Chapter-1: Metal Casting

Introduction:-Several different methods such as casting –moulding forming powder metallurgy and
machining are available to shape metals in to useful products.
One of the oldest processes is casting
Casting:- It is process in which molten liquid metal is allowed to solidify in a predefined mould cavity.
After the solidification by breaking the mould the component is taken. This is known as casting.
Steps:-

1) Mould box

2) Insert the pattern

3) Ramming the sand

After Ramming it is called mould.

4) Now rotate the mould

Pattern removed by the draw spike.

5) Now fill the liquid metal in cavity with help of gating system.

6) Solidification

a) At mould surface due to fast rate of colling, grain growth is not that much
b) As distance is Increasing from mould surface, rate of colling decrease and from the corse grain
structure
7) Breaking the mould
After solidification the casting can be taken out by breaking the mould.
From fig (a). we can observe the casting product properties change from cross section to cross section. It
can prevent by heat treatment process [Annealing]
Advantages:-1. Complex object can be produce easily.
2. Tool used in this are less expensive.
3. Any type of material can be casted easily [hard & soft etc].
4. Large size component can produce by casting only.
Ex: Large flywheels, Turbine busing and beds.
Limitations: 1. The casting components are not having uniform Mechanical properties throughout it
cross-section.
2. Surface finish of the casting component are very poor.
3. It is a laborious process and time consuming.
4. It is difficult to produce casting without any defects.

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Pattern: Pattern is the Replica of the object to be produced.
1. Pattern size is different from casting size
Pattern size = Casting size  Allowances
Allowances: 1. Shrinkage 2. Draft 3. Machining 4. Shake 5. Distortion
Shrinkage:

If we allow the liquid metal to solidify in the mould cavity, it will be contracting due to this size of
casting will be reduced when compared to actual size of the casting.
Contraction takes place due to the thermal co –efficient of expansion.
1. If the liquid metal will cool from pouring temperatures (tp) to freezing temperature (Tf).
The shrinkage is known as liquid shrinkage.
2. During the phase transformation process the amount of shrinkage is known as Solidification shrinkage.
3. Both liquid and solidification shrinkages are expressed in terms of % shrinkage volume of the casting.
4. This is compensated by providing riser.
5. If the metal cool from freezing temperature to ambient temperature (ta) the shrinkage is known as solid
shrinkage.
6. This is compensated by increasing the size of the pattern it is expressed as percentage over dimensions.
Invar =0  mm/moc Admiralty metal=23.5  m/0c
Note: Gray cast iron if cools from freezing temperature to Room temperature it will slightly expand due
to presence of carbon in the form of graphite flukes.
To compensate (or) overcome above problem, while design of pattern the size will reduce. It is
called as negative shrinkage allowances.
1. While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40mm undergoes 3%, 4% and 5% volume shrinkage
during the liquid state, phase transition and solid state, respectively, the volume of metal
compensated from the riser is
a) 2% b) 7% c) 8% d) 9%
Sol: - (B)
Volume compensated by risks = Liquid + Phase transition
= 3% +4 %
= 7%
2. A cubic casting of 50mm side undergoes volumetric solidification shrinkage and volume for
solid contraction of 4 % and 6%respectively no riser is used. Assume uniform cooling in all
direction. The side of cube after solidification and contraction is
Sol:- (A)
Cubic side =50mm
After 1st solidification shrinkage volume of cubic= 50  50  50  0.96
= 120000 mm3
nd
After 2 solid shrinkage volume of cube = 120000  0.94
= 112800 mm2
a3= 112800
a= 48.3173 mm
3. Gray cast iron blocks 200  100  10 mm are to be cast in sand moulds. Shrinkage allowance
for pattern is 1%. The ratio of the volume of pattern to that of the casting will be
a) 0.97 b) 0.99 c) 1.01 d) 1.03
Sol:- (a)

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Draft Allowance: Making the vertical surface of pattern into
inclined is called draft allowances. It is provided for easy
removal of pattern from mould.

1) Without providing the draft allowances during removal of pattern until the last point of pattern comes
out from mould there is a contact existing between the pattern and mould.
2) Any vibration taking places to the human hand during removal of pattern may cause damage to the
mould part.
3) To avoid this if the vertical surface of the pattern is made into inclined.
Note:- If pattern is made by using material like wax, mercury, polyethylene. No draft material need not
be provided.
Machining Allowances: The extra material provided on the pattern and it can be removed by machining
from casting, after casting process is completed.
1) It is provided because of the casting component will have poor surface finish but most of application
required good (or) excellent surface finish.
2) To get this good surface finish machining must be done on casting.

Shake Allowance: [Negative Allowance]

1) During the Ramming operation the moulding sand will be stick to surface of pattern material
due to adhesive property of the moulding sand.
2) If the pattern is removed from the mould without creating any clearance between pattern and mould.
The moulding sand will be disturbed from the surface of the mould.
3) To overcome this pattern will be shaking before removing from the mould due to this some clearance
is created between the pattern and mould wall.
4) But the size of cavity will be increased to overcome this by design of pattern size will be decreased it
is called negative allowance.
Distortion Allowance: Does not required on all the casting. But it is mainly required in casting of “U”
(or) “V” shaped castings.

1) Because of Existence of different shrinkage at different location, the shrinkage forces are
acting on the legs of U (or) V.
2) The leg will bend outwards producing inclined legs of casting this called distortion.
3) To overcome this leg of the pattern will be bend inwards by an amount equal to distortion
allowances.
Pattern Properties: 1. Should not absorb the moisture [when moisture is absorbed pattern will expand
so cavity Increases]
2. Low density
3. Good surface finish
4. Easiness in fabrication
5. Cheap
Types of pattern material:
1) Wood 2) Metal 3) Plastic 4) Wax 5) Mercury
Wood: 1) Wood patterns are lower density and easy to fabricate.
2) It is used for low production rate [up to 25 pieces] material = Teak.

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Metals:1) Metals are having higher density and difficult to fabricate.
2) It is used for high production rate.
3) Manufacturing of metal patterns using casting process again the wood patterns most
used.
Material = Aluminium, Brass, Titanium etc
Plastics: This possesses all good properties which are required for a pattern material. Hence plastic
pattern are most commonly used material industry today.
Ex: Epoxy resin [Thermosetting], PVC, Nylon etc
Wax: 1) If wax can be used as pattern material because of very high softness of wax; the complex shapes
of patterns can be produced very easily.
2) Wax pattern is removed in the form of liquid so complex shape of pattern can be removed easily.
Surface finish produced is excellent.
Ex: Turbine blades, gold and silver ornaments.
Mercury:
1) Mercury will be first cooled to temp of -70 to-80oc make the pattern. By using this pattern make the
mould.
2) This mould will be left in atmospheric conditions so that the temperature of mercury will be increasing
and becomes liquid.
3) It is used in case of manufacturing of very small casting with excellent surface finish without
machining.
Types of pattern:
1) Single piece:

If the casting is having simple shape and size without complex surfaces. We can select single piece
pattern.
2) Split piece pattern:

If the complexity of the pattern will be more it is difficult to remove the pattern from the mould as a
single pieces pattern. In this case pattern can be split into individual places along the symmetry. These
splits pieces can be removed from cope and Drag Boxes separately.
3) Loose piece pattern: The complexity of the pattern will be more and the pattern is having internal
projections. It is very difficult to remove the pattern from the mould.
In this case the projection in the pattern can be separated in the form of loose pieces and they can be
removed after removing the main part of the pattern.
4) Gated pattern:

This pattern will be used to produced small size castings in mass production number of small size
pattern along with gatting element will made as a singles pattern.
This can be removed from the mould as a single uniformly so that cavities will be form along with
gating element.
5) Sweep pattern: 3-dimensional mould cavities can be created by using 2-D plane pattern. By
sweeping 2-D plane pattern inside the mould. Therefore cavity will be formed.

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By using this we can say pattern material.
6) Skelton pattern:

To save material consume in preparing solid 3-D patterns this technique can be used. A-3-D Skelton is
produced using small size wooden work pieces.
Follow board pattern:

If the pattern is having overhanging portion due to Ramming force it may get distorted to support this
pattern follow board is use after preparing the mould in place of the following board provide core to get
required shape of the mould cavity.
1. The pattern adopted for those casting where there are some portion. Which are structurally
weak and are likely to break by force of ramming are called
a) Loose piece pattern b) Follow board pattern
c) Skeleton pattern d) Single piece pattern
Sol: (B) From above figure
2. Write the reasons which result the metal to shrink during solidification and cooling in metal
casting [2 marks]
Sol: 1) During solidification of metal, the density of the material changes due to cooling of the metal
in both liquid and solid state as well as due solid to liquid phase transformation itself.
2) During the cooling, molten metal experiences thermal contraction due to lowered temperature.
3. When there is no room temperature change the total shrinkage allowances on a pattern is
independent of
a) Pouring temp of the liquid metal b) Freezing temp of the liquid metal
c) Component size d) Co- efficient of thermal contraction of solidified metal
Sol: (A) Shrinkage = A(Tf  Ta )
 = co efficient of thermal contraction A= Area of material
Tf = Freezing temperature
To =Ambient temperature
Mould Making: Moulding sand will be used for manufacturing of the mould it consist of 3 Basic
elements
1) Silica sand particle [75-80%];
It is used to producing required strength of the mould.
2) Clay [15-20%]
It is used for producing bond between the sound particles.
3) Water (or) sodium silicate [6 % to 8%]
It is used for initiating the formation of bond between the sand particles using the clay.
Types of sands:
1) Green sand = silica sand+ clay +water
2) Dry sand = Silica sand + cloy +sodium silicate
3) Loam sand = 50% silica sand + 50% clay
It is generally used for producing large casting.
1. Green sand mould indication that
a) Polymeric mould has been cured b) Mould has been totally dried
c) Mould is green in color d) Mould contain moisture
Sol: (D) Green sand =Silica sand + clay +water
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Additives:
Additive [up to 2%] are to increase properties of moulding sand they are:
1) Saw dost (or) wood powder:
They are added to increase the porosity property of moulding sand and collapsibility of moulding
sand.
2) Coal powder:
It is used for increasing the refractoriness of the molding sand.
3) Starch: t is used for increasing resistances to deformation of moulding sand.
Properties of moulding sand:
1) Porosity property: The ability of escaping the air (or) gases through the molding sand is called
porosity property.
Porosity property of moulding sand is required for escaping air (or) gases present in casting cavity
during filling of molten metal in the cavity and avoiding the defect like below holes.
If air (or) gases present in cavity it will affect the strength of casted object.
Permeability test is used for determining the porosity property of
Moulding sand:

V.H
Permeability number = Pn 
P.A.T
V= Volume of the air passing through the specimen = 2000 cm3
H= Height of air passing through the specimen.
P= Gauge pressure of air (gm/cm2) = [10 gm/cm2=stand value]

A= Cross sectional area of the specimen = D2  cm 2
y
T= Time taken by air to pass through the specimen
50.128
Pn  = standard formulas
T
cm 4
Units =
gm  min
Factors affecting porosity of a moulding sand :
1) Grain size of silica sand particle: Higher the grain size, higher the porosity.
2) Percentage of clay sand: Higher the % of clay the porosity will be less it reduces the porosity
moulding sand. Because clay will fill gaps existing between the sand particle.
3) Ramming force: Higher the ramming force, lower the porosity property.
4) Adding saw dust and wood powder the porosity property can be improved.
5) Venting holes= Porosity can be Increased
2) Strength: The strength of moulding sand like tensile, compressive and shear can be determined by
UTM.
3) Cohesiveness property: Ability to form a bond between some material particles is called as
cohesiveness property. It is determined by UTM and name of test is inter laminar shear strength test.
4) Adhesiveness: Ability of Bond formation of sand particles with other materials
5) Refractoriness: Ability of withstanding higher temperature without losing it strength
and Hardness.
6) Collapsibility: Ability of breaking the mould with little amount of force application measured using
vibration mesh.

1) By leaving sand specimen over vibrator mesh and vibration is applied.

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2) By slowly increasing the vibration of mesh, it is possible to determine of what vibration mould can be
broken.
3) Based on this vibration, the force at which mould is breaking can be determined.
4) As force required for breaking mould is reducing collapsibility property of mould is increasing.
7) Flow ability: Ability of flowing of moulding sand into each and every corner of the mould is called
flow ability. It can be measured using orifice meter.
 Effect of water (or) moisture content on strength and permeability:

If the water content is less the voids will be filled with smaller sand particle which results in lower
permeability. By increasing the water content, smaller sand particles are also combined together, this
increase permeability. Once the percentage of water goes beyond 8% .Water start accumulating in these
void and sand become pasty. This decreases permeability and decreases in strength of the mould.
Moulding Methods:
Moulding methods are two types:
1. Hand moulding  Bench
 Floor
2) Machine moulding :a) Jolting b) Squeezing c) Jolt & Squeezing d) Sand sinking
Hand Moulding: If two forces required for ramming (or) compressing of moulding sand is obtained by
human hand, it is called hand moulding.
a) Bench moulding-: The moulding takes place on a beach then it is called bench moulding. It is used to
produce small size mould only.
b) Floor Moulding:- The moulding takes place on the floor, then it is called floor moulding, used to
produce medium size moulds.
Advantages: 1. It is cheaper methodology.
2. Human being knows where the projection and extension are present on the pattern.
Hence he can apply lesser amount of force to avoid damage taking to the pattern.
Limitations: 1. Non –uniform strength and hardness of mould can be obtained.
2. Time taken for making one mould will be higher.
3. Production rate is low.
Machine Moulding: If machine is used for producing required ramming force it is called machine
moulding.
a) Jolting: Sand filled mould is raised to certain height. So that it is possessing potential energy (P.E)
when it is leaving freely on the ground the P.E of the mould is converted into impact energy and impact
load which is acting on the ground the equal and opposite reaction force offered by ground is acting on
the mould which is used for ramming of molding sand .
The reaction force produced by ground cannot be transferred up to the top of mould. Hence top of
mould is having lower strength. Therefore jolting may not be sufficient for making the mould.
b) Squeezing:

Force is applied using mechanical (or) hydraulic press on to the plate the plate is squeezing (or)
transforming force to the moulding sand for ramming .
Because force may not be transmitted up to the bottom of the mould, there is variation in strength of
mould.
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 Top of mould is higher strength , where one bottom of mould is having lower strength.
To overcome above problem we used jolt and squeezing method.
c) Jolt and squeezing: By combining jolt and squeezing operation it is possible to get higher strength
and hardness of top and bottom of mould uniform strength and hardness can be obtained, if the height of
mould is < 200mm
Sand sinking: Small quantity of moulding sand will be thrown in to the mould
with certain amount of force using a machine. Sand sinking is very costly
equipment and it can’t be used with pattern having projection and extension.

1. Hardness of green sand increases with

a) Increase in moisture content beyond 6% b) Increase in permeability
c) Decrease in permeability
d) Increase in both moisture content and permeability
Sol: (C)
2. In solidification of metal during casting, compensation during solid contraction is
a) Provided by the oversize pattern b) Achieved by properly placed riser
c) Obtained by promoting direction solidification
d) Mode by providing chills
Sol: (A)
3. Draft on pattern for casting is
a) Shrinkage allowance b) Toper to facilitate if removal from mould
c) Increase in size of cavity due to sinking of pattern
d) Machining allowances
Sol: (B)
4. Strength and permeability of green sand are related
a) Grain size b) Moisture content c) Elay-content d) Type of sand
Sol: (B)
5. Shrinkage allowance is made
a) Adding to external and internal dimensions
b) Subtracting from external internal dimensions
c) Subtracting from external dimensions and adding to internal dimensions
d) Adding to external dimensions and adding subtractions from internal dimensions
Sol: (D)
6. Jolt machine produce
a) Uniform ramming about the pattern b) Uniform ramming about the flask
c) Uniform distribution throughout d) Pack sand loosely all around
Sol: (A)
7. Negative allowance is provided on the pattern to take care of
a) Distortion allowance b) Draft allowances
c) Machining allowance d) Shake allowance
Sol: (D)

Core: Cores are bodies are used in casting process for producing Hollow casting.

Properties which must be possessed by core material:

1. Non metal 2. Free from moisture 3. Core material should have high strength
4. High collapsibility
To satisfy the above four properties of core material, the commonly used material for manufacturing of
core is dry sand with co2 bonding

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Core making process:
1. Take the dry sand [silica sand+ clay +sodium silicate]
2. CO2 is supplied in to dry sand of high pressure. It is chemically reacting with sodium silicate and
produces silica gel.
3. On drying the silica gel for 1 to 2 minutes, it give very high strength to the core.

4. Now by opening container, the core can be taken out and used in casting process.
5. Whatever high strength of core obtained due to formation of silica gel and drying will
not be lasting for longer period [ 2 to 3 hours].
6. After 5 hours it is found that the core becomes like a loose sand which can be removed
very easily.
Core is placed in the cavity: When core placed in the cavity due to Buoyancy force the position of core
is changed.
To overcome above problem recess provided in the mould for locating, positioning and support core is
called core print. Core print can be produced by providing extension on the pattern as shown in figure.

Net Buoyancy force on the core:

= Weight of liquid displaced – Weight of core
= v  1  g  v  2  g
=  vg 1  2  v= Volume of core
g= Acceleration due to gravity
1 = density of molten metal
2 = density of core
Load which is supported by core print = 350A newtons
A= Surface area of core print in m2
Unsupported load = Net buoyancy force – 350 A
If  0 no additional support is required.
If > 0 additional support is required.
Additional support required in casting process which is obtained by using chaplets.
Chaplets: Main purpose of chaplets is to support the core. Chaplets are made by using same material as
that of casting to be produced. Because it is becoming an Integral part of casting and it would not be
removed.
Precautions: 1. Chaplets must be properly cleaned before placing them into the casting cavity. Because
to avoid the weak joint formation between solidified metal and chaplets.
Directional solidification: Chaplets basically provided as an addition support. But chaplets also provide,
the directional solidification.

Elements of gating design:

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 Molten metal is always poured into the casting cavity using a system called gating system. It
consists of 4 basic elements, 1. Pouring basin 2. Sprue 3. Runner 4. Ingate
Characteristics of Gating system: 1. The time taken for pouring (or) filling of molten metal into the
cavity should be as minimum as possible. This is due to no part of casting cavity should start to solidify
before complete filling of casting cavity.
Volume of cavity(v) V m3
Pouring time    3  sec
Flow rate Area  Velocity m
sec
2. Velocity of molten metal should be selected in such way that velocity of molten metal in the gating
system must ensure the Laminor flow.
3. The flow of molten metal in the gating system should always full.
4. The gating system should be designed such that any impurities present in molten metal can be
separated without entering into casting cavity.
5. The gating system should be designed such that no sand erosion can take place in gating system.
6. No aspiration effect will take place during filling of molten metal into the casting cavity.
Pouring basin:

Pouring basin is as a reservoir for supplying the molten metal to the casting cavity.
1. Pouring basin separates the impurities present in the molten metal
2. Size and shape of pouring basin will not have much effect on the flow rate (or) pouring time of molten
metal.
Sprue: It is connecting passage between pouring basin and runner. It is always vertical with straight
tapered circular cross section.

h = height of sprue, As = Cross section area of Bottom sprue

1. Basically velocity of molten metal in gating system v  2gh . Height of sprue is mainly responsible
for producing velocity of molten metal in gating system. Height is selected in such way that velocity
of molten metal ensures Laminor flow.
2. Straight tapered sprue is selected to avoid the aspiration effect in the gating system.
Runner: It is connecting passage between bottom of sprue and ingate. It is always horizontal with
uniform trapezoidal cross section.
Mainly used for minimizing the sand erosion in casting process.
Qact  cd  Q th , Cd= Co-efficient of discharge, A r  cross area of runner
Trapezoidal cross section has highest value of Cd. So, it is selected.
Q. Why Trapezoidal is not selected for sprue?
Ingate: It is the lost point of gating system, from here the molten metal is entering into the casting cavity.
 It is also horizontal and uniform trapezoidal cross section.
Function: There is an offset between runner axis and Ingate axis [offset < 5 mm]it is provided to remove
impurities.
AG = cross section area of Ingate
Depending on the position of gate with respect to mould cavity they are four types:-
1. Top gate 2. Bottom gate 3. Parting line gate 4. Step gate

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Top gate:

1. Liquid metal will enter into the cavity directly from bottom of sprue at atmospheric pressure.
2. Velocity of liquid metal which is entered into the mould cavity will be very high.
3. There is a possibility of turbulence, splashing of the liquid metal and mould erosion.
4. It can be used for ferrous material.
5. Time taken to fill the cavity will be less.
6. There is favourable temperature gradient of the liquid metal in the mould cavity.
Ag Vg dt = Amdh [According to continuity equation]
As time changes, there is change in height.
ttf hm
AV dt  A dh A m  mould area
g g 
t 0
m 
0
tf h h m  mould height
A g Vg  t t 0  A m  h 0 m
A g  Gate area
A g vg t f  A m h m
vg  Gate velocity  2gh t
A h
tf  m m t f  time required for filling mould
A g vg
v m  Volume of mould
v
tf  m
A g vg
Bottom Gate: Gate is provided at bottom of mould cavity.

1. Velocity of liquid metal in the cavity will be very less and will become zero.
2. There is no possibility of turbulence, splashing liquid metal and mould erosion.
3. It can be used for casting of non- ferrous materials.
4. Time taken to fill the mould cavity will be maximum.
According to continuity equation
A g v g df  A m dh
at t  0 h0
t  tf h  hm
A dh
dt  m
A g vg
Integrating on both sides,
t  tf A h hm dh
t 0 dt  Amg h 0 2g  h  h 
t
hm
 1
1

Am 1 h t  h  2  2A m 1 
tf 
Ag

2g   1  1
  1  
Ag 2g 
 ht  hm  ht   1

 2 0

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 2A m 1 
tf  h t  h t  h m 
Ag 2g 

2A m 1 2A m h t h 2A m ht
If h t  h m , t f  . ht ,  .  t , .
Ag 2g Ag 2g ht Ag 2gh t
t fbottom  2.t top
Q. A casting of size 100 cm × 100 cm × 25 cm was filled by top and bottom gates with
manometric height in pouring basin to be 25 cm. Compare the time to fill the casting by different
gates. The area of gate is 5 cm2.
Solution: Casting Area A = 100 ×100 = 104 cm2 , Casting height H = 25 cm
Manometric height = ht = 25 cm, Gate area = Ag = 5 cm2
Top gate:
AH 104  25
t f1    225.7 sec ond
A g 2gh t 5  2  9.81 25
Bottom gate:
2A m 1
t f2     25  25  25   451.5 sec ond
Ag 2  9.81 
Short cut: t f2  2t f1 If pouring basin = height of casting
Q. In below example determine the total time required to fill the entire casting and riser.

Solution:
It is the horizontal gate section ‘A’ of the mould will be filled like top gate
2

t f1 
 30 
 6.86sec ond
 10
5  2  9.81 35
Section ‘B’ of the mould will be filled like bottom gate
2

t f2 
 30  
 35  35  20   16.60sec
5  2  9.81  
Riser will be filled like bottom gate
 2
35
 20  dh
t f3   4
20 5 2g  35  h 
 2 25
t f3  2   20   h t  H  20
4
 2.83  35  35  35  20 
 2.83  35  20  10.98sec
Total time to full the casting
t f1  t f 2  t f3  16.60  10.98  6.86  34.4 sec

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3. Parting line gate:

Gate will be provided along the parting line such that cavity above the parting line can be filled by
assuming bottom gate and cavity below parting line can be filled by assuming top gate.
To get advantages of both top and bottom gate it is most commonly used type of gating.
Note: - Pouring time increasing order are top, parting and bottom gating system.
Step gating system: Providing more than one Ingate in a given horizontal plane for filling large casting
cavity in a shorter duration is called as step gating system.

Air aspiration effect: If the atmospheric gases will be absorbed into the gating elements they will mix –
up with the liquid metal and form gas defects is called as Air- Aspiration effect.

1. Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 2 and 3, we get

P2 v 22 P v2
  h 2  3  3  0    (1)
Pg 2g Pg 2g
2. Point ‘3’ is open to atmospheric and if the cross section area of the sprue is same, then by applying
continuity equation we can write
A 2 v 2  A 3 v3  A2  A3 
v 2  v3    (2)
P3  0  Guage pressure    (3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in equation --- (1)
p2
 h2  0
pg
p2
 h 2
pg
3. It means that at point (2) in the sprue there will be vaccum and it capture atmosphere into liquid metal
through the sand voids.
4. This will produce blow holes in the casted part this phenomenon is called aspiration effect which is not
desirable.
5. To avoid this phenomenon the cross section area of sprue is changed to have uniform atmospheric
pressure throughout the sprue.
6. Let us again take equation (2) if pressure throughout sprue is uniform.
p 2 v 22 p v2
  h 2  3  3  h 3    (2)
p g 2g p g 2g
p 2  p3 , h 3  0
v 22 v2
 h 2  3      (3)
2g 2g
- 13 -
7. According to continuity equation
A 2 v 2  A 3 v3
A
v 2  3 v3 , R = Area ratio
A2
 Rv 3    (4)
Put equation –---- (4) in the equation ------ (3)
R 2 v32 v32
 h2 
2g 2g
v2
h 2  1  R 2  3 v32  2gh t
2g
2gh t
h 2  1  R 2 
2g
h
1 R2  2
ht
h
R2  1 2
ht
h  h 2 h1
R2  t 
ht ht
h1
R
ht
This should be the area ratio in the sprue to avoid aspiration effect.
8. Parabolic taper sprue is used, all along the length of the sprue; the pressure is equal to zero guage
pressure.
Limitations of parabolic sprue: Manufacturing is difficult. So, instead we take straight tapered sprue.
Accessories: In order to increase the efficiency of pouring of molten metal into casting cavity. Some
additional accessories are also used in gating system.
1. Strainer: It is always kept in sprue only. It is used for separating the impurities present in molten
metal.
2. Splash core: It is used for avoiding sand erosion from bottom of sprue.
3. Skim bob: It is semicircular cut given in the runner. it is used for separating light impurities present in
molten metal.
Gating ratio: It is the ratio between areas of the sprue to area of runner to area of the gate.
Asprue : Arunner : AGate 1: 2:4 [General]
1. Un-pressured gating system As: Ar: AG = 1: 2: 3 (or) 2
2. Pressured gating system As : Ar :AG = 2: 2: 1
Solidification time: - [ts]. It is the ratio of heat to be removed to the heat transfer.
According to Chvorinov’s principle:-
2
 V  s
ts   V = Volume, S.A = surface area, k = solidification factor = 2
 S.A  m
2
 V 
ts  k 
 S.A 
Note: In the design of casting solidification time of riser must be greater than solidification time of
cavity.
 t s riser   t s casting

- 14 -
 V a3 a
1. Cube  2 
S.A 6a 6

4 3
r
V 3 r d
2.Sphere  2
 
S.A 4r 3 6

 2
dh
V 4
3.Cylinder 
S.A 2  d 2  dh
4

V lbh
4. Slab 
S.A 2  l b  bh  lh 
Q. With a solidification factor of 0.97  106 s m 2 , the solidification time for a spherical casting of
20 mm diameter is
a) 539 b) 1078 c) 4311 d) 3233
Ans: - [B]
Solution:- Given data, k = 0.97  106 , D = 200 mm, r = 100 mm = 0.1 m
4 3
2
   0.1 
 V  6 3
ts  k    0.97  10  2 
 1077.78  1078sec
 S.A   4  0.1 
 
2
d
Short cut:- t s  k    1078sec
6
Q. A cube shaped casting solidification in 5min.The solidification time in min for a cube of
same material, which is 8 times heavier than the original casting, will be
a) 10 b) 20 c) 24 d) 40
Ans: - [B]
Solution:- t s1  5 min
m 2  8m1 m = mass = density. Volume
2
3 3 3  V  V a
v 2  8v1 , v 2  8v1 , v  a , a  8a ,2 1 a 2  2a1 , t s  k   
 S.A  S.A 6
2 2
 a  t s1 a1 a 22 2
ts     2 t s2  2 t s1   2 5  20 min
 6  , t s2 a 2 a1
,
Q. Volume of cube of side ‘L’ and volume of sphere of radius ‘r’ are equal. Both the cube and
the sphere are solid and of same material they are being cast, the ratio of solidification time
of the cube to the same of sphere is :
3 6 2 2 3 2 4
 4   r   4   r   4   r   4   r 
a)     b)     c)     d)    
 6  L  6  l   6  l  6  L
Ans: - [B]
Solution: - Given data, 1. Vc  Vs 2. Material same
2 2 2 2 4
2
 V  t sL  A s   4r   4   r 
ts  k  ,    2  
 S.A  t ss  A c   6L   6   L 

- 15 -
Q. Light impurities in the molten metal are prevented from reaching the mould cavity by
providing
a) Strainer b) Bottom well c) Skim bob d) All of the above
Ans: - [C]
Q. Chaplets are placed between mould in order to
a) Promote directional solidification b) Help alloying the metal
c) Facilitate easy removal of core from casting
d) Prevent core movement due to buoyancy
Ans: - [D]
Riser design: Riser is acting as reservoir for supplying the molten metal to the casting cavity for
compensating the liquid shrinkage taking place during solidification.
Conditions to be satisfied:
1. VR  3VS [Volume of riser should be at least 3 times the shrinkage
volume of casting .]
2.  Ts R   Ts c The solidification time of molten metal in the riser
must be at least equal to the solidification time of molten metal in the
casting cavity.
3. Shape of the risers
2
 V 
ts   , ts must as large as possible.
 S.A 
Volume = fixed, surface area = variable
‘S.A’ is as minimum as possible, for high ‘ts’.
Out of available shapes, spherical shape of riser is giving minimum surface area exposed for heat
transfer. Next minimum surface area is for cylindrical shape.
Note:- t scube  t ssphere  t scyclinder
Types of riser:
1. Side riser

Total surface area exposed to heat transfer S.A = 2. d 2  dh [Neglect small circle] ----- (1)
4
d  S.A 
To minimize the surface area S. A 0
d d
 4v
v  d 2 h  h  2      (2)
4 d
Substitute equation ---- (2) in equation -----(1)
 4v
S.A  2 d 2  d 2
4 d
d  S.A 
0
dt
  1 
2 2d  4v   2   0
4  d 
4v
d  2
d

d 3  4. d 2 .h
4
dh
V d
Note: - d = h, 
S.A 6

- 16 -
2. Top Riser:

 2
Surface area = d  dh        (1)
4
d  S.A 
For reduce the heat transfer, 0
d d
 2 4v
v d h  h  2      (2)
4 d
 2 4v
S.A  d  d 2
4 d
d  S.A 
0
dt
  1 
2d  4v   2   0
4  d 
d 4v

2 d2

d 3  8. d 2 .h
4
d  2h
V d
Note: - d =2h, 
S.A 6
Q. Determine the dimension s of a cyclindrical side and top riser used for casting brass cube o
20cm dimensions, the volume shrinkage can be taken as 9%.
Solution: - Cube side = 20 cm Volume shrinkage = 9%
For side Riser: For optimum condition of side riser h = 2r,where ‘h’ is height and ‘r’ is the radius.
Initially let us take riser volume to be 3 times the shrinkage
3
v r  3vs  3  0.09   20   2160
v r  r 2 h  2160
r 2 .2r  2160
r  7.005cm, h  14.07cm
Confirming these dimensions of riser
V d r
 A   6  3  2.33
riser
3
V

 20   3.33
 A  2
casting 6   20 
V V
 A    A 
casting riser

So, riser will solidify prior to casting, so these dimensions are not correct since at least riser
should solidify along with casting. So,
V V
 A    A 
R C

r
 3.33, r  9.99  10cm
3
h  20cm  20cm

- 17 -
Top riser: The bottom area of riser coming in contact with casting will not be considered in the design
analysis because there is no heat transfer through that area
V r
 A   3
riser

v r  2160  r 2 h
For optimum condition, h  r
r 3  687.54 , r  8.8cm , h  8.8cm
V r
 A   3  2.94
riser

V 203
 A    3.33
casting 6  202
V V
 A    A 
C riser
So, again this riser dimension is not correct and therefore optimum riser dimension for top riser is
r
4
3
r  12cm , r  h  12cm
Conclusion: Top riser dimension radius = r = 12 cm, height = 12 cm
Side riser dimension radius r = 10 cm, height = h = 20 cm
Q. A casting of size 100 mm × 100 mm × 50mm is required. Assume volume shrinkage of
casting as 2.6%. If the height of the riser is 80 mm and riser volume desired is 4 fim the
shrinkage is casting .What is appropriate riser diameter in mm?
a) 14.38 b) 20.34 c) 28.76 d) 57.52
Q. Wood floor is added to core sand to improve
a) Collapsibility of core b) Dry strength of core
c) Shear strength of core d) Tolerance in casting
Methods Riser design:
1. Caine’s method:-
It is used to calculate the size of riser. The equation of caine’s curve
a
X c
yb

 V A r
X = Freezing ratio =
 V A c
v 
Y = volume of ratio =  r 
 vc 
a, b and c are constant.
2. Modified caine’s method:
Novel research method: - Drawing graph between volume ratio[Y] and shape factor.
v
Volume ratio = r  Y
vc
LW
Shape factor = , L = length, W = width, h = height
h

- 18 -
  V 
3. Modulus method: Modulus =  m
 S.A 
m riser  1.2mshrinkage casting
Concepts of chills & padding:
Chills:

At minimum surface area in the mould cavity to maximize the heat transfer rate metallic object will be
provided these are known as chills.
1. If the chill is in contact with liquid metal then it is called contact type of chill. It is made up of same
material as casting.
2. If the chill is away from the cavity, it is known as non –contact type chill. It is made up of high thermal
conductivity material.
Note: By providing the chills uniform solidification and directional solidification can be achieved.
Padding:

At a critical cross section in the mould cavities to minimize the heat transfer rate, Insulating material is
provided this is known as padding. Padding also provides additional support at critical cross section.
Note: - Both chills and padding are used to provide uniform solidification and directional solidification.
Q. Directional solidification in casting can be improved by using:
a) Chills and Chaplets b) Chills and Padding
c) Chaplets and Padding d) Chills, Chaplets and Padding.
3.6. DIE CASTING
In this process the mould is made up of some permanent material like cast iron, die steels, copper
and aluminum. Two halves can either be placed horizontally and when liquid metal is poured under
gravity it is called gravity die casting and when liquid metal is injected into this permanent mould, it is
called pressure die casting. It is having following advantages
a) Same mould can be reused again. This increases the production rate as high as 150-250 casts per hour.
b) Dimensional tolerance is of the order of 0.001 to 0.003 inch.
c) Rapid cooling produces high strength
d) Better section sensitivity but after some amount of usage, mould contamination takes place i.e. a
portion of metal will stick to the mould. This has to be removed by abrasive jet machining (AJM). If
atmospheric gases are trapped within the liquid metal, it cannot come out, because these moulds have
zero permeability. In gravity die casting there are high chances of atmospheric gases getting trapped
Pressure die casting:

Fig 3.15: Cold chamber die casting Fig 3.15: Hot chamber die casting

- 19 -
 In pressure die casting the water cooled dies are lubricated and then damped together. The molten
is then injected under pressure. This pressure creates turbulence in the liquid metal and as a result of that
air will be trapped within the liquid metal. In cold chamber die casting metal is liquefied separately and
brought to die using crucible and ladle. Since liquid metal comes in contact with atmosphere the chances
of air trappment is very high.
In hot chamber die casting process furnace is a part of die and liquid metal is not exposed to
atmosphere. But since a major portion of the assembly is dipped into the liquid metal, this arrangement is
suitable to cast materials which has low melting point. Hot chamber die casting offers fast cycling time
(up to 15 cycles/min). Hot chamber die casting cannot be used casting aluminium alloys because the
material has a tendency to pick up some iron due to extended contact with the casting equipment
3.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
3.7.1 TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING: In this process a metallic mould (in two parts with flange) is
rotated at 3000 rpm using a rotating deice. Liquid metal is then poured into it at the centre. The mould is
slightly inclined from the horizontal so that the liquid metal covers the entire working length of the
mould. Percentage yield in casting is defined as the ratio of useful material to the total liquid material
poured into the cavity i.e. useful material after removing risers, gate etc, The percentage yield of true
centrifugal casting is around 95-98% because neither riser nor cores are used is casting and only lighter
impurities which settles at the inside surface are removed. Coarse grains settle down at the outside
surface due to higher centrifugal force. The grains towards centre will be finer and finer. Such surfaces
are called jagged surface. Composite pipe, large ceramic and cast iron pipes are made by this process.
Due to permanent material of mould, higher cooling rates will be experienced by the material which
produces relatively fine grain structure. So casting will be strong.

