Remove the spacer plates to expose the test horizon for shear testing.
• For a Specimen with A Partially or Fully Tight Discontinuity or an Intact Specimen Position
the specimen concentrically into the lower half of the holding ring, and pour the prepared
encapsulating compound into the annular space between the specimen and the lower half of
the specimen holding ring. Allow the compound to cure without disturbing the assembly.
Place a split spacer plate of a thickness equal to the height of the shear test zone, and fill the
annular space between the circular or semicircular edge of the spacer plate and the specimen
with clay. Place the upper half of the specimen holding ring onto the lower half, and connect
the two halves of the specimen holding ring with bolts, while not disturbing the encapsulated
lower half of the specimen. Pour the encapsulating compound into the annular space between
the upper half of the bolted holding ring and the upper half of the specimen. Allow the
encapsulating compound to cure without disturbance. Remove the spacer plate, and expose
the test zone for shear testing.
• Mount and orient the encapsulated specimen with its top and bottom holding rings in the
bottom shear box of the testing machine. Lower the top half of the shear box onto the upper
half of the specimen. Remove the bolts that connect the upper and lower halves of the
specimen holding rings.
• Mounting of Displacement Devices— Place four displacement measuring devices on the
lower surface of the testing machine, at the four corners of the lower half of the shear box
and contacting the upper half of the shear box. These devices are used to measure normal
displacement and to provide a check on rotation of the specimen during testing. Mount one
displacement device on the machine in such a manner to measure the shear displacement of
the specimen during the test. Ensure sufficient travel and contact for the device to measure
displacements.

37 | P a g e
OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

Calculate the nominal cross-sectional areas of test specimens from initial cross-sectional
dimensions and express results to the nearest 6.5 mm2. For specimens who have a test feature
which is not normal to the core axis, the area is determined by:

D = core diameter, and

Θ = angle of tip.

Where:
Pn = normal load,
Ps = shear load, and
A = nominal initial cross-sectional area.
Curves to depict relationships of (a) shear stress versus shear displacement (b) peak shear
strength versus normal stress (c) residual shear strength versus shear displacement.
Curves for preselected normal stresses to show the relationships between (a) shear stress versus
shear displacement (b) normal displacement versus shear displacement.

Normal 2 KN 4 KN 6 KN 8 KN

Load
Division Shear Horizontal Shear Horizontal Shear Horizontal Shear Horizontal
Force Displacement Force Displacement Force Displacement Force Displacement
(KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

38 | P a g e
CONCLUSION

While maintaining a constant force normal to the nominal shear plane of the specimen, an
increasing external shear force is applied along the designated shear plane to cause shear
displacement. The applied normal and shear forces and the corresponding normal and shear
displacements are measured and recorded. These data are the basis for calculating the required
parameters.
LIMITATIONS

• Measure the moisture content of discontinuity.

• Manage the loading rate. Fast loading may cause biasness.

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

REFERENCES

1. ASTM D5607-02, Standard Test Method for Performing Laboratory Direct Shear Strength
Tests of Rock Specimens Under Constant Normal Force, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2002, www.astm.org

39 | P a g e
LAB # 9
Estimation of dynamic properties of a rock core sample by using Resonance Frequency
Meter Test Apparatus

INTRODUCTION

The fundamental resonant frequencies are determined using one of two alternative procedures:
(1) the forced resonance method or (2) the impact resonance method. Regardless of which testing
procedure is selected, the same procedure is to be used for all specimens of an associated series.

In the forced resonance method, a supported specimen is forced to vibrate by an electro-

mechanical driving unit. The specimen response is monitored by a light weight pickup unit on
the specimen. The driving frequency is varied until the measured specimen response reaches a
maximum amplitude. The value of the frequency causing maximum response is the resonant
frequency of the specimen. The fundamental frequencies for the three different modes of
vibration are obtained by proper location of the driver and the pickup unit.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

When applied frequency of vibrator become equal to the natural frequency of sample resonance
occur. This resonance frequency is used to determine dynamic elastic modulus.

THEORY

The driving circuit shall consist of a variable frequency audio oscillator, an amplifier, and a
driving unit. The oscillator shall be calibrated to read within ±2% of the true frequency over the
range of use (about 100 to 10 000 Hz). The combined oscillator and amplifier shall be capable of
delivering sufficient power output to induce vibrations in the test specimen at frequencies other
than the fundamental and shall be provided with a means for controlling the output. The driving
unit for creating the vibration in the specimen shall be capable of handling the full power output
of the oscillator and amplifier. The driving unit is used in contact with the test specimen or
separated from the specimen by an air gap. When the test specimen is contact-driven, the
vibrating parts of the driving unit shall be small in mass compared with that of the specimen. The
oscillator and amplifier shall be capable of producing a voltage that does not vary more than
±20% over the frequency range and, in combination with the driving unit, shall be free from
spurious resonances that will be indicated in the output.

