UNIT-I Pile Foundation

UNIT-I: Pile Foundations
VIJAYKUMAR (ME-GEOTECHNICAL ENGG) DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG KIOT 1

INTRODUCTION
• Pile foundation is defined as deep foundation with D>B or D>3m.
• Pile foundation always more expensive than shallow foundation but will
overcome problems of soft surface soils by transferring load to stronger, deeper
stratum, thereby reducing settlements.
• Deep foundations are employed when the soil strata immediately beneath the
structure are not capable of supporting the load with tolerable settlement or
adequate safety against shear failure.
• Piles are relatively long, slender members that are driven into the ground or
cast-in situ. Piers, caissons or wells are larger, constructed by excavation and are
sunk to the required depth; these usually permit visual examination of the soil
or rock on which they rest.
• They are normally used to carry very heavy loads such as those from bridge
piers or multi-storeyed buildings.
NECESSITIES OF PILE FOUNDATION
1] Top layers of soil are highly compressible for it to support structural loads
through shallow foundations.
2] Rock level is shallow enough for end bearing pile foundations provide a more
economical design.
3] Lateral forces are relatively prominent.
4] In presence of expansive and collapsible soils at the site.
5] Offshore structures
6] Strong uplift forces on shallow foundations due to shallow water table can be
partly transmitted to Piles.
7] For structures near flowing water (Bridge abutments, etc.) to avoid the
problems due to erosion.

USES OF PILE FOUNDATIONS
The important ways in which piles are used are as follows:
(i) To carry vertical compressive loads,
(ii) To resist uplift or tensile forces, and
(iii) To resist horizontal or inclined loads.

TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATIONS
• Steel Piles
1] Pipe piles
2] Rolled steel H-section piles
• Concrete Piles
1] Pre-cast Piles
2] Cast-in-situ Piles
3] Bored-in-situ piles
• Timber Piles
• Composite Piles

STEEL PILES:
• Usual length: 15m – 60m
• Usual Load: 300kN – 1200kN
Advantage:
• Relatively less hassle during installation and easy to achieve cut off level.
• High driving force may be used for fast installation
• Good to penetrate hard strata
• Load carrying capacity is high
Disadvantage:
• Relatively expensive
• Noise pollution during installation
• Corrosion
CONCRETE PILES:
Pre-cast Piles:
• Usual length: 10m – 45m
• Usual Load: 7500kN – 8500kN
Cast-in-situ Piles:
Disadvantage:
• Usual length: 5m – 15m 1)Difficult to transport
• Usual Load: 200kN – 500kN 2)Difficult to achieve desired cut off
Advantage:
• Relatively cheap
• It can be easily combined with concrete superstructure
• Corrosion resistant
• It can bear hard driving
TIMBER PILES
• Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling beneath
embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not have
been attacked by insects.
• For timber piles of length less than 14meters, the diameter of the tip should be
greater than 150mm.If the length is greater than 18 meters a tip with a
diameter of 125mm is acceptable.
• It is essential that the timber is driven in the right direction and should not be
driven into firm ground. As this can easily damage the pile. Keeping the timber
below the ground water level will protect the timber against decay and
putrefaction.
• To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with
toe cover.

VIJAYKUMAR (ME-GEOTECHNICAL ENGG) DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG KIOT
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COMPOSITE PILES
Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of
a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect
attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground
water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level.

TYPES OF PILES BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION AND EFFECT OF INSTALLATION
Piles based on their function
• End Bearing Piles
Used to transfer load through the pile tip to a suitable bearing stratum, passing
soft soil or water.

• Friction Piles
Used to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional material by means of skin friction
along the surface area of the pile.

• Anchor Piles
Used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling or water.

• Uplift Piles
Used to anchor structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure or to
overturning moment due to horizontal forces.

• Compaction piles
Used to compact loose granular soils in order to increase the bearing capacity.
• Fender piles
Used to protect water-front structures against impact from ships or other
floating objects.