Fig. 3.17: True Centrifugal Casting

3.7.2. Semi centrifugal casting: In this process mould is placed on the horizontal plane and it is rotated
along the vertical axis. The outer portions of the mould will be filled by purely centrifugal action and as
the liquid metal approaches towards centre, the centrifugal component decreases and gravity component
increases. The central portion is purely filled by gravity. The speed of rotations and percentage yield is
lower than true centrifugal casting. Wheels, pulleys etc. are made by this process.

Fig. 3.18: Semi centrifugal casting

3.7.2. Centrifuging: As shown in figure 3.19 that a number of casting are placed on the periphery of a
drum and are connected to central sprue through individual gates. After the solidification, gating system
is disconnected to get the casted part. The percentage yield in this case is only 5-10% and speed of
rotation is much lower. The castings need not to be axis symmetric and the process is primarily used in
making patterns for investment casting.

- 20 -
 Fig. 3.19: Centrifuging
3.8 SLUSH CASTING: Gold jewellery, lamp bases, statue and other brass items are made by this
process. Liquid metal is poured into the die cavity and solidification will start from the surface, without
completely solidifying the liquid metals, the mould is inverted and excess metal is removed from the
cavity.
3.9 BLOW MOULDING: Glass and plastic bottles, bulb etc are moulded by this process. Glass or
plastic in the semi viscous from (called job) is placed in the die and air blown into the die. As a result of
that material takes the shape of die.
3.10. SODIUM SILICATE (CO2) MOULDING: The thumb rule is that harder the mould better will be
the finish and dimensional tolerance and minimum will be the defects such as blow holes. While
preparing the mould around 3-4% Na2Sio3 (also known as water glass) as mixed with the sand. CO2 gas is
then passed through the mould and following reaction takes place.
Na2Sio3+CO2  Na2CO3+SiO2 (Colloidal)
This produces very hard mould. Liquid metal is then poured into the cavity and after solidification
mould is broken to get the final product out although harder mould is having advantages but it should be
noted that the collapsibility to such moulds will be very poor.
3.11. SHELL MOULDING: Shell moulding produces better surface finish and close dimensional
tolerances. The process involves following steps.
1. A pattern made up of some permanent material cast iron is heated to around 230-3150C. It is then
clamped over a box containing silica, phenolic resins and Alcohol. No water is used in preparing the
sand mixture.

2. The box is then inverted and the sand is allowed to fall over the pattern. Depended upon the dwell time
a thickness of sand will stick to the metal pattern. The thickness of shell is proportional to the dwell
time.
3. The pattern along with shell is backed in an oven at around 3000C. This curing process makes the shell
rigid.
4. There are ejector pins over the pattern and by hitting them to ground, shell is taken out.
5. Two or more such shells are joined together either by thermo setting plastic are clamped together.
6. Liquid metal is then poured into the shell cavity. This shell provides easy escape of gases which
develops due to mould-metal reaction.

- 21 -
3.12. INVESTMENT CASTING: Investment casting produces better tolerance compared to shell
moulding. This process is also used to produce intricate shapes which are not symmetrical. One of the
application of this process is in making jet engine blades. The pattern is made of either wax or mercury.
When it is made of wax, it is called lost wax method and when the pattern material is mercury, it is called
mercast process. This process can be understood by following steps.

Fig: 3.21. Investment casting procedure

1. Wax is initially injected into a die to make the pattern.
2. A Number of these patterns are joined together with a central sprue is the form of a tree.
3. Since workers handle these patterns, it may become dirtly. This pattern tree is dipped into alcohol to
clean it.
4. Pattern tree is dipped into slurry which contains water. After removing it from slurry it is dried. The
tree is again dipped and then dried. By repeating this procedure for sometimes a layer of sand (shell)
will appear over the pattern.
5. Shell is heated to remove wax from it.
6. The shell is then furnace at 550-11000C. This ensures complete removal of wax and also gives strength
to the shell.
7. Pour the liquid metal when the shell is still hot otherwise will catch moisture from the surroundings
8. After solidification shell is broken to get final product.
3.13. TYPES OF CASTING DEFECTS: In the previous discussions, defects like cold shut, misrun, hot
tear, shrinkage cavity, sand inclusion, below holes, pin hole porosity and gas holes are discussed.
Following are some other important defects.

Drop: Irregular projections on the top of casting caused by dropping of sand from cope.
Brckle: - v-shaped depressions occurring on flat castings due to expansions of sand at the mould face
before liquid metal solidifies.
Scab: Protruding surface of casting at roof.
Swell: Liquid metal displaces the sand at the wall regions due to hydrostatic pressure.
Penetration: Due to improper ramming of sand, liquid metal penetrates into the sand.
Mould shift: Due to misalignment between the two halves.
3.14. TYPES OF FURNANCES
1. Open –heart (acid and basic)
2. Electric-arc (acid and basic)
3. Converter (acid side-blow)
4. Electric induction (acid and basic)
The distinction between acid basic practices is in regard to the type of refractories used in the
construction and maintenance of the furnace. Furnaces operated by the acid practice are inclined with
silica base (SiO2) refractories, and the siags employed in the refining process have relatively high silica
content. Basic furnaces, on the other hand, use a basic refractory such as magnesite or dolomite practice
base or dolomite base and have a high lime (CaO) content in the slag. The choice of furnace and melting
practice depends on many variables, including:
1. The plant capacity or tonnage required
- 22 -
2. The size of the castings
3. The intricacy of the castings
4. The type of steel to be produced, i.e., whether plan or alloyed, high or low carbon, etc.
5. The raw materials available and the prices thereof
6. Fuel or power costs.
7. The amount of capital to be invested
8. Previous experience
Generally, the open-hearth furnace is used for large tonnages and large castings, and the electric
furnace for smaller heats or where steels from widely different produced. Special steels or high-alloy
steels are often produced in an induction furnace. The converter is used where space is limited and almost
continuous pouring is desired.

- 23 -
 Chapter-2 : Welding
It is the process of joining two (or) more similar metals (or) dissimilar metals with (or)
without application of heat, with (or) without the application of pressure, with (or) without
application of filler matels.

Classification of welding:
1. Fusion welding
a) Gas welding
b) Arc welding
c) Thermit welding
d) Radiant energy welding
2. Non fusion welding
a) Resistance welding
b) Solid state welding
c) Allied process

Fusion welding: By melting of parent material if a joint is produced it is called as fusion

welding process.

Non fusion welding: Without melting of parent material, if a joint is produced it is called
as non fusion welding.

Metallurgy in welding: Metal is heated over a range of temperature up to fusion and

followed by cooling to ambient temperature. Because of differential heating, the material
for away from the weld bead will be simply warmed out but as the weld area is approached,
progressively higher temperature are obtained, resulting in a corresponding complex
microstructure.
The heating and cooling also results in setting up internal stresses and plastic strain
in the weld.
Depending on the welding process used and the metal being welded, there exists
wide variation in the maximum liquid temperature and in the slope of temperature
gradient curve for the unfused metal.
There are 1. Base metal 2. Heat affect zone 3. Weld metal

Fig: Graph showing the change of thermal condition

Autogenous: A joint produced without filler metal is called Autogenous. And its weld zone
is composed of the resolidified base metal.

Weld metal: A joint produced with filler metal is called weld metal. After the application
of heat and the introduction of the filler metal into the weld area, the molten weld joint is
allowed to cool to ambient temperature.
Since the central portion of the weld bead will be cooled slowly, long columnar grains
will be developed and in the outward direction grains will become finer and finer.
So that ductility and toughness of bead metal at centre will be higher.

- 24 -
Bead Geometry: By the application of heat source we are depositing the liquid metal at
the joint. The depth, up to which the material is liquified, is called penetration and there
will be raised portion of the plane of parent metal called reinforcement.
AP
Dilution =
AP  AR
A p = Area of penetration
A R = Area of reinforcement
Q. An arc welded joint is shown in the figure,
the part labeled ‘B’ in the figure is known as
a) Weld preparation b) Penetration c) Reinforcement d) Slag
Gas welding:
a) Oxyacetylene gas welding:
In this case heat required for melting and joining of plate is obtained by buring of
oxyacetylene gas mixture.

1. Oxygen and acetylene are drawn from respective cylinder by flexible hose pipe into the
torch body.
2. Both this gases mixed together in the torch body. So that the mixture is possessing
sudden higher pressure.
3. When this high pressure mixture is passed through the convergent Nozzle, the pressure
energy gets converted into velocity energy and the mixture is coming out from the Nozzle at
very high velocity.
C 2 H 2  O 2  2CO  H 2  heat
2CO  O 2  2CO 2  heat
1
H2  O 2  H 2 O  heat
2
So, we have seen that the mixture come out from Nozzle at very high velocity. If this
mixer is given initiation for burning, the continuous flame will be produced.
So that heat available in the mixture is used for melting / joining of work pieces.
Note: For complete combustion of 1 unit volume of C2H2 require 2.5 units volume of O2.
1C 2 H 2  2.5  or  3O 2

Based on the amount of O2 obtained from O2cyclinder the flame produced can be divided
into three types
O2
1. Neutral flame: 1
C2 H 2

- 25 -
 Two cones can be distinguished based on their colour, The Inner cone will be yellow
(or) Red and outer cone will be light blue colour.
Yellow colour Indicates Incomplete combustion and light blue colour indicates
complete combustion. Maximum temperature is induced of the tip of Inner cone.
Average temperature is 2000 – 2100oC if is the 2/3 rd of maximum temperature.
During combustion of Acetylene large quantity of water is produced.

Note: Neutral flame is used for joining and cutting of all ferrous and non ferrous metals
except brass.
During joining of brass, the zinc present in brass will get evaporated.
O2
2. Oxidising flame:  1.15 to1.5
C2 H 2

1. Here excess amount of oxygen is present, the length of Inner cone is small.
2. Maximum temperature of flame in oxidising flame is more than Neutral flame. It is
about 3380C .
3. Because excess supply of oxygen, there is a possibility of free oxygen may present in the
flame.
Therefore oxidising flame used for joining of high reactive metals, the oxidation will take
place, hence it should not be used for joining of highly reactive metals like Al, Mn etc.
4. Because of higher average temperature it can be used for joining of high melting point
materials.
Note: 1. It is also used for joining brass work piece.
2. It is not used for welding of steel. [Excess oxygen cause the weld bead surface not
good]
Carburising (or) Reducing flame:-
O2
 0.85 to 0.95
C2 H 2

1. Because of short supply of oxygen, the flame has to travel for a longer distance to
completely burn acetylene.
2. Because flame is travelling for large distance the loss of heat energy due to convention
and Radiation is higher. [ i.e. Max temp 3040]
Note:
1. Because of lower average temperature, high melting point material cannot be joint.
2. Unburnt carbon present in flame, this carbon may be absorbed by Iron during joining of
ferrous material and increase the hardness and brittleness and reduces toughness.
3. This is mostly used for high carbon steels.
Torch: Angle made by the axis of the torch with axis of work pieces is called torch angle.

With variation of the Torch angle the flame density will get changed flame density
Heat energy sup plied J
Flame density=  2
Unit area of weldability mm
With increase of torch angle the exposing area of flame of weld bead will be decreased.
 Flame density increases.

- 26 -
Factors effecting selection of torch angles:
1. Thickness of plates to be joined: As thickness of plate increases, heat required for
melting of plate is increases hence torch angle is to be increases.
2. M.P of metals plates to be joined: As melting point of plates increases heat required
for melting of plates also increases.
 Torch angle 
3. Thermal conductivity of plate: (k) As ‘k’ increases heat loss by conduction is also
increases. Net heat available at welding zone decreases. Torch angle is increases.
4. Place of welding: Irrespective of above 3 factors large torch angle is to be used on the
beginning of welding and small torch angle is used at the end of the welding.

Reason : On the beginning of welding the plates are at room temperature to raise the
temperature of plates above melting point temperature. Large amount heat required to be
supplied and hence large torch angles are to be used.
At the end of welding if large torch angle is used then the molten metal is out
flowing & produces crater defect. To avoid this we use small torch angle.

Fluxes: During gas welding operation, the welder is periodically removing the filler rod
from the welding zone and dipping into powder called as flux powder.
Function : 1. To deoxide the molten metal
2. To absorb gases present in weld zone
3. To provide the slag over the weld bead for protecting the weld bead from
atmospheric contamination.
Properties:-1. The density of flux must be less than density of parent material.
2. The melting point of the flux must be less than melting point of parent
material.
3. It should not produce any harmful gases.
Note: 1. During joining of carbon and Nickel alloys, no flux is to be used. [Presence of
carbon (or) Nickel itself is acting a deoxider]
2. Borax is the commonly used flux during gas welding of all other metals.

Filler Rod used in gas welding:

Function: 1. It supplies additional molten metal to the weld bead / plate.
a) Whenever the thickness of plates to be joined is less than 5 mm, we can use square joint.
So, no extra metal is to be required. No filler rod is used.
b) When t > 5 mm, same type of joints like O joints, V joints.

Because of joint preparation, some amount of gap is present between the joints and for this
additional metal need to be supplied.
Properties:-
1. The density of filler rod material must be nearly equal to density of parent material.
2. Melting point of filler rod material must be less than melting point of parent material.
3. The liquid molten metal of filler rod can be readily mixed with molten metal of parent
material.
4. The liquid molten metal of filler rod should be able to readily spread over the surface of
weld bead.
For this viscosity of molten metal of filler rod must be as low as possible.
Note:- Low carbon steel, Medium carbon steel, brass etc.

- 27 -
Arc welding:
Whatever heat required for melting and joining of plates, is obtained due to electrical arc is
called arc welding.

When the power supply is given and optimum gap is maintained between cathode
and anode, the high velocity negative charged electrons are generated at the cathode,
attracted by the anode and moving towards the anode. When this very high velocity
electrons are impinging on the anode the K.E of electrons is converted into the heat energy.
Therefore heat energy is generated at the anode.
2. Simultaneously the high velocity positively charged ions will be generated at anodes
which are attracted by the cathode, moving towards the cathode. When these high velocity
ions are impinging on the cathode, the K.E of ions is converted into heat energy. Therefore
heat is generated at the cathode.

Note: 1. The amount of heat generated at the anode is much higher than the cathode
because of very high velocity of electrons.
2. The ratio of heat generated in Anode to Cathode is 2:1

Q. The temperature of a carburizing flame in gas welding that of a neutral (or)

oxidizing flame.
a) Lower than b) Higher than c) Equal to d) Unrelated to
Q. Penetration is increased by
a) Increasing welding current and welding speed
b) Increasing welding current and decreasing welding speed
c) Decreasing welding current and welding speed
d) Decreasing welding current and increasing welding current
Sol: (b)
Q Which one of the following is not a fusion welding process
a) Gas welding b) Arc welding c) Bronzing d) Resistance welding
Sol:- (c)
Q. The ratio between oxygen and Acetylene gases for neutral flame in gas
welding is
a) 2 : 1 b) 1 : 2 c) 1 : 1 d) 4 : 1
A. Oxidising flame is used in gas welding to join medium carbon steel having high
melting point.
R. In gas welding, oxidizing flame produces the maximum temperature compared
to Neutral and reducing flame.
Q. The advantage of welding process is
a) It relieves the joint from residual stresses
b) It helps in checking of distortion of work pieces
c) Large number of metals and alloys, both similar /dissimilar can be joined.
d) All of the above
Sol:- (c)
Q. The material used for coating the electrode is called
a) Binder b) Slag c) Deoxidizer d) Flux

- 28 -
  DCSP / DCEN[ Direct Current Electrode Negative] If the work pieces is connected
to the positive terminal and electrode is connected to the negative terminal it is
called DCSP/ DCEN.
 DCRP/ DCEP[ Direct Current Electrode positive] If the work pieces is connected to
negative terminal and electrode is connected to positive terminal.
 ACHF [ Alternating Current High Frequency] Heat generation = 1:1 Here positive
and negative polarity changes continuously. So no fixed polarity.

Features of Arc welding:

1. In DCSP, the heat generated at the work piece is higher (67%). Therefore melting point
material and higher thickness plates can be easily welded and higher depth of penetration
is possible.
2. Because of lower heat generation at the electrodes, melting rate of electrode is lower,
deposition rate is lower. Hence only low welding speeds are possible.
3. In DCRP, because of lower heat generation at work piece (33%) only melting point
materials and lower thickness plates can be welded. Also depth of penetration is small.
4. Because of higher heat generation of electrode, the melting of electrode is higher
deposition rate is higher. Therefore high welding speeds are possible.
5. Because of equal amount of heat generation at the work piece and electrodes, the
medium melting point materials, medium thickness plates. Medium depth of penetration
and medium welding speeds are achieved.

Duty cycle: It is defined as percentage of time for which the Arc is on without overheating
the vital elements in welding equipments.
Arc on time
D.C  ,Total welding time = Arc on time + Rest time
Total welding time
Arc on time: - Time during which actual welding is done.
Rest time: - Welding equipment will be completely switched off.
Rate of heat generation during arc on time: -
Qg  I2 R s t During arc on time because of passage of current through the secondary of a
transformer heat generation will be taking place and simultaneously heat dissipation also
takes place. During rest time heat generation is zero because of no current passing and
heat dissipation will continue until the accumulated heat gets transferred Qd  hA  Ts  T  .
Case: - Qg  Qd Here heat accumulation occurs, the difference in heats  Q g  Q d  will get
accumulated in welding equipment and temperature of welding equipment may increases
and welding equipment may fail . So, in order to avoid this failure we are providing rest
time.
Design of weld bead: -
1. Number of electrode required
2. Number of passes required
3. Total welding time
- 29 -
Crowning: - Crowning is 10 – 15% volume of weld bead.
Spatter: - During welding operation because of force of arc/ flame. The molten metal parties
are jumping from the weld pool and falling on other area of plate called as spatter.
Spatter is 5 – 10% of volume of weld bead.
Total volume of weld bead
1. Number of electrodes Required: - 
Volume / electrode
Total volume = volume of W.B+ crowing + spatter = 1.15 to 1.125 volume of weld bead.
=  A1  A 2  A3   Length of weld bead
 2
Volume of electrode = d  L e , L e = effective length of electrode.
4
Number of passes: - Let x = length of weld bead welded by using one electrode. This value
will be taken from welding data book corresponding to thickness of plate.
length of weld bead
Number of electrode required / pass 
x
total number of electrode required
No. of passes =
No.of electrode / pass
length of weld bead
Arc on time/pass =
Welding speed
Total A. OT = AOT pass  No.of passes
Total A.O.T
Total welding time =
Duty cycle
Heat transfer efficiency: - If ratio of total energy falling on the weld bead to the total energy
supplied by transformer [VI].
Melting efficiency: -
It is ratio of heat required for welding to the total energy falling on the weld bead.
Q. A weld is made using MIG welding process with following welding parameters.
Current: 200 A:
Voltage: 25V: Welding speed : 18 cm/min: Wire diameter : 1.2 mm; Wire feed ratio : 4
mm/min. Thermal efficiency of the process 65%.
a) The heat input per unit length of the weld in kJ/cm is
a) 0.18 b) 0.28 c) 10.83 d) 16.66
b) The area of cross – section of weld bead in mm is 2

a) 16.3 b) 25.1 c) 30.3 d) 38.6

VI   200  25  0.65
Sol: - a) Heat Input =   10.833kJ cm
speed 18 60 
 2
b) Volume of weld  d l , d = wire diameter, l = wire feed rate.
4

=  1.2 2  4000  4521.6 mm 3 min
4
4521.6 4521.6
Area of weld =   25.12 mm 2
speed 18 10

- 30 -
6.4 ARC WELDING
6.4.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Fig 6.5: Welding using SMAW process

This is also called as stick electrode welding or coated electrode welding or manual
arc welding. If uses coated electrodes of 2.5 to 6.35 mm diameter and 300 to 450 mm length
held in an electrode holder. The power source used is constant current type. Initially the
arc is being created between wire electrode and work piece. Flux by taking energy from the
arc gets melted and a mixture of liquid metal and molten flux gets simultaneously settled
in the groove. Since the density of flux is lower, it comes over the surface of bead and
provides slag coating. It has following functions.
a) Since flux gives alloys to the bead material, bead becomes stronger than even the parent
metal. The region in the parent metal near the bead where the temparature has gone
beyond the recrystallization temparature is called heat affected zone and it is the weakest
portion in the weld metal
b) It provides the heat tratment to the bead and as a result of tat at the center of the bead
there will be coarse grains and in the outward direction grains become finer and finer.
c) It protects the bead from the attack of atmosphere gasses.

There are two movements of electrode holder

a) The rate at which electrode wire is getting consumed with the same rate the electrode
has to be fed towards the molten pool. It is because arc length decides the arc voltage and
arc current. If lower is the current settings, the temparature of the pool will be lower, as a
result of that the liquid flux (slag) trying to come out of material will be solidified and slag
will be trapped with in the bead. This defect is called slag inclusion. Also variable current
leads to improper bead geometry.
b) Movement of electrode along the longitudional direction of bead
If both these movements are controlled manually it is called manual welding. If first
movement is controlled by machine it is called semi-automatic arc welding and if both
movements are controlled by machine it is called automatic arc welding. The temparature
in the core ofhte arc ranges between 6000-70000C. SMAW can be performed both on AC and
DC source with drooping characteristics.

6.4.2 TRANSFORMER
Constant current type tranformer: In manual arc welding since arc length can not be
controlled, so arc current controlled by the transformer. A conventional arc weldig power
source is known as the constant current machine. It has the drooping volt-ampere
characteristic curve as shown in fig.

- 31 -
 Fig 6.6: Characteristics of constant current type transformer
The constant current curve shows that the welding power source produces maximum
output voltage with no load and as as load increases, the output voltage decreases. As it
can be observed in Fig 6.6, for major change in arc voltage, there is insignficant change in
arc current.
Constant voltage transformer: A constant voltage welding power source has essentially
a flat volt ampere characteristics curve through usually with a slight drrop. The curve may
be shifted up or down to change the voltage. These characteristics are used only for
continuous electrode wire weldijng such as gas welding semiautomatic and automatic
welding processes.
If the load in the circuit changes, the power source automatically adjusts its current
output to satisfy the requirement and maintains essentially the same voltage across the
output terminals. The constant vol;tage welding power suystem has its gratest advantage
when the current density oh the electrode wire is high.

Fig 6.7: characteristics of voltage transformer

 OCV  I
V=(OCV)– 
 SCC 
This is for semi automatic arc welding.
OCV = Open circuit voltage, SCC = Short circuit current
For stable arc in constant voltage transformer Varc = Vtransformer
For stable arc in constant current transformer Iarc = Itransformer
Example: 6.1
The arc length voltage characteristic is given by expression V=24+4l(l=arc length in
mm). The volt ampere characteristic of a power source can be approximated by a straight
line with open circuit voltage 80 V and short circuit current is 600A. Determinate optimum
arc length for maximum power.
 80 
Sol: OCV = 80V, SCC 600A, V = 80–   I
 600 
Stable Vt = Va, I = F(l)
 80 
24+4l = 80–   I
 600 
 80  I  60 
 600  =80-24-4l  I=[56–4l]  8 
 60   60 
P=VI  (56-4l)   (24+4l) =   (56  24)+128l – 16 l2)
8 8
For maximum power dp/dl = 0  128–32l=0  l = 4mm

- 32 -
6.4.3 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Fig 6.16: (a) and (b) Welding using SAW process

This is semi-automatic version of SMAW process which process which can produce
long weld runs. In this type of welding electrode is in the form of spool of copper coated wire
and granular flux is used. Copper is coated to increase the conductivity of wire. Powdered
flux is initially poured into the welding area and arc is maintained within the pool of flux.
This minimizes the spatter of liquid metal and suppresses the intense ultra violet
radiation. Flux also acts a thermal insulator by deep penetration of heat into the work
piece. Flux is fed on weld zone by gravity through flow nozzle, a long continuous weld can
be performed. It is mainly used in the down hand welding position in a semi-automatic
welding process and the feeding of electrode towards the weld pool is controlled by
machine. The weld obtained by this process are stronger than, the base plate, if done
carefully.
The metals most widely welded through this process are low carbon steels, low alloy
steels, stainless steels and high alloy steels. It is extensively used in joints in thick plates
in pressure vessels, ships, bridges, structural work, welded pipes and nuclear reactors. It
can not be used to plates less than 5mm thick. The process is also used to make LPG
cylinders.
6.4.4 GAS Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

Fig 6.17: Tungston inert gas welding (TIG)

In GTAW process the electrode is non consumable and the purpose of it is only to
certain an arc. A separate filter metal rod is used to deposit the material. This was
primarily invented to weld alloys of Aluminium and Magnesium. Aluminium is very
difficult to weld because as it is exposed to atmosphere it forms a layer over it. To weld
these materials work piece should be given negative polarity and electrode positive
polarity. As the electrons are coming out of the work piece, peels of the ceramic layer and
fresh Aluminium comes in contact with the arc. This phenomenon is called cathodic

- 33 -
cleaning. Where ever electron bombards two-third heat will be generated, one-third heat is
generated at the negative electrode and in case of of GTAW when more heat is produced at
the tungsten electrode and in case of GTAW when more heat is produced at the tungsten
electrode it gets eroded and in case of GTAW when more heat is produced at the tungsten
electrode it gets particles mixes with the bead making it brittle.
A pool of inert gases like Helium and Argon provides the protective covering to the
molten metal. This reverse polarity is also used to weld very thin sheets because when the
development of heat over work piece materials is more, holes will be produced in the
material and there will not be any welding. The torches for carrying current beyond 100
amperes are usually water cooled. Arc initiation is normally done by touching for carrying
current beyond 100 amperes are usually water cooled. Arc initiation is normally done by
touching the electrode on a graphite block. The gas nozzle of a GTAW torch is its weakest
part and is fastened and is fastened to the torch body threaded connection. These nozzles
are generally made of ceramic material.
This process is used to weld in all positions and is extensively used for welding
aluminium, magnesium, stainless steels, copper, Nimonic alloys, Monel, inconel etc. It is
especially used in aircraft industry, chemical plant and nuclear plant.

Comparison of different Electrode polarities:

DC, electrode DC, electrode AC

positive negative
1. Penetration

Shallow Deep Intermediate

2. Heat generation 2/3rd at electrode, 11/3rd at electrode, 50% on both
1/3rd at work 2/3rd at work piece
piece
3. metal deposition High Low Intermediate
rate
4. Thickness of Thin sheets Thick sheets Intermediate
work
to be welded
5. stable smaller Easier Easier Difficult
arc
6. Arc blow Severe severe Insignificant
As the thickness of work decreases negative polarities should be given for work
otherwise due to development of excessive heat holes will develop in the sheet. To control
the metal deposition rate GTAW process is used. If the thickness further decreases, the
operating current should decrease
Electrode penetration in GTAW: If negative polarities should be given to electrode it
should be grinded to a point to increase the density of current which leads to deeper
penetration. If the electrode is given, positive polarity, diameter of tip is increased to
minimize the electrode erosion.

Fig 6.18: Shapes of tungsten electrodes

- 34 -
 The selection of the electrode should be good to get the best results. The extension of
the cup should be approximately equal to the inside diameter of the cup or slightly more in
case of fillet welds. Otherwise the shielding effect will be reduced. Instead of (GTAW)
tungsten electrodes is replaced by a consumable electrode which is in the form of spool.

6.4.85 Arc Blow: Due to fixed polarity magnetic lines forms in the work piece material.
Upon welding at the center of the work magnetic lines will be equally distributed on both
sides. So arc will be straight. But while welding near the edges, since most of the magnetic
lines will be concentrated in the material, arc will be deflected towards the workpiece. This
phenomenon is called Arc Blow which results in severe spatter and improper bead
geometry.

Fig 6.19: Arc blow due to magnetic field

Arc Blow phenomenon will be more intensified while welding with DC with bare
electrodes. To avoid this phenomenon metal plates are kept at the entry and at the exit
called tab in and tab out. These plates also minimize the end defects. Arc blow phenomenon
may also appear when large piece of iron is present at the welding site.

6.4.6 Duty Cycle: It is the time span in successive 10 min interval during which current
can be drawn from the transformer, after that there should be a compulsory break
otherwise the temperature of its essential components will increase. Usually 60% duty
cycle is the standard industrial rating. A power source with such a rating can supply its
rated output for 6 minutes in every ten minute interval of its operation
I2D = Constant, where D= Duty cycle and I = current

6.4.7Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Plasma is the pool ionized gas. Initially the arc is being
created between Tungsten electrode and the work piece, plasma gasses like ‘N’ by taking
energy from the spark converts into plasma. The temperature of plasma is around 500000C
but for the welding process it is restricted to 200000C. This high temperature arc when it
impinges upon the work piece results in reuniting of electrons and ions to form atomic and
then molecular gas, releasing heat in the process which is thus utilized for welding. Due to
increase source of heat penetration will through and without spreading the heat affected
zone it is called keyhole phenomenon, this phenomenon will ensure 100% penetration and
gives wine glass weld bead. More intense the source of heat, deeper will be the penetration
and maximum can be the welding speed and hence lesser will be the heat affected zone. A
separate filter rod is used to deposit the material. When plasma arc is concentrated
because it is fed through a small nozzle. The energy is obtained from a dc power source of
the constant current type having an open circuit voltage of 70-80 volts and duty cycle of
60%. There are two types plasma arc welding. In the transferred-arc method the work piece
is welded as part of the electrical circuit. The arc transfers from the electrode to the work
piece. In the non transferred type the arc occurs between the electrode and the nozzle and
the heat is carried to the work piece by plasma gas. The thermal transfer mechanism is
similar to that for Oxyfuel flame. The major application of the process is in welding
stainless steel, titanium, having very high melting points and super alloys. Commercially it
is used in-aeronautical industry, precision instrument industry and jet engine
manufacturing. This plasma arc welding has serious draw backs. For example the intense
- 35 -
arc results in extensive ultra violet and infra-red radiation which can harm the skin.

Fig 6.20: (a) set up of plasma welding

Fig 6.20: (b) Wine glass bead structure in PAW

6.4.8 Electro slag/Electro gas Welding:

Initially the arc is being created between starting block and the copper coated
electrode wire followed by addition of flux. Welding progresses in the direction and due to
that temperature of the molten pool keeps on increasing. A pair of water cooled cu shoes is
being provided on the sides to avoid any spillage of liquid metal to the sides. Once the
temperature of the molten pool reaches a particular value arc switched off and the molten
pool is so that it starts consuming the wire without any arc. Temperature is controlled in
this fashion to minimize the heat affected zone. If the heat zone increases it may cause
distortion of the plate.
The point when molten metal is not able to consume more wire, arc restarted again.
Restarting the arc is easy on electro gas welding. In electro gs welding an inert gas is used
in place of slag or flux. The duty cycle of the transformer is 100% and electrode should be
given positive polarity. Both AC and DC power sources are used with a rating of 1000
amperes at an open circuit voltage of 55 volts and duty cycle of 100 percent.
The process is used to join two thick plates along the edges. The major application is
in ship building. Welding is done with joint in vertical position. It can be used for welding
plates of thickness 20mm to 40 mm. It is also used extensively in the heavy ferrous
industry. This finds extensive use in the construction of pressure vessels, press frames,
water turbine and heavy plate fabrication industries.
Welding current depends on welding voltage and electrode feed rate, it increases with
it. Increase in welding current increases the welding speed, but higher welding current
may cause cracking. Welding voltage affects the depth of penetration and stable operation
of the process. Excessive voltage cause overheating of the metal, gassing of the slag pool,
and even sparking.

- 36 -
 Fig 6.21: Electro Slag Welding
6.5 RESISTANCE WELDING
Some of the important resistance welding processes are:
A. Spot B. Protection C. Seam D. HFRW/HFIW
E. Flash butt welding
The resistance welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across the two
components to be joined. The heat generated in this process is given by
H = I2RT, where H = Heat generated in joules I = Current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms t = time of current flow in seconds
The welds produced by resistance welding are normally without the addition of any air gap
between electrode and the sheet. Step down transformers are used in resistance welding, in
the secondary winding of which there is single turn. When a high current is passed through
conductors, maximum resistance will be there at the interface between the two sheets due
to presence of air gap. As a result of that material in both the sheets will be liquefied and a
spot (nugget) will be formed. Kickless cables are used to supply the current for the safety of
operator. Rocker arm type machines are used for smaller parts and press type are used for
larger work pieces.

Fig 6.22: (a) Resistance welding set up

- 37 -
 Fig 6.22: (b) Spot welding nugget

The diameter of the nugget is dn = 6 t

Height of the nugget is hn = 2t–indentation
Spot welding is mainly used for lap welding of thin sheets particularly in the welding of
automobile and refrigerator bodies and high quality work in automobile engines

6.5.2 projection welding: To make number of spot welds in one set up projection welding
is used. These projections are made by EMBOSSING process by the flow of current. The
projection materials become soft and the pressure on the electrode is suddenly increased
and projections are allowed to collapse on the provided in the thicker sheet or the sheet
which has higher thermal conductivity. There are so many projections: round button or
dome type, rig type, elongated projection welding is similar to that for spot welding except
that the rod electrodes are replaced by flat copper plates. Projection welding reduces the
amount of current and pressure needed to achieve a good between the two pieces, with
consequential less chance of shrinkage and distortion in the areas around the weld zone.