The pickup circuit shall consist of a pickup unit, an amplifier, and an indicator. The pickup unit
shall generate a voltage proportional to the displacement, velocity, or acceleration of the test
specimens, and the vibrating parts shall be small in mass compared with the mass of the test
specimen. The pickup unit shall be free from spurious resonances in the normal operating range.
Either a piezoelectric or magnetic pickup unit meeting these requirements is acceptable. The
amplifier shall have a controllable output of sufficient magnitude to actuate the indicator.

40 | P a g e
 The indicator shall consist of a voltmeter, milliammeter, or a real-time graphic display such as
an oscilloscope or a data acquisition system with monitor.

Fig#1 (Schematic diagram of Resonance frequency Meter)

METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The standard procedure for this method is ASTM1 C-215

For Longitudinal Frequency

• Support the specimen so that it is able to vibrate freely in the longitudinal mode. Position the
specimen and driver so that the driving force is perpendicular to and approximately at the
center of one end surface of the specimen. Place the pickup unit on the specimen so that the
direction of pickup sensitivity coincides with the vibration direction, that is, the longitudinal
axis of the specimen.
• Force the test specimen to vibrate at varying frequencies. At the same time, observe the
indication of the amplified output of the pickup. Record the fundamental longitudinal
frequency of the specimen, which is the frequency at which the indicator shows the
maximum reading and observation of the nodal point indicates fundamental longitudinal
vibration

For Torsional Frequency

• Support the specimen so that it is able to vibrate freely in the torsional mode. Position the
specimen and driver so that the driving force is perpendicular to the surface of the specimen.
For prismatic specimens, locate the driving unit near the upper or lower edge of the specimen
at a distance from the end that is between 0.10 and 0.12 of the length of the specimen. For
cylindrical specimens, locate the driving unit above or below the mid-line of the cylinder.
Place the pickup unit on the surface of the specimen at a position on the opposite end that

41 | P a g e
 coincides with the node point for fundamental transverse vibration. Position the pickup so
that the direction of pickup sensitivity coincides with the vibration direction, that is,
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.
• Force the test specimen to vibrate at varying frequencies. At the same time, observe the
indication of the amplified output of the pickup. Record the fundamental torsional frequency
of the specimen, which is the frequency at which the indicator shows the maximum reading
and observation of the nodal point indicates fundamental torsional vibration.

Fig#2 (Position of vibrator and receiver w.r.t sample in longitudinal and torsional mode)

42 | P a g e
OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

Table#1 (Approximate Range of Frequency Selection (Hz))

• Calculate dynamic Young’s modulus of elasticity, E, in Pascals from the fundamental

longitudinal frequency, mass, and dimensions of the test specimen as follows:

Dynamic E = D×M×(n’)2

(n’)2 = fundamental longitudinal frequency, Hz

D = 519.14 (L/d2), N·s2/(kg·m2) for a cylinder,

= 4 (L/b×t), N·s2/(kg·m2) for a prism.

Sr# d L D M E

(m) (m) N·s2/(kg·m2) (kg) (MPa or GPa)

• Calculate dynamic modulus of rigidity, G, in Pascals from the fundamental torsional

frequency, mass, and dimensions of the test specimen as follows:

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Dynamic G = B×M×(n”)2

n” = fundamental torsional frequency, Hz,

B = (4LR/A), N·s2/(kg·m2),

R = shape factor, i.e.

R = 1 for a circular cylinder,

R = 1.183 for a square cross-section prism,

= (a/b + b/a)/[4a/b – 2.52(a/b)2 + 0.21(a/b)6] for a rectangular prism whose cross-sectional

dimensions are (a, b and m with a less than b)

A = cross-sectional area of test specimen, m2.

Sr# A L B M G

(m2) (m) N·s2/(kg·m2) (kg) (MPa or GPa)

CONCLUSION

To find dynamic modulus of rock and concrete, resonance frequency meter is a good device
because it is portable can be used in lab as well as in field. It is non-destructive technique, fast,
effective and easy to handle. It works on low frequency range, producing low strain. Hysteresis
loss, Pore water pressure and other aspects are not considered in low strain loading.