• Sheet piles
Commonly used as bulkheads, or cut-offs to reduce seepage and uplift in hydraulic
structures.
• Batter piles
Used to resist horizontal and inclined forces, especially in water front structures.
• Laterally-loaded piles
Used to support retaining walls, bridges, dams, and wharves and as fenders for
harbour construction.
Piles based on Effect of Installation

• Displacement Piles
• Non-displacement Piles

DISPLACEMENT PILES
In loose cohesionless soils
• Densities the soil up to a distance of 3.5times the pile diameter (3.5D) which
increases the soil’s resistance to shearing.
In dense cohesionless soils
• The dilatancy effect decreases the friction angle within the zone of influence of
displacement pile (3.5D approx.).
In cohesive soils
• Soil is remoulded near the displacement piles (2.0D approx.) leading to a
decreased value of shearing resistance.
NON-DISPLACEMENT PILES
Due to no displacement during installation, there is no heave in the ground.

Based on Sectional area
• Circular
• Square
•H
• Octagonal
• Tubular
Based on Size
• Micro piles dia. < 150 mm
• Small dia. pile dia. >150mm and <600 mm
• Large dia. piles > 600 mm
Based on inclination
• Vertical Piles
• Inclined/ raker Piles 20
DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS
• The design of a pile foundation consists of assuming a design, then checking the
proposed design for safety and revising it until it is satisfactory.
• The final design is selected on the basis of cost and time available for
construction.
DESIGN STEPS
• Selection of Length of Piles
Selection of the approximate length of the pile is made from a study of the soil
profile and the strength and compressibility of the soil strata.

• Selection of Type of Pile and Material of Pile
The points to be considered in the selection of type of a pile and material of pile
are: (i) the loads, (ii) time available for completion of the job, (iii) the
characteristics of the soil strata involved, (iv) the ground water conditions, (v) the
availability of equipment, and (vi) the statutory requirements of building codes.
• Pile Capacity
The pile capacity both for an individual pile and for groups of piles shall be
determined in accordance with the procedures outlined earlier.
• Pile Spacing
The piles are placed so that the capacity of the pile group acting as a unit is equal
to the sum of the capacities of the individual piles.
• Inspection and Records
Competent engineering inspection and keeping complete records of the driving of
every pile is an essential part of any important job.
PILE CAPACITY
What is meant by load carrying capacity of the pile foundation?
The amount of load the pile can carry without undergoing continuous
displacements for insignificant load increments by virtue of its boundary
condition (soil condition)and not by virtue of its structural strength.
The assumption for this definition is –the failure of surrounding soil occurs prior
to the failure of the pile material especially in the case of concrete piles.

WHAT ARE THE LOAD CARRYING MECHANISMS OF PILES?
•End bearing cum friction piles carry vertical compressive loads partly by means
of resistance offered by the hard stratum at the tip of the pile and partly by the
friction developed between the pile shaft and soil.
•Pure friction piles carry the major part of loads only by means of friction
developed between pile shaft and soil; and pure End bearing piles only by
means of bearing resistance at the tip of the pile.
•In both the above cases lateral loads are carried by the lateral resistance
offered by the surrounding soil.

LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM
Consider the pile shown in Fig.(b) is loaded to failure by gradually increasing the
load on the top. When a load Qu acts on the pile head, the axial load at ground
level is also Qu but at level A1, the axial load is zero. The total load Q1 is
distributed as friction load within a length of pile L1. The lower section A1B of
pile will not be affected by this load. As the load at the top is increased to Q2,
the axial load at the bottom of the pile is just zero. The total load Q2 is
distributed as friction load along the whole length of pile L. The friction load
distribution curves along the pile shaft may be as shown in the figure. If the load
put on the pile is greater than a part of this load is transferred to the soil at the
base as point load and the rest is transferred to the soil surrounding the pile.
With the increase of load Qm on the top, both the friction and point loads
continue to increase. The friction load attains an ultimate value Qf, at a
particular load level, say Qm, at the top, and any further increment of load
added to Qm will not increase the value of Qf However, the point load, Qm , still
goes on increasing till the soil fails by punching shear failure.
SCHEMATICS SHOWING AXIAL LOAD CARRYING MECHANISM