Fig 6.23: Projection welding set up

6.5.3 Seam Welding: Seam welding is meant for making leak proof welds. To make
overlapping spot weld (Leak proof welding) electrodes are taken in the form of wheels. Such
weld is called Stitch Weld. To produce stitch welds at higher speeds seam welding is used.
In seam welding the electrodes used in the form of rollers or wheels, due to shunting of
current through the already made welds, the current required is higher than in normal
spot welding. Pressure is applied to fuse metal properly into the nugget as in spot welding.
Seam welding is a continuous process. Electrodes get overheated and hence need constant
cooling. It is done externally by the impinging water jets. Seam welding is capable of
welding thin materials of thickness between the ranges of 2.5 to 4.7 mm

Fig 6.24: Seam welding set up

Arc welding problems:
Q. In D.C welding, the straight polarity result in
a) Lower penetration b) Lower deposition rate
c) Less heating of work piece d) Smaller weld pool
Q. The electrodes used in arc welding are coated this not expected to
- 38 -
 a) Stabilize the arc b) Provide protective atmosphere to weld
c) Add alloying elements d) Prevent electrode from contamination
Q. In arc welding process, the voltage and current are 25Vand 300A respectively, the
arc heat transfer efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8 mm /sec. The net heat
Input in (J/mm) is
a) 64 b) 797 c) 1103 d) 79700
Sol: - Given data V = 25 V, I = 300 A,  =0.85 v = 8 mm /sec, heat Input = a =?
Q v

VI
0.85  25  300
Q  796.8 J / mm
8
Q. Which one among the following welding processes uses non – consumable electrode?
a) Gas metal arc welding b) Submerged arc welding
c) Gas tungsten arc welding d) Flux coated arc welding
Q. A 900 mm long steel plate is welded by manual metal arc welding process. Using
welding current of 150A, Arc voltage of 20V and welding speed of 300 mm/min. If the
process efficiency of is 0.8 and surface resistance is 36 micro-ohm, the heat input will
be
a) 600 J /mm b) 480 J/min c) 146 kJ d) 116 kJ
Sol: - Given data: Length = 90 mm, I = current = 150 A, voltage V = 20 V
Page no: 30
Speed = 300 mm/min. If the process efficiency of is 0.8 (k) and surface resistance is
(R) = 36  10 6 ohm
Welding length 900 mm
Welding time =   3 min  180 sec
Welding speed 300 mm / min
Heat input
Process efficiency (or) Melting efficiency (k) =
Heat generated
2
Heat Input = kI Rt = 116.64 kJ.
Q. In which of the following welding process flux is used in the form of granules?
a) AC arc welding b) Submerged arc welding
c) Argon arc welding d) DC arc welding
Q. In arc welding d.c. reverse polarity is used to bear greater advantage in
a) Overhead welding b) Flat welding of Lap joint
c) Edge welding d) Flat welding of butt joint
Q. Arc blow is more common in
a) A.C welding b) D.C. welding with straight polarity
c) D.C. welding with bare electrodes d) A.C. welding with bare electrodes
Q. In an Inert gas welding process, the commonly used gas is
a) Hydrogen b) Oxygen c) Helium (or) Argon d) Krypton
Q. During plasma arc welding of aluminium, improved removal of the surface oxide
from the box metal is obtained with typical polarity of
a) DC straight b) DC reverse
c) AC potential d) Reverse polarity of the phase of AC potential
Page no: 31
Q. In resistance welding, heat is generated due to the resistance between
a) Electrode and work piece b) Asperities between touching plates
c) Two dissimilar metals being is contact d) Inter atomic forces
Q. Resistance spot welding is performed on two plates of 1.5 mm thickness with 6 mm
diameter electrode, using 1500 A current for time duration of 0.25 sec. Assuming

- 39 -
 the interface resistance to be 0.0001Ω. The heat generated to form the weld is

a) 5625 W-sec b) 8437 W – sec c) 22500 W – sec d) 33750 W – sec

Sol: - Given solution, Thickness of plate (T) = 1.5 mm
Diameter of electrode = d = 6 mm
Current I = 1500 A, time t = 0.25 sec, R = 0.0001Ω
Heat generated in resistance welding = I2RT = (15000)2× 0.0001×0.25= 5625 W sec
Q. Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel [density = 8000 kg/m3] is carried out
successfully by passing a certain amount of current for 0.1 second through the
electrodes. The resultant weld nugget formed is 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick.
If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 kJ/kg and effective resistance in the
welding operation is 200  , the current passing through the electrode is
approximately
a) 1480 A b) 3300 c) 4060 d) 9400
Sol: - Given data Thickness sheet = 1mm, density =  = 8000 kg/m 3

Time = 0.1 second

Diameter of nugget = 5 mm
Thickness of nugget = 1.5 mm
Resistance = R = 200  10 6 
Latent heat of fusion = Q = 1400 kJ/kg

Mass = density × volume of nugget =  252  1.5  1000  10 9  2.356  10 4 kg
4
kJ
Latent heat of fusion in terms of Joules = Q  mass   kg = 1400  1000  2.356  10 4
kg
Q = 329.8 J
Q  I2 Rt
329.8
A  4060 Amp
200  10 6  0.1
Q. Seam welding is
a) Multi-spot welding spot b) Continuous spot welding process
c) Used to form metals d) Used for welding cylindrical objects
Q. Projection welding is
a) Multi- spot welding process b) Continuous spot welding process
c) Used to form mesh d) Used to make cantilevers
Q. Two sheets of 1.5 mm thickness are to be spot welded by passing a current of
10,000 A for 0.1 sec the maximum radiation allowed is 10% of sheet thickness. The
density of spot weld nugget is 8 gm/cm3. If 1380 Joules are required to melt 1 gm of
steel. Calculate the efficiency resistance to be 200 micro ohm.
Sol: - Given data, Current (I) = 10,000 A
Resistance = 200  10 6  = R
Time = t = 0.1 sec
Density of nugget = 8 gm cm3
Maximum indentation allowed = 10% of sheet thickness = hn
Q = 1380 J gm
Total heat supplied H s  I 2 Rt  10, 000 2  200  106  0.1  2000J
We know, diameter of nugget = dn = 6  t = 7.34 mm
Height of nugget = hn = 2   thickness  indentation 

- 40 -
  10  15 
 2  1.5 
 100 
= 2. 7 mm

Volume of Nugget = Vn = d 2n  h n = 114.24 mm3  114.24 103 cm3
4
Mass of nugget= density  volume = 8 114.24 103  0.913 gm
So that heat required to melt = 1380  0.913 = 1261.28 Joules
heat required to melt 1261.8
Efficiency =  100 =  100  63.06%
heat sup plied to melt 2000
Q. Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel (density = 8000 kg m3 ) is carried out
successfully by passing a certain amount of current 0.1 second through the
electrodes. The resultant weld nugget formed is 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick.
If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 kJ kg and the effective resistance in the
welding operation is 200  .What is the current passing through the electrode?
Sol: - I = 4061.2 Amp
Example: 6.17
In spot welding (pulsed laser) of aluminum plates (density =2700 kg/m3, specific heat
(c) = 896 J/kg k, melting temperature = 933 k, latent heat of melting = 398 kJ/kg) at a
temperature of 300C, a pulse with energy of 0.5 J is focused onto an area of 0.05 mm2. If the
entire energy is coupled into the material. What will be the depth of weld? Assume the
cross-section area of the weld circular and is uniform throughout its depth and only heat
conduction in the direction of penetration
Sol: Given, density of plate = 2700 kg/m3
Specific heat (c) 896 J/kg k
Melting temperature (TMP) = 933 k
Ambient temperature (tamb) = 273+30=303 k
kJ J
Latent heat of melting (L) = 398 = 398  1000
kg kg
Let depth of spot = dmm
As nugget formed has circular cross-section throughout its depth i.e. it is cylindrical
Volume of Nugget = (Cross-section area)  depth
Volume of Nugget = (0.05 d) mm3
Mass of nugget = density  volume = 2700  0.05 d  10–9 = 135 d  10–9 kg
Amount of heat required to melt is the sum of total heat required to increase temperature
of metal from ambient temperature to melting point and required to melt.
 Heat required to melt = mC  T+mL = m{C(TMP -Tamb)+L}
=135 d  10–9{896(933–303)+398  1000}
Heat required to melt = 0.1299 dJ
Now Heat required to melt = Heat energy supplied
0.1299 d = 0.5
D = 3.849 mm
 Depth of weld = 3.849mm Ans

- 41 -
6.5.4 High Frequency Resistance welding (HFRM)

Fig 6.3.2: high frequency resistance welding process of tube making

Initially the steel is cut into the strips and is it approaches towards the concave rolls the
sheet will bend in the form of a pipe. Mandrel is placed at the center so that sheet bends
exactly in a cylindrical fashion. A pair of conductors is kept on both sides of edges and a
high frequency current is passed. Due to skin effect current flows through low inductance
rather than low resistance i.e. through air gap. This result in the hating of edges and when
the pressure is applied by the rolls there will be a continuous welding. Since rubbing takes
place between the blocks and work piece material, after welding some kilometers of people
the blocks should be replaced. This process used to make iron pipes

6.5.5 Flash Butt Welding: Two work pieces are held together with the help of electrodes
as show in figure 6.33 and a very high current around 100000 a is passed through these
conductor. By the production of flash, oxide layer from the ends will be removed and
material will also become soft. Current is stopped and axial pressure is increased to make a
joint. Weld is formed through plastic deformation. In this two clamps will be present to
hold the work pieces, one is fixed and the other is movable so that they can adjust, after
applying high force weld is achieved and metal is expelled forming a rough fin or flash
around the joint. This can be removed by machining. The process is extensively used for
welding mild steels, medium carbon steels and alloy steels as well as non ferrous metals
like aluminium alloys and titanium. This process is suitable for end to end or edge to edge
joining of sheets of similar or dissimilar metals 0.2 mm to 25 mm thick.
6.6 SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESS
6.6.1 Friction welding:

Fig 6.34: steps in friction welding

- 42 -
The principle of this operation is changing mechanical energy into heat energy into heat
energy. Two samples are joined tighter along their axis by this process. One part is held in
the chuck and the other is in the tail stock and the spindle is rotated at very high speed
(around 5900 r.p.m). Both pieces are allowed to rub against each other and as a result of
that heat will be produced. The material near edges will become softer and once it reaches
particular temperature, breaks are applied and axial pressure is increased to cause the
forging action and hence welding. No joint preparation I required for most of the non
ferrous metals, since the rotating action is self cleansing. For some non ferrous metals,
preparatory cleansing of the joint faces is important.

The weld zone is usually confined to a narrow region whose size depends upon
 The amount of heat generated
 The thermal conductivity of the materials and
 The mechanical properties of the materials at elevated temperatures.
The shape of the weld joint depends upon the rotational speed and on the axial
pressure applied. Friction welding is the high speed process suited to production welding.
When the interfaces are first brought into contact, maximum power is required for
breaking up the surface film. The power required then falls and remains nearly constant
while the joint is raised to welding temperature.
Base of dissimilar metals and varying cross sections can be joined by this process.
The major application of the process is in welding drill to the shank, welding engine valves
to stem, axle to its hub etc.
6.6.2 Ultrasonic Welding:
Heat affected zone is minimum in ultrasonic welding. High frequency vibrations are
being produced by a transducer in the range of 20 to 60 KHz and are transported to the
work with the help of sonotrode. Load is applied on the sonotrode tip with the help of
pneumatic, hydraulic or a spring actuated device. Higher the frequency of vibration higher
I the rate at which energy is transmitted. Due to ultrasonic energy oxide layer at the
interface will be broken and there will be a fresh metal contact between the two work
pieces. The temperature generated in the weld zone is usually 30-50% of the melting point
of base metal.

Fig 6.35: components of Ultrasonic welding machine

Ultrasonic welding equipment consists of two main parts, power source and a
transducer. The power source converts the 50Hz mains supply to a high frequency electric
power and that is converted by the transducer to magnetic flux and then the kinetic motion
which is applied through a velocity transformer. This set up can be used for spot and seam
welds the major application of process is in armature winding, aluminum wire connection
transducers and diodes
- 43 -
6.6.3 Explosive Welding: Two plates can be jointed tighter along the surface by this
process. Two plates to be welded are placed at an inclination to each other, the angle vary
from 10-100. The thicker plate is called the target plate and the thinner plate is called flyer
plate has a buffer plate of PVC or rubber, between it and the explosive. The charge is
exploded by a detonator placed at one end of flyer plate. When the charge explodes, the
flyer plate moves towards the target plate. Because of the movement with higher velocity
pressure is produced at the interface. Under such high velocity and pressure the metal
flows ahead of the joining front acting like a fluid jet resulting in a bond of the interlocking
type. This interlocking is an essential aspect of an explosion welding and cause of strength.
Flyer plate is kept at an angle to give direction to the weld and objective of buffer plate is to
protect the flyer plate from explosive.

Fig 6.36: Schematic of explosive welding

The impact velocity depends on the ratio of the explosive to that of the weight of the
layer plate and also on the contact angle. The maximum velocity can be decided by the
sound in the target plate material because at supersonic velocities the wave in the target
cannot propagate ahead of the bonding front. Minimum velocity is decided by magnitude at
which the projected material becomes sufficiency plastic on impact to from a divided jet.
The application of this process is in tube seet joints in heat exchangers, weld to pipe joints,
blocking of leaking tubes in boilers, also when two plates are to be joined along the surface
etc. this also used for cladding a plate or slab with dissimilar metal.

6.8 THERMIT WELDING PROCESS

BAl+3Fe3O4  4Al2O3+9Fe+Heat
(Ratio of Al and Fe according to atomic weight is 1 : 3)

Fig 6.39: Thermit welding process

Thermit is a mixture of aluminum powder and metal oxide. If this is placed in a
crucible and ignited by means of a fire cracker, the action started continuous throughout
- 44 -
the mass of the mixture, giving out great heat because reaction is exothermic. The
aluminium is a strong reducing agent, and combines with the oxygen from the iron oxide,
the iron oxide being reduced to iron and intense heat will be released. The aluminium oxide
floats to the top of the molten metal as a slag which are contained in the mould. The high
temperature of the iron results in excellent fusion taking place with the parts to be welded.
A small percentage of additions like manganese or other alloying elements is done to
increase the strength of joint.
Thermit welding involves aligning the parts to be joined, but with a gap between them is
usually filled with wax, around which a sand ceramic mold is built. If the parts are thick
the mold cavity may be preheated to improve welding and dry the mold. Drying the mould
is very important; otherwise superheated steam trapped in the mold can cause explosions.
This process is used for joining tracks on site. This is also used in welding cable conductors,
reinforcing bars and for heavy repairs such as those broken necks and ship sterns.
6.9 ALLIED PROCESSES
If the parent material cannot withstand high temperature, or the parts to be joined
are delicate or intricate or metals with different properties, thickness etc. then to weld with
those processes is difficult, so to weld those, allied processes are introduced. In this
additional metal is deposited on a substrate either by spraying or by by some welding
process are used .
1. Soldering (flux in Zncl2)
2. Brazing ( flux is Borax)
3. Adhesive bonding ( Thermosetting plastic)
Soldering: The two surfaces are cleaned and a flux is applied over them. This flux
dissolves whatever amount of oxide is remaining on the surface and also protects the
surface from further oxidation.

After the application of the flux the pieces are heated and the solder is then applied on the
gap. The material flows into the interface of mating surface by capillary action. On cooling,
it solidifies and provides a joint of adequate strength. Soldering is done by thoroughly
cleaning the pieces with the help of wire brush, emery cloth, file or even steel wool. On
cooling, the joint is cleaned by hot water to avoid corrosive action of the flux residue.
Soldering of lead pipe is known as wiping.
Soldering is used extensively in the electronics industry. Solders are not used for load
bearing members because of the low strength than brazing. This process is used to join
Copper with such precious metals such as silver and gold.
Brazing: The process is performed above 4500C but below solidus temperature of the base
metal. The surface to be joined are grinded and then cleaned by applying some chemicals
like Carbon Tetrachloride. A brazing flux( borex) is then applied over the surface to
dissolve any remaining metal oxide. A brazing material like brass is poured at the joint.
The molten metal fills by capillary action. Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal,
a strong joint is obtained . Joints to be brazed are made with small clearance, so that
brazing flux is applied , to dissolve solid metal oxide which is still present and to prevent
further oxidation. Brazing fluxes are generally borax, boric acid, borates, fluorides and
chlorides. Surfaces to be brazed must be clean in order to obtain proper wetting and
spreading characteristics of the molten filler metal in the joint and to develop maximum
bond strength. Residual flux left on the brazed joint can be removed by washing with hot
water followed by air drying. It is used to braze dissimilar metals with good joint strength.

- 45 -
Intricate, light weight shapes can be joined rapidly and with little distortion. Brazing can
be automated and used for mass production.

Q. The strength of a brazed if

a) Decrease with increases in gap between the two joining surface
b) Increase with increases in gap between the two joining surface
c) Increases upto certain gap between the two joining surfaces beyond which it
decreases.
Q. In braze welding the filler metal
a) Distributed by capillary action
b) Melted and deposited at point where the weld is to be made
c) a & b
d) None
Q. The commonly used flux for brazing is
a) Resin b) NH4Cl c) Borax d) Soft iron
Q. In thermit welding, the iron oxide and aluminum are mixed in the proportion of
a) 1 : 1 b) 3 : 1
c) 1 : 3 d) Mixture is of different oxides
Q. Continuous rails for Indian railways are welded by --------- welding process.
a) Projection welding b) MIG welding
c) Thermit welding d) Friction welding
Q. Which of the following powders should be feed for effective oxy fuel cutting of
stainless steel
a) Steel b) Aluminium c) Copper d) Ceramic
Q. In arc welding, temperature of the following order may be generated.
a) 1000C b) 1500C c) 5500C d) 8000C
Q. The main criterion for selection of electrode diameter in arc welding is
a) Material to be welded b) Thickness of material
c) Voltage used d) Current used
Page no : 41
Q. Which one of the following welding processes consists of minimum heat affected zone
a) Shielded metal arc welding b) Laser beam welding
c) Ultrasonic welding d) Metal inert gas welding
Q. Which of the following are the Major characteristics of submerged arc welding
1. High welding speeds 2. High deposition rate
3. Low penetration 4. Low cleanliness
a) 2 & 3 b) 1, 2 & 3 c) 3 &4 d) 1 &2
Q. A. Spatter 1. Damp electrode
B. Distortion 2. Arc blow
C. Slag Inclusion 3. Improper cleaning in multi pass welding
D. Porosity 4. Poor joint selection
A B C D A B C D
a) 4 2 3 1 b) 4 2 1 3
c) 2 4 1 3 d) 2 4 3 1
Sol: - ( D)
Q. A. Mild steel 1. MIG welding
B. Bronze 2. Soldering
C. Brass 3. Brazing
D. Lead and tin alloy 4. Thermit welding
5. Braze welding
A B C D A B C D
- 46 -
 a) 1 5 3 2 b) 4 3 2 5
c) 4 3 5 2 d) 1 3 5 4
Sol: - (A)
Q. Which pair amount of following solid state welding processes uses heat from an
external source
P. Diffusion welding Q. Friction welding R. Ultrasonic welding
S. Forge welding
a) P and R b) R and S c) Q and S d) P and S
Q. The metal powder used in thermit welding of steel is
a) Al b) Cu c) Pb d) W
Q. Welding process Heat source
A. Thermit welding 1. Electric arc
B. Projection welding 2. Mechanical work
C. MIG welding 3. Exothermic chemical reaction
D. Friction welding 4. Ohmic resistances
A B C D A B C D
a) 3 4 1 2 b) 3 4 2 1
c) 1 2 3 4 d) 2 1 3 4

- 47 -
 Chapter-3 : Material Science
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Strength: Ability of material that can withstand to mechanical load.
Ductility: Ability of material that can undergo plastic deformation before failure.
Toughness: Ability of material that can observe the energy at time of failure.
Brittleness: Ability of material that can undergo sudden failure without plastic deformation.
Hardness: Resistances offer by the material against the mechanical deformation.
Stiffness: Ability of material than bear mechanical deformation under stress.
Creep: Study the behavior of material under constant mechanical load.
Fatigue: Study the behavior of material under variable mechanical load.
Resilience: Ability of material that can observe energy within a elastic limit.

Nano material:

1
Strength 
Defective int ensity

If the grain size of the material is less than 1000 Nano meters is known as Nano material.
If the defect size in the material is decreases, strength will be high. Therefore, Nano material will
possess a low defect size and high strength.

MATERIAL SCIENCE
Material science definition: Study of relationship between structure and properties of
engineering materials.

What is material and what is engineering material?

A material is any substances exist in the world.
Engineering material is material which is designed, developed and manufacturing to
specific application.
Eg: Tailors
The crystal structure of metals: When metals solidify from molten state. The atoms arrange
themselves into various orderly configuration is called as crystals. This arrangement of the atoms
in the crystal is called crystalline structure.
Unit cell: A unit cell is defined as the smallest representation of atoms which when repeated in
all the crystallographic direction results in development of crystal lattice.

Crystal lattice: It is three dimensional network of lines in spaces. It is also called as line lattice.
Note: No atoms only lines.
Space lattice: It is defined as three dimensional network of points in space. It is also called as
point lattice.

Note: For mathematical representation only lines are drawn.

Let ‘a’ =lattice parameter = It is defined as the distance between centers of neighboring corner
- 48 -
atoms.
1. Average number of atoms: It is defined as the number of atoms which originally belong to
particular unit cell. It can be calculated by a formula.
Nc Nf N ce N c N f N ce
N Atom    for cubic, N Atom    for hexagonal
8 2 1 6 2 1
2. Co-ordination number: It is defined as the number of nearest and equidistant atoms
surrounding an atom under consideration
3. Packing factor: The ratio of volume occupied by average number of atoms to volume of unit
cell.
3 4
N avg ×
πr
= 3
Volume of unit cell
Solidification process for metals:

1. Simple cubic:

8 0 0
N avg atom    1
8 2 2
Coordination number = 6
Note: The key feature of a crystal structure is co-ordination number.

4 3 4
N avg × πr 1 πr 3
Packing factor = 3  3 3  52% (a=2R)
a3 8r
2. Body center cubic (B.C.C):

8 0 1
N avg    2
8 2 1
Coordination number = 8
4 3
N avg × πr
Packing factor = 3
3
a
4r
4r  3a  a 
3
Packing factor = 68%
Ex: Alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and vandium

- 49 -
3. Face center cubic(F.C.C):

8 6 0
N avg    4
8 2 1

Coordination number = 12
4 3
4× πr
3 4r
Packing factor = 3
a
a 2
= 74%
Eg: Gama( γ ) iron, aluminum , copper, nickel, lead, silver, gold and platinum.
4. Hexagonal closed packed structure (H.C.P.S):-

α  β  900 , γ  1200
One atom is placing in each hexagonal
Three atoms is placing in between the two hexagonal face.
12 2 3
N avg     2 1 3  6
6 2 1
Volume = Bh, where B = Area of base, h = height
c
= 1.632
a
Packing factor = 74%
Ex: Berlium, cadmium, Cobalt, magnesium, zinc etc.
5. Diamond structure: Diamond structure is a F.C.C with body atoms at a distance of a/4 along
the body diagonal.
8 6 4
N avg    8
8 2 1

 8r 
Packing factor = 34%  a  
 3
Co-ordination number = 4
Note: In diamond cube each atom is at centre of tetrahedron formed by four other carbon atoms.
So the co-ordination number is four.

Case-1: If material forms with simple cubic and B.C.C structure.

 B.C.C structure has more number of atoms
 Strength of B.C.C > Simple cubic
 Number of Bonding will be more
 Strength will be more
 In B.C.C structure, packing factor is high = The distance between atoms is less = Binding
energy is high

Case-2: Simple cubic (S.C), B.C.C and F.C.C

Strength: F.C.C > B.C.C > S.C
Density: F.C.C > B.C.C > S.C

- 50 -
Because number of atoms are more in a unit cell it possess a more mass per unit volume. Density
will be high.

Case-3: F.C.C structure is more stronger than the H.C.P.S

During formation of H.C.P.S gaps are formed among lattice atoms = Binding energy decreases
Therefore, strength is low.

Case-4: Diamond exhibiting high strength even through it have low packing factor.
Note: Number of carbon atoms present is high. therefore, bonding energy among the carbon
atoms is high. If the bonding energy is high, automatically the strength is high.

1. The effective number of lattice points in the unit cell of simple cubic, B.C.C and
F.C.C space lattices respectively are
a) 1, 2, 2 b) 1, 2, 4 c) 2, 3, 4 d) 2, 4, 4

2. A. Alpha iron 1. F.C.C

B. Zinc 2. B.C.C
C. Glass 3. H.C.P.S
D. Copper 4. Amorphous
A B C D A B C D
a) 1 4 3 2 b) 2 4 3 1
c) 1 3 4 2 d) 2 3 4 1

Miller indices: Naming of atomic planes is done with miller indices.

Steps:
1. Write intercepts distance of the plane along x, y and z axis 2a, 4b, 2c
1 1 1
2. Take reciprocal of above values , ,
2 4 2
3. Rationalized above values 0.5, 0.25, 0.5
2 1 2
4. Miller indices plane [2, 1, 2]
Lattice parameter relationships and figures showing unit Geometries for the seven
Crystal Systems:
Crystal system Axial Internal angles Unit cell
relationship geometry
Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 900

Hexagonal a=b c α = β = 900 , γ = 120 0

Tetragonal a=b c α = β = γ = 900

- 51 -
 Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ  900

Orthorhombic a b  c α = β = γ = 900

Monoclinic a b  c α = γ = 900  β

Triclinic a b  c α  β  γ  900

Hume-Rothery rule: Two materials will combined together and forms alloy, when condition of
Hume-Rothery are satisfied.
Even before looking of this condition, crystal structure of both material will same.

Conditions:
1. Differences in atomic radius of both material should be less than 15%.
2. Valency of both materials should be same
3. Electronegativity (different electrons)and electron affinity (same electrons) of both materials
should be comparable.

Deformation and strength of single crystal:

Slip:-When a crystal is subjected to external forces, It first undergoes
1. Elastic deformation 2. Plastic deformation [permanent deformation]

a = atomic planes, b = Inversely proportional to atomic density

Note: Permanent deformation take place with help of
1. Slip 2. Twinning
1. Slip: Slipping of one plane atoms over the adjacent plane under a shear stress.

Note: For this we can say that, single crystal is anisotropic.

Ex: Woven cloth

2. Twining: Second mechanism of plastic deformation is twinning.

- 52 -
In which a portion of crystal form a mirror image of itself across the plane of twinning.
 Twins forms abruptly and cause of high sound.
 If generally occurs in hcp metals. [ex: Zinc at room temp]

Slip system: Combination of slip plane and if direction of slip is known as a slip system.
Note: If slip system above 5 = more ductile
If slip system below 5 = more brittle
B.C.C = 48 possible slip system.
The atoms arranged randomly orientation. The result stopping movement of dislocation and arrest
the slip and builds the permanent deformation.
Hence, B.C.C will fail without exhibiting ductility.
F.C.C = 12 slip system
These metals have moderate strength and good ductility. Compare to B.C.C, Because atoms are
arranged in systematically.
H.C.P.S = 3 slip system
So, it has low probability of slip.

1. The material property which depends only on the basic crystal structure is
a) Fatigue strength b) Work hardening
c) Fracture strength d) Elastic constant
2. Match list-I (Crystal structure) with List-II (Example) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Simple cubic 1. Zinc
B. Body-centered cubic 2. Copper
C. Face-centered cubic 3. Alpha iron at room temperature
D. Hexagonal close packed 4. Manganese
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) 4 3 1 2 b) 4 3 2 1
c) 3 4 2 1 d) 3 4 1 2
3. The co-ordination number for F.C.C crystal structure is
a) 4 b) 8 c) 12 d) 16
4. The effective number of lattice points in the unit cell of simple cubic, body
centered cubic, and face centered cubic space lattices, respectively are
a) 1, 2, 2 b) 1, 2, 4 c) 2, 3, 4 d) 2, 4, 4
5. Assuming atoms to be perfect spheres, what is the value of the highest possible
atomic packing (APF) in metals?
a) 0.95 b) 0.74 c) 0.66 d) 0.5
6. Atomic packing factor (APF) in the case of copper crystal is
a) 0.52 b) 0.68 c) 0.74 d) 1.633
7. In the atomic hard-sphere model of the crystal structure of copper, what is the
edge length of unit cell?
a) 2  Atomic radius b) (4/ 3 )  Atomic radius
c) (2 2 )  Atomic radius d) 2  Atomic radius
8. Match List-I (crystal structure) with list-II (Atomic packing factor) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Simple cubic 1. 74%
B. Body centered cubic 2. 74%
C. Face centered cubic 3. 52%
D. Hexagonal close packed 4. 68%
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) 3 4 2 1 b) 4 3 2 1
c) 3 4 1 2 d) 4 3 1 2

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9. Which one of the following is the correct ascending order of packing density for
the given crystal structures of metals?
a) Simple cubic-face centered cubic-body centered cubic
b) Body centered cubic-simple cubic-face centered cubic
c) Simple cubic-body centered cubic-face centered cubic
d) Body centered cubic-face centered cubic simple cubic

Dislocations: Types of defects:

1. Point defect 2. Line defect 3. Surface defect 4. Volume defect
1. Point defect:
a) Vacancies: A position vacated by an atom in the parental metal lattice is called as vacancies.
b) Impurities: Foreign atom existing in a parent metal lattice
Interstitial: Replacing atom by smaller atom
Substitutional: Replacing atom by large atom
c) Frenkel defect: It denotes vacancy and it is self-interstitial existing with in a neighborhood.
d) Schottky defect: It occur in Ionic solids due to the formulation of cations (–) and Anions (+).

Effect of point defect:

1. Vacancy formation result in the weaking of material.
2. Due to presence of impurities, lattice distortion will take place.

2. Line defect:
(a). Edge dislocation:

Although millions of dislocation are present in real materials but to understand concepts, let us
take an ideal material free form any defect.

*One face of material is restricted to deform and an opposite face 50% area of uniform pressure
applied.
*Once this pressure exceeds beyond certain value, there will be slipping of atoms.
*A unit plastic deformation is called slip. Direction of slip is represented by burger vector.
*Burger vector will always be in the direction of applied load.
This slipping of atom will continue upto certain thickness with in the materials. At a certain
point this slipping will stop. Because other side of material is fixed. As it can be seen in figure. ‘AB’
is boundary between slipped and unslipped region and this is called dislocation line.
As if taken seen in figure, at edge dislocation line there will be extra half plane.
Due to pregence of extra half plane. Interstitial void will be slightly bigger in size.
In edge dislocation, dislocation line is perpendicular to burger vector.

b) Screw dislocation: In screw dislocation, dislocation line will be parallel to burger vector.
In every material there are millions of dislocation present with in the grain when external
load applied on the material, dislocation present in the direction starts moving.

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Note: When dislocation comes out it is said that plastic deformation begin in the materials.
Any activity within material that create obstacle in movement of dislocation and increase
strength of materials.
3. Surface defect:
a) Grain boundary defect: The bond length is more at the grain boundary due to orientation
mismatch and can easily be broken. So, atmospheric oxygen reacts with the atom at grain
boundary and corrodes. So finer the grain structure lower will be the corrosion resistance.
10 0
b) Tilt boundary defect: When the orientation mismatch at the given boundaries is  1 , grain
2
boundaries are called tilt boundaries.
c) Twin boundary defect: When the orientation on one side are mirror image of opposite side,
such grain boundary defects are called twin boundary defects.
4. Volume defects: Volume defects are stacking faults which are created by a fault in the
staking sequence of close packed atomic planes in crystals such as FCC and HCP.

1. Which one of the following defects is schottky defect?

a) Vacancy defect b) Compositional defect
c) Interstitial defect d) Surface defect
2. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?
a) Point defect in crystal lattice: Self interstitials
b) Linear defect in crystal lattice: Grain boundary
c) Planar defect in crystal lattice: External surface
d) Volume defect in crystal lattice: Other phases
3. Which of the following factors govern solubility of two non-ferrous metals both in
liquid state, as well as in solid state?
1. Crystal structure 2. Relative size factor
3. Chemical affinity factor 4. Relative valence factor
Codes;
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2, 3 and 4 c) 1 and 4 d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
4. Which one of the following is correct for “Burger’s vector” in screw dislocation?
a) Perpendicular to the dislocation line b) Inclined to the dislocation line
c) Parallel to the dislocation line d) Opposite to the dislocation line
5. Chemicals attack atoms within grain boundaries preferentially because they have
a) Lower energy than those in the grains b) Higher energy than those in the grains
c) Higher number of atoms than in the grains
d) Lower number of atoms than in the grains
6. What is a surface imperfection, which separates crystals of different orientation in
a poly-crystalline aggregate, called?
a) Edge dislocation b) Stacking fault c) Grain boundary d) Screw dislocation
7. What is the movement of block of atoms along certain crystallographic planes and
directions, termed as?
a) Glide b) Twining c) Slip d) Jog

Yield point phenomenon:

Carbon and Nitrogen are interstitial impurities in iron. But regular interstitial void is
much smaller than size of carbon atom. Since at dislocation side interstitial void is larger in size,
carbon and nitrogen diffusive through atomic structure and accumulates dislocation side.
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Producing carbon and nitrogen rich atmosphere called cottrel atmosphere still interstitial voids
at the dislocation side is slightly smaller than size of carbon and nitrogen atom. So cottrel
atmosphere produces atom strain on the host iron atom near the dislocation side.
When load is applied on the material slightly stress are required to break the cottrel
atmosphere and jumping dislocation of next side thats why upper yield appears in the material.
Once the dislocation jumps to new side since there is no cottrel atmosphere. Slightly lower
stress are sufficient to keep the dislocation moving thats why lower yield point and yield point
phenomenon appear in the material.
After appearances of yield point phenomenon when we upload the material upon on
Reloading, yield point phenomenon will not appear. It is because there is cottrel atmosphere at
dislocation side.
After certain time period carbon and nitrogen again diffused at new dislocation sight yield
point phenomenon re-appear in the material.
The time period after which the yield point phenomenon re-appear is called strain aging
time.
In medium and high carbon steel, carbon is not only present on dislocation side but also on
the other Interstitial side as well. So the moment dislocation jumps to new position carbon is
already there. So yield point phenomenon doesn’t appear in this material.
Strengthen Mechanism:

Impurities material, if it occupies interstitial side , it produces compressive strain field(S.F).

1. Large size substitution impurities produces compressive S.F.
2. Smaller size substitution impurities produces tensile S.F.
This strain field create on obstacles in the moment of dislocation. So, alloys will also be
stronger than pure metal.

2. Grain refinement:

Upon applying the load dislocation with in grain starts moving. As soon as dislocation
reaches on the boundary . Since atom on other side oriented differently. Slightly larger stress
required to cross the grain boundary. So grain boundary are obstacles in the movement of
dislocation.
Fine grain in the micro structure or lattice, more obstacles in the movement of dislocation.
So the material will get higher strength.

Work or strain hardening:

Upon cold working the material, number of dislocation with in the material increases. How
much dislocation multiplication will take place is a property of material. This dislocation pile up
at the grain boundaries and produces as dislocation forest. Interaction between two dislocation
are repulsive in nature dislocation for as produces a back stress. Larger stress are required for
dislocation to cross dislocation forest present at the grain boundary. This increases the
strength of material.
Upon unloading the material from region of work hardening and reloading the opposite
direction back stress supports movement of dislocation. So yield in compression appear

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prematurely. This phenomenon is called Baushingo effect.
Age hardening or precipitation:

Alloy of aluminum with less than 5.5% of Cu is heated to temperature. So that uniform
phase  appears in the microstructure.
This material is quenched to room temperature. so copper get locked in the structure of
Aluminum as time pass copper start coming of microstructure and produces precipitation of Al2
CO2. This precipitation creates an obstacles in the moment of dislocation. This increase the
strength of material.
As the time pass more & more precipitates will nucleate and this will be the average
distances between the two aluminum molecules.
After sometime period, Nucleation will stop and these corresponds to peak strength. Later
on smaller precipitate combining together and forming bigger precipitation. This increase average
distances between precipitates and dislocation line find lesser number of obstacles. This decreases
the strength of materials. This phenomenon is called over aging.
When aging temperature is high, rate of nucleation is high because of higher diffusion. So
material will be stronger in lesser time period. But higher is temperature less is peak strength.
Because rate at which small precipitation will combining together faster.
Creep: -
It is slow and progressive deformation of material over a period of time at constant load at
temperature higher than the recrystalization temperature.
1. Work hardening 2. Recrystalization

This movement material is loaded instantaneous creep appear in the material. Instantaneous creep
is similar to elastic strain. In primary creep region strain rates are decreased because due to work
hardening material is become stronger. In the secondary creep region a balance will be achieved
between work hardening and recrystalization. So strain rate will almost constant. But there will be
limit up to which work hardening take place and slowly recrystalization phenomenon decreases and
strain can rate suddenly increases and material fracture. Higher is the temperature more
predominant in the recrystalization phenomenon and hence creep curve can shift towards left.