LIMITATIONS

• The support system shall be dimensioned so that its resonant frequency falls outside the
range of use (from 100 to 10 000 Hz).
• Determine the mass and average length of the specimens within ±0.5 %. Determine the
average cross-sectional dimensions within ±1 %

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• Specimens having either small or large ratios of length to maximum transverse direction are
frequently difficult to excite in the fundamental mode of vibration. Best results are obtained
when this ratio is between 3 and 5. For application of the formulas in this test method, the
ratio must be at least 2.

REMARKS

•
•
•

REFERENCES

1. ASTM C215-14, Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, and
Torsional Resonant Frequencies of Concrete Specimens, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2014, www.astm.org.

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LAB # 10
Estimation of angle of basic and residual friction of different rock samples using Tilt Table
Test Apparatus.

INTRODUCTION

In Geomechanics tilt table test is very basic and simple test to obtain shear strength parameters of
a discontinuity. It basically depends on angle of sliding and roughness of discontinuity. Two
pieces of rock containing a discontinuity are held in hand or mounted in test equipment with the
discontinuity horizontal. The sample is slowly tilted until the top block moves. The angle with
the horizontal at onset of movement is called the tilt-angle Hoek, E. Bray (1974)1.

THEORY

Discontinuities usually found in nature are commonly rough and the roughness is typically
irregular. In the 70s’ and 80s’ and based on previous work, Barton and coworkers Barton and
Choubey (1977)2 analyzed in depth the peak strength behavior of natural unfilled rough joints.

The residual friction angle, Φr is estimated according to Barton and Choubey (1977) as follows:

Φr = (Φb + 200) + 20 × (r/R)

Φb = tan-1[(2×tanβ)/√3] (Stimpson 1981)3

Where r is the Schmidt hammer rebound number recorded for a weathered and wet discontinuity,
such as those normally found in the field, and where R is the Schmidt hammer rebound number
recorded for un-weathered surfaces of the same rock. Ever since, the basic friction angle of fresh
planar discontinuities has assumed a key role in estimating the shear strength of discontinuities
for Rock Engineering projects. The basic friction angle, Φb represents fresh surfaces that are
neither weathered nor wet. The basic friction angle is an essential value in estimating the shear
strength of discontinuities in studies of the stability of engineered or natural slopes.

Fig#1 (Schematic diagram of different ways to perform tilt test to calculate tilt angle)
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METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

• Tests performed on a cylindrical sample longitudinally cut (d = 54 mm and h [108 mm) (Fig.
1a)
• Test performed on square base slabs (Fig. 1b) with the following dimensions: 1. Large:
100mm × 100mm × 40mm and Small: 50mm × 50 mm × 20 mm.
• Stimpson type tests with three cylindrical samples (d = 54 mm and h>108 mm), one sliding
over the other two with contacts in two generatrixes (Fig. 1c)
• Tests on disk-like samples (d = 54 mm and h = 27 mm) (Fig. 1d)
• The specimens were cut according to the indicated dimensions using diamond core drill bits
and saws.
• The lower specimens were placed on the plane-tilting platform in the horizontal position and
secured in place (for the Stimpson tests, both lower cylinders were secured).
• The upper specimens were placed on the fixed specimens in the horizontal position (for the
Stimpson tests, the upper cylinder was placed horizontally on the other two specimens and
generatrixes were marked for the repetition tests).
• The platform was progressively tilted at the rate of 0.4/s until the upper specimens began to
slide, and the tilt angle of the platform was recorded. Only tests corresponding to
displacements of at least 10 % of the sample length were taken into account.
• Each test was repeated at least three times. The surface was wiped with a dry cloth between
each repetition and specimens were placed in the same initial positions. Tests were
performed in both directions for lengthwise-cut specimens.
• Results were calculated as the mean of the results for all the repetitions of each test.

OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS

Sr# Sample 𝛽 Φb Φr

(deg) (deg) (deg)

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CONCLUSION

This lab gives a brief idea about shear strength parameters of rock discontinuities. This simple
demonstration shows four different ways to anticipate about tilting angle and effects of
roughness of discontinuities on it.

LIMITATIONS

• Change in angle of inclination at a rate of 0.4o/sec.

• In the case of Stimpson tilting test, core sample should be NX size (Diameter 54.7mm and
height 108mm).
• Use impression packers to sketch surface roughness.

REMARKS

•
•
•
•

REFERENCES

1. Hoek, E.; Bray, J. (1974). Rock slope engineering. London: Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-419-16010-6.
2. Barton N, Choubey V (1977) The shear strength of rock joints in theory and practice. Rock
Mech 10:1–54. doi:10.1007/ BF01261801
3. Stimpson B (1981) A suggested technique for determining the basic friction angle of rock
surfaces using core. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 18:63–65

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