METHODS OF DETERMINING ULTIMATE LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A SINGLE
VERTICAL PILE
The ultimate bearing capacity, Qu, of a single vertical pile may be determined by
any of the following methods.
1. By the use of static bearing capacity equations.
2. By the use of SPT and CPT values.
3. By field load tests.
4. By dynamic method.
The determination of the ultimate point bearing capacity, qb, of a deep
foundation on the basis of theory is a very complex one since there are many
factors which cannot be accounted for in the theory. The theory assumes that the
soil is homogeneous and isotropic which is normally not the case. All the
theoretical equations are obtained based on plane strain conditions. Only shape
factors are applied to take care of the three-dimensional nature of the problem.
GENERAL THEORY FOR ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY
According to Vesic (1967), only punching shear failure occurs in deep foundations
irrespective of the density of the soil so long as the depth-width ratio L/d is
greater than 4 where L = length of pile and d = diameter (or width of pile). The
types of failure surfaces assumed by different investigators are shown in Fig. for
the general shear failure condition. The detailed experimental study of Vesic
indicates that the failure surfaces do not revert back to the shaft as shown in Fig.
The shapes of failure surfaces at the tips of piles as assumed by (a) Terzaghi, (b)
Meyerhof, and (c) Vesic.

ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY IN COHESIONLESS SOILS
Effect of Pile Installation on the Value of the Angle of Friction
When a pile is driven into loose sand its density is increased and the horizontal
extent of the compacted zone has a width of about 6 to 8 times the pile diameter.
However, in dense sand, pile driving decreases the relative density because of the
dilatancy of the sand and the loosened sand along the shaft has a width of about
5times the pile diameter. On the basis of field and model test results, Kishida
(1967) proposed that the angle of internal friction decreases linearly from a
maximum value of Φ2 at the pile tip to a low value of Φ2 at a distance of 3.5d
from the tip where d is the diameter of the pile, Φ1 is the angle of friction before
the installation of the pile and Φ2 after the installation as shown in Fig. Based on
the field data, the relationship between Φ1 and Φ2 in sands may be written as

MEYERHOF'S METHOD OF DETERMINING Qb FOR PILES IN SAND
Meyerhof (1976) takes into account the critical depth ratio (Lc /d) for estimating
the value of Qb, Fig. shows the variation of Lc /d for both the bearing capacity
factors Nc and Nq as a function of Φ. According to Meyerhof, the bearing
capacity factors increase with Lb /d and reach a maximum value at Lb /d equal to
about 0.5 (Lc /d) where Lb is the actual thickness of the bearing stratum.

Bearing capacity factors

where ψ= angle as shown in Fig. This angle varies from 60° in soft compressible
soil to 105° in dense sand. The values for N*c used by Janbu are the same as those
given by Vesic. Table gives the bearing capacity factors of Janbu.

COYLE AND CASTELLO'S METHOD OF ESTIMATING Qb IN SAND
Coyle and Castello (1981) made use of the results of 24 full scale pile load tests driven in sand
for evaluating the bearing capacity factors which may be expressed as

Skin Resistance by ᾳ-Method
Tomlinson (1986) has given some empirical correlations for evaluating ᾳ for
different types of soil conditions and L/d ratios.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS AND DESIGN PROBLEMS
Solve the problem by Meyerhof 's method.

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NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
• Negative skin friction’ or ‘down drag’ is a phenomenon which occurs when a
soil layer surrounding a portion of the pile shaft settles more than the pile.
• This condition can develop where a soft or loose soil stratum located any
where above the pile tip is subjected to new compressive loading. If a soft or
loose layer settles after the pile has been installed, the skin-friction-adhesion
developing in this zone is in the direction of the soil movement, pulling the pile
downward.

• Negative skin friction may also occur by the lowering of ground water which
increases the effective stress inducing consolidation and consequent settlement
of the soil surrounding the pile.
• It is necessary to subtract negative skin friction force from the total load that
the pile can support. In such a case the factor of safety will be modified as
follows:
• Values of negative skin force are computed in just the same way as positive skin
friction.