Cooling curve of pure iron:

Initially raw material [iron] is heated upto liquid state and then cooling up to ambient
temperature.
During this stage phase change and crystal structure changes as shown in figure.

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IRON DIAGRAM:
IRON – IRONCARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM:

Why it is called equilibrium diagram:

1. Isothermal 2. Time dependent 3. Reversible

Definitions of some important phases:

1. S – ferrite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in '  ' iron. '  ' -iron with BCC structure
[Navg – 2].
2.   Austenite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in '  ' iron. '  ' - Iron with F.C.C.
structure. Navg – 4.
3.   Ferrite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in   iron.   Iron with B.C.C
structure. [ Navg – 2.]
4. Fe3C: It is compound Fe and carbon having 0 maximum carbon solubility of 6.67% carbon in it.

1. Peritectic reaction: [1492oC, 0.18%C].

  L 
cooling
   Austenite 
2. Eutectic reaction: [ 1147oC, 4.3%C]
L 
cooling
   Fe3C  Ledeburite 
Ledeburite is mixture of Austinite and cementite.
3. Eutectoid reaction: [727oC 0.8%]

Decompose reaction    + Fe3C [pearlite]

Pearlife is a mixture of  -ferrite and cementite solubility of carbon in various phases.
1. Solubility of ‘C’ in  –phase–0.1% 2. Solubility of ‘C’ in  - phase – 2.1%
3. Solubility of ‘C’ in  -phase–0.025%
4. Solubility of ‘C’ in  - phase room temperature – 0008%

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Some critical temperature lines and their significances:
A1line : (727oC)
It is called as lower critical temperature line, this line signifies the transformation of pearlife
to Austenite.[Upon heating of eutectoid steel].
A2 line:768
This line is known as Curie point temperature line. It signifies the magnetic to non-magnetic
transformation.
Note: Carbon content has no effect on curie point temperature.
A3 line:
This is known as upper critical temperature line for hypo eutectoid steels. This line signifies
the transformation of ferrite into Austinite upon heating of hypo–eutectoid steel.
Acm line:
This is known as upper critical temperature for hyper eutectoid steels. This line signifies the
transformation of cementite.

Classification of cast irons:

Gray cast iron: In pure iron–carbon system, when percentage of carbon is more than 6.67% carbon
will appear in the form of free (or) flake. Such cast iron is called gray cast iron.
Note: This material are used to manufacture machine beds, piston ring etc.

White cast iron: When entire amount of carbon present in the material appears in the combined
form, it is called white cast iron.
Chilled cast iron: Cast iron of such composition, in which it normally freeized to Gray cast iron,
but forced to appear as white by rapid cooling. Such cast iron is called chilled cast iron.
Note: 1. It mainly used for manufacturing the Nozzle.
2. White and chilled cast iron are not used directly in any engineering application. These
materials are used to produce ductile cast iron.

Spheroidal cast iron: When object is to produce ductile cast iron, small amount of magnesium is
added into liquid iron. After producing chilled cast iron, the material is again heated to
temperature less than 11500 C and cooled extremely slowly in the furnace.
When the cooling rate are little fast, carbon will combine in middle form is called Modular cast iron.
Note: Hardness increases order S.C.I, N.C.I, G.C.I. W.C.I, C.C.I.
Steels:
 Mild steel: [0 to 0.15% carbon]
Properties:
1. Very highly ductile 2. High weldability
 Application: Screws, gears, shafts.
 Dead steel (or) low carbon steel [0 to 0.25% C]: -
Properties:
1. Highly ductile 2. High weldability. [It is less compare to mild steel]
Application: Chains, rivets, seam welded pipe.
 Medium carbon: - [0.25 C to 0.45 C]
Properties: 1. Medium hard & ductile 2. Moderate ductility 3. Medium corrosion resistance
Application: Connecting rod, shafts, crank shafts etc.
 High carbon: [0.45 to 2.1%]
Properties:1. High hardness 2. Low weldability 3. Low cost
Application: Rails, wire ropes, drop–hammer dies.
 High speed steel: [18 – 4 – 1 ] 18 % W, 4% Cr, 1% V
1. It is used mainly for cutting tools 2. It is medium carbon steel
3. In terms of molybdenum [6 % MO, 6 % W, 4% Cr, 2% V]
 Stainless steels (or) Austenitic stainless steels.[18/8]
18 – Chromium
8-Nickel

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1. List – I List – II

A. Pearlite P. Extremely hard and brittle phase

B. Martensite Q. Cementite is finely dispersed in fertile
C. Austenite R. Alternate layers of cementite and ferrite
D. Eutectoid S. Can exit only above 723oC
T. Pertaining to state of equilibrium between three solid phases
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) R P S T b) R S P T
c) T R P S d) T R S P
2. List – I List – II
A. Alpha Iron 1.  Iron
B. Iron carbide having crystal with 2. Eutectic
3 iron and 1 carbon atom 3.Ferrite
C.B.C.C pure allotrope of iron is stable 4. Cementite
between 1388oC and is melting point is 1535oC
Codes: A B C A B C
a) 4 2 3 b) 3 4 1
c) 4 2 1 d) 3 1 2
3. Eutectic reaction for iron 0 carbon system occur at
a) 6000C b) 723oC c) 1147oC d) 1493oC
4. During peritetic solidification, one liquid
a) Combines with one solid to form a second new solid
b) Solidifies into two different solids c) Forms one solids
d) Forms one solid and another liquid
5. Pearlite consist of
a) 6.67% and 93.33 %ferrite b) 13 % Fe and 87% cementite
c) 13% C and 87% ferrite d) 13% cementite and 87% ferrite
6. Vibration damping in machinery is best achieved by means of base structures
made of which one of the following materials?
a) Low carbon steel b) Nodular iron c) Grey cast iron d) White cast iron
7. Which of the following materials is used in the manufacture of extrusion
nozzles?
a) Grey cast iron b) Malleable cast iron c) White cast iron d) Nodular cast iron
8. Consider the following statements:
1. Cast iron has poor ability to damp vibrations
2. Cast iron has higher compressive strength compared to that of steel
3. Cast iron parts are suitable where permanent deformation is preferred over fracture.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
a) 1, 2 & 3 b) 1 & 3 c) 3 only d) 2 only
9. Nodular grey cast iron is obtained from the grey cast iron by adding a small
amount of
a) Manganese b) Phosphorous c) Magnesium d) Chromium
10. Assertion (A): Cast iron is generally hard, brittle & wear resistant.
Reason (R): Cast iron contains more than 2% carbon and as such the percentage
cementite in it is higher.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are individually true and R is not a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true
11. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
List I (Name of the material) List – II ( % Carbon range)
A. Hypo – eutectoid steel 1. 4.3 – 6.67
B. Hyper – eutectoid steel 2. 2.0 – 4.3
C. Hypo – eutectic cast iron 3. 0.8 – 2.0
- 60 -
 D. Hyper – eutectic cast iron 4. 0.008 – 0.8
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) 4 3 2 1 b) 1 3 2 4
c) 4 1 2 3 d) 1 2 3 4
12. Addition of magnesium to cast iron increases its
a) Hardness b) Ductility and strength in tension
c) Corrosion resistance d) Creep strength
13. The composition of some of the alloy steels are as under
1. 18 W 4 Cr 1 V 2. 12 MO 1 W 4 Cr 1 V 3) 6 Mo 6 W 4 Cr 1 V 4) 18 W 8 Cr 1 V
The compositions of commonly used high speed steels would include
a) 1 & 2 b) 2 & 3 c) 1 & 4 d) 1 & 3
14. The main alloying elements in high speed steel in order of increasing
proportion are
a) Vanadium, Chromium, tungsten b) Tungsten, Titanium, Vanadium
c) Chromium, titanium, vanadium d) Tungsten, Chromium, titanium

Heat treatment:
Annealing:
Full Annealing (200oC/hr): The objective of full annealing is to decrease hardness or brittleness
or increase ductility or toughness.

Hypo eutectoid steel sample are heated 50oC above upper critical temperature and hyper eutectoid
are heated 50 % above lower critical temperature. After heating this sample at that temperature for
certain time period. Samples are cooled slowly in the furnace. As it can be seen on TTT diagram.
Slow cooling will produce coarse structure.

Process Annealing: This process is used to relive the residual gradual stress from low carbon
steels. The sample is heated to recrystalization temperature that is slight below lower critical
temperature and then cools slowly in furnaces.

Due to formation new crystals, residual stress will die out. As it can be seen that in process.
Annealing austenite has not been produces there will not be any change in grain structure because
TTT diagram will not operational.

Spherodise Annealing: The objective of spherodise Annealing is to decrease machinability in

medium and high carbon steel. These samples are heated close to lower critical temperature and
then cooled extremely slow in furnaces.

- 61 -
Machinability of material improves by formation of spherodise.

Diffusion Annealing: Diffusion annealing is performed to homogeneous the chemical composition

of any structure.

Higher temperature is selected to enable the diffusion phenomenon more and more.

Normalizing:

A steel sample heated to a temperature at which Austinite is stable. From this temperature
sample is air quenched. Since surface will experience faster cooling rate it will produces fine grain
structure and grain will become coarse and coarse towards center.
Normalizing produces hard surfaces and tough core the microstructure which is used in
engineering application. That’s why normalizing is considered as final heat treatment process.

Hardening: A steel sample is heated to a temperature at which austenite is stable. This samples
are quenched into medium to achieve cooling equal or higher than critical cooling rate. This will
produces martensite.

Quenching medium:
Water : Although water is cheap but as soon as it comes and contact with work piece. Vapour will
be formed and entire work piece will be covered by vapour blanket. This decrease the heat transfer.
Brain solution : So excessive salt is added in the water. It increases boiling point and hence
decrease vapour blanket formation. Faster cooling is provided by Brain solution.
Oil Bath :Although uniform cooling rate provide but also cooling rate is very low. Oil bath are used
only in case of oil bath.
Note : In case of tool steels, it increases the hardness and wear retaining the toughness at the same
time.
In case of structural steel, it improves strength, ductility and toughness.

Tempering: The martensite which is formed during quenching is too brittle and hence cannot be
used in many cases, the residual stresses are also developed during martensite formation hence
hardening should be followed by tempering. Tempering consist of heating the hardened steel to a

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temperature below the lower critical temperature holding it for some time and then cooling slowly.
It is the final operation in heat treatment.
Some advantages of tempering are:
1. Residual stresses are relived. 2. Ductility is improved. 3.Toughness is increased

Tempering is classified according to the tempering temperature, because it has much effect
on properties of steel:
1. High temperature Tempering (Sorbite): It is employed at 500 – 650oC. The resulting
structure consists of sorbite which gives good strength and toughness. Residual stresses are
completely relieved if holding temperature is 100 – 120oC the holding time can be increased to
give desired properties to steel.
2. Medium temperature: Tempering(Troosite): This type of tempering is employed at 350 –
500oC the resulting steel structure consist of tempered troosite. This process increases the
endurance limit and elastic limit. After tempering the work is cooled in water. This increases
the endurance limit in case of springs. This process is used for spring steel and die steels.
3. Low temperature tempering: The temperature used in this process is 250oC and the
holding time is 1 -3 hrs. This process reduces internal stresses increases strength and
toughness and provides high wear resistance. This method is employed in manufacture of
measuring tools and cutting tools. This is also employed to the components which are surface
hardened by carburizing nitriding or carbo – nitriding.

Case Hardening: Hard surfaces are produced on relatively soft cores by case hardening. The parts
which are subjected to wear and impact are hardened by surface treatment, the hard surface has
good wear resistance and the soft core has good toughness. Since mild steels can not be hardened by
quenching. So their strength is increased by case hardening.
Carburizing: It is applied to low carbon steel up to 0.18% carbon. In carburizing the carbon
content of the surface layer is increased, the purpose is to obtain a hard layer on the work piece
surface after heat treatments.
Hardness = 800 VHN
Note : - 1. It is done at 9500C 2. It requires heat treatment after carburizing.
Pack carburizing:- In pack carburizing mild steel specimen are kept in a container along with
charcoal. Upon heating this container to 9500C carbon diffuse from charcoal to mild steel specimen.
Although pack carburizing is cheap and easy. But it doesn’t produces quality case and also it take
lot of time to perform carburizing .

Compositions: - 50 % good charcoal 20 % BaCO3, 5% CaCO3 and 5 - 12 % Na2CO3.

Nitriding:- In nitriding the N content of the surface is increased, this is done by heating the steel
in the atmosphere of ammonia(NH3) gas the parts to be nitride are placed in the air tight container.
NH3 is passed continuous through the work pieces at a temperature of 500 to 650oC. NH3 gas
dissociates as follows:
2NH 3  2N  3H 2
Advantages:
a) It increases the hardness of surface layer which is harder as compared to carburizing.
b) It increases wear resistance, endurance limit and resistance to corrosion.

Uses: Nitriding is used during manufacture of gears components of M/C tools. Cylinders of powerful
engines, cylinder liners, gauges, cams, valves etc.
Disadvantages:
a) The case produced is brittle b) The process is costly compared to carburizing
Note:
1. Nitriding produces harder and stronger case as compared to carburizing.

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Because atomic radius of nitriding  atomic radius of carburizing.
2. Hardness = 1000 VHN, it is heated up to 650oC.
Cyaniding: - The mild steel specimen is dipped into the carbon nitrogen solution at 850oC. It
produces hardness in between the carburizing and nitriding.
Hardness = 900 VHN.
Note: - Nitriding> Cyaniding > Carburizing (Hardness)

Induction Hardening: This process is employed to increase hardness, wear, resistance and
endurances limit of the surface of the work piece. The heat treatment is given to the surface only by
supplying excessive heat to the surface followed by drastic quenching; the surface is heated to the
austenite range and then quenched immediately to form martensite. The structure of core remains
unchanged because it is not effected by heat, the components should contain 0.4 – 0.5 % carbon or
sufficient alloying elements as chromium Ni, or Mo. The work is placed in helical coils called
inductor. The coil consists of several turns of water cooled cu tubing. Alternate current is passed
through the inductor and thus alternate magnetic field sets up. The field induces eddy currents on
the surface layers and heat is generated. The current density is not uniform throughout the cross –
section of the work piece. Approximately the 90% of the heat is generated in the work layer of
thickness (x) represented by

X  5000
f

  electrical resistivity, f = frequency,  = magnetic permeability

Advantages:
1. Time required is very small hence the process is very quick and productivity is high.
2. Scale is not formed hence machining time is saved more over material is not lost due to
scale formation.
3. The process can be automated.
4. Depth of hardness can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages:
Each type of work piece requires different fixtures for its holding where as different work
pieces can be treated at one time in carburizing and nitriding.

Applications:
Automobile component, cold rolling mills, splined shaft, crane wheels, spindles, Brake drums etc.

Flame hardening: Cam shaft are case hardened by this technique. Material is heated using
oxidizing flame and immediately it quenched by water. This produces a very thin layer of
martensite on the surface.
It doesn’t produces quality cases. But process is very cheap. In some rare case low carbon steel are
also case hardened. But in that case we use carburizing case.

Note: Lathe machine beds are flame treated to produce a thin layer of white cast iron on the
surface.

Mar tempering : - Austenite sample is initial quenched into the hot bath, maintained at a
temperature of below the nose point bur above the martensite line. But sample kept at this bar for
certain period. so temperature of surface and cone will be uniform. So sample is taken out from hot
bath and placed at cold bath and maintained at room temperature.

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Auss Tempering:
Austenite is cooled at rate equal to or higher than cooling rate to a temperature less than nose point
of TTT diagram but above the martensite start line. This temperature is maintained for substantial
period of time so that the transformation line enter into TTT diagram it produces a Bainite.

Bainite cannot be produced continuous cooling. Mechanics of formation of Bainite is combination

of diffusion and shear.

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 Chapter-4 : Metal Cutting
Introduction:-The method of analyzing the material removal process is called metal cutting.
The analysis of machining will be done for determining the force induced during machining,
the power consumption during machining, temperature induced during machining, tool life etc.
In machining the total energy required is summation of energy required in plastic deformation to
break crystal structure and in overcoming the friction. Cutting tools are classified into two major
groups:
1. Single point cutting tools
2. Multipoint cutting tools
Multipoint cutting tool: They have more than one cutting edge to remove excess material from
the work piece. Milling cutters, drills, reamers, broaches and grinding wheels are multi point
cutting tools.
Single point cutting tool: The tool terminating in a single point has been termed as single point
cutting tool. The tool is made of either high carbon steel, high speed steel or carbide bar. The
cutting edge is prepared by grinding. It has one cutting edge which is partially formed by the end
cutting edge and largely by the side cutting edge. Its nose is given a small radius and it is never a
sharp point. This imparts strength to the cutting edge and reduces the magnitude of stress over the
cutting edge. The nature of single point cutting tool are presented in Fig. 4.1 and 4.2.

4.1 TERMINOLOGY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL (AS PER ASA)

4.1.1 Back rake angle   b  .
It is the angle between the line parallel to the tool axis passing through the tip and the rake
face and angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the base.

- 66 -
 After plastic deformation chips flow over the rake face and heavy drag exists between chip
and rake face. Due to this, temperature continues to develop and the maximum temperature
will appear 2 – 3 mm away from the cutting edge. At high temperature, carbon starts
diffusing from the tool to the chip and as a result of that tool becomes weaker and weaker.
Due to the drag between the chip and the tool, a portion of the tool will be carried away by
the chip. This phenomenon is called diffusion wear. By increasing the Back Rake angle, chip
flow will be easier, that is drag will decrease and hence the tool wear. So initially by
increasing back rake angle tool life increases.

While machining stronger or brittle materials, smaller rake angles are used. For ex:
machining brass, zero degree rake angles are chosen. If the tool material is brittle like
ceramics and carbides, negative back rake angles have to be provided because we want to
make the tool stronger. By providing the negative back rake angle, energy required to
overcome the friction increases which increases the overall power requirement in machining
but negative rake angles are required for tool stability because due to impact created by
faylite, tool may break.
When machining slots or key ways the cutting tool may be given a negative back rake and
positive side rake. For machining ductile materials tool life increases by increasing back
rake angle because of decrease in contact length between chip and tool over the rake face.
But when this angle becomes more than a particular value, lip angle of the tool decreases.
This decreases the strength of tool hence tool life decreases. This is represented in Fig.
4.3(d). The optimum back rake angle of ductile materials is around 10 -15 o .
4.1.2 Side cutting edge angle   
It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the
line extending the shank. The angle is measured in a
plane parallel to base. Feed represents uncut chip
thickness and depth of cut represents width of chip.

  ft
 = Maximum temperature on Rake face.
ft = true feed or feed experienced by the cutting edge
in perpendicular direction and it is equal to the uncut
chip thickness.

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 d
From Fig. 4.5 w
cos
d = depth of cut
w = width of cut
ft
From Fig. 4.6  cos 
f
True feed = ft = f cos
t1 = uncut chip thickness.
Width of the chip is the length of the cutting edge covered by the chips and it can be
observed in the analysis that as side cutting edge angle increases chips become wider. Uncut
chip thickness is feed experienced by the side cutting edge in the perpendicular direction and
by increasing the side cutting edge angle, Uncut chip thickness becomes thinner. Wider
chips increases the friction force so by increasing the side cutting edge angle cutting force
requirement is slightly increased. But, since the heat is distributed over the larger area,
peak temperature over the rake face will decrease. This will decrease, the tool wear and
hence increases the tool life. Side cutting edge angles increases possibility of crater
vibrations. For machining shoulders a small negative side cutting edge angle of 2 o - 5 o is
given on tools. Normally the value of side cutting edge angle varies between 15 – 30 o .
4.1.3 Side Rake Angle ( s )
It is the angle between the rake face and the line passing through the tip perpendicular to
the tool axis and the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the base. Normally this
angle varies between 5 - 15 o .
4.1.4 Side Relief Angle ( s )
It is the angle between the side flank and the line passing through the tip perpendicular to
the base and the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the tool axis. This angle
varies in the range 5 - 15 o .The work piece material which is going to be removed in the next
revolution will try to hit the flank due to elastic recovery of work piece material. To avoid
this rubbing side relief angle is provided.

4.1.5 End Cutting Edge Angle ( 1 )

It is the angle between the end cutting edge and the line passing through the tip
perpendicular to the tool axis and the angle is measured in a plane parallel to base. At

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 smaller values of the angle lager forces normal to the machine surfaces are produced and
the tool may chatter. The normal value of this angle is in the range of 8 - 15 o .
Note: - Cutting edge angles are mainly influencing surface finish produced on the work pieces.
4.1.6 End Relief Angle (Clearance angle)
It is the angle between the end flank and the line passing through the tip perpendicular to
the base and angle is measured in plane parallel to the tool axis. There will be some elastic
recovery in the finished work and as a result of that it will try to rub the end flank. While
machining ductile materials elastic recovery will be more so larger clearance angle has to
be provided. Relief is provided to the side and end flanks in order to minimize physical
interference or rubbing contact with the machine surface of work piece.
4.1.7 Nose Radius(r)
Larger nose radius gives better surface finish. Increasing the nose radius also improves the
tool life, so that higher cutting speeds can be employed. However the cutting force and
possibility of crater increases when the nose radius is increased excessively.
4.1.8 ASA Tool Signature [American Standard Association System]
Back rake angle – Side rake angle – End relief angle – Side relief angle – End cutting edge
angle – side cutting edge angle – Nose radius. (or)  b  s  e  s    1  r
In this system the geometry of the rake face is expressed in term of back rake angle and side
rake angle.
Surface roughness:
f2
Peak to valley height, H max 
8R
f = feed, R = nose radius

H max
Center Line Average value, Ra 
4
f
H max 
tan   cot 
 = Side cutting edge angle 1 = End cutting edge angle
4.2 BRITISH SYSTEM
Rake angle in this system defined as the steepest slope over the rake face. It is assumed that
taking this value as the rake angle gives accurate results for cutting forces. The main
advantage of this system is that the specified rake angle is easy to set on a tool grinding
fixture for grinding the rake face. The angle of chip flow is difficult to estimate.
4.3 NORMAL OR ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM (ORS)
1) A number of lines drawn perpendicular to the side cutting edge in the horizontal plane
and the line which gives the maximum slope is called Normal Rake Angle   n  . If side
cutting edge angle is zero, normal rake angle is equal to the side rake angle. Tool signature
in this system is given as:
2) I   n  side relief angle – end relief angle – end cutting edge angle – approach angle  .
Where I – Angle of inclination
 n  normal rake angle
  approach angle ( 90 o - side cutting edge angle). (or) principal cutting edge angle.
Angle of inclination is the angle of tool axis with cross slide motion.
Note: - For Orthogonal system I = 0
Conversion from ASA to ORS
tan I  cos  tan  ab  sin  tan  as
tan  n  cos  tan  as  sin  tan  ab
  side cutting edge angle
 ab  back rake angle
 as  side rake angle

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4.4 TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS
The metal cutting processes are of two types.
1. Orthogonal cutting process (Two dimensional cutting): It occurs when the major
cutting edge of the tool is presented to the work piece perpendicular to the direction of feed
motion.

Fig (a) Fig (b)

2. Oblique cutting: - [3 – Dimensional cutting] This form of cutting occurs when the major
cutting edge of the tool is presented to the work piece at an angle perpendicular to the
direction of feed motion.
4.6 TYPES OF CHIPS
4.6.1 Continuous Chips
Favourable conditions for the continuous chips to form are:
 Ductile materials
 High speed
 Low feed and depth of cut
 High back rake angle
Continuous chips start rotating with the tool and if these chips hit the finished part of the
work, it spoils surface finish. So, continuous chips are broken by providing chip breakers. In
drilling operation, chips are broken by providing a back feed. High back rake angle provides
less resistance to flow of chips, hence favours continuous chips.

4.6.2 Discontinuous Chips

The conditions in which discontinuous chip forms are:
 Brittle materials
 Low speed
 High feed and depth of cut
 Low back rake angle
The slight plastic deformation produced by a
small advance of the cutting edge into the job
leads to a crack formation in the deforming zone.
With further advance, the crack travels and a small Fig: Discontinuous chip
lump of materials starts moving up the rake face.
The force and constraints of motion acting on the lump make the crack propagate
towards the surface and thus the small fragment of the chip gets
detached.
As most of the heat produced in the chip is
carried by the chip, the tool is heated to a longer
temperature and hence has longer life.

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4.6.3 Chips with buildup edge
Favorable conditions for these types of chips are:
 Ductile material
 Low speed
 High feed and depth of cut

Due to the low speed, heat is not being dissipated from the machining area. So, a portion of
work will stick to the cutting edge called Build up edge. Although the buildup edge gives initial
strength to the cutting edge but as the condition of the buildup edge continue, size of build up
edge becomes bigger which changes the geometry of the cutting tool. So, a portion of this build
up edge is carried away by the chip and a portion goes away with the work. In this mechanics,
a portion of tool material is also lost. This type of tool wear is called Adhesion wear.
4.6.4 Chips with unusual strains
These type of chips appear, while machining the work piece materials with low
thermal conductivity like titanium. Since the heat is not dissipated from the machining area,
chips get accumulated in the primary deformation zone. As a result of that, shear plane angle
decreases, and the requirement of cutting force increases.

4.7 MERCHANT’S ANALYSIS FOR CHIP THICKNESS RATIO

To experimentally determine the shear angle, we have to study the geometry of chip
formation.

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 t1 = Chip thickness before cutting (uncut chip thickness)
t2 = Chip thickness after cutting
 = Shear plane angle
 = Back rake angle
t
OAP : 1  sin 
OP
t
OPB : 2  sin  90     
OP
Divide Eq. (2) by Eq. (1)
t 2 sin  90     
o

 
t1 sin 
t 2 sin  90       
o

 
t1 sin 
t2 cos     
 
t1 sin 
t2 cos  cos   sin  sin 
 
t1 sin 
t2
  cot  cos   sin 
t1
t2
  sin   cot  cos 
t1
t2 cos 
  sin  
t1 tan 
cos 
 tan  
t2
 sin 
t1
Always t2 > t1  Chip thickness > uncut chip thickness
t2
= chip thickness ratio > 1
t1
t1
 chip reduction coefficient < 1
t2
Constancy of volume l1t1w1  l2 t 2 w 2
w1  w 2 Width kept constant
l1t1  l2 t 2
D = diameter of work
Uncut chip length l1  D
Due to compressive stresses while cutting.
l2  l1
 t 2  t1
Q.1 In orthogonal turning of a low carbon steel bar of diameter of 150mm with uncoated carbide
tool, the cutting velocity is 90 m/min. The feed is 0.24 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2 mm.
The chip thickness obtained is 0.48mm. If the orthogonal rake angle is zero and principal
cutting edge angle is 90o. The shear angle in degree is [ B ]
a) 20.56 b) 26.56 c) 30.56 d) 36.56
Sol: - Given data Feed rate = f = 0.24 mm/rev
Chip thickness = t2 = 0.48 mm
Principal cutting edge angle = 90o =  [ i.e., cs = 0o]
Rake angle   0

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 Uncut chip thickness t1 = f cos 0 = 0.24 mm
t
cutting ratio = r = 2  2
t1
cos  1
tan     0.5
r  sin  2  0
  26.56  Shear angle
Q.2 A single – point cutting tool with 12o rake angle is used to machine a steel work piece. The
depth of cut is 0.81 mm. The chip thickness under orthogonal machining condition is 1.8
mm. The shear angle is approximately
a) 22 b) 26 c) 56 d) 76
Sol: - Given Data:
Uncut chip thickness = 0.81 mm = t1
Chip thickness = 1.8 mm = t2
t
r  2  2.22
t1
cos  cos12
Shear angle tan   
t2 2.22  sin12
 sin 
t1
tan   0.48
  25.9
Q.3 Two identical cyclindrical jobs are turned using a) round nosed tool of nose radius 2 mm and
b) a sharp corner tool having principal cutting edge angle = 45 and auxiliary cutting edge
angle = 10 . If the operation is carried out of the feed of 0.08 mm/rev. The height of micro
irregularities on the machined surface [ in mm] in the two cases will be [ ]
a) 0.0001, 0.024 b) 0.0002, 0.012 c) 0.0003, 0.024 d) 0.0004,0.012
Sol: - Given data
feed = 0.08 mm/rev
nose radius = 2 mm
principal cutting edge angle = 45  1
auxiliary cutting edge angle = 10   2
f 0.08
case : - 1 H max  2 =   0.0004 mm
8R 8 2
f
case: - 2 H max   0.012 mm
tan 1  cot  2
Determination of cutting forces : -

Fc = cutting force FT = Thrust force

FS = Shear force NS = Normal shear force,  = side cutting edge angle
 = Rake angle,   Shear angle, R = Resultant forces.
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 1. Cutting force always comes in the direction of cutting.
Note:- In turning operation it is tangential force acting in the vertically upward direction.
2. Thrust force acts perpendicular to the cutting edge and enables the cutting edge to have
physical contact with the work pieces material.
Note :- 1. Fc and FT are perpendicular to each other.
In oblique cutting, thrust force is resolved into the feed force and radial force as shown in fig
(b).
Radial force = FR = FT sin 
Feed force = Ff = FT cos 
3. In a true orthogonal cutting FR = 0
4. Calculating the shear forces and normal shear forces by using the cutting forces and
thrust force.
From fig(a)
1. Fs  AE  BE  BE  CG 
 AE  CG      (1)
From  AEC AE = Fc cos       
From  CDG CG = FT sin     (3)
Sub (2) and (3) in (1)
Fs  Fc cos   FT sin 
2. (Ns) Normal shear forces = BD = BG + GD BG = CE
= CE + GD
= Fc sin   FT cos 
Determination of Area of shear plane and shear strength: -

1. Shear area = width (b)  Length (L)

t
Length of work pieces = L = 1  From ABC
sin 
t
Shear area of plane = W  1
sin 
Shear force F
2. Shear strength of the material = N/MML = s   s
Shear area W.t 1
sin 
Determination of shear strain : -
Example:


Shear strain =
y

- 74 -
  AD  DC AD DC
 shear strain =      cot  90       cot   cot  90         cot 
y y y y
  tan       cot 
Q. In a machining operation chip thickness ratio is 0.3 and the back rake angle of the tool is
10  .What is the value of the shear strain
a) 0.31 b) 0.13 c) 300 d) 3.34
Sol: - Given data
Rake angle   10
t1 t
 0.3  2  3.33
t2 t1
cos 
Shear angle tan    0.3116
t2
 sin 
t1
  17.31
Shear strain = tan       cot   tan 7.3  cot17.3  3.34
Shear strain rate:-
Vs
The ratio between shear velocity to length of shear plane =
t1
sin 
Q. Details pertaining to an orthogonal metal cutting process are given below:
Chip thickness ration = 0.4, Under formed thickness = 0.6 mm, Rake angle = 10o
cutting speed = 2.5 m/sce, mean thickness of primary shear zone = 25 microns.
The shear strain rate in s-1 during the process.
a) 0.1781 105 b) 0.7754 105 c) 1.0104 105 d) 4.397 105
Vs
Sol: - Shear strain rate =
t1
sin 
cos 
tan  
1
 sin 
0.4
tan   0.423
  22.94
cos V
Vs   2.52
cos     
V
Strain rate = s  1.00  105 / sec
tm
Determination of Friction forces and Normal friction forces:-

- 75 -
 F = friction force
N = Normal friction force
F
tan  =   =friction angle
N
AD = CG = Friction forces = CH + HG = CH + BE
F = FT cos   FC sin 
Normal friction forces = CD = AG
AG = AE – EG = AE – BH
N = FC cos   FT sin 
FT cos   FC sin 
tan  
FC cos   FT sin 
Q. In orthogonal turning of 10  carbon steel pipe with principal cutting edge angle of 90 o ,
the main cutting force is 1000 N and feed force is 800N. The shear angle is zero. employing
Merchant theory, the ratio of friction force to Normal force acting on the cutting tool is [ C ]
a) 1.56 b) 1.25 c) 0.80 d) 0.64
Sol: - cutting force FC = 1000 N
Feed force FT = 800N
Rake angle  =0 o
Shear angle   25o
F F sin   FT cos  800
We know that    c   0.8
N Fc cos   FT sin  1000
Merchant’s circle : -
Assumptions
1. Cutting edge is straight and sharp
2. Material is homogeneous
3. Cutting is orthogonal
4. Material is rigid and perfectly plastic
5. Shear zone extends in a very narrow region which can be approximated by a straight line.

Fs FC F
Resultant = R =  
cos        cos      sin 
N Fsn FT
Resultant = R =  
cos  sin        sin     

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1. As soon as the cutting edge comes in contact with the work material, cutting edge will try to
round off. This is overcome by first assumption.
2. There will be a drag between tool and work piece called ploughing forces.
Note: - 1. Ploughing forces are neglected when feeds and depth of cut are high.
2. Ploughing forces are not neglected when feeds and depth of cut are low.
Velocity triangle: -

Apply the sine rule

v Vs V
  C
sin  90        sin  90    sin 
V = cutting tool velocity
VS = Shear velocity
VC = Chip velocity
Cutting power and specific cutting power (or) energy: -
1. Cutting power = cutting force  velocity of cutting tool = FC .V
(or)
= shear power + Frictional power
Fc .V  Fs .Vs  F.Vc
cutting energy
2. Specific cutting power (or) energy =
material removal rate (MRR)
F .V
 c , M.R.R = W.t1. v mm3/min
M.R.R
F .V
 c
W.t1 .V
w = width of work pieces, t1 = thickness of work pieces
F
Specific cutting power  c
W.t1
Q. Common Data for Question 1,2 and 3
In an orthogonal machining operation
Uncut thickness = 0.5 mm
Cutting speed = 20 m/Min
Rake angle = 15 o , width of cut = 5 mm
Chip thickness = 0.7 mm, Thrust force = 200 N
Cutting force = 1200 N Assume Merchants theory
1. The value of shear angle and shear strain respectively, are
a) 30.3 o and 1.98 o b) 30.3 o and 4.23 o
o o
c) 40.2 and 2.97 d) 40.2 o and 1.65 o
2. The co – efficient of friction at the tool – chip interface is
a) 0.23 b) 0.46 c) 0.85 d) 0.95
3. The percentage of total energy dissipated due to friction at the tool - chip interface is
a) 30% b) 42% c) 58% d) 70%
Sol:- Given data:
Uncut chip thickness t1 = 0.5 mm
Cutting speed = V = 20 m/Min, Rake angle = 15 o , width of cut = 5 mm, chip thickness = t2
= 0.7 mm, Thrust force (FT) = 200 N, Cutting force (FC) = 1200 N

- 77 -
 t2
1. Cutting ratio = r =  1.4
t1
cos 
tan  
t2
 sin 
t1
  40.2
Shear strain = cot   tan       1.181  0.4716  1.65
2. We know that
F F sin   FT cos 
  C
N FC cos   FT sin 
  0.46
3. Frictional force = FR = FC sin   FT cos   1200sin 15   200cos15 =503.8
vsin  V sin  40.2 
Velocity of chip = VC =   0.713
cos      cos  40.2  15 
Total power consumption = FC . V = 1200 V
Power consumption due to friction = FR . VC = 503.8  0.713 = 359.21 V
359.21V
Percentage of energy dissipated due to friction =  100  30%
1200V
Ernest and Merchant theory: -
It gives relationship between ,  and  for minimum power consumption during machining.