PILE GROUP
NUMBER AND SPACING OF PILES IN A GROUP

• Very rarely structures are founded on single piles. Normally, there will be a
minimum of three piles under a column or a foundation element because of
alignment problems.
• The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors such as.
1. Overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles
2. Cost of foundation
3. Efficiency of the pile group

PILE GROUP

• The pressure isobars of a single pile with load Q acting on the top are shown in
Fig. (a).
• When piles are placed in a group, there is a possibility the pressure isobars of
adjacent piles will overlap each other as shown in Fig.(b).
• The soil is highly stressed in the zones of overlapping of pressures.
• With sufficient overlap, either the soil will fail or the pile group will settle
excessively since the combined pressure bulb extends to a considerable depth
below the base of the piles.
• It is possible to avoid overlap by installing the piles further apart as shown in
Fig.(c).
• Large spacing's are not recommended sometimes, since this would result in a
larger pile cap which would increase the cost of the foundation.

SPACING OF PILES

SPACING OF PILES
• The spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the piles and the
type of soil.
• The piles can be driven piles or cast-in-situ piles. When the piles are driven
there will be greater overlapping of stresses due to the displacement of soil.
• If the displacement of soil compacts the soil in between the piles as in the case
of loose sandy soils, the piles may be placed at closer intervals. The minimum
allowable spacing of piles is usually stipulated in building codes.
• The spacing's for straight uniform diameter piles may vary from 2 to 6 times
the diameter of the shaft. For friction piles, the minimum spacing
recommended is 3d where d is the diameter of the pile. For end bearing piles
passing through relatively compressible strata, the spacing of piles shall not be
less than 2.5d.For end bearing piles passing through compressible strata and
resting in stiff clay, the spacing may be increased to 3.5d. For compaction piles,
the spacing may be 2d.
PILE GROUP EFFICIENCY
The spacing of piles is usually predetermined by practical and economical
considerations. The design of a pile foundation subjected to vertical loads
consists of
1. The determination of the ultimate load bearing capacity of the group Qgu.
2. Determination of the settlement of the group, Eg , under an allowable load
Qga. The ultimate load of the group is generally different from the sum of the
ultimate loads of individual piles Qu.
The pile group factor is given by

PILE GROUP EFFICIENCY EQUATION
There are many pile group equations. These equations are to be used very
cautiously, and may in many cases be no better than a good guess. The Converse
Labarre formula is one of the most widely used group-efficiency equations which
is expressed as

PILE CAP
• Usually, the load to be supported exceeds the bearing capacity of a single pile,
and so a group of similar piles is used.
• The group is capped by a spread footing or a cap to distribute the load to all
piles in the group.
• Where there are a large number of closely spaced piles, rather than provide
individual caps, it may be more economical to provide just one large cap, thus
forming a piled raft.

VERTICAL BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE GROUPS EMBEDDED IN SANDS AND
GRAVELS
Driven piles. If piles are driven into loose sands and gravel, the soil around the
piles to a radius of at least three times the pile diameter is compacted. When
piles are driven in a group at close spacing, the soil around and between them
becomes highly compacted. When the group is loaded, the piles and the soil
between them move together as a unit. Thus, the pile group acts as a pier
foundation having a base area equal to the gross plan area contained by the
piles.

Bored Pile Groups In Sand And Gravel
Bored piles are cast-in-situ concrete piles. The method of installation involves
1 . Boring a hole of the required diameter and depth,
2. Pouring in concrete.
There will always be a general loosening of the soil during boring and then too
when the boring has to be done below the water table. Though bentonite slurry
(sometimes called as drilling mud) is used for stabilizing the sides and bottom of
the bores, loosening of the soil cannot be avoided. Cleaning of the bottom of the
bore hole prior to concreting is always a problem which will never be achieved
quite satisfactorily. Since bored piles do not compact the soil between the piles,
the efficiency factor will never be greater than unity.