2      (or) 2      cot 1  k  k = Machining constant
2
Q. Orthogonal turning is performed on a cyclindrical work piece with shear strength of 250
MPa the following conditions are used. Cutting velocity is 180 m/min, feed is 0.20 mm/rev,
depth of cut is 3 mm, chip thickness ratio = 0.5, the orthogonal rake angle is 7  , apply
Merchant theory for analysis.
1. The shear plane angle and shear force respectively are
a) 52:320 N b) 52:400N c) 28:400 N d) 28:320 N
2. The cutting and thrust forces respectively are
a) 568 N : 387 N b) 565 N : 381 N c) 440 N : 342 N d) 480 N : 356 N
Sol: - Condition : - Merchant theory 2      90
c  250 MPa , V = 180 m/min, f = 0.20 mm/ rev
t
depth of cut = 3 mm, chip thickness ratio = 0.5 = 1
t2
t
r 2 2
t1
  rake angle = 7 
cos 
1. tan   shear angle =
r  sin 
  28
2. Condition 2      90
  90    2
  41
t1
Shear strength force = =319.5 N
sin 
FC cos     
2 Ans 
Fs cos       

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 cos  41  7 
Fc  320   565.08N
cos  28  41  7 
FT
tan      
FC
FT  FC tan       565 tan  41  7   381.55N
Lee and Shaffer : -
The theory of Lee and Shaffer was the result of an attempt to apply the plasticity theory to the
orthogonal metal cutting.
1. The work material a head of the tool behaves as ideal plastic mass
2. There exists a shear plane which separates the chip and work pieces
3. No hardening in chip occurs
Based on the following assumptions the relationship obtained is
      45

Heat Generation:

Machining operation is also take places according to 1st law of thermodynamics i.e.
whatever the energy supplied for machining operation is simple converted to heat energy
Heat generated = Fc  Vc , where Vc = Cutting velocity, Fc = Cutting forces

Primary heat zone: In the primary heat zone, when the shearing is taking place, the
energy will be used for breaking the atomic bond between the atoms of materials. So that
atoms are releasing by applying equivalent amount of energy in the form of heat energy.
About60-65% of energy supplied is converted into heat energy in the primary zone.
Note: The heat generated in primary heat zone, maximum amount of energy is carried by
chip and small amount of energy is transferred to the work piece.

Secondary heat zone: Energy supplied is converted into heat energy due to the presence of
friction between chip and tool Interface. About 30-35% energy supplied is converted into
heat energy in secondary heat zone. Out of the heat generated maximum amount of heat is
carried away by chip and small portion is transferred to the tool.

Tertiary zone: In tertiary zone, heat energy is generated due to friction between tool and
work piece. About of 5 to 10% energy supplied is converted into heat energy. Out of heat
generated in tertiary zone maximum amount is carried by work piece and small amount is
transferred to the tool.
Note: Heat generated during machining will be carried away by chip, work piece and tool
[decreasing order].

4.18 MECHANISM OF TOOL WEAR

1. Diffusion wear: The favourable condition for the diffusion is provided by the localized
temperature over the actual area between the chip underside and the tool face. In that
condition the metal atoms will transfer from the tool material to the chip material at the
points of contact. This weakens the surface structure of the cutting tool and may ultimately
lead to tool failure. The amount of diffusion depends upon temperature, period of contact
between tool face and the chip and the bonding affinity between the materials of the tool and
chip.

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2. Adhesion wear: Due to the excessively high temperature at the chip-tool interface a
metallic bond takes place between the chip material and tool material at the contact points,
in the form of spot welds are formed. When the chip slides, these small welds are broken and
small amount of welded tool carried away by the sliding chip. Thus small particles will
continue to separate through this phenomenon and carried away by the chip by adhesion to
its underside.

3. Abrasion wear: Since there will be thousands of faylite pockets inside the work material
and as these faylite pockets come in contact with the cutting edge, there will be a shock. As a
result of that, a portion of cutting edge will be eroded.

4. Fatigue wear: On a microscopic level, hills of the tool will be eroded and fresh hills will
be formed by the interaction with the work piece. This eroded material is called fatigue
wear.

5. Oxidation wear: After machining operation, oxide layer will be formed over the tool
which will be removed the next cut. The formation of grooves or notches at the rake face and
the flank is on account of the sliding of portions of the chip and the machined surface which
have reacted with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form abrasive oxides. This causes
oxidation wear.
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4.18.1 Types of tool Wear:
1. Flank wear: Flank wear is more at the corner and notch because.
(a) There is sudden entry and sudden exit at the corner and at the notch.
(b) There is also a work hardening of the material in the width direction.
A stage reaches when diffusion becomes the predominant wear mode on the flank. After a
critical wear land has formed, further wear takes place at an accelerating rate. It is
advisable to change the tool in order to avoid the tool failure. Flank wear is caused mainly
through abrasion, where as during the rapid wear phase it is caused by diffusion.
2. Crater wear: Crater wear is mainly due to the diffusion and abrasion between the chip
and the face of the tool, a short distance from the cutting edge. The crater is formed on the
surface of the tool by the action of chip particles flowing over it because of very high
temperature. When crater becomes excessive, the cutting edge may break from the tool. This
is generally observed while machining materials, which produces continuous chips.

VB = 0.3, it is the depth of Flank wear.

K T = 0.3, it is the depth of crater wear.
Initially, the cutting edge is sharp and as soon as it comes in contact with the work
piece, sharp edges try round off. That is why; the tool wear is more in the beginning. After
some amount of tool wear takes place, tool looses its geometry and causes the drag between
the tool and the work piece increases. This results in tool breakdown. Before this condition
comes, tool has to be withdrawn from the work shop and regrinding. This time between two
regrinding is called TOOL LIFE.
4.18.2. TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION
The tool life is mainly affected by cutting speed, means higher the cutting speed the smaller
the tool life. Taylor gave the relation between cutting speed and tool life that is
VT n = C, where V = Cutting speed, T = Tool life, C = Machining constant
n = Tool life exponent (Depends only on tool material)

For HSS n = 0.08 – 0.2

For Carbides n= 0.2 – 0.6
For Ceramics n= 0.5 – 0.8
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 C depends upon both tool and work piece

Hyperbola VT n  C
log V  n log T  log C
As the two lines are parallel slope (n) is same for both. B makes higher intercept on the axis.
“C” for B is higher than that for A.
Example:
Following is the data available on cutting speed and tool life.
V= 150m/ min T= 60 min
V= 200 m/ min T = 23 min
Determine the Taylors constant and tool life exponent.
Sol: VT n  C
150(60)n  C
200(23)n  C
n
 60  200 n
 150(60) n  200(23) n       2.6087   1.33  n log  2.6087   log1.33
23
  150
 n  0.3 , C  512.31
Linked Question:-
In a Machining experiment, tool life was found to vary with the cutting speed in the
following manner.

Cutting speed (m/min) Tool life (minutes)

60 81
90 36
1) The exponent (n) and constant (k) of the Taylor’s tool life equation are
a) n = 0.5 and k = 540 b) n = 1 and k = 4860
c) n = -1 and k = 0.74 d) n = -0.5 and k = 1.155
2) What is percentage Increase in tool life when the cutting speed in halved?
a) 50% b) 200% c) 300% d) 400%
Solution:
1) Taylor’s tool life equation,
VTn = k ----------------- (A)
60 [81]n = k ----------- (1)
90 [36]n = k ------------ (2)
Divided (1)  (2)
n
60 81
n
1
90  36
n
 81  90
 36   60
 
[2.25]n = 1.5
Taking Log on both side
Ln [2.25]n = ln (1.5)
n ln (2.25) = ln (1.5)
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 ln 1.5 
n= = 0.5
ln  2.25 
0.5
Sub n = 0.5 in equation (A) 60  81 = k  540
2) Taylor’s tool life equation
VT0.5 = k = 540
If cutting speed is halved
V1 = V T1 = T
V
V2 = T2 =?
2
V1 T10.5 = V2 T20.5
2
V 
T2 = T1  1  , T2 = 4T1 = 4T
 V2 
T2  T1 4T  T
Percentage Increase in tool life =  100 =  100 = 300%
T1 T
2) For tool ‘A’ Taylor’s tool life exponent (n) is 0.45 and constant (k) is 90. Similarly for tool B,
n = 0.3 and k = 60. The cutting speed (in m/min) above which tool ‘A’ will have a higher tool
life than tool ‘B’ is
a) 26.7 b) 42.5 c) 80.7 d) 142.9
Solution:
Condition: Let ‘V’ is the speed above which tool ‘A’ will have a higher tool life than tool B
but of v, [TA = TB]
VTA0.45 = 90 [take log on both side]
log v + log Tn0.45 = log 90
VTB0.3 = 60
log V + 0.3log TB = log 60
log 90  log v
log TA  ------------------ (A)
0.45
log 60  log v
log TB  ------------------- (B)
0.3
Equation (A) – (B) V = 26.67 m/Min

Effect of Parameters on tool Life:

1) Cutting speed:
Higher the cutting speed, more will be the temperature over the rake face and faylite
pockets will create more Impact over the cutting edge, so tool life will decreases
2) Feed and Depth of cut:
By Increasing the feed and depth of cut, tool life will decrease because it increases the
cutting forces.
257 C
The empirical formula given by V  0.19 0.36 0.8
(or) V  a b
T f t f t
V = cutting speed T = Time
F = feed rate t = depth of cut
C = constant
‘a’ and ‘b’ depends on the mechanical properties of the material.
3) Structure of work pieces and tool material
1) When the work pieces has fine grain structure, tool life will decrease
2) When the tool material has fine grain structure, tool life will Increase.
Machinability:
The work pieces can be Machined with easy manner by the cutting tool is called as
machinability
Factors affecting the Machinability are:
1) Tool life:- the longer the tool life it enable at a given cutting speed better is the machinability
2) Surface finish:- Two materials are machined under identical cutting conditions and material
which produces good finish is considered to be more machinable material
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3) Cutting forces:- Two materials are machined under identical cutting conditions and the
materials which requires smaller cutting forces is considered to be more machinable.
Machinability Index:-
1) Standard work piece material is machined at cutting speed so that tool life ‘T’ is observed.
2) Keeping other parameters same, test work piece is machined to get the same tool life ‘T’
Vt
Machinability Index = n =  100
Vs
VS = cutting speed of standard free – cutting steel for 1 min tool life
Vt = cutting speed of metal for 1 min tool life

Material N
Stainless steel 25
Low carbon steel 55-65
Aluminium alloy 300-1500
Magnesium alloy 300-2000
Carbon = 0.45 100
[High speed steel]
Economics of Machining:

Fig (a) Cutting speed (VS) Cost per price

Fig (b) Time (VS) Velocity
The objective In metal cutting such as optimizing the total life in order to minimize the production
cost, maximizing the production rate. So that optimum cutting speed must be selected .
Case:- 1
1) If cutting speed reduced in order to enhance the tool life. The material removal rate is also
reduced.
2) Therefore production cost increase [Machining cost increase]
3) Similarly to the Increase in the tool life by reducing the feed rate and depth of cut.
Case:-2
1) If cutting speed increased In order to shorten machining cost the material removal rate
is also increased
 Therefore production cost Increase [Tool cost Increase]
Note:- In above 2 case production cost increase. So a balance is required to get optimum cutting
speed which ensure economical production.
There is a point ‘P’ [in fig ‘a’] on the total cost curve which indicates the minimum cost of
production. The cutting speed corresponding to this point gives optimum cutting speed for
economical production.

Total Production Cost:-

Total production cost = machining cost + Idle cost + tool cost + tool changing cost
Cm = Machine cost in Rs/time Tm = Machining time
L = Total length of cut f = feed, N = rpm, r =  DN

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 L mm
Tm    sec
fN mm  rev
sev
LD  DN 60V 
Tm  V   N 
fv60  60 D 
1) Machining Cost = C1 = Machining time (tm)  Machine cost R / time
= Cm . Tm
Tn  Idle time
2) Idle cost = C2 = Cm .Tn
Component
3) Tool Cost (C3) Ce = Cost
regrind
Ce = Tool material cost + Grinding cost
Tm
C3  C e  , T = tool life VTn = c
T
4) Tool changing lost:-
T 
C4  Cm   m   TC TC = tool changing time
 T 
The total cost can be found by adding the four cost C = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4

Note:-
C  Ce  1 
1) Total minimum cost Vopt  n , Topt    TC    1
  Ce   1   Cm  n 
  Cm  TC   n  1 
  
2) For maximum production rate
C 1 
Vopt  n , Topt    1 TC
 1   n 
  n  1 TC 
  
Vopt = optimum minimum velocity Topt = optimum time

4.15 CONTECT LENGTH

After machining as the chips flow over the rake face, the temperature of material will be
very high. At high temperature coefficient of friction increases and hence shear stress. Once the
shear stress reaches yield strength of shear, sticking will take place between the materials. So over
the rake face initially there will be sticking and there is slipping

Taking moments about O in fig. 4.23(b)

1 t1 1
 NS   N  lf
2 sin  2

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 t1
 NS   Nlf
Sin
N S  RSin       
N  R cos 
t
 R sin        1  Rlf Cos
Sin
So contact length lf is
Sin       
 lf  t1
Sin  Cos 

4.16 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

4.16.1 Tool work piece thermocouple

It is based on the principle of See back effect that is when a combination of materials is kept
at a temperature gradient there will be a flow of current which will be proportional to the
temperature difference. Tool work piece junction acts as a hot junction point and mercury bath
serves as an cold junction point. Mercury bath is also provided to have a metal contact. If there is a
build up edge formation of oxide layer measured temperatures are not accurate.

4.16.2 Inserted thermocouple

A hole is drilled from the back side of the tool and a thermocouple is inserted into it.
Although the temperature measurements are unaffected by build up edge or oxide layer formation
over the tool, but it has to be calibrated before use.

4.16.3 Infrared measurement

The infrared radiation from the cutting zone may also be monitored with a radiation
pyrometer of probes. These probes are very expensive. However the technique indicates only surface
temperatures. Depending on the temperatures certain wave length radiations will come out from

- 86 -
the machining area and the radiations are captured by probes. The accuracy of the results depends
on the emissivity of the surfaces, which is difficult to determine accuracy.
4.16.4 Hardness and microstructure studies
Samples of known steel composition are inserted over the rake face. After machining,
hardness and microstructure of the specimens are tested. By analyzing the microstructure it is
evaluated that what was the temperature over the rake face.
4.17 CUTTING FLUIDS
Cutting fluids are used for decreasing power requirement and increasing heat dissipation.
The main factors likely to cause excessive heat during metal cutting are
 Cutting speed is to high
 Poor surface finish on the cutting face of the tool
 Worn or incorrectly ground cutting tool
 Formation of a built up edge on cutting face of the tool.
 Friction between tool and work piece
There are three zones at which heat is generated they are shear zone. Friction zone, and Tool work
piece zone. Cutting fluids generally used are:
1. Neat oils + Extreme pressure additives (EP additives)
2. Water emulsions
EP (Extreme pressure) additives like chlorine, sulphur, and phosphorus are added into Neat oils.
Since Manganese is present in the material in the form of impurity EP additives react with the
manganese and produce low shear strength film. This decreases the power consumption in
machining operation. When the cutting speeds are higher, there will not be any time for the
reaction to take place, so water emulsions are used to decrease the viscosity of the cutting fluid so
that it takes away heat from the machining area.
4.17.1 Properties of cutting fluids
1. Higher conductivity
2. Low viscosity
3. It should not react with machining components
4. Easily available
5. It should not fume
6. It should not foam
7. It should not give bad odor.
4.17.2 Selection of cutting fluids
We can apply cutting fluids in two ways.
 Mist application
 Flood application
In mist application cutting fluids come out in the form of spray and penetrates into the
machining area which increases the probability of reaction. But at higher speeds flood applications
are used.
Cutting speeds: Low speeds : Neat oils + EP additives.
Medium speeds: 1: 10 water emulsion + EP additives
High speeds : 1: 100 water emulsions.
4.17.3 Work piece material
1. Cast iron (CI): While machining cast iron cutting fluids are not used because, it produces
graphite flakes, this mixes with the cutting fluid and affects the machining area. So,
either no cutting fluid is used or compressed air is used.
2. Steel: For low cutting speeds cutting fluids used are Neat oil and EP additives. For
medium cutting speeds cutting fluids used are water emulsions in the ratio 1:10 For high
cutting speeds cutting fluids used are water emulsions in the ratio 1:100
3. Aluminium: Cutting fluids used are Neat oil and EP additives (Kerosene with EP
additives) Aluminium is a very soft material so, at a high speed nothing is required, but at
low speed, there will be a tendency of build up edge formation, so neat oils with EP
additives are used.
4. Magnesium: Magnesium reacts with water at high temperature and burns, so only neat
oils are used.
5. Brass and Bronze: EP additive present in the cutting fluid reacts with the material and
- 87 -
 produces dull surface. So, only Neat oils like kerosene is used.
4.22 TOOL MATERIALS
Properties of cutting tool materials
1. High hot hardness or Red hardness: It is the property of the material by which it retains
hardness at elevated temperatures.
2. Toughness: Toughness gives the material, ability to absorb shock.
3. High thermal conductivity: To dissipate heat.
4. Low coefficient of friction, at the chip – tool interface, the surface finish is good and wear
is minimum
5. Low coefficient of expansion.
Following are important tool materials:
1. High carbon steel: Hardness 750VH (Vickers Hardness), at cutting speed of 5 – 6m/min,
and as cutting speed increases its hardness will come down to 150VH it is primarily used
in wood working.
2. High speed steel: Normal cutting speed by this tool material is 28 – 30m/min and its
hardness is 850VH 18% W + 4% Cr + 1% V(18 – 4 – 1HSS) was the initial material
developed in this category but at present HSS is broadly classified into T – series (W
major alloying element) and M – series (MO Major impurity). Some of the important
material in HSS are:

T – Series Percentage
Symbol
W Cr V CO

T–1 18 4 1 0
T–4 18 4 1 5

T–7 14 4 2 0

T6 20 4 2 12
(Super HSS)
In M – series the most important material is M – 2 and its compositions are 0.8%C, 4%
Cr, 2%V, 6%W and 5% MO.
3. Cemented carbides: Following are the hardness of allowing elements of these tools:
Tungsten Carbide (WC) 2000 VH Titanium Carbide (TiC) 3100VH
Tantalum Carbide (TaC) 1800VH
 P – type : 30% TiC + 60% (WC + TaC hardest) + 10% Co
 M – type: 15% TiC + 75% (WC + TaC hardest) + 10% Co
 K – type: 90% (WC + TaC) + 10% Co
Powder technology is used for preparing Carbide chips. These carbide inserts cannot be
regrinded, hence called throw away inserts. Carbide tools are fixed over the tool bit by
brazing (in industries) or by fastening (in work shops). Only the carbide chip is made by
powder metallurgy technique and it is fixed over the tool bit by brazing operation. Once
one cutting edge wears out, carbide chip is removed and again fixed in such a way that
other cutting edge comes into action. Once all the cutting edges wear out. Carbide chips
are discarded. That is why it is called throw away inserts. Maximum cutting speed
achieved by these materials is 150m/min.
4. UCON: This is Niobium based alloy developed by union carbide company. UCON
consists of 50% columbium 30% titanium and 20% tungsten. These are produced by
rolling process. Nitrogen is finally diffused into the surface at a temperature of 6500C to
produce a hard surface layer. These are used for machining steel at high speeds and
feeds. It is not suitable for cast iron and stainless steel.
5. Cast Hard Alloys: These are produced by casting process. These alloys retain their
hardness up to temperatures as high as 800 – 9000C and have low coefficient of friction.

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 This is especially used for making form tools. UCON and cast hard alloys are inferior to
carbides and superior to high speed steel. Cobalt (Co) is used as binding agent.
6. Ceramic: Sintered or powdered metallurgically produced (Aluminium oxide) tools which
are superior to carbide attached to tool bit by brazing. They have less tendency to adhere
to metals during cutting. So, lower tendencies to form a built up edge. Ceramic tool tips
are highly brittle so they are usually attached to the shank by means of epoxy resins.
Cutting speed is 400m/min can be achieved by these tools and its hardness is 2200VH
7. Sialon (SI – Al – O – N): It is a recently developed tool material which produces excellent
surface finish over the material, but it is costly. This is produced by milling silicon nitride,
aluminium nitride, alumina, yitrium oxide. It has higher thermal shock resistance than
silicon nitride and is tougher than aluminium. It is recommended for machining cast irons
and nickel based super alloys at intermediate cutting speeds, because of chemical affinity
to iron this is not suitable for machining steels. Cutting speed is 300m/min.
8. CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride): Hardness value is 4700HV and cutting speed is 600 –
700m/min can be achieved by CBN. Boron has Hexagonal structure but when it is heated
under certain pressure it converts into cubic, which is a very hard structure. Generally, it
is used as an abrasive in grinding wheel. CBN coated tools are used primarily to machine
stainless steel and high speed steel. The tool life of CBN is excellent for machining
quenched alloy steel for dies.
9. Diamond: Its hardness value is 7500HV. Cutting speed is 1000m/min. Diamond dust is
used as an abrasive in grinding wheel. It is harder than any other material and has high
thermal conductivity.
10. Coated tools: Coating of HSS cutting tools with thin layers of about 2 – 15m of
refractory metal carbide or nitride like TiC, TiN, TiCN and TiAIN. Coating is done by
two methods.
 Physical vapor Deposition
 Chemical Vapor Deposition
4.23 MEASUREMENT OF CUTTING FORCES
Dynamometers: In metal cutting operation the device used for determination of cutting forces
is known as tool Dynamometer.
Types of dynamometer:
1. Mechanical Dynamometers.
2. Strain gauge type Dynamometers
3. Pneumatic and Hydraulic Dynamometers.
4. Electrical Dynamometers.
5. Piezoelectric Dynamometers.
Mechanical Dynamometers are simple type dynamometer, which uses the sensitive dial
indicators for directly measuring the tool forces. The dial indicators are calibrated to show readings
directly.
Strain Gauge Dynamometer: Strain gauges are mounted on a plate and when the load is applied on
the plate, the length of those strain gauges will change. This will in turn change the resistance.
Strain gauges are connected to the wheat stone bridge and the change in resistance is recorded by
the flow of current. When the strain gauges are bounded with another plate, although such strain
gauges will not be affected by the change in environment but the maintenance of such gauges
becomes difficult.

- 89 -
 Chapter-5: Machining
Lathe: -
Parts in Lathe: -
1. Bed 2. Head stock 3. Tail stock 4. Carriage 5. Lead screw
Bed:-
1. Rigid enough 2. Absorb vibrations 3. It should act as house for keeping some other parts.
Material:-
Gray cast iron
Manufacturing method:-
Casting: - because casted material have higher strength when compared to welded etc.
Shape: - X, I, H, C, S
Lead screw: - It is converting the rotational movement into linear movement.
Material: - Brass is used since it has the highest wear resistances.
Manufacturing Method: -
 Machining
 Square thread (or) Acme thread is used for power transmission since it has highest efficiency of power
transmission.
Common parameters used in machining process: -
1. Cutting velocity (VC)
VC is the relative velocity between the tool and work piece. It depends on the criteria of
machining, properties of work material and tool geometry.
2. Spindle speed (N)
60V
N=
D

Note: - It is always recommended to use maximum diameter to which the tool is getting exposing in
a given cut.
3. F = Feed
The linear distance travelled by the tool along the length of tool for one revolution of work
pieces is called feed.
Units = mm/rev
4. Depth of cut = d
It is the depth by which the tip of tool is penetrating into workpiece from surface.It is always
specified in mm.
Operation: -
1. Plain turning: -
The turning operation used for reducing the diameter of work piece is called plain turning
operation.

Length of tool travel L

Time c u t  
feed velocity FN
L  l + Approach + Overrun
Number of cuts required: - It is ratio between total diameter to diameter reduced per cut.
2. Face turning: - Turning operation used for reducing length of the component is called face
turning.

- 90 -
 Length of tool travel L
1. Time cut  
Feed velocity fN
D
L  o  AP  OR
2
total length reduced lo  lf
2. Number of cuts  
length reduced cut d max
Total time  time cut  No of cuts
3. Taper turning: -
The turning operation used for producing tapered components on a lathe machine is called
taper turning.

LIn = Inclined length

Lin
Time / cot 
fN
Do  Df
Taper angle  L o  tan 
2
Do  Df
sin   L In
2
4. Thread cutting: -
L
Time cut 
FN
L = l + AP + OR, F = pitch = single start
F = Lead = multi start = pitch  No of starts
Multi starts applications: -

1. For leak proof joints

Ex: - water bottle
2. Higher mechanical advantage
OP

IP
Methods of Taper turning: -
1. Compound rest method 2. Toil stock offset 3. Taper attachment 4. Form tool method
Compound rest method: -

For plain turning operation the zero of compound rest is coinciding with fixed mark. For face
turning and internal turning the 90 o of compound rest is coinciding with fixed mark. In taper turning
the compound rest is swiveled by an angle equal to taper angle of the component.
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Features of compound rest method: -
1. It can be used for both internal and external taper turning.
2. Any angle of taper can be produced.
3. The accuracy of angles produced is up to 0.5 o only.
Tailstock offset method: -

When the tail stock Dead centre is offset by some amount and the workpiece is mounted between
centres. Now as the tool is moving like a plain turning operation it produces tapered components.

Do  Df
Taper mm 
2L t
D  D 
Total taper = offset = taper mm  L   o f L
 2L 
 t 
Features: -
1. It is used only for external taper turning operation.
2. Any job which requires offset more than 10mm can’t be produced by tail stock offset method.
3. The accuracy of angle produced is up to 0.1 degrees.
Taper attachment method: -
In normal turning operation slide ways kept parallel to the guide ways. But in taper
attachment method slide way kept inclined. So that internal taper can be produced.
Features: -
1. It can be used mainly internal taper only.
2. The accuracy of taper produced 0.1 only.
3. The maximum taper angle produced is 8 o on the workpiece.
Form tool method: -
If the shape of tool used is same as that of the component to be produced is called as form tool
method of matching operation.

Features: -
1. It is used only for external taper turning.
2. The amount of taper angle produced on the component depends on the amount of taper angle
present on the tool.
3. Accuracy of taper angle produced in the component depends on the accuracy of angle present on
the tool.
Disadvantage: -
Because the length of tool is to be greater than length of workpiece the maximum length of tool
possible is 20 mm only.
 Maximum length of workpiece which can be tapered by using from tool method is 20 mm only.
Shaping and Planing: -
Shaping is the operation of removing a layer of material form surface of work pieces using
reciprocating single point cutting tool.
1 Rev of crank = F.S + R. S = Double stroke

- 92 -
In shaping machine the forward stroke of the tool will be considered as cutting stroke in which
material removal is taking place from the workpiece and return stroke will be taken as a idle
stroke. So that tool is simply moving on backward direction.
In the forward stroke the tool has to travel at optimum cutting velocity for removing the
material from the workpiece whereas in return stroke because it is ideal stroke the tool has to
travel at maximum possible velocity to minimize the production time.
Note: -
1. Cronk and slotted lever mechanism is used in shaper
2. With worth quick return mechanism is used in slotter
3. Clapper box with Rocker arm is used for lifting the cutting tool in return stock
4. Ratchet and Pawl mechanism will be used for obtaining the intermittent feed in shaping
operation.
Machining time in shaping: -
Let L = stroke length
V = velocity of Ram in forward stroke
VR = velocity of Ram in return stroke
V 1 2
M = Q. R. P = = (or)
VR 2 3
B = Width of workpieces, L = Length of workpieces
f = table feed
L
TCS = time taken for cutting stroke =
V
L
TRS = M 
V
L L L
1. Total time cut   M  1  M 
V V V
1
2. RPM of crank 
total time
total time L B
3. Total time   Number of cuts  1  M  
cut V f
Plaining operation: -
To machine wider workpiece, time taken will be very long by using shaping machine. To minimize
this time taken more than one cutting tool will be used for removing the material simultaneously
from one workpiece itself. But for mounting more than one tool more than one Ram is required. It is
nothing but more than one shaping machine will be kept in parallel and if not preferable one. More
than one cutting tool will be fixed on to beam and allow the workpieces to reciprocate with variable
speed.
Note: - If the shaping machine is rotated by 90 o , the workpiece will become vertical and tool is also
reciprocating in vertical axis. This is called as slotting machine.
1. Which one of the following is not synthetic abrasive material [ a ]
a) Silicon carbide b) Aluminium oxide c) Titanium nitride d) Cubic boro nitride
2. List – 1 List – 2 [ d ]
a) Lathe 1. Push (or) Pull tool
b) Drilling machine 2. Ratchet & Pawl mechanism
c) Shaper 3. Dividing head
d) Broaching machine 4. Hollow tapered spindle
5. Face plate
A B C D A B C D
a) 2 4 5 1 b) 5 3 2 4
c) 2 3 5 4 d) 5 4 2 1
3. The purpose of helical grooves in a twist drill is to [ ]
1. Improve the stiffness 2. Save a tool material
3. Provide space for chip material 4. Provide rake angle for cutting edge
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
- 93 -
 a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 and 4 d) 1 and 4
4. In milling machine, the cutting tool is held in position by [ c ]
a) Chuck b) Spindle c) Arbor d) Tool holder
5. The operation of producing grooves around the periphery of a cyclindrical (or) conical
workpiece is called [ d ]
a) Profile milling b) Gang milling c) Saw milling d) Helical milling
6. Which of the following operation is carried out at a minimum cutting velocity if the machines
are equally rigid and tool work material are the same [ b ]
a) Turning b) Grinding c) Milling d) Boring
7. Screw threads are produced on solid rods by using which of the following [ a ]
a) Dies b) Punch c) Mandrel d) Boring bar
8. What is the process of removing metal by a milling cutter which is rotated against the
direction of travel of the workpiece called
a) Down milling b) Up milling c) End milling d) Face milling
9. Which one of the following methods should be used for turning internal taper only [ b ]
a) Tail stock offset b) Taper attachment c) Form tool d) Compound rest
10. In an orthogonal, single point metal cutting as the side – cutting edge angle is increased
1. Tangential force increases 2. The longitudinal force drops 3. Radial force increases
Which of these statements are correct? [ d ]
a) 1 and 3 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
11. For producing both internal and external screw threads, the method used is [ b ]
a) Thread chasing with multiple – rib chasers
b) Thread milling with multiple – thread cutters
c) Thread tapping with taps d) Die threading with self – opening die heads
12. In a single pass drilling operation, a through hole of 15mm diameter is to be drilled in a steel
plate of 50mm thickness. Drill spindle speed is 500 rpm, feed is 0.2 mm/rev and drill point
angle is 118 o . Assuming 2 mm clearance at approach and exit, the total drill time [ a ]
a) 35.1 b) 32.4 c) 31.2 d) 30.2
Dis tan ce cov ered
Sol: - Drilling time =
Speed
Distance covered = Approach + over run + thickness of work piece + drill bit length
7.5
Drill bit length = x =  4.5 mm
tan 59
4.5  2  2  50
Time =  35.1 sec
500
0.2 
60
13. For cutting double start screw thread of pitch 1.0 mm on a Lathe, the thread cutting tool
should have a feed rate of
a) 0.5 mm/rev b) 1.0 mm/rev c) 2.0 mm/rev d) 4.0 mm/rev
Sol: - Feed in thread cutting = head = Numbers of starts  pitch = 2  1 = 2.0 mm/rev
Drilling operation: -
Drilling is the process of producing holes by using multipoint rotating cutting tool on workpieces.

If the required large size of hole is produced directly by using corresponding size of drill bit because
the forces induced are higher vibrations are higher, and it produces large error in the position of
holes. The positional accuracy of hole produced is very poor. To avoid this problem it is always
recommended to produce the smallest diameter hole first, enlarge it slowly by using different sizes
of drill bits until the required diameter of the hole can be produced.
5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20. . . 50 mm.

- 94 -
Boring:- Boring is a internal turning operation used for enlarging the existing hole by some
amount.
Note: -Boring tool is single point cutting tool
Spot facing: -

Spot facing is the operation of removing the chips present on surface of hole and making
perfectly square hole for proper seating of Bolt heads. It is done by using end mill cutter with
drilling machining.
Reaming: It is a process of exacting the hole and finishing it and has a fine surface finish of 
0.005 mm.
Broaching: - Process for super finishing.

Pack Drilling: - Keeping a number of pieces together and drilling simultaneously.

Core drilling: - In casting operation holes are being created by using cores. This process is known
as core drilling.
Trepanning:- Drill is in the form of a tube at the periphery of which there are cutting edges.
Complete material is not removed and initially this process was used in Gun Barrel manufacturing
process. [Fig. 4.43(a)]
Counter boring: Counter boring is making the hole little larger. Counter boring is done by end
milling. It is seating place for bolt heads. The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with the
original hole. This is necessary in some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
The cutting edges have straight or spiral teeth.
Counter sinking: It is the process of making the holes slightly tapered in the beginning. In
counter sinking tools are used as shown in Fig. 4.43(c). It is a seating place for screws.

4.26.1 Drill Geometry

Following are major actions taking place at the point of a drill.
1. A small hole is pierced by center punch
2. Chips are formed by rotating cutting edges.
3. Chips are conveyed out of the hole by helix.
4. The drill guided in the hole already produced.

- 95 -
Note on drill geometry:
1. A small web to reduce thrust on a drill but a large web for greater resistance to chipping and
greater torsional rigidity.
2. Large flutes to provide a larger space for chip transfer but small flutes in the interest of torsional
rigidity.
3. An increase in the helix angle to more quickly remove chips but a decrease in helix angle in the
interest of greater strength of cutting edges.
The function of side cutting edge in single point cutting tool is the similar function of point angle in
drilling. Following is the analysis of uncut chip thickness and width of chip in drill.

d 2
w
sin 
AB
AoB :  sin 
OA
f
AB  sin   t1
2
2  Point angle, feed = mm/rev
Note: - How much angle the helix makes with the horizontal is called helix angle.
4.26.3 Machining time
L
T
Nf
N =rpm of the drill
L = Length of axial travel of drill in mm
F = mm/rev
T = machining time in min
L = l + a + length of drill bit
l = depth or thickness of work piece
a = approach of drill = 0.3d
- 96 -
 d = diameter of drill
dN
Cutting speed: S  rpm
1000
Note:-
Ductile Brittle
Clearance angle 8 – 12 o 6.9 o
Point angle 118 o 135 o
Example: 4.24
Through holes of 10 mm diameter are to drilled in a steel plate of 20 mm thickness,
drill spindle speed is 300 rpm feed is 0.2 mm/rev and drill point angle is 120 o . Assuming
drill over travel of 2mm determine the time to produce a hole.
Sol: N = 300 rpm
f = 0.2 mm/rev
Point angle 2  120o
Over travel = 2 mm
Total travel = x + 20 + 2
d 2
 tan 60o
x
10
x
2 tan 60o
x = 2.88 mm
Total travel = 24. 88 mm
Number of revolutions required to make the hole

24.88
24.88 mm =  124.4 rev
0.2
124.4
Time =  0.414 min  24.88 s
300
4.27 MILLING
Milling is one of the machining processes of flat surfaces as well as formed surfaces like
these of the gears, splines, slots and key ways etc.

There are two types of milling processes

 Peripheral milling ( or slab milling)
 Face milling
4.27.1 Peripheral or slab milling operation
In the peripheral milling cutting teeth are on the periphery of the cutter. Movement of the
tool or cutter is generatrix and movement of the work piece is directrix. In the slab milling
operation, the axis of rotation of milling cutter is parallel to the work.

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4.27.2 Face Milling
In the face milling operation, axis of rotation of cutter is perpendicular to the work. Because
of the relative motion between the cutting teeth and work piece a face milling cutter leaves feeds
marks on machine surface.

4.27.3 End Milling

End milling cutter are combination of both slab milling and face milling operation. An end
mill cutter is used to machine and produce a flat surface or a pair of parallel flat surfaces.

4.27.4 Gang Milling

When a number of cutters are mounted on the arbor and a number of steps have been cut in
the work piece, it is called Gang Milling.

4.27.5 Straddle Milling

When milling is performed on two surfaces simultaneously, it is called STRADDLE
MILLING. T – Slot milling is a unique example of straddle milling by a single milling cutter.

- 98 -
4.27.6 Up Milling and Down Milling
In the up milling operation, cutter and the work piece movements are in opposite direction
but in the down milling operation, both movements are in the same direction.

In the up milling operation, chip thickness varies from minimum to maximum and before
machining, cutting edge will rub over the finished part so the surface finish produced is very poor.
In up milling operation, hot chips remains in the tooth space and be there for considerable period of
time, so due to diffusion, tool life is lower in up milling. If back lash error is there in the fixture it
has no significance in up milling because the fixtures are under tension opposite will be the case for
down milling operation.
4.27.7 Mechanics of Milling

f = feed rev
f
ft = feed per tooth =
nt
nt = no. of teeth
X = ft sin 
At   C X  X max
0 X0
X max  f t sin C
D
d
OC 2 2d
From OAC cos c   1
OA D D
2
sin C  1  cos 2 C
2
 2d 
 sin C  1   1  
 D
d d
 sin C  2 1  
D D
4.27.8 Mean Chip thickness
0  X max
X mean 
2
f t sin C d d
 ft 1  
2 D D
Mean chip area Amean = w  Xmean
Volume of metal removed wdf = AmV
- 99 -
 V = Velocity of cutting
Uncut chip thickness is related to feed per tooth and by increasing the feed since there will
be increase in the uncut chip thickness, cutting force requirement will increase. But while milling
at the constant speed, cutting forces will be as it is but cutting power requirement will increase.
Example: 4.25
A surface 80  160 mm2 is rough machined using a face milling cutter of 150 mm diameter
having 10 teeth. The cutter center is offset by 15 mm from the line of symmetry of work
piece. Estimate the time to rough machine the surface if the feed per tooth 0.25 and
cutting speed 20 m/min. With 5 mm approach and 5 mm over travel what is the single
pass feed time? Also find the time to rough and finish machine the work if cutter is
symmetric.
Sol:
For Rough Cut A = 80  160 mm2
D = 150 mm
nt = 10
offset = 15 mm
ft = 0.25 mm/tooth
V = 20 m/min
Movement = 160 + X
From  we get
X = 75  752  552  24.0098
Total Movement of cutter = 184.0098 mm
Feed rev  0.25  10  2.5 mm rev
184
Number of revolutions required for machining   73.6 rev
2.5
V = π DN
20= π  0.15  N
rpm (N)=42.44rev
73.6
machining time (Tmin)= =1.7342min
42.44
For finish cut
Total Movement of cutter=5+160+5+150=320 mm
Feed/rev=2.5 mm/rev
320
No. of revolutions = =128 rev
2.5
128
Time required to finish cut T= =3.016min
42.44
If cutter axis is symmetrical
x=75- 752  402 =11.55
Rough cut movement=160+x=171.55 mm
171.55
No. of revolutions = =68.62 rev
2.5
68.62
T= =1.617 min
42.44
There will not be any change in finish time.
Example: 4.26
The thickness of a rectangular brass plate of length Lw and width Bw has to be
reduced by t mm in one pass by a helical fluted plain or slab milling cutter of length Ic
(>Bw), diameter Dc and number of teeth, Zc at cutting velocity, Vc m/min and feed, S0
mm/tooth. How will you determine the time that will be required to accomplish the
aforesaid work? All other dimensions are in mm.
Solutions: lc=cutting length
lC > Bw

- 100 -
 BW = width
VC = m/min
S0 = feed/tooth
Length of cutter movement
2 2
D  D 
x=  C    C  t 
 2   2 
D C t  t 2  t  DC  t 
Total length L = Lw + x
feed rev = ZCS0
VC= π DCN
VC
N=
πD C
L w  t  DC  t 
No. of revolutions=
Z C S0
 L w  t  D C  t   πD C
Time of machining =  
ZCS0 VC
Example: 4.27
A 600mm  30mm flat surface of a plate is to be finish machined on a shaper. The
plate has been fixed with the 600mm side along the tool travel direction. If the tool over-
travel at each end of the plate is 20mm, average cutting speed is 8 m/min, feed rate is 0.3
mm stroke and the ratio of return time to cutting time of the tool is 1 : 2 what is the time
required for machining.
Solutions:

Total forward stroke length = 20 + 600 + 20 = 640 mm

0.640
Forward time = min =0.08min
8
0.08
Return time= =0.04 min
2
Total time in completing one stroke = 0.08 + 0.04 = 0.12 min
30
Number of strokes = = 100 strokes
0.3
Total machining time = 0.12  100=12 min
Machining time:-
L L
Time cut = 
fN f t z N
F = table feed mm/rev
N = RPM of machine
Z = no. of teeth
L=Length of tool travel= l + AP1 + AP + OR
Case –I
Face milling with end milling cutter

- 101 -
 AP1 = O2B  O2A
2 2
D D w 1
=       = D  D2  w 2 
2 2 2 2 
Note:- 1. In face milling operation with end milling cutter, if the axis of the workpiece and axis of
milling cutter are coinciding, it is called as symmetrical milling operation.
Note: - 2 If the axis are not coinciding it is called non – symmetric milling operation.
AP1 = AB
= O2B - O2A
2 2
D w  1 w 
=  D 2   offset  = D  D 2    offset 
2 2  2 2 
Case – II Face milling operation performed with peripheral
milling cutter:
2 2
2 2 D D 
AP1 = O1O2 = O1A  O 2 A =      d 
2 2 

Case – III Slot milling operation with end milling cutter

D
AP1 = O1O2 =
2
Grinding:- Grinding process is used as finishing process to get the desired surface finish, correct
size, and accurate shape of product.

Fig. 43.2: Cutting Action of Grinding Wheel

Grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles, bonding material and voids. The projecting abrasive
particles act like cutting tool tips and remove metal. A properly selected grinding wheel exhibits
self sharpening action. As cutting proceeds the abrasive particles, at cutting edge become dulled,
and eventually these becomes plane and which resists the cutting action. Thus new cutting edge
- 102 -
points are produced which carry out the further cutting action. This process continues till the
abrasive grains get worn down till the level of bond. At this position new cutting edges will do
further cutting action.
The rate at which grinding wheel enters into the work piece is called in Feed. The in-feed process is
used for stepped cylindrical work pieces which cannot be through-feed. And the feed with which,
grinding wheel moves along the surface of work is called Through feed. In High Speed Grinding, in-
feeds are low and the grinding wheel is not supposed to remove more material. It is meant for super
finishing operation. In Creep Feed Grinding, infeeds are high and speeds are low. It is meant for
bulk metal removal.
4.24.1 Classification of Grinding Process
1. Surface grinding: Used for grinding flat surfaces.
2. Cylindrical grinding: This is used for grinding external and internal cylindrical surfaces.
3. Center-less grinding: It is used for grinding of external and internal surfaces. In this,
machines are different from that of cylindrical grinding.
4. Form grinding: It is used for grinding of gears, thread grinding and grinding of splines etc.
5. Abrasive cut off: This is used for severing metallic and non metallic materials.
6. Abrasive belt grinding: It is used for grinding flat, cylindrical, or curved shapes.
7. Manual grinding: It is used in processes those in which work piece or grinding wheel is held by
hand.
8. Creep feed grinding: It is method in which a soft grinding wheel is used. In this large amount
of metal is removed in a single pass.
Some grinding processes are shown below.

Fig. 4.33 (a): Surface Grinding

Fig. 4.33 (b): Form Grinding

Fig. 4.33(c): Internal grinding and external grinding.

Center – less Grinding: Work piece which are smaller in sizes, very fragile or non symmetric can
be grinded by this process. Work pieces are kept slightly above the common axis of grinding and the
regulating wheel. Regulating wheel is given an inclination so that one component of force provides
infeed and the other component provides through feed. As a result of that, work piece will
automatically move from the surface of grinding wheel and come out from the other side. Speed of
the regulating wheel = 1/20 of the grinding wheel.

- 103 -
There are three processes in center-less grinding.
1. Through feed 2. Infeed 3. End feed
In through feed grinding the work piece is supported and revolved, simultaneously axial
movement is given by regulating wheel and guides so as to pass between the wheels. In infeed
grinding both regulating and grinding wheels are more in width than the work length to be ground.
Axis of regulating wheel is inclined a little, about half a degree from the horizontal. This is used for
grinding, shouldered of formed components. In this the work rest does not carry guides.
In End feed grinding the both wheels, grinding wheel and the regulating wheel are
dressed to contain the required shape or form. The work piece is fed longitudinally
from the sides of the wheels. As it advances between the revolving wheels its
surface is ground till its farther end touches the end stop.
4.24.2 Structure
Structure is the distance between the two cutting edges.
Open structure:
 In open structure space is more.
 It is used in ductile materials.
 Continuous chips of ductile materials can be accommodated and
thrown out of centrifugal action.
Close structure:
 It occupies less space.
 It is for brittle and hard materials.
And open structures are used for ductile materials so that long chips goes into the
space between the abrasives. When the surface of the wheel which is not in
contact with the workpieces, these chips will go away from the space by
centrifugal action. When ductile materials are machined with close structure,
chips will be forced to enter into the space which is not sufficient. This produces
welding between the abrasives. When such process continues, all the voids will be
blocked, and wheel will rub over the work piece without any cutting this
phenomenon is called loading.
4.24.3 Grade
Grade or hardness indicates the strength, with which the bonding materials holds the abrasive
grains in the grinding wheel.
Sharp grains after coming in contact with the work piece become blunt which increases the drag
between the abrasive grain and the work piece. If the bonding agent is weak, abrasive grain will be
pulled from the wheel and the fresh grain from the back ground will start cutting action. This
phenomenon is called self sharpening characteristic. The wheels which have predominating self
sharpening characteristic are called Soft Wheels and if the bonding agent is strong such wheels are
Hard Wheels. For machining soft materials hard wheels are used and vice versa. If hard materials
are machined by hard wheels, gradually all the grains will wear out on the surface of wheel and
wheel starts rubbing over the work piece without cutting. This phenomenon is called glazing.
Depth of cut: It is the thickness of metal removed by the grinding wheel in one traverse stroke.
t=Depth of cut
- 104 -
 D1  D 2
depth of cut =
2
D1 = Diameter of work piece before grinding
D2 = Diameter of work piece after grinding
Feed:
In cylindrical grinding feed is the longitudinal movement of the work piece per revolution.
f = feed in mm per work piece revolution
= K1B
B = Face width of wheel in mm
= constant
= 0.4 to 0.6 for finish grinding
= 0.6 to 0.9 for rough grinding.
f n
Work level= m / min
1000
4.24.4 ISO Designation of grinding Wheel

First and last number: Manufacturer has to give special information about the grinding wheel.
According to this system the various elements and characteristics of grinding wheel are
represented on all the wheels in a definite sequence as follows.
1. Type of abrasive
 C – carbide
 A – Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
 D – Diamond
2. Grain size
 10 – 24 roughening
 30 – 60 Medium
 70 – 180 Finishing
 220 – 600 Super finishing operation
Per square inch opening in the mesh. These are number of opening per square inch
area.
3. Hardness
 A – H soft wheels
 I – P medium wheels
 Q – Z hard wheels
4. Structure
 0 – dense
 16 – Open
5. Type of bond
 V – Vitrified bond (glass material which produces strong wheel)
 S – Silicate
 B – Resinoid (Thermosetting materials which are flexible than vitrified bond)
 R – Rubber (Most flexible bond material)
 Metal bond

4.24.5 Wheel Dressing

Wheel wear ratio = Work piece material/Wheel material lost.
As soon as new grinding wheel comes in contact with the work
, sharp grains becomes blunt, that is why wheel wear will be
more in the beginning. After certain period of time, due to
glazing or loading, there is a surface contact between the wheel
and work piece, large piece is of grinding wheel will start coming
out causing break down. Before this situation comes wheel has to be
withdrawn from the work shop and dressed. Dressing is a procedure
to remove a layer of abrasive from the surface of grinding wheel.
- 105 -
This time between the two dressings is called wheel life. Due to
dressing, wheel may loose its cylindricity and the process of making it cylinder again is called
Wheel Truing.
4.25 UNCONNVENTIONAL /NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES
4.25.1 Electro Chemical Machining

Tool Material used: Brass, Bronze, Copper, Aluminium.

Gap between electrode and work piece: 0.03 – 0.5mm
Center line average value (Ra) 0.2 – 0.8  ’s
Fe  Fe2++2 e
NaCl  Na++ Cl 
2 e +2H2O  H2  +2O H 
F e 2 +2O H   Fe(OH)2 
In ECM process, material removal takes place atom by atom, that is, reverse of
electrolysis. This is high current, low voltage process. Material removal is proportional to the
current settings and the temperature of electrotype. The electrotype temperature has to be
controlled very precisely because even increase in temperature 50C produces over cut of 0.2mm.
Electrotype which is conducting in nature is supplied within the machining area through a hole in
the tool. Insulation is provided on the side of the tool so that reaction doesn’t take place sideways
making the hole tapered. The process produces excellent surface finish and there is no wear of tool
and it has main applications in machining steam turbine blades and die sinking. Since, hydrogen
gas is produced during the reaction, so there has to be a safe passage for its removal because it can
explode under its own weight. Although ECM installations are very expensive but its operational
cost is very low and economics is justified by the quality product it produces.
Mass of material removal  charge
Mass  q  It
Mass = ZIt
e
Z=
F
Z = Electrochemical Equivalent
F = Faraday’s constant = 96500
e = Chemical equivalent (Atomic weight/valency)
I = Current passed
t = time
eI
Metal Removal Rate (MRR) = =sI
F
 = density
- 106 -
 e
s = Specific material removal rate (MRR) =
F
Electrode feed rate = s  S1
I
S1 = Current density=
A
V
I=
R
l
R= s
A
 s = electrical resistivity
V
S1 =
s l
l=Gap between tool and workpiece.
Example: 4.20
Calculate the MRR and electrode feed rate when copper iselectrochemically
machined under following conditions.
s  5 cm
 V = 18 V
I = 500 A
Total gap = 0.5 mm
Atomic weight = 56
Valency = 2
 = 7.8 g/cm3
Sol:
MRR = sI
e
s=
F
e = Atomic weight/valency = 56/2 = 28
F = 96500
28 cm 3
s= = 3.72  10-5
96500  7.8 gm
MRR = s I = 0.0186 cm /s3

Electrode feed rate = s  S1

I V V 18
S1 = Current density =   = =0.134 cm/s
A RA s l 5  0.05
Example: 4.21
A researcher conducts electrochemical machining (ECM) on a binary alloy
(density 6000 kg m3 ) of iron (atomic weight 56, valency 2) and metal P (atomic weight 24,
valency 4). Faraday’s constant = 96500 coulomb mole . Volumetric material removal rate of
the alloy is 50 mm3 s at a current of 2000A. What is the percentage of the metal P in the
alloy.
Sol: The equivalent, chemical equivalent is
1 4  x   100  x  2
   
e 24  100   100  56
Where the percentage of P in alloy is x.
eI
The MRR in ECM process can be represented by MRR=
Fρ
e  2000
But putting the values, 50=
96500  6000  10 6
e=14.475

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 Putting this value in previous expression we get x = 25.482%

Example: 4.22 Electrochemical machining is performed to remove material from an iron

surface of 20mm  20mm under the following conditions:
Inter electrode gap = 0.2mm,Supply voltage (DC) = 12V, Specific resistance of
electrotype = 2 Ω cm,Atomic weight of iron = 55.85, Valency of iron = 2,Faraday’s constant
= 96540 Coulombs. What is the material removal rate (in gm s ).
l
Sol: R = ρs .
A
V=IR
eI 3
MRR = m s
Fρ
0.2
R = 2  10-1  Ω
20  20
R = 10-4 Ω
12 = I  10-4
I = 12  104 A
55.85
e= = 27.925
2
27.925  12  104
MRR = = 34.725 gm s
96500

Example: 4.23 Evaluate MRR of a Nimonic alloy {Co – Ni - Cr}

% Atomic Weight Valancy
Co 18 58.93 2
Ni 62 58.71 2
Cr 20 51.99 6
I = 500A d = 8.28 cm3
1  % × Valence
Sol: =
e atomicweight
0.18  2 0.62  2 0.2  6
  
58.93 58.71 51.99
1
 =0.050311
e
MRR = SI
eI 19.876  500
 
F 96500  8.28
MRR = 0.0124 cm3 min

4.25.2 Electrode Discharge Machining

Gap between tool and work piece : 0.025 – 0.05
Center line average value (Ra) : 0.25  s

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EDM process is also called Spark Erosion machining where the material is removed by the erosion
of repeated sparks. It is high voltage and low current process. During a major portion of cycle, a
capacitor bank charges once voltage reaches a threshold value, all the capacitors will discharge
simultaneously, producing a spark at the toll tip. Dielectric becomes conducting only in that region.
When spark hits the work piece, a crater will be produced over it. During the transportation of
spark, a portion of kerosene also burns which provides solid lubrication in the machining process.
During the machining process, a portion of tool material also melts out. So, materials like
graphite are used to make the tools because they not only have higher melting point but also can be
machined to a great degree of accuracy. To increase the conductivity copper is added in the
graphite. When the conductivity of work piece material increase, MRR decreases.
The removed material starts accumulating in the tool work piece gap, so a servomechanism
connected with the tool withdraws it and the flushing mechanism removes the material, servo -
mechanism again places the toll back to its position. The different flushing systems are
servomechanism, solenoid valve and stepper motor. Servomechanism maintains a mean spark gap
voltage at a constant value.
The major application of the process is in Die Sinking and since the process produces
cratoring type surface. These surfaces are used in bearing applications.
If Vd is the discharge voltage, V0 is charging voltage then
t
  
Vd = V0  1  e RC  --------- (1)
 
1
The frequency of spark f = , so
t
1
f= --------- (2)
 V0 
RClog  
 V0  Vd 

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It can be seen in Fig. 4.40 (b) that t1 is the charging time and t2 is discharge time. So energy
released per spark,
1
E = C Vd2
2
Average value of power delivered
E
Pav =
t1  t 2
t2 is very less as compared to it t1 so
t 2
1 CR 2   1 
Pav = V0 1  e RC 
2 Rt1  
t1
Take =N
RC
1 V02 2
Pav =
2 RN
1  e N 
dP
For maximum power delivery av = 0
dN
So after solving we get N = 1.26
Vd
So optimum value of discharge voltage  1  e1.26 = 0.72
V0
Vd is 72% of charge voltage.
4.25.3 Ultrasonic Machining

Fig. 4.40 (a): Machining using ultra sonic machining

Fig. 4.40 (b): Variation of MRR with respect to frequency and amplitude

Fig.4.40 (c): MRR with respect to viscosity

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 Fig.4.40 (d): MRR with respect to % of abrasive
Ra : 0.25 – 0.75  s
Amplitude : 0.02 – 0.1mm
Frequency : 15 – 30 kHz
Gap between tool and work piece: 0.25mm
In Ultrasonic machining, tool is made up of ductile material. Between tool and work piece, there is
slurry of abrasives. Non – conducting brittle materials can be machined by this process like glasses
and ceramics. Abrasive gets embedded into the tool and during the downward journey of the tool
abrasives hammer the work piece, removing a material. This material will be flushed away from
the machining area by the flow of slurry. Tool is made slightly tapered to produce straight holes.
Upon increasing the viscosity of the carrier fluid, material removal rate decreases due to difficulty
in flushing. By increasing the frequency, MRR will increase because number of impacts per unit
time will increase. By increasing the amplitude, MRR will increase due to the increase of
momentum of abrasives. By increasing the concentration of abrasives, impact will be there at more
number of places which increases MRR. But when the concentration increases beyond a certain
value, due to collision between the abrasives momentum is lost, decreasing the MRR. By increasing
the size of abrasive, an impact will appear on the larger area. But when the size increases beyond a
certain value, momentum of abrasives will decrease. It should be noted that:
MRR: ECM > EDM > USM
Tool wear: USM > EDM > ECM
4.25.4 Abrasive Jet Machining

Fig.4.41 (a): Machining using abrasive machining

Fig. 4.41 (b): Variation of MRR with respect to stand off distance

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Fig.4.41 (c): Variation of MRR with respect to grain size, % of grains and standoff distance
For machining very fine holes of about 0.002mm size, abrasive jet machining is used. Abrasives and
air are mixed and thrown over the surface at a very high velocity. Due to the impact by the
abrasive, a crack will be produced over the surface which will be blown by the air. The main
applications of the process is, in machining inaccessible areas likes inside surface of the bottle,
cleaning metallic moulds, producing very fine holes in the tool for the purpose of lubrication, etc. By
increasing the standoff distance, MRR will initially increase but due to mushrooming effect, when
standoff distance increase beyond a certain value, both MRR and accuracy will decrease.
EBM [Electron beam Machining]

When very high voltage power supply is given to the electron gun, it produces very high
velocity electrons in all the directions. By providing a magnetic lens, all the high velocity electrons
will be collected and formed like a beam of electrons which is having cross section area  0.05 mm2.
When the high velocity electron beam is impinging on to the workpiece, the K.E of e is converted
into heat energy. The heat is generated at workpiece. This heat will be used for melting and
vapourisation of the workpiece material. From the above mechanism of material removal is by
melting and vapourisation. After the magnetic deflector because of presence of air resistance the
electron may get dispersed again. To avoid this total set up will be kept in the container. Because of
perfect vaccum highly reactive metals can be machined very easily without any oxidization. In this
electron gun is used as tool. The medium is perfect vaccum.
Advantages: -
1. Very very small size holes can be produced.
2. Surface finish produced is good
3. Highly reactive metals like ‘Al’ and ‘Mg’ can be machined very easily.
Limitations: -
1. Maintaining perfect vaccum is very difficult
2. Material removal rate is very low
3. Because the total equipment is kept inside the container the machining process can
not be seen by operator
Applications: - Used for producing very small size holes in diesel injection Nozzle, Air Brakes etc.
Electron beam welding: -
If voltage of power supply to electron gun is reduced to about 70 – 80,000 volts the velocity of
e is reducing, the heat generated at workpiece is reducing. Workpiece is only melting and no
evaporation is taking place. This melting of workpiece can be used for joining of very thin sheets.
Laser beam Machining: -

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 When power supply is given to Laser gun, it produces high intensity electro magnetic waves
having wavelength 0.1 to 70  . The laser beam has a cross sectional area of < 0.05 mm2. When this
laser beam is impinging on the workpiece the electromagnetic wave energy is converted into heat
energy on to surface of workpiece. Surface layer of workpiece is melting and evaporating. But for
further layers heat is transferring by conduction process when the first layer is evaporating the
second layer of material is exposing for EM waves and this also will get melted and evaporated like
this layer by layer of workpiece material is removed from workpiece. It is called as cladding process.
 Tool Material: -
Ruby rod
 Medium: -
Air
 Advantages
1. No vacuum is required hence process will be easier
2. The size of hole and slots produced is same as that of EBM
3. Because the Ruby rod is flexible, to some extent the zig zag holes can be produced
by using LBM.
4. No need to have electrical conductivity of workpiece material
Disadvantages: - Power required for LBM is very high. [P = 5000 to 6000 MW]
Note: - If less amount of power supply is used then it becomes laser beam welding.
1. Match the following lists: [ c ]
List – I List – II
A) ECM 1. Plastic shear
B) EDM 2. Erosion/ brittle fracture
C) USM 3. Corrosive reaction
D) LBM 4. Melting vaporization
5. Ion displacement
6. Plastic shear and ion displacement
A B C D A B C D
a) 2 4 3 5 b) 3 5 2 4
c) 5 3 2 4 d) 5 3 4 2
2. Deep hole drilling of small diameter, say 0.2 mm is done with EDM by selecting the tool
material as [ b ]
a) Copper wire b) Tungsten wire c) Brass wire d) Tungsten carbide
3. The mechanism of material removal in EDM process is [ c ]
a) Melting and evaporation b) Melting and corrosion
c) Erosion and cavitation d) Cavitation and evaporation
4. Arrange the process in the increasing order of their maximum material removal rate
1) ECM 2) USM 3) ZBM 4) LBM 5) EDM [ d ]
a) 2, 4, 3, 5, 1 b) 3, 4, 2, 1, 5 c) 4, 3, 2, 1, 5 d) 4, 3, 2, 5, 1
5. List – 1 List – 2 [ c ]
A. Machining of conductive material 1. ECM
B. Ruby rod 2. EDM

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 C. Electrolyte 3. USM
D. Abrasive slurry 4. LBM
A B C D A B C D
a) 4 2 1 3 b) 4 2 3 1
c) 2 4 1 3 d) 2 4 3 1
6. Ultrasonic machines used in material removal process, requires ultrasonic transducers. The
transducer works on different working principles. One of the working principles of such
ultrasonic transducers is based on [ d ]
a) Eddy current effect b) See back effect
c) Piezo resistive effect d) Piezo electric effect
7. In abrasive Jet machining, as the distance between the Nozzle tip and work surface
increases, the material removal rate [ d ]
a) Increases continuously b) Decreases continuously
c) Decreases, becomes stable and then increases
d) Increases, becomes stable and then decreases
8. Fixtures are used in batch production for [ d ]
a) Clamping the job b) Supporting the clamping the job
c) Supporting and clamping the job and guiding the tool
d) Supporting, locating and clamping the job
9. Diamond pin location is used in a fixture because: [ b ]
a) It does not wear out
b) It takes care of any variation in center distance between two holes
c) It is easy to clamp the part on diamond pins d) It is easy to manufacture
10. According to the principal of location in jigs and fixtures, how many degrees of freedom
are to be eliminated to have body fixed in space [ c ]
a) 3 b) 4 c) 5 d) 6
11. Device Function [ d ]
A. Jig 1. Helps to place workpiece in the same position cycle offer cycle
B. Fixture 2. Holds the workpieces only
C. Clamp 3. Holds and position the workpiece
D. Locator 4. Holds and position the workpiece and guides the cutting tool
during the machining operation
A B C D A B C D
a) 4 3 1 2 b) 1 2 3 4
c) 1 4 3 2 d) 4 3 2 1
12. In powder manufacturing process of manufacturing maximum temperature is associated
with [ b ]
a) Briquetting b) Sintering c) Pre – sintering d) Blending
13. Powder metallurgy techniques are used in the production of [ c ]
a) High carbon tool steels b) HSS tools
c) Tungsten carbide tools d) Ceromics
Powder Metallurgy : -
Powder metallurgy technique is used to mix the material which doesn’t form an alloy. Some
of the major applications of the process are
1. Filament of a bulb, tube.
2. Cutting tool and grinding wheel.
3. Nozzles for abrasive jet machining.
4. Porous bearing or self lubricating bearing.
5. Filters used in casting process.
6. Friction material in anti – lock braking system (ABS).
Sequence of processes in powder metallurgy

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1. Methods of Making Metal Powders:
 Metal Crushing and pulverizing: Brittle materials can be converted into powder by
crushing. If the material is not sufficiently brittle, its temperature is decreased.
 Atomization: Ductile materials or the materials having low melting point, can be converted
into powder by this method. Liquified material is poured over a high speed rotating disk.
Due to the centrifugal action, liquid metal comes down in the form of very fine droplets. The
matter can also be sprayed by using a plasma torch.
 Corrosion: When stainless steel is kept in the environment of sulphuric acid and copper
sulphate, it dissolves and settles down at the bottom of tank. But this method takes time.
2. Blending: By mixing the lubricant with powders, a layer of lubricant will be deposited over the
particles. This will increase the interaction between them and as a result of that powder can be
given some shape called green compact. This is called as green because it is freshly prepared.
3. Compaction: It is also called as Iso – static pressing. To give initial strength to the green
compact, powder is pressed on a press. Variation in the properties of compact will be more when the
compaction is done on a single or a double action press. But on a double action press, properties will
be more uniform. Smaller is the size of particle, better will be under diffusion and the compact will
be stronger. If the particle size is smaller, the strength will be better because more area will be
under diffusion.

4. (a) Pre – sintering: When hearing is done along with compaction it is called Hot Iso – static
pressing (HIP). Compact is heated and due to that lubricant on the surface of particle will burn.
Characteristic of lubricant should be such that after burning, it should not leave any residue. This
provides the localized heating which increases the extent of diffusion between the particles. When
Pre – sintering is clubbed compaction, it is called Hot Iso – static pressing. Rough particles give
better strength as interlocking among the particles is better.
(b) Sintering: In the sintering stage, compact is heated to 60 – 70% of the melting point of
the base metal. This increases the extent of diffusion between the particles. Those powder which
could not form interlocking and whose melting point are below this temperature, they will be
liquified and will fill up the voids. When the compact is a mixture of large number of powders
having large difference in their melting point two or three stage melting process is performed. After
sintering, product appears to be very hard and brittle, so normally no machining is advisable but to
give some simple shapes to the part sizing is performed. Powder metallurgy can only be applied for
mass production because of expensive tooling arrangement,
4.29 JIGS AND FIXTURES

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 Jigs and fixtures are the auxiliary devices used in mass production. Fixture locate the work
piece and Jig along with location, guides the tool. Jigs are used in drilling, boring, reaming etc. and
fixtures are used in milling, shaping etc.

If deep holes are to be made in the work piece, the drill acts like a cantilever with point load
(cutting forces). The hole becomes oversize in the beginning. Providing carbon bush makes it a
simply supported beam and hence the drill does not get deflected.
Components of Jig and Fixture:
1. Locating elements 2. Clamping elements 3. Tool guiding 4. Main body
A work piece will have 12 degrees of freedom
Translation Rotation
+x –x Clockwise and Anticlockwise –x
+y –y Clockwise and Anticlockwise –y
+z –z Clockwise and Anticlockwise –z

The number of degree of freedom restricted when cylinder placed in a V block and are 7
when sphere is placed, only 3 degrees of freedom are restricted.
4.29.1 Principle of Location
3 – 2 – 1 Principle: There are 12 degree of freedom of a work piece i.e., movement about negative
and positive axis and clock – wise and anti – clock wise rotation about the three axis. By providing
three pins in the base, five degree of freedom will be arrested i.e. movement about negative Z – axis
and the clockwise and anti – clockwise rotation about X and Y axis. These three pins also ensure
that machining always takes place on single plane perpendicular to the base, long the length
direction. This arrests movement of work piece along negative Y – direction in clock –wise and anti
– clock wise rotation about Z – axis. A sixth pin is provided on a plane perpendicular to the previous
two planes, which also arrests movement about negative X – axis. By providing six pins, nine
degree of freedom is arrested. Two more degree of freedom will be arrested by providing clamping
elements and from 12th direction, tool comes for machining. A smaller size of pin is called button
and are used in walls.
Radial location: This principle of location is used when there is already one drilled hole in the
work piece. Since, there will be variation in the size of hole, conical pins are inserted in the hole to
accommodate this variation. Two more pins are provided on the sides to arrest two more degree of
freedom [Fig. 4.68 (a)].

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If there are two already drilled holes, in one hole a conical pin is provided and in the other hole, a
diamond pin is provided to accommodate the variation in the centre distance Fig. 4. 68(b). Two

sides of the diamond pin are relieved and the diamond pins are always kept in the larger hole.
Purpose of diamond pin is to arrest the variation in centre to centre distance between holes.
V – Location: Radial locations are used when work piece is either cylindrical or spherical and
when it is held between the 2 – V jaws all the degrees of freedom will be arrested. One V is movable
and the other one is fixed.
4.29.2 Steps in designing the jigs
 Draw the plan, elevation and end view with red pencil.
 Identify the areas where the machining has to be performed.
 Identify the type of location and where the locating element has to be given.
 Decide about the clamping element.
Outline diagram if jig body:

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 Carbon bushes are made of graphite or some soft material like aluminium so that it provides
lubrication during machining. After some period of time, bushes will be consumed and have to be
replaced. The clearance between the work piece and jig body is called swarf clearance and it is given
to allow the free hand movement and to accommodate the chips.
4.30 SCREW THREAD MANUFACTURING
Methods of producing screw threads:
1. Thread Chasing: Producing screw threads over a lathe is called Thread Chasing and the hard
automated lathe dedicated to produce screw threads is called Swiss Automat. A wire is fed through
the spindle. It is turned, threads are being produced and by using a parting tool. The screw is cut
off from the wire.

2. Die Threading: External screw threads over pipes are cut by Die Threading. If the size of pipe
increases beyond a certain value, the process cannot be used to create threads. If there is any
change in the thread parameter, a different set of dies will be required.
3. Tapping: It is a process of creating internal threads manually. Different sizes of taps are
available and a set consists of three sizes. If there is any change in the pitch or thread angle a
separate sets of dies will be required similarly external threads can be cut by using dies. Relatively
accurate threads are produced by dies.
4. Thread milling: Thread milling is employed when the screw threads finish very near to the
shoulder of the work or the diameter is too large. In order to start the cutting action, the cutter axis
is first swivelled and set at an angle equal to the helix angle of the screw. The work and cutter
rotated in opposite directions. The work is also made to advance axially.
5. Thread Rolling: A work blank is pressed between either two flat dies or three circular die
process and threads are produced by plastic deformation process. Because of work hardening
threads are stronger and accurate but the process is used only for mass production and threads
cannot be cut up to the shoulders. Threads produced by soft and ductile materials will be
economical. If there is any change in the thread parameter a separate sets of dies will be required.

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6. Thread grinding: It is a type of form grinding with minimum in feed otherwise wheel wear will
increase. This process primarily used to produce highly precise screw threads used in gauges.

4.3.1 GEAR MANUFACTURING

4.31.1 Materials for Gears
1. Cast Iron: Large size gears are produced by casting process by this material. Care should be
taken that on such gears, fatigue load should not appear.
2. Steel: Since the material has good load carrying capacity, such gears are used in power
transmission.
3. Bronze: In worm gear drives, since heavy sliding loads appear, and bronze is very resistant to
sliding loads, it is used to make Worm Gears.
4. Plastics: Used in noiseless operations like toys.
5. Aluminium: Aluminium is used where lightness of the assembly is the criteria but much power
cannot be transmitted by these gears.
6. Nylon: Used in Xerox machines. These gears produce noiseless operation and can also carry
small amount of loads.
4.31.2 Forming
1. Rolling: A number of work blanks are mounted on a common shaft and is pressed by a pair of
rolls. Teeth’s are produced by plastic deformation process so it will be strong. But a separate sets of
rolls will be required if there is any change in any parameter of gear. For hard and brittle materials
the process becomes very uneconomical.

2. Extrusion: Depending upon the shape of the die, teeth’s will be produced over the gears. Both
helical and spur gears can be produced by this process and the gear can be cut to the required size.
Gears out of soft materials like plastic, nylon, aluminium can be manufactured easily.
4.31.3 Machining
Gear Milling: Gear cutting on milling can be performed either by using a slab milling cutter or end
milling cutter. When the required tooth depth is achieved by the cutter is withdrawn and the work
piece is indexed and moved by ‘1’ pitch, so, that a new position on the work blank comes in contact
with its cutter. All types of gears including bevel can be produced by milling operation and since
the indexing mechanism is governed by a gear arrangement, gears produced by milling operation
are not very accurate.