Pile Groups In Cohesive Soils
The effect of driving piles into cohesive soils (clays and silts) is very different from
that of cohesionless soils. It has already been explained that when piles are
driven into clay soils, particularly when the soil is soft and sensitive, there will be
considerable remoulding of the soil. Besides there will be heaving of the soil
between the piles since compaction during driving cannot be achieved in soils of
such low permeability. There is every possibility of lifting of the pile during this
process of heaving of the soil. Bored piles are, therefore, preferred to driven piles
in cohesive soils.

In case driven piles are to be used, the following steps should be favoured:
1. Piles should be spaced at greater distances apart.
2. Piles should be driven from the centre of the group towards the edges, and
3. The rate of driving of each pile should be adjusted as to minimize the
development of pore water pressure.
• Experimental results have indicated that when a pile group installed in
cohesive soils is loaded, it may fail by any one of the following ways:
1. May fail as a block (called block failure).
2. Individual piles in the group may fail.

SETTLEMENT OF PILES AND PILE GROUPS IN SANDS AND GRAVELS
Normally it is not necessary to compute the settlement of a single pile as this
settlement under a working load will be within the tolerable limits. However,
settlement analysis of a pile group is very much essential. The total settlement
analysis of a pile group does not bear any relationship with that of a single pile
since in a group the settlement is very much affected due to the interaction
stresses between piles and the stressed zone below the tips of piles.
Semi-Empirical Formulas and Curves
Vesic (1977) proposed an equation to determine the settlement of a single pile.
The equation has been developed on the basis of experimental results he
obtained from tests on piles. Tests on piles of diameters ranging from 2 to 18
inches were carried out in sands of different relative densities. Tests were carried
out on driven piles, jacked piles, and bored piles (jacked piles are those that are
pushed into the ground by using a jack).

The equation for total settlement of a single pile may be expressed as

LATERALLY LOADED PILES
• Piles and pile groups may be subjected to vertical loads, lateral loads or a combination of
both.
• If the lateral loads act at an elevation considerably higher than the base of the foundation,
there will be significant moments acting on it.
• Vertical piles may be relied upon to resist large magnitudes of lateral loads.
• The lateral load capacity of a vertical pile depends upon the nature of the soil, the size of the
pile, and the conditions at the pile head. If the pile head is fixed rigidly in a pile cap, its lateral
load capacity will be more than when it is free.

Winkler’s hypothesis for laterally loaded pile
Most of the theoretical solutions for laterally loaded piles involve the concept of ‘coefficient of
subgrade reaction’, or ‘soil modulus’ as it is sometimes called, based on Winkler’s (1867)
hypothesis that a soil medium may be approximated by a series of infinitely closely spaced
independent elastic springs, which is only an approximation of a beam on an elastic foundation
as shown in fig.

• The constant of proportionality is termed the coefficient of soil modulus
variation. It is given by.
• For long flexible piles, the lateral deflection is very nearly zero for most of the
length of the pile and hence the length of the pile is not important.
• For short piles, the flexural rigidity of the pile loses its significance, the pile
tends to rotate as a unit, acting somewhat as a rigid member.

BATTER PILES
• Batter piles combined with vertical piles are most effective for resisting large
horizontal thrusts.
• Such combinations have been commonly used to support retaining walls, bridge
piers and abutments, tall structures subjected to wind loads and as anchors for
wharves, bulkheads and other waterfront structures.
• The batter may be up to 30° with the vertical. Depending on the direction of the
lateral force relative to the direction of inclination with respect to the vertical.
• The batter may be termed ‘positive’ or ‘negative’. If the tendency of the force is
to ‘right’ the pile (bring it nearer vertical), the batter is considered positive;
otherwise, it is considered negative.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE BATTER PILE
A batter and vertical pile combination that is usually employed in sheet-pile bulkhead
construction is shown in Fig.

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UNIT-I: Pile Foundations

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Piles based on Effect of Installation

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Solve the problem by Meyerhof 's method.

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NUMBER AND SPACING OF PILES IN A GROUP

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