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Indexing Mechanism: The milling machine is having an index plate on which there are number of
circles. On each circle there is finite number of holes. There is a pin over index plate which is in
contact with a worm gear which has exactly 40 number of teeth,. This worm gear is in mesh with
worm wheel on which work blank is mounted. By giving one complete rotation to the index plate
worm gear advances by ‘1’ pitch. So, if 40 number of teeth’s has to be produced over the work blank.
after cutting one teeth the index plate should be given one rotation.
For example the index plate consists of 12, 14, 16, 18 no. of holes. To find the no of revolutions ratio
40
is calculated. Suppose 28 teeths has to be cut on the work blank then:
N
40 40 12 3 6
  1  1  1
N 28 18 7 14
After cutting each teeth, one complete revolution is given to the index plate and pin is inserted in
the 8th hole of 14 hole circle.
40 4 4  2 8
If 70 teeth has to be cut:   
70 7 7  2 14
The pin is provided in 8th hole in 14th hole circle after cutting each teeth.

Gear shaping: - In the rack type cutter, once all the cutting edges are covered by the work blank,
rack is withdrawn and the work is indexed. So, the gears produced are not very accurate. But with
pinion type cutter, once the required tooth depth is achieved, rotary motions are given to both
pinion and work and as a result of that, it is a continuous process. So, the gears produced are very
accurate. Internal gears are also cut by this method. Both helical and spur gears can be cut by this
procedure but to cut helical gears, work has to be mounted on a helical drive.

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1 diagram is not drawn [Fig. 4. 77 (a) gears shaping using pinion cutting]
Broaching:- Splines broaches are used to produce gears. Initially, a pilot hole has to be drilled and
a broach is pulled through it. All the teeth will be produced simultaneously. For producing external
gears, pot broaching is used. Both helical and super gears can be produced.

Gear Hobbing: Hob is in the shape of splined screw thread with a leading edge. A number of work
blanks are mounted on a common shaft and the hob is lowered till the required tooth depth is
achieved. After that three motions are started simultaneously.
1. Rotation of work blank
2. Rotation of hob
3. Axial moment of work along the axis of hob

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 Chapter-6 : Metal Forming Operations
1. Rolling
2. Drawing
3. Extrusion
4. Forging
Forming: Forming means changing the shape of an existing solid body. Metal forming is process in
which the forces are applied on raw material such that the stress induced in the material is > than
yield stress and less than ultimate stress. So that the material experiencing plastic (or) permanent
deformation to change the shape of component.
Advantages:
1. No wastage of material
2. Certain metal forming process strength and hardness are increased
3. Grain orientation formation occurs.
Disadvantages:
1. Forces and energy required is very high.
2. Except forging in all other metal forming process only uniform cross section component are
possible to produced.
3. Complex shapes are difficult to produce.
4. It is difficult to produce close dimension tolerances and surface finish produced on the component
is poor.

Recrystalization: It is minimum temperature at which formation of crystal (or) new grain has
been completed.
1 1
RCT = to M.P
3 2
As the material getting heated, the grain in materials are observing the energy, at certain level of
energy. The behavior of grains is started changing called as starting point of Recrystalization. On
further heating of material energy attained > than threshold level of energy. The grains are
complete forgetting old behavior and showing only new behaviour. The corresponding temperature
is called as recrystalization.
 Metals forming operations are two types.
1) Cold working operation 2) Hot working operation

1) Cold working operation: [T = 0.4 TM]

The deforming the material at temperature less than the recrystalization temperature.
2) Hot working operation: [T = 0.6 to 0.7 Tm]
The deforming the material at temperature greater than (or) equal to the recrystalization
temperature.

Note: 1. In Hot working operation, whatever the threshold level of energy required for changing of
behaviour of grain is obtained by only through heating.
2. In cold working operation, whatever the threshold level of energy required for changing of
behavior of grain is obtained by heating as well as energy available in the form of energy pockets
[residual stress].

Cold working Hot working

1. The force and energy required is more
2. Good dimensional accuracy and good surface
finish produced because no scales are forming
3. Co-efficient of friction is less
4. Handling the component is easy
5.Residual stress are present
6. Cold worked component have high strength
and hardness.
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1. The force and energy required is less
2. Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish
due to scales are formed
3. Co-efficient of friction is more
4. Handling the component is difficult
5. Residual stress are absent
6. It have less strength and hardness compared
to the cold worked components
Rolling: Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness [or changing the cross-section] of a long
work piece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.

Case -1: [Same velocity]

To avoid bending of plates surface velocity of both the Rollers should be same.
 V Top   V Bottom
 DN Top   DN Bottom
Case- 2 [Same diameter]
To have the same surface area of contact between rollers and strip the diameter of both rollers must
be equal.
So that speed of both rollers will be same. Which gives advantage of using same prime mover for
rotating both rollers without any gear box.
Terminology: Let R = Radius of rollers
h1 and h2 are the thickness of strip before and after rolling.
h  h1  h 2  Reduction in thickness
b1  b 2  Width of strip before and after rolling
V = surface velocity of the rollers
V1 = Velocity of strip before rolling
V2 = Velocity of strip after rolling
Assumptions taken for analysis of rolling operations are:
1. Every metal which is undergoing metal forming process is considered as incompressible i.e.,
volume of material before and after metal forming process are equal.
2. Width of strip before and after rolling operation is considered to be equal [b1 = b2].
3. In rolling operation because of reduction in thickness, the volume of material decreasing in
thickness direction. So that the corresponding volume of material has to be increased in length (or)
width direction. But because the rollers are rotating and pushing the material only in length
direction. Hence width of strip is taken as remains constant.
Volume before rolling = Volume after rolling
h1b1L1 h 2 b 2 L 2

time time
h1b1V1  h 2 b 2 V2 b1  b 2
h1 V1
 1
h 2 V2
V2  V1 h1  h 2
During rolling operation, when the rollers are started rotating because of presence of friction
between rollers and strip, the strip is automatically pulled into the rollers. So that no pushing force
in the back side and no pulling force in front is required.

1. Deformation zone: Whatever the deformation required for reducing the thickness from h1 to h2
is obtained in this zone only.
- 123 -
 When the rollers are pulling the strip the surface velocity of rollers must be greater than the
velocity of strip at the entry [V2 > V1]. Along the deformation zone the velocity of strip is going on
increasing, but surface velocity of rollers is remaining constant. So that at some point the velocity of
strip and rollers become equal called neutral point. At the neutral point the stress induced in
material is just becoming equal to flow stress of the material. Beyond the neutral point velocity of
strip is further increasing but velocity of roller is remaining constant. At the exit velocity of roller is
remaining constant. At the exit velocity of strip is becoming is greaterthan velocity of roller [V2>V1].
2. Bite angle: Angle made by the center of rollers with the entry and exit point is called angle of
bite.
 = Bite angle
In  OAB
h h 1  h 2
OC = R, BC = 
2 2
h
R
cos   2
R
h
cos   1 
2.R
h
 1  cos 
D
h  D 1  Cos 
3. AC = Arc length of Deformation zone
AB = Length of Deformation zone
2
2  H 
AB = OA 2  OB2  R 2   OC  BC   R 2   R  
 2 
2
 H  H  H 2 H 2
 R2  R2     2R HR  ,  neglected
 2  2 4 4
AB  RH
4. From OAB
AB RH H
tan     R 
oB R  H 2
2
RH
tan  
R
H
tan  
R

5. Friction Angle
For self entry condition
Px cos   Px sin 
sin 

cos 
  tan 
tan   tan 

Note:1 Friction angle is always greaterthan angle of bite.

- 124 -
 2. If     friction angle equal to bite angle the corresponding reduction possible in rolling
operation is called maximum possible reduction.
3.

1. In a rolling process, the slate of stress of the material undergoing deformation is [ a ]

a) Pure compression b) Pure shear c) Compression and shear d) Tension and shear
2. Anisotropy in rolled components is caused by [ d ]
a) Change in dimensions b) Scale formation
c) Closure of defects d) Grain orientations
3. Hot rolling of mild steel is carried out [ d ]
o o
a) At recrystalization temperature b) Between 100 C to 150 C
c) Below recrystalization temperature d) Above recrystalization temperature
5.7.2 Camber rolls
Equal to the deformation of roll, camber is being provided so that when actual deformation is
taking place the portion of roll which comes in contact with the material becomes flat. But camber
rolls are designed for a particular material and for a particular material and for a particular
reduction.

5.7.3 Back up rolls

In 4-high mills, bigger rolls are provided for back up and power is given to the smaller rolls. By the
variation in % reduction the position of neutral plane will change and hence the direction in which
the roll is deforming also changes so in that cluster of sandzmier mills are used.

- 125 -
5.7.4 Three high mill
It is a process of giving 2 stage reductions with the help of 3 rolls. The directions of the
rotation of upper and lower rolls are same. But the intermediate roll rotates in a direction opposite
to both of these. Although three rolls continuously revolve in the same fixed directions and are
never reversed. The work pieces fed in one direction between the upper and middle rolls and
reversed direction between the middle and lower rolls.
Note: It saves the cost of one roller and time also.

5.7.5 Planetary Mill

Fig 5.22: Planetary mill

Over the surface of larger rolls smaller rolls are mounted which rotate in their own axis. Power is
given to the larger rolls. Hence there is a rolling limit deformation carried out by a number of pair
of rolls in one stage. So a very thick plate can be converted into a thin sheet in one go.

5.7.6 Tandem mill

In tandem rolling the strip is rolled continuously through a number of stands to smaller
thickness with each pass. Each stand consists of a set of rolls with its own housing and controls. A
group of stands is called train.

Average rolling load = o  L  W  , L = Length of Arc of contact, W = Width of sheet

5.7.7 Rolling defects

1. Wavy edges: These are the result of roll bending. The strip is thinner along its edges than at its
centre. Because the edges elongate more than the centre they buckle because of restraining from
expanding freely in the rolling direction.
2. Spread: In the rolling of plates and sheet having high width to thickness ratio the width of the
material remains constant during rolling. With smaller ratios the width increases considerably in
the roll gap. This increase in width is called spreading.

- 126 -
3. Crocodile crack: Due to weakness at the center sheet bifurcates into two parts. This is called
crocodile crack.
5.7.8 Test to calculate the defects
Tensile test specimens are cut 00, 450 and 900 with the rolling direction. The samples are
unloaded before UTS point and the strain ratio is calculated. Higher the value of planer anisotropy
more will be the rolling defects like wavy edges. Spread is the increase in width of sheet after
rolling.

R 0  2R 45  R 90
Normal anisotropy  R  
4
R 0  2R 45  R 90
Planar anisotropy = R 
2
Width strain
Where R 
Thickness strain
Formability is the ability of any material to form different shapes. Higher is the value of R (normal
anisotropy) more is the formability and more is the value of planar anisotropy larger will be the
defects like earing.
When t < 6 mm it is called sheet
When t > 6 mm it is called plate
Example: 5.15
In a rolling process, sheet of 25 mm thickness is rolled to 20 mm thickness. Roll is of diameter
600 mm and it rotates at 100 rpm. What is the roll strip contact length?
Sol: -
Given Initial thickness (h1) = 25 mm
Final thickness (h2) = 20 mm
Roll diameter = 600 mm
Speed of rolls = 100 RPM
As we know that contact length of roll strip is given by
L  R h
600
Where R = roll radius =  300 mm and h  h1  h 2   25  20   5 mm
2
Put these values we have L  300  5  1500  38.72 mm
Example: 5.16
A 4 mm thick sheet is rolled with 300 mm diameter rolls to reduce thickness without any
change in its width. The friction coefficient at the work-roll interface is 0.1. What is the minimum
possible thickness of the sheet that can be produced in a single pass?
Sol: Given Initial thickness (h1) = 4 mm
Roll diameter (D) = 300 mm
Coefficient of friction    = 0.1
Now let h2 be the final thickness of sheet after rolling
For single pass without slipping minimum possible thickness mode is
 h1  h 2    2 R
300
Where R = radius of roll =  150 mm
2
2
h 2  h1   2 R  h 2  4   0.1  150
h 2  4  1.5  2.5 mm
h2 = 2.5 mm
- 127 -
Example: 5.17
The thickness of a metallic sheet is reduced from an initial value of 16 mm to a final value of
10 mm in one single pass rolling with a pair of cylindrical rollers each of diameter of 400 mm. What
is the bite angle in degree?
Sol: Given Initial thickness (h1) = 16 mm
Final thickness (h2) = 10 mm
Roll diameter = 400 mm
h  h2
We know that tan   1
R
400
Where   Bite angle and R = radius of roll =  200 mm
2
16  10
tan    0.1732
200
  tan 1 1.732   9.82o
Bite angle     9.82o
Example: 5.18
In a single pass rolling operation, a 20 mm thick plate with plate width of 100mm, is reduced
to 18 mm. The roller radius is 250 mm and rotational speed is 10 rpm. The average flow stress for
the plate material is 300 MPa. What is the power required for the rolling operation in kW is closest
to?
Sol: Given Initial thickness of plate (h1) = 20 mm
Final thickness of plate (h2) = 18 mm
Width of plate (w) = 100 mm
Radius of roll (R) = 250 mm
Speed of rolling (N) = 10 Rpm
Average flow stress for plate material o  300 MPa
Now we know that Force = Stress  Area
Force = o  L  W 
Where L  R  h   R  h1  h 2 
Put values of R, h1 and h2; we have
L  250  20  18   250  2  22.36 mm
L = 22.36 mm
Now force = 300  22.36  100  670800 N
and we know that power = force  velocity
DN
Where velocity  Vr  
60
   2  250   10
vr   261.79 mm / s
60
N  mm Nm
Now, power = 670800  261.79  175588608  175 k
s s
Power = 175 kW

Drawing operation:
1. Wire drawing: Method of producing wire from solid rod by pulling through a stationary die such
that stress induced is greater than the yield point stress and less than ultimate stress.

- 128 -
1. Zone – I [deformation zone]
a) Whatever the deformation required for converting the rod into wire is obtained in zone–I only.
2α = deformation angle
For producing wires using hard material the die angle used is 120. For producing wires by
using very soft material die angle used is 48.
b) Die land [L]: [Length of deformation zone]
During wire drawing operation the frictional force induced at the interface of wire and die is
acting in backward direction which can be resolved into 2 components of forces.

1. Horizontal component of frictional force, which is increasing the drawing force to be applied at
the front side.
2. Vertical component of frictional force which is trying to damage (or) failure the die.
The above effected can be minimized by reducing the friction at interface. This is possible by
using lubricant in the wire drawing operation.

2. Zone–2 [Lubricating zone]: Whatever the lubricants required in wire drawing operation for
reducing friction can be supplied from zone 2 only.
a) No lubricant condition: Surface of wire produced is observed as a black (or) burnt colour.
b) Liquid lubricant: Due to usage of liquid lubricant, friction, heat generation and temperature
are reducing. Surface of wire observed as dull surface.
c) Solid powder lubricant: When the solid powder lubricant is passing through the interface, it
reduces the friction and also produces microscopic scratches on the wire surface which making
appearance of wire surface as bright surface.
Eg: Carbon powder, Graphite powder, Glass powder.

3. Zone–3 [Sizing zone]: It is a uniform cross zone having cross section area equal to the exit
cross sectional area of zone-1. This is used for converting elastic deformation present in the
plastic deformation zone into plastic deformation. Normally the length of sizing zone is about 2-5m

4. Zone–IV [Exit zone]: When lubricants are used in wire drawing operations due to the passage
of lubricants of the interface of die and wire, lubricants are experiencing very high pressure and
very high temperature. When this high pressure and high temperature lubricants are coming out
from sizing zone. It may fall on the front side bodies and damage the front side bodies. To avoid
this an exit zone provided divergent section. This is also called as divergent zone.
Note: If lubricants are not used in wire drawing operation. It is not necessary to use the exit zone.
di = Rod diameter df = wire diameter
 
Ai =  d i 2 Af   df 2
4 4
Ai
 k  Coefficient of elongation (or) draft
Af
Ai  A f
 J  % Reduction in Area
Ai
B
1      A f  
  y   1     = Drawing stress induced in wire drawing operation
     Ai  
B   cot    Co – efficient of friction of interface

- 129 -
   die angle
 y  2k1 = yield stress
Note: z need not be   y
At zone-I  y  z  u
Die angle: By increasing the semi die angle the contact length between
material and die decreases. This decreases the friction and hence
drawing force decreases. When the semi die angle increases beyond a
certain value the dead metal zone starts forming within metal flow
region. These regions not only creates obstacles in the metal flow but also
starts moving in the backward direction. This increases the drawing force
requirement.
Defects:
1. If removal of oxide from the wire is not proper, these impurities will percolate down and settles at
the centre which produces centre line cracks. If the lubricating film breaks over the surface it
leads to surface cracks.
2. In cold drawn products there will be residual stresses; these residual stresses can be significant
in causing stress corrosion cracking of the part over period of time.

(B) Slab method: -

Mass in X direction
2  dx   2rdx 
   x  d x    r  dr    x r 2   x cos   2r   p x sin     0     (1)
 cos    cos  
    x r 2  x d 2 r  2rdr x  d x dr 2  2rdrd x 
 2rdx   2rdx 
  x r 2   x cos     p x sin     0             (2)
 cos    cos  
Neglecting smaller terms and divide by r 2 dr
d x 2x 2p x 2 x dx
   0
dr r r r dr
dx
From triangle;  cot ; and x  p x
dr
d x 2 x 2p x 2p x cot 
So    0
dr r r r
Assuming x and p x are the principle stresses.
 x  p x  2K1
'
d x 2  2K  2 cot 
dr

r

r
 2K '  x   0
d x 2
   2K '   cot   2K '   x  
dr r
Let  cot   B

- 130 -
 d x 2
   2K '  B  2K '   x  
dr r
d x 2
  2K '  B  2K '        r dr
  x 

1
ln  2K '  B  2K '  x    2ln r  C1      (3)
B
Boundary conditions
at r = R ;  x   b , where  b  back pull
Before entering into the die the wire is pulled in the backward direction to keep it straight
otherwise it will damage the bell section of die. By increasing the back pull although the drawing
stress increases it is required to increase the die life.
1
 ln  2K '  B  2K '   b    2ln R 1  C1            (4)
B
By equating Eq(3) and (4)
 2K '  B  2K '   x    r  2B
 
 
 2K '  B  2K '  b    R i 
 
2B
 r 
' '

 Ri 

2K  B  2K   x     2K '  B  2K '  b  
  r  2B   r 
2B
'  1 B 
So  2K   B   1   R    b  R   x
  i   i
  R  2B   Rf 
2B
'  1 B 
Now  d  r  R1
  2K    1  
f
    b         5
 B    R i    Ri 
In the wire drawing both von – mises and tresca yield criteria in a spherical coordinate
system with spherical symmetry leads to the same result i.e.
1  2'  0
So in the analysis 2K '  0

Case IV: Frictionless wire drawing

Case(iii): Now put   0 in initial equation (2)
d x 2 x 2Px
So,   0
dr r r
 ' o 
 x  Px  o  K  2 
 
2 o
 dx    r dr
 x  20 ln  r   C1
No back pull Boundary conditions r  R i ; x  0
2
R 
d  o ln  i 
 Rf 
2
 R i 
d  0 ln  
 R f 
A 
d  o ln  i   d  o ln R         9 
 Af 
Drawing force in all the cases = d  R 0 2
When d  o then maximum reduction occurs
- 131 -
 A 
So, 1  ln  i 
 Af 
A
e i
Af
A  Af
% reduction = i  100
Ai
 A 
  1  i   100
 Af 
 1
=  1    100
 e
 e 1
% reduction =    100  63%
 e 
Note:
1. Drawing force if frictionless less wire drawing   0 ,    cot  ,   0 , 0   y

A 
d  o ln  i  Ai = Initial area, Af = Final area
 Af 
2. Maximum possible reduction in the material in ideal case is 63%. But in practical, it is less than
63%. In this case d  o .
Q. In a wire drawing operation, diameter of a steel wire is reduced from 10mm to
8mm. The mean flow stress of material is 400 MPa. The ideal force required for
drawing [Ignoring friction and redundant work].
a) 4.48 kN b) 8.97 kN c) 20.11 kN d) 31.41 kN
Sol: Di =10 mm, Df = 8 mm, 0  400 MPa
Condition    0
r  A  5
Hence, d  2o ln  i   o ln  i   2  400  ln    178.54 MPa
 rf   Af  4
Ideal force = 178.51  106  rf 2 = 8968 N = 8.968 kN
Linked questions
A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is drawn through a die at a speed of 0.5 m/sec to
reduce the diameter by 20%. The yield stress of the material is 800 MPa
1. Neglecting friction and strain hardening, the stress required for drawing is (MPa)
a) 178.6 b) 357.0 c) 1287.5 d) 2575.0
2 The power required for the drawing process in (kW) is
a) 8.97 b) 14 c) 17.95 d) 28
Sol: Di = 10mm. ri = 5mm, velocity = 0.5 m/sec,  y  800 MPa
AI  Af
 20%
AI
A
1  f  0.2
AI
2
r 
0.8=  f 
 ri 
rf  0.8  ri  4.47 mm  4.5 mm
r   5 
d  2o ln  i   2  800  ln    179.27 Mpa
 rf   4.5 
2
Force = 179.27     4.47   11.25 kN
Power = Force  Velocity =  3  0.5  5.625  103 W  5.625 kW
- 132 -
Q. An aluminium rod of 6.25mm diameter is drawn into wire 5.6mm diameter, semi
die angle is 10.10. Find the drawing stress, considering the friction to be 0.04 and
nominal stress 35MPa. Also calculate the maximum reduction that can be given to
material.
Sol: di =6.25 mm, do = 5.6 mm,   10.10 ,   0.04 , o  35 MPa
2B
 B  1    rf  
1. d  o   1    
 B    ri  
B   cot  = 0.04  cot 10.1  0.224
2 0.224 
 0.224  1    5.6  
d  35   1      9.17 MPa
 0.224    6.25  
2. Maximum reduction d  o 
B
 B  1   Af  
1   1    
 B    A i  
Af
 0.403
Ai
% reduction = 1-0.403 = 59.6 %

Tube drawing: It is the method of reducing wall thickness of already existing tubes pulling
through a stationary die with mandrel so that the inside diameter of tube is maintained remains
constant.
Die used: Same as that of wire drawing
It is similar to wire drawing operation, additionally a mandrel is used for maintaining the
required inside diameter of tube.
Note: But is should be noted that in case of tube drawing operation. Since if it is plane strain case.
σ 0 =2K  [Wire drawing]
2B
 1+ B    R f  
σ d = 2K    1    
 B    R i  
2B
1+ B    R f  
σd = σ0   1     [Wire drawing]
 B    R i  
σ
K1 = 0 [Tube drawing]
3
2B
2σ 0 1+ B    R f  
σd = 1    
3  B    R i  
 
Case-1: Tube sinking
2B
2σ 1+ B    R f  
σd = 0  1    
3  B    R i  
 
B=μCotα

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Different types of tube drawing operation:

1. Tube sinking operation: In tube sinking operation, neither their no control over a
dimensions nor we get good surface finish of outgoing tube.
2. Tube drawing with floating mandrel operation: In case of floating mandrel surface
finish will improve because contact between tube and mandrel but dimensions of tube cannot
be controlled because it is movable mandrel.
3. Tube drawing with fixed mandrel operation: In case of fixed mandrel surface finish is
good and dimension of tube can be controlled. Drawing pressure is summation of pressure
required in plastic deformation friction force. By increasing % reduction, drawing pressure
will keep on increasing. For particular reduction drawing stress will become equal to mean
flow stress. So that tube start breaking from front side.
4. Tube drawing with movable(wire) mandrel operation: In case of tube drawing with
moving mandrel the speed of wire is equal to the velocity of outgoing tube. So at the entry to
the die, velocity of wire will be higher than the velocity of incoming tube. So relative to wire,
tube is going in the backward direction, so friction will appear in the forward direction. On
the interface between the tube and die, friction appears in the backward direction. These
oppositely acting frictions cancel each other. So for the same amount of reduction drawing
pressure will be lowest in case of moving mandrel so heavy reductions are possible.
CaseII: Tube drawing with floating mandrel:

B1 B1
2σ 0 1+ B1    h 2    h2  μ1 +μ 2
σd =   1      σ b   Where B1 =
3  B1    h1    h1  Tanα+Tanβ
 
Case III: Tube drawing with moving mandrel:
B2 B2
2σ 1+ B2    A 2    A2  μ1  μ 2
σd = 0   1      σ b  Where B2 =
3  B2    A1   A
 1 Tanα  Tanβ
 
A1 is incoming area tube and A2 is exit area at tube
5.3 Extrusion
Extrusion is defined as the process of pushing the heated billet of metal through an orifice
provided into a die, thus forming an elongated part of uniform cross section corresponding to the
shape of the die orifice. The pressure is applied hydraulically or mechanically. Intricate shapes in
long lengths can be produced by not extrusion. Depending on the ductility of the material, extrusion
may be carried out at room or at evaluated temperature. Because a chamber is involved each billet
is extruded individually and thus extrusion is a batch or semi continuous process.
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 Typical products made from extrusion are railings for sliding doors, tubing for various cross
sections, structural and architectural shapes and doors and window frames.
5.3.1 Forward extrusion or direct extrusion
The raw material used is a billet. Billet is heated to its forging temperature and ted into the
machine chamber. In this forward extrusion pistion and outgoing material movies in the same
direction. Pressure is applied to the billet, forcing the material through the die, in forward direction
since billet moves inside the drum so pressure required in overcoming the friction will be more. The
length of the extruded part depends on the size of the billet and cross section area of the die.

A typical sequence of operations for the forward extrusion of a section is as follows:

1. The heated billet and the dummy block are loaded into the container
2. The billet is extruded by the force of the ram being pushed against it. This upsets the billet,
then forces the metal to flow through the die. During extrusion, a thin shell of material may
be left on the container walls. Extrusion is halted in order to leave a thin disk of material
(butt) in the container
3. The container is separated from the die, the extruded section with the butt, and the dummy
block
4. The discard (butt) is sheared off
5. The shear die, the container, and the ram are returned to their initial (loading) positions

Typical load versus ram displacement curves shows that the load in forward extrusion initially
increases very rapidly as the billet upsets to fill the container. This is followed by a further increase
in pressure, and extrusion begins. A somewhat cone-shaped deformation zone then develops in front
of the die aperture. After the maximum load has been reached, the extrusion pressure fails as the
billet length decreases until a minimum is reached, then rapidly increases again. This last pressure
increase occurs because only a disk of the billet remains and the metal must flow rapidly toward
the die aperture. Resistance to deformation increases considerably with decreasing thickness.
5.3.2 Backward extrusion or indirect extrusion
In backward extrusion die is placed in the piston, so outgoing material will come out in the
opposite direction to that of the piston. In this process billet does not move inside the chamber. So
there is no friction between billet and drum. So less force is required in this method in comparison
to the direct extrusion. A more complicated type of equipment is required because the plunger
becomes weak due to the reduction in its effective area of cross section and ductility is experienced
in supporting the over changing extruded part.
The sequence of operations for the backward extrusion of a solid section is as follows:
1. The die is inserted into the press
2. The billet is loaded into the container
3. The billet is extruded, leaving a butt
4. The die and the butt are separated from the section.

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Backward extrusion offers a number of advantages, as follows:
1. A 25 to 30% reduction in maximum load relative to direct extrusion
2. Extrusion pressure is not a function of billet length, because there is no relative displacement
between the billet and the container. Therefore, billet is not limited by the load required for
this displacement but only by the length and stability of the hollow stem needed for a given
container length.
3. No heat is produced by friction between the billet and the container, consequently, no
temperature increase occurs at the billet surface toward the end of extrusion, as is typical in
the direct extrusion of aluminium alloys. Therfore, in backward extrusion, there is a lesser
tendency toward cracking of the surfaces and edges, and extrusion speeds can be significantly
higher.
4. The service life of the tooling is increased, especially that of the inner liner, because of
reduced friction and temperatures.
The disadvantages of backward extrusion is that impurities or defects on the billet
surface affect the surface of the extrusion and are not automatically retained as a shell or
discard in the container. As a result, machined billets are used in many cases. In addition,
the cross-sectional area of the extrusion is limited by the size of the hollow stern.
5.3.3 Hydrostatic extrusion
In hydrostatic extrusion the billet is smaller in diameter than the chamber, which is filled
with a fluid and the pressure is transmitted to the billet by a ram. Billet does not come in contact
with the piston and the material is deformed due to development of hydrostatic pressure within the
fluid. Since hydrostatic pressure increases the ductility, very good quality products can be extruded
by this process. In this process large hydrostatic pressure applied to the billet, the product in the
receiving chamber is maintained under a lower pressure. There is no friction to overcome along the
container walls.

In hydrostatic extrusion, the billet in the container is extruded through the die by the action of a
liquid pressure medium rather than by direct application of the load with a ram. The process of
pure hydrostatic extrusion differs from conventional extrusion in that the billet is completely
surrounded by a fluid, which is sealed off and is pressurized sufficiently to extrude the billet
through the die. Hydrostatic extrusion can be done hot, warm, or cold and can be used to extrude
brilttle materials that cannot be processed by conventional extrusion. Hydrostatic extrusion also
allows greater reductions in area (higher extrusion ratios) than either cold or conventional hot
extrusion.
The primary advantages of simple hydrostatic over conventional hot or cold extrusion methods are:
1. There is no friction between the billets and the container. Therfore, the pressure at the
beginning of extrusion is much lower, and billets of any length can theoretically be extruded
2. Friction at the die can be significantly reduced by a film of pressurized lubricant between
the deforming metal and the die surface

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3. The lower extrusion pressure and the reduced die friction of hydrostatic extrusion allow the
use of either extrusion ratios or lower extrusion temperatures.
4. The uniform hydrostatic pressure in the container means that billets do not have to be
straight; coiled wire can be extruded.

Limitations of the hydrostatic extrusion process include:

1. Containment of the fluid under high pressure (Up to 2GPa, or 290 ksi) requires reliable seals
between the container bore surface and both the ram and die. The technology required to
achieve dependable seals at these points is widely available. However, also sealing between
the billet nose and die can easily be achieved by chamfering or tapering the billet nose to
match the entry angle of the die.
2. In addition to being tapered to match the die opening angle, the billet is also usually
machined all over to remove surface defects that would otherwise reappear on the extruded
product. This is especially true when cast billets are being used.
5.3.4 Impact extrusion
This comes under the mostly cold extrusion process. In impact extrusion a heavy punch is
allowed to all over the material and material takes the shape of the die by following in the
clearance between punch and die. Collapsible tubes can be made by this. This is used to make
collapsible tubes of soft alloys such as tooth paste containers. This process is limited to soft
and ductile materials.

For extrusion:
1. The boundary condition will be reverse
r=Ri, σ x =σ b  0
B
 1+B    A f  
σ d =2K   1    
 B    Ai  
When r=R0, σ x =0
B
 1+B   Ai  
σ d =2K  
    1  2K   σ 0
 B   A f  
Af
=Extrusion ratio
Ai
2. If friction is zero and back force is zero
A 
σ d  σ0 ln  i 
 Af 
Force= σ 0 A 0
Q. A brass billet is to be extruded from its initial diameter of 100 mm to a final
diameter of 500 mm. The working temperature of 7000C and the extrusion constant
is 250MPa. The force required for extrusion
a) 5.44 N b) 2.72 MN c) 1.36 MN d) 0.36 MN

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 π
Sol: d1 = 100 mm = A1 = (0.1)2 = 7.854×103 m 2
4
π
d 2 = 50 mm = A 2 = (0.05) 2 = 1.96 ×103 m 2
4
Force= σ 0 A 0
A 
σ d = σ 0 ln  1  = 347.04 MPa
 A2 
F=σ d π(0.05) 2 =2.72MN

5.5 EXTRUSION DEFECTS

Surface cracking: If extrusion temperature, friction or speed is too high, surface temperature
raise significantly and this condition may cause surface cracking and tearing. Surface cracking may
also occur at lower temperatures because of periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die
land. Because of this extrusion pressure increases and cause cracking.
Pipe defect: The unusual type of the metal flow pattern tends to draw surface impurities toward
the center of the billet, this defect is called, also called tail pipe or fishtailing. This can be
minimized by modifying the flow pattern to more uniform. These impurities can also be removed by
chemical etching of the oxides before extrusion.
Internal cracking: Extruded product center can develop various cracks called center cracking,
center burst, arrowhead fracture or chevron cracking. These cracks are attributed to a state of
hydrostatic tensile stresses at the center line in the deformation zone in the die. Center cracking
increases with increases in die angle, increase in amount of impurities, and increases in extrusion
ratio and friction.

5.6 FORGING
Forging is shaping of metals by squeezing them between two or more dies to obtain the
desired shape. Forging can be done either at room temperature or at elevated temperature. If the
forging operation is carried out below the recrystallization temperature, it’s known as cold forging
temperature above recrystallization is called hot forging. At elevated temperatures there will not be
any work hardening.
If forging is done in an open hearth is known as smith forging. In this, hot work piece given
desired shape by using hand held tools and hammers, Now-a-days power driven hammers are used
to impart the repeated blows. The anvil and hammer are mostly flat and the desired shape is
obtained by a manipulation of the job between the blows.
Edging: It is performed by a pair of concave dies and the material moves toward the center and it
increases the size of stock.
Fullering: It performed by a pair of convex dies and it this material moves away from the center,
this decreases the size of a slab.
There are three types of forging
1. Open die forging 2. Closed die forging 3. Impression die forging
Open die forging: In open die forging material is kept in the lower die and hammer comes in
contact with the material. This results in poor surface finish and also cracks appear at top surface
over the forged component. So a layer of material has to be removed from work piece. In this there
is less control in determining mechanical properties and difficult to maintain tolerances and surface
finish.

Note:- Volume of raw material required remains some as that of volume of final finished
component.

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Closed die forging: In closed die forging operation metal is kept between top and bottom dies.
Bottom die is connected with a gutter and the extra material settles down in those gutters called
flash. After forging these flash has to be removed. This is the method by which we can make coins.
Closed-die forging the shaping of hot metal completely within the walls or cavities of two dies that
come together to enclose the workpiece on all sides. The impression for the forging can be entirely
in either die or can be divided between the top and bottom dies. The forging stock, generally round
or square bar, is cut to length to provide the volume of metal needed to fill the die cavities, in
addition to an allowance for flash and sometimes for a projection for holding the forging. The flash
allowance is, in effect, a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced in closed dies. Flash also
acts as a brake to slow, the outward flow of metal in order to permit complete filling of the desired
configuration.

Note: The volume of raw material is about 10 to 20% higher than the volume of finished
component.
Impression die forging: In impression die forging the calculated amount of material is kept in
the pair of dies and there are no gutters with the lower die and it acquires the shape of the die
cavities while being forced between two shaped dies.

Some other processes are:

Hubbing: Impressions are there in the hammer and by repeated blow to work piece same
impression are develop in the work piece.
Upset forging: It is a process of forging a portion of work. The upsetting operation may be closed
or open. The operation involves a longitudinal compression of the bar stock. If the over hanging
portion is greater than ‘3d’ close die upsetting is performed otherwise material will bend and it will
appear defect like fold. In an open die upsetting the length of the unsupported portion should not
exceed 3d to prevent buckling. The process is used to produce bolt head.
Swaging: Materials is kept between dies and the forging load is applied to the work through theses
dies. Metal moves in the longitudinal direction. The rifle barrels are being produced by this
process.

Fig 5.11: (c) Rotary swaging

Roll forging: Rolls are made up of non uniform radius and when the lump in radius comes in
contact with the material, work piece material deforms. Railway wheels are made by this
procedure. The process is also used for reducing the diameter of rods. The heated work piece is
placed between the dies in an open position and after a half revolution of the rolls the work pieces
rolled out it is then put in the smaller group and the operation continued until the desire dimension
is achieved. Roll forging (also known as hot forge rolling) is a process for reducing the cross-
sectional area of heated bars or billets by passing them between two driven rolls that rotate in
opposite directions and have one or more matching grooves in each roll. The principle involved in

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reducing the cross-sectional area of the work metal in roll forging is essentially the same as that
employed in rolling mills to reduce billets to bars.

Fig 5.11: (d) Principle of roll forging

5.6.1 Forging defects
Cracks: Internal as well as external cracks appear due to excessive cold working.
Fold: It is discontinuity produced when two surfaces of metal fold against each other without
fusing properly.
Barring: When hot work comes in contact with the dies there will be decrease in the temperature
of the surface coming in contact with dies. Upon applying the forging load, since central portion will
have lower flow stresses, it will move faster than the material near the edges. This result in non
cylindrical large components called Barreling.

5.6.2 Analysis of forging

a) Forging between flat dies: (Plane strain compression)
After forging the width of the stock does not change. Height decreases and length increases.
Let say h is the final height of billet and w is the width.
Let us have equilibrium of forces in horizontal

direction.
 x  dx  hw  x hw  2wx dx =0
 x hw  d x hw   x hw  2wx dx =0
d x hw  2w x dx =0

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 2x dx
dx 
h
as x  p x
Assuming  x and px are principle stresses and also assuming that the material is behaving
as a plane stress case, so 2K= 0
 x  p x  2K '
d x dp x
 =0
dx dx
d x dp
 x
dx dx
2 x dx
From equation (1), – dpx=
h
2p x
– dpx= dx
h
dp 2 
 px x   h 3x
2x
In px= +c1
h
Boundary conditions; at x=L,  x =0
So Px=2K’
2L
ln (2K’)= +c1
h
2x 2L
So ln Px  ln(2K ')  
h h
 x  2  L  x 
P
ln  1  
 2K '  h
2 ( L  x )
Px1 h
e
2K '
2  ( L x )
h
Px1  2K ' e
2
 L x 
h
Px1  1.150 e (forging pressure without sticking) ……(16)
'
( K'  , since it is plane strain condition)
3
When the shear stress becomes equal to the yield shear strength, sticking takes place between the
die and the work piece material.
L
Forging load: Because force is symmetric on two sides so F= 2  p x wdx
0

F
Average die pressure =
2Lw
For sticking:  x  K '[yield strength]
at x=xs p x  K '  s
2K '
Apply this condition in previous equation  dp x  
h
dx
2K ' x
px2   c2 …… (17)
h

- 141 -
 K'
Boundary conditions at; x=xs; p=

K' 2K ' x s
  c 2 b …… (18)
 h
K ' 2K '
From (17) and (18), Px 2   (x s  x) forging pressure with sticking ....(19)
 h
Calculation of sticking length
2 2
K' (L  xs ) 1 (L  x s ) 2  1 
  2K 'e h  eh   L  xs   ln  
 2 h  2 
h  1 
xs  L  ln …… (20)
2  2 
Forging load with sticking and slipping
xs L
Load = 2  Px 2 wdx   Px1 wdx  …… (21)
 0 xs 
This is the load with sticking
(B) Forging between circular dies

Considering the equilibrium of forces

d
 r  dr    d  d h  r rdh  2 sin dr h  2r (rd)  0
2 …..(22)
Neglect higher order terms and divided by dr hr
d
 r  r dr  dr r  dr dr  d h  r rdh  2 sin dr h  2r rddr  0
2
d d
sin 
2 2
r dr  2r
   0
r dr r h
dr  r    2r
  0
dr  r  h ….(23)

Circumferential strain 0 
 r  dr  d  rd  drd
rd rd
dr
0 
r
This is also known as radial strain     r
If these are equal then   r
a) Since   r   , normal pressure (forging) and friction stress in r (RX ) and
other friction stresses like y are  R zero. So von – mises yield criteria

- 142 -
 1 2
6
 2 2 2

  r         yy     yy   r    2Ry  2y  0
3
Putting all the values in the above in the expression we get
2
 r  p x   3 2x  02
b) If  r and px are the principle stresses then friction can be neglected to zero,
So  r +px= 0
In case of pure torsion if K’ is the yield strength in shear then
2
3K’2 = 0
0
So K’ =
3
So r  p x  3 K
The following analysis is adapted from B. Avitzer, “Metal forming: process and analysis”.
TMH, 1977.
So the corresponding formulas for circular compression are
2
R r 
p r1  0e h
….(24)
K ' 2K '
p r2   Rs  r 
 h …(25)
h  1 
And sticking radius is Rs  R  ln  
2  3 
…(26)
Forging load:
R
Without sticking =  p r1 2rdr
0 …(27)
Rs R
With sticking =  p r2 2rdr   p r1 2rdr
0 Rs
..(28)
Example: 5.7
In a forging operation the initial and final diameter of blank is 200 mm and
400mm. Height is 60mm. find true strain?
Sol: Given data is d1 = 200mm
d2 = 400mm
h1 = 60mm
 2 
d1 h1  d 22 h 2
4 4
2 2
d1 h1  d 2 h 2
h2 = 15mm
h1 60
  ln  ln  1.38
h2 15
Analysis of sticking length and sliding length:-
Friction force > Expansion force

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 In forging process when the force is applied by using top die and moving the top die, the
material is compressed in the length direction and trying to expand in the transverse direction so
that outward expansion forces are acting, simultaneously because of presence of friction between
the die and surface of the component, the inward frictional forces are acting. At the initial stages of
forging operation, the magnitudes of inward frictional are greater than the outward expansion
forces.
The material is sticking to the surface of the dies at the ends, as we are moving towards
the center of the component the frictional effects are reducing, hence the material is expending at
the center producing barrel shape.
Hence the initial stages of forging operation is also called as barreling operation and this
part forging is analyzed by using sticking friction model.
On further application of the force by using the top die, the outward expansion forces are
increasing continuously but the inward frictional forces are remained constant, at same point, the
outward expansion forces will become greater than inward frictional forces hence the material
starts sliding over the die producing nearly cylindrical shape of the component.
Minimum amount of force required in initial stages of operation
Fi min=  y  A 0
Similarly Ff min =  y  A f < f → after forging operation>
Fi min  Ff min
Fmin=
2
Fmin
Factual =
forging
Efficiency of forging, forging = 0.5 to 0.6
Minimum amount of force required in initial stages of operation:-
Fi (minimum)= y A0
Ff (minimum)= y Af
Fi  Ff
Fminimum=
2
Fmin imum
Efficiency of forging = forging 
Factual
Generally efficiency is 0.5 to 0.6
 2rf 
Factual=  y  1 
 3h f 
 =coefficient of friction between die and material
y =yield stress
A f =final area
rf =final radius
h f =final height
Work done = Factual   h 0  h f 
=2wH
W = weight of drop hammer
H = Height from which hammer falling
h0= Initial height
2wF=Factual  h 0  h f 

Factual  h 0  h f 
H
w

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Q. In open die-forging, 0 disc of diameter 200mm and height 60mm is compressed without any
barreling effect. The final diameter of the disc is 400mm. The strain is
a) 1.986 b) 1.686 c) 1.386 d) 0.682
Solution: Since volume of disc remains constant during the process, Hence
 2 
D1  l1  D22  l2
4 4
D1 = 200mm l1 = 60mm D2 = 400mm
(200)2  60 = (400)2  l2
l2= 15mm
change in length = l1-l2 = 60 – 15 = 45
2
l A D 
True strain =  = ln 2 (or)ln 1 (or) ln  1 
l1 A2  D2 
15
= ln = - 1.386
60
p
Stress = 0 
A0
s l L1  L0
Engineering strain = = =e
l L0
L1
 e 1
L0
p
True stress =  
A1
A0L0=A1L1
A 0 Li
 → (1)
A1 L0
p A0 p A0
f   
A1 A0 A0 A1
L
= 0 i  0 (e  1)
L0
 True strain
Li
dl dl
dE =   dE  
l L0
l
Li
E= ln
L0
Example: 5.8
A strip of lead with initial dimensions 24mm  24mm  150mm is forged between
two flat dies to a final size of 6mm  96mm  150mm. If the coefficient of friction is
0.05, determine the maximum forging force. The average yield stress of lead in
tension is 7N/mm2.
Sol: Given, Initial dimensions of billet 24  24  150mm3
Final width dimensions of billet 6  96  150mm3
As width never changes after forging of rectangular billet and all the calculation of forging
operation are done on the final dimensions of the billet
So the dimensions of billet are as
Thickness of billet (h) = 6mm
Length of billet (2L) = 96mm
Width of billet (w) = 150mm
Coefficient of friction = 0.05

- 145 -
 Fig. : 5.15
Step I: checking for the sticking
As we know sticking length in case of rectangular billet is given by
1  1 
Sticking length (xs) = L - ln  
2  2 
6  1 
xs = 48  ln  
2  05  2  0.05 
xs= -90.155mm
Negative sign shows that sticking will not occur during the operation.
Step II:
As we know that forging stress when there is no sticking is given by
2
(1 x )
p x1  2K 'e h
As forging of rectangular billet is a case of plane strain,
2 0
So 2K’ = where 0 = average yield stress
3
0 =7N/mm2 (given)
2  7 20.05 (48 x )
 p x1  e 6
3
( 48  x )
60
p x1  8.08e
L
So, Forging load = 2   Px1 .w.dx
0
 48  x 
48  
 60 
= 2  8.08e  150 dx
0
 48  x 
48
=  2  8.08  150   e 60
dx
0
48
 48 x 
=  2  8.08  150   ( 60) e 60

0
48
 0 
=   2  8.08  150  60   e  e 
60

 
Forging load = 178.24kN
Example: 5.9
A strip of lead with initial dimensions 24mm  24mm  150mm is forged between
two flat dies to a final size of 6mm  96mm  150mm. If the coefficient of friction is
0.25, determine the maximum forging force. The average yield stress of lead in
tension is 7N/mm2.
Sol: Given, Initial dimensions of billet 24  24  150mm3
Final width dimensions of billet 6  96  150mm3
As width never changes after forging of rectangular billet and all the calculation of forging
operation are done on the final dimensions of the billet
So the dimensions of billet are as
Thickness of billet (h) = 6mm
Length of billet (2L) = 96mm
Width of billet (w) = 150mm
Coefficient of friction = 0.25
- 146 -
 Step I: checking for the sticking
As we know sticking length in case of rectangular billet is given by
1  1 
Sticking length (xs) = L - ln  
2  2 
6  1 
xs = 48  ln  
2  5  2  0.25 
xs= 39.68mm
+ve sign shows sticking will occur during the forging operation.
Step II:As we know that forging stress during sticking zone is given by
K ' 2K '
p x2    xs  x 
 h
As forging of rectangular billet is a case of plane strain,
2 0
So 2K’ = where 0 = averageyield stress
3
0 =7N/mm2 (given)
 20
 px2  0   xs  x 
3 3.h
 7   27 
p x2      39.68  x 
 3  0.25   3  6 
Px2 =16.16+53.45-1.347x
Px2 =69.61-1.347x
xs
So, Forging load = 2   Px 2 .wdx
0
39.48
=  2  150     69.61  1.347x  dx
0
39.68
1.347x 2
= 300  69.61x 
2 0

1.347

 39.68 
2
= 300   69.61  39.68 
 2 
=510.507kN
Step III:
Forging stress during non-sticking zone. As we know forging during non-sticking zone is given by
2
(1 x )
h
p x1  2K 'e
225
 2  0  6
(48  x )
p x1    .e
 3 
( 48  x )
12
p x1  8.08e
L
So Forging load = 2   p x1 .w.dx
xs
48  48 x 
 
= 2  w  8.08e  12 
dx
39.68
Q. A solid cylindrical slug made of stainless is 150mm in diameter and 100mm height.
It is reduced in height in height by 50% at room temperature, by open-die forging
with flat die. Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2. Calculate the forging
force at end of stroke. [Assuming 1000mpa for mild steel]
Solution: D1=150mm h1 = 100mm
- 147 -
 D2 = ? h2 = 50mm
Volume of material before = volume of material after
 2 
D1 h1  D22 h 2
4 4
D2=106mm
 2rf 
Force =  y  A f  1  
 3h f 
 =0.2 y  100mp0 rf =53mm
2
h f =50mm A f = rf 2 =   53  8.82  103 mm 2
F = 4.5 105 Newtons
Preforming (or) preliminary (or) Types of forging:
a) Fullering operation: The method of distributing the material from the outwards non-uniformly
i.e., fullering the c/s is reduced and length is increased non-uniformly
b) Drawing: The material is distributed from center to the outwards uniformly. Here also c/s is
reduced and length is increased uniformly.
c) Upsetting: The method of reducing length & increasing c/s is called “upsetting”.
d) Edging (or) Edgering: The method of collecting the material locally called as “edging (or)
edgering” operation.
e) Flattering operation: The method of producing flat surface using forging is called “flattering”
f) Chamfering:- converting sharp edged corners into round corners using forging called
“Chamfering”.
g) Bending: Bending the component into the required angle using forging called “bending”
operation
h) Blocking (or) swaging:- producing approximate shape & size of the component using forging is
called “blocking (or) swaging operation”.
i) Finishing operation:- It is the operation used for producing exact shape & size of the
component.
j) Trimming:- The method of removing flash produced in forged component is called
“Trimming”.
a-f → open die, g–h → semi – closed die
i → closed die, j → cutting operation
Ex;- For making given cylindrical rod to a connecting rod
a) Fullering b) Edging c) Blocking d) Finishing e) Trimming

Ex:- Straight cylindrical rod to hexagonal bolt head

a) Upsetting b) Flattering c) Blocking d) Chamfering

Sheet Metal Operations

The operations performed on the sheet to get the required shape is called sheet metal
operation
Sheet metal operations are
Major operations:-
1) Punching 2) Blanking 3) Deep drawing 4) Bending
Minor operations:-
5) Performing 6) Notching 7) Slitting 8) lancing 9) nibbling 10) trimming
Note: 1) cutting operation are punching, Blacking

- 148 -
 2) Forming operation deep drawing, bending
Punching:

In punch and die working, to ensure that the cutting action will takes places, the punch size
must less than die size. Also there is no restriction on the shape of the component that is, by
making the shape of punch and die remains same as the shape of the component the component
produced. It is possible to produce any shape of the component.
In punching and die working, if the hole produced in the sheet is useful one called as
punching. In punching the size of the punch is made equal to size of the hole to be produced. The
clearance is provided on the die only. The shear is provided on the punch alone.
In punch and die working, if the blank produced is useful one called as blanking operation.
The size of die is made is equal to the size of the blank produced and clearance is provided on the
punch only. The shear is provided on the die alone.
Mechanism of shearing and tearing:-

In punch and die working, when the force is applied by using punch onto the sheet,
on the top side of the sheet elastic compression and bottom side of the sheet elastic elongation are
taking place. But magnitude of compression is greater than elongation. Hence shear stress are
induced on the sheet metal on the further application of force. As forces increases, the shear
stresses induced also increasing at some point shear stress induced in the sheet will be greater
than (or) equal to the ultimate shear stress. The shearing (or) cracking is started to taking edge of
punch and die propagating in their respective directions and meeting somewhere in the mid cross-
section. Hence the piece has got separated from the sheet producing hole in the sheet. The
mechanism by which cutting action taking place is shearing and tearing.
By maintaining optimum clearance between punch and die, it is possible to ensure
that the crack propagation can meet somewhere in the mid cross-section
Let c= optimum radial clearance = 0.0032t c
Where t = thickness of sheet c = ultimate shear strength shear strength of sheet
material
Note:
1) Punching
Punch size = Hole size
Die size =Punch size + clearance
2) In blanking
Die size = Blank size
Punch size = Die size – clearance
The selection of punch and die size is properly based on the burnishing area produced
on the respective useful components. Burnishing area is on which the zig zag edges of
the components is converted into straight and smooth edges.

- 149 -
Q. Calculate the punch size in mm, for a circular blanking operation for which
details
1) size of blank = 25mm 2) thickness of the sheet= 2mm
3) Radial clearance between punch and die = 0.06mm 4) die allowance = 0.05mm
a) 24.83 b) 24.89 c) 25.01 d) 25.17
Sol: Condition is blanking operation
Size of blank =25mm = punch+ clearance
In question die given die allowance = 0.05mm
Blank size = punch dia + clearance+ die allowance
Punch dia = blank size - 2  radial clearance – Die allowance
= 25 - 2  0.06 – 0.05
= 24.83mm
Q. It is require to punch a hole of diameter 10mm on a sheet of thickness 3mm. The
shear strength of the work material is 420MPa. The required punch force is
a) 19.78kN b) 39.58kN c) 98.9kN d) 395.6kN
Sol: Diameter =10mm, thickness=3mm=t, shear strength=420MPa
Force=shear strength  shear area  420  ( D  t)  39.58kN

Work done (or) energy require:

Work done = energy= force  distance =FMax  K
K= % penetration required for completing shearing action = % thickness =20 to 60%
Where 20% is for soft materials, 60% is for hard materials

Methods of reducing force: Whenever a component is to produced which requires large amount
of force but the available capacity to use the method of reducing punch force in punching and
blanking.
Fmax=  U  A s c =Ultimate stress
As=shear area
 U = constant for a particular material of particular room temperature
In normal punching (or) blanking operations, the total sheared area will be cut of a time
forces required is high. Instead of this if the sheared area is divided into partitions and cutting
continuous slowing so that at any point of time the sheared area under cutting action is less than
total sheared area. Hence force required is less.

1) By providing shear:-
By grinding the faces of the punch (or) die. The punch (or) die face can be made inclined
called as provision of shear.

Work done with shear = work done without shear

F(Kt+I)= Fmax  K K=% thickness
F F
F = max
(K  I)

- 150 -
Q. In shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5mm thickness is cut along a length of 200mm.
The cutting blode is 400mm long [see figure] and zero shear (s=0) is provided on the edge.
The ultimate shear strength of the sheet is 100Mpa and penefration to thickness ratio is 0.2.
Neglect friction.

1. Assuming force vs development curve to be rectangular, the work done (in J)

a) 100 b) 200 c) 250 d) 300
Ans: (A)
2. A shear displacement curve to be trapezoidal. The maximum force (in KN)
excreted is
a) 5 b) 10 c) 20 d) 40
Ans:- (B)
Sol: t = 5mm Length = 200mm=L
Lt = cutting tool length = 400mm
k
Zs= 100Mpa =0.2  k=0.2t
t
(w) work done = force  force displacement
=F  kt
Fmax=zst  L=200  5  100
=100  103N
W = 100  103  (5  10-3  0.2)
=100NM=100J
2) Work done without inclination =work done with inclination
100 = F(k+s)
100
F =  9.09  103  10KN
5  0.2  10   10 3
Deep drawing: It is forming operation in which the forces are applied on the material such that
stress induced is greater than the yield and less than the ultimate stress. So that material is
experiencing plastic deformation to change the shape of component

Deep drawing operation is used for producing cupshaped components only

h
 0.5 deep drawing
d
h
< 0.5 shallow drawing
d
r= corner radius of cup
d
If >20 corner radius is negligible
r
d r
= 15 to 20 corner radius is =
r 2
d
=10 to 15 corner radius = r
r
One side surface area of blank = one side surface of part
 2  2
D = d  dh
4 4

- 151 -
  2  2
D  d  4dh 
4 4
D  d 2  4dh
2)

d1 =blank diameter, d2 = Component diameter

 2   2
d 2  d1h  d12   d 2  d1 
4 4 4

3)

 2  2 d d
D  d 2  d avg  h d avg  1 2
4 4 2
D= d12  2  d1  d 2  h

Punch and die deep drawing operation:-

For deep drawing operation also punch die combination can be used for producing cup shaped
components. But the clearance between punch and die is equal to the sheet thickness. When force is
applied by used by punch without shearing (or) cutting action. The sheet will be simply pulled into
the die to produce the required shape If the deep drawing operation is preformed in a single stage
even though the average stress induced in component is found to be less than ultimate, some
localized areas are experiencing the stress greater than the ultimate stress due to stress
concentration problem. Hence localized area may experience cracks which leaks to leakage. Taking
places during usage of component. To avoid this problem it is always recommended to perform the
deep drawing operation in more than one stage. So that force applied in a given stage. Is less and
cracking tendacy will be elimated.

General formula = d 2  4dh =D

D= d12  4d 1h1
= d 22  4d 2 h 2
= d 32  4d 3 h 3
Load estimation:
- 152 -
 D 
P= dt y   c  [General formula]
d 
D 
P1= d1t y   c 
 d1 
D 
P2= d 2 t y   c 
 d2 
C = constant to cover friction, bending, corner radius = 0.6 +0.07
Note:- By neglecting friction, bending and corner radius [c=0]
Blank holder force:- (BHF)
When the force is applied by using on to the Blank the edges of the blank are lifting
upwards which produces wrinkles on the deep drawn components and makes appearances of the
component very bad. To avoid this if it is necessary to avoid the lifting of the edges of the Blank. For
this some amount of force has to be applied on the blank without lifting the edges of the blank. This
force is called blank holder force.
BHF < D.F DF= Drawing Force
1
B>H>F = D.F
3
 The partially deep drawn component is divided into ‘3’ zones.

Zone – 1: [Bottom of punch zone]

Stress induced are (1) without BHF = No stress will be induced
(2) with BHF = tensile
Zone – 2: [Deformation zone]
Tensile;
Without BHF
With BHF
Zone – 3 [Flange portion]
Without BHF = tensile in 2 direction and compressive in 3rd direction
With BHF = pure tensile.
Note:- Stress induced in zone – 2 are only response for changing the shape of the
component.
5.9.3. Measuring of formability:
There are some tests by which we can measure the formability
1. Cupping test:

When punching, after some time necking will appear so before the neck has appeared how much the
amount of height it is moved is known as Limiting Dome Height (LDH), a measure of formability.
Sheet will be restricted to move by draw bead. Higher is LDH more will be formability of shut
material.
2. Formability limit diagrams:

- 153 -
 In deep drawing process when we take circles on the space of upper portion and deform the
material, there it will form an ellipse and the major and minor axis will form. By using that a graph
is formed between major and minor strains of deformed circle, that is called formability limit
diagrams.
5.9.4. Common defects in deep drawing:

Fig 5.31: Deep Drawing detects

Wrinkling occurs in the flange when compressive stresses in the circumferential direction reach a
critical point of instability. It can occur in regions where the work piece is unsupported or when the
blank holding force is insufficient. Wrinkling detect is shown in Fig. 5.31. (1) and (2). The wrinkling
can be prevented by increasing blank holder force and using a draw bead. The draw bead bends and
unbends the work piece material as it passes through the blank holder. This bending over the bead
increases the radial tensile stresses and thus reduces the possibility of wrinkling. As discussed in
the previous section that to increase the draw ratio of the material Re-drawing operation is being
performed. When Re-drawing is performed near the LDR value, step rings Fig.5.31.(3) appears in
the drawn cup. These step rings appears at the position of neck. To avoid this defect, redrawing
operation is performed at a lower value of draw ratio.

Due to the improper finish of the die surface, draw marks Fig.5.31.(4) appears on the drawn
cup. Surface of the die generally due to improper lubrication between the blank and the die. It
should be noted that higher will be the draw ratio when the punch is made rough and die is made
smooth.

Orange peel Fig.5.31.(5) appears in the drawn cup due to coarse grain structure of the drawn
material and it can be avoided by refining the grain structure of material. Heavy scratches over the
drawn cup fig.5.31.(6) may be appearance of yield point phenomenon in the material. So the sheet
material must be consumed within the strain aging time of the material. Fracture [Fig.5.31.(7) and
(8)] occurs when the sheet metal is subjected to strains exceeding the safe strain limits of the
material. For ductile sheets this fracture usually occurs near the punch corner. These fractures
appear when the draw ratio of the material exceeds LDR or when the blank holding force is more
then the required.
Due to non-symmetric placement of blank over, the defect called mis-strike Fig.5.31.(9)
appears in the drawn cup.
Deep drawing of anisotropic sheets results in a drawn cup with uneven top edge i.e. some
kind of ears are formed at the top as shown in Fig.5.31(10). This defect called earing and its because
of planar anisotropy of the blank material. As discussed earlier, ironing is performed to make the
thickness of drawn cup uniform. Excessive ironing causes burshing over the wall region of the
drawn cup.

- 154 -
5.10. BENDING
Bending is the cold working process involving plastic deformation in which the total surface
area remains constant. In bending the outer fibers of the metal are tension while the inner fibers
are in compressions. After bending when the load is removed from work piece, the extent of bending
will decrease because of elastic recovery which is called spring back, this is because materials have
finite modulus of elasticity. Bending can be defined as process of fabrication of a sheet metal by
uniform straining around a straight axis which lies in the neutral plane and normal to the
lengthwise direction of the sheet or strip. These processes involve a punch and die arrangement.
The punch hits the blank and pushes it inside the die cavity which gives the blank as shape of the
die. The shape of punch and die play an important role in giving shape to the blank. Sheet metal
bending process takes place with the help of a press. Apart from using punch and dies we also use
grippers that hold the part during and in between the process. There are various types of process
that are used in bending
a) Air bending: Air bending is one of the most common methods that are used for sheet metal
bending process. In this process the punch only touches the blank that is sufficient to give if the
required shape and the angle. In other words the punch doesn’t traverse till the end of the die
cavity. After the punch travels back, the sheet metal springs back and is of lesser bend than the
punch. In air bending process there is no need to change the dies and other necessary equipments
to achieve different bend angles as the bend angles depend upon the punch stroke. Also smaller
forces are required to bend the sheets but it does require accurate control of punch stroke to achieve
required bend angles.
b) Bottoming: In bottom bending process, the punch bottoms the blank into the die cavity. The
amount of spring back is very less in this method. The forces involved are higher (approximately 50-
60% more) than air bending.
c) Coining: Coining is bending process where we bottom the blank and apply compressive stress to
increase the amount of plastic deformation of the bent region. This helps in reducing the spring
back. The inner radius of the work piece should be 0.75 times the material thickness. Very high
forces are required and hence large capacity machines are used. 5 to 8 times the tonnage of the air
bending are required. This increases the machine cost rapidly but extremely high precision bend is
achieved due to elimination of spring back.
d) Other bending process: In V-Bending process the clearance between the punch and die is
constant. It is taken as the sheet thickness itself. U-bending is a process where we get two parallel
bending axis in the same operation. A backing pad is used force the sheet contacting with the sheet
bottom. Around 30% of force is requires at the pad where the sheet bottom comes in contact with
the pad. The type of bending process which includes bending of only some portion of the sheet is
called flanging. The type of flange and the angle of bend can be adjusted accordingly.

Bend allowance: The length of neutral axis in the curvature region of bend is called bend
allowance. In order to estimate the required flat work piece length to make a bend, calculation of
bend allowance is essential.

- 155 -
 Bend allowance = θ(R+Kt)
Where t = Sheet thickness, θ =Angle in radians, R=Bend radius, K=Stretch factor
= 0.33 when R<2t
=0.5 when R>2t
It is length of neutral axis in the bend region.
Notching: It is complete removal of small portion of material on the edge of sheet metal.
Lancing: It is creating a tab on the edge without removal of material.
Slitting: It is creating a tab in the middle of sheet.
Nibbling: By using a small punch and die assembly the process of creating a profile is called
nibbling.
Perforating: It is a process of producing large number of holes in the sheet metal.
Parting: Shearing the sheet into two or more pieces.

- 156 -
 Chapter-7: Metrology
Metrology is defined as a science of measurement. Metrology is also defined as precision of
measurement. Metrology is also defined as accuracy measurement.
Precision: Precision means Repeatability/ Reproductability of measurements.
Accuracy: Nearness to the true value
Limits, Tolerances and fits:
Limit: The variation permitted on the given dimension is called limit
Tolerance: The total variation permitted on given dimension is called tolerances
Ex:- Diameter of cylinder = diameter of piston = 50mm
Because it is difficult to manufacture the components to the exact dimensions. It is always
permitted to vary the dimensions of the component. Whenever the dimensions of a component is
permitted to vary, it always gives a range of dimensions.
0.15 0.00
Cylinder 500.0 Shift 500.15
Range = 0.15 Range = 0.15
This range is called Tolerance. The dimensions 50.00mm is called lower limit. The dimensions
50.15mm is called upper limit.
Tolerances  Upper limit  Lower limit

What is difficult in manufacturing component to exact dimension:-

During manufacturing of a component 3M are involved. i.e., Material, Man and machine.
These three are making difficult to manufacture the component to the exact dimension.
(1) The method of Rupturing of the material during machining operation. It
(2) is difficult to manufacture the components to exact dimensions.
(2) The efficiency in setting of workpiece and tool during machining by the operator is influencing
the dimension of component obtained during machining.
(3) The presence of errors in the machine tool like straightness and flatness errors of guide ways,
run out error of spindle etc will be transferred on to the workpiece and making it difficult to
manufacture the components to exact dimension.
(4) The amount of tolerance to be provided on the dimension of component is based on the cost and
functionality.

1) As tolerance  Cost of manufacturing 

2) As tolerance  Functionality 
Types of Tolerances:-
1. Unilateral Tolerance 2) Bilateral Tolerance

1) Unilateral Tolerance:-
If the total variation permitted on the given dimension is on only one side of given
dimension. It is called unilateral tolerance.
0.1 0.10
eg:- 1) 500.0 2) 500.30
Manufacturing of the components with unilateral tolerance is difficult and costly. Generally
they can be provided on both mating and non mating parts.

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2) Bilateral Tolerance:-
If the variation permitted on the given dimension is at both the sides of given dimension is
called as bilateral tolerance.
0.2
Ex: 50  0.1 , 500.05
Manufacturing of bilateral tolerance components are easier. It mainly used for non mating parts.
Mating parts:-
After the assembly if one part is moving inside another part, the assembly is called as
mating assembly.
Ex:- piston and cylinder of IC engine
Non mating parts:-
After the assembly if one part is not moving inside another part it is called non-mating
assembly.
Ex: Flywheel on the shaft.
Tolerance Accumulation:-
When a component is having more than one dimension (or) an assembly is having more than
one component. So that the total tolerance on the component is equal to the sum of the individual
tolerance called as tolerance accumulation.

0.1 0.1 0.2

L1  500.05 , L 2  800.1 , L 2  400.1
L Max  L1 Max  L2 Max  L3 Max
=50.1 + 80.1 + 40.2 = 170.4
L Min  L1 Min  L 2 Min  L3 Min
= 49.95 + 79.90 + 39.90 = 169.75
Tolerance = upper limit (LMax) – Lower limit (LMin)
=170.4 – 169.75 = 0.65
Note: Tolerance accumulation is a dangerous situation because even through individual tolerance
are very small, but the total tolerance on component will be very large. Tolerance accumulation will
be eliminated by using progressive dimensioning
Progressive dimensioning:- If each and every dimension of a component in assembly is specified
with reference to only one single reference. It is also taken as reference point is called progressive
dimensioning.

Ex: Suppose L3 (Maximum) and L3 (Minimum) unknown from fig(b)

L3(Max
c d
 a b

)  L (max)   L1 (Min )  L 2 (Min ) 

L3(Max
c d
 a b

)  L Min   L1 (Max )  L 2 (Max ) 

Q. A Part show in the figure machined to size given below. P=35.00  0.08mm
0.04
Q=12.00  0.02mm R=13.00
0.02mm
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 with 100% confidence, the resultant dimension ‘W’ will have the specification
a) 9.99  0.03mm b) 9.99  0.03mm c) 10.00  0.03mm d) 10.00  0.13mm
Solution:
  Lower Limit  34.92mm
P
  Upper Limit  35.08mm
  Upper Limit  12.02mm
Q
  Lower Limit  11.98mm
  Upper Limit  13.04mm
R
  Lower Limit  12.98mm

Lower lim it  ?
W
Upper lim it  ?
Upper limit Lw (Max)= PMax – (QMin + RMin)
(or)
= PUpper Limit – [QLower limit + RLower limit] = 35.08 – [11.98 + 12.98]
= 10.12mm
Lower limit Lw (Min) = PMin – (QMax+RMax)
=34.92 – [12.02 + 13.04] = 9.86mm
Tolerances = 10.12 – 9.86 = 0.26
Terminology:-
Basic size:- It is the size based on which limits and tolerance of a component can be specified
conveniently. Sometimes the basic size and Nominal size will be equal.
Deviation:- The amount by which the limit of a component is deviated from basic size is called as
deviation.
Upper deviation: The amount by which the Upper limit is deviating from basic size is called
Upper deviation.Between higher limit and basic size.
Lower deviation:- The amount by which lower limit is deviating from basic size is called as lower
deviation. It is also taken as difference between lower limit and basic size.
Fundamental deviation (F.D):- How far tolerance zone is situated from basic size it is distance
between the zero line and limit closer to it.
Note: (1) Upper limit of shaft and lower limit of hole are called maximum material limit.
(2) Lower limit of shaft and upper limit of hole are called minimum material limit.
Allowance:- Difference between maximum material limit of hole and shaft.
Maximum Material Limit (M.M.L):-
The limit of shaft at which the material present on the shaft is maximum is called maximum
material limit.
MML of shaft = U.L of shafts U.L = Upper Limit
MML of hole = L.L of the hole L.L = Lower Limit

Minimum Material Limit (M.M.L):-

The limit of shaft at which the material present on the shaft is minimum is called Minimum
Material Limit.
M.M.L of shaft = L.L of shaft, M.M.L of hole = U.L of hole.

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 Fits
The relationship between the hole and shaft during the assembly is called fit.
There are 3 – types of fits
a) Clearance fit
b) Interference fit
c) Transition fit
a) Clearance fit:- If Lower limit of hole is larger than the upper limit of shaft. It is called clearance
fit.

b) Interference fit:- If maximum size of hole is smaller than the minimum size of shaft then force
has to be applied to make the assembly. Such fits are called interference fits.

c) Transition fit:- This type of fit appears when there is overlap in the tolerance zones. Physically
it indicates that when a part is selected randomly from hole and a shaft lot, some of the assemblies
can be made without the application of force and for some of the assemblies force will be required.
0.040
Q. In an interchangeable assembly, shaft of size 25.000.0100 mm mate with holes of size
0.02
25.00 0.00 mm. The maximum possible clearance in the assembly will be
a) 10 microns b) 20 microns c) 30 microns d) 60 microns
0.04
Sol: Shaft = 250.01
Minimum shaft size = 25.00 – 0.04 = 24.96mm
Maximum shaft size = 25.00 – 0.01 = 24.99mm
0.02
Hole = 250.00
Minimum hole size = 25.00 – 0.00 = 25.00mm
Maximum hole size = 25.00 + 0.02 = 25.02mm
Maximum possible clearance = maximum size of hole – minimum size of shaft
= 25.02 – 24.96 = 0.060mm = 60microns
0.015 0.01
Q. A hole is of dimensions 9 0.00 mm. The corresponding shaft is of dimensions 90.001 mm. The
resulting assembly has.
a) Loose running fit b) Close running fit c) Transition fit d) Interference fit
Sol:

The dimensions of shaft in between the hole dimensions. It is called as transition fit.
0.009
Q. A shaft has a dimension 350.025 . The respective values of fundamental deviation and
tolerance are
a) – 0.025,  0.008 b) – 0.025, 0.016 c) – 0.009,  0.008 d) – 0.009, 0.016
Sol:

Fundamental deviation = - 0.009

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 Tolerance = 34.991 – 34.975 = 0.016
Basis of fits
Hole basis:- In this hole is made first approximately nearer to required dimensions and shaft is
made slowly such that it can be assembled into hole according to required assembly conditions.

Shaft basis:- If the shaft is made first approximately nearer to the required dimensions and
enlarge the hole. Such that it can assembled on the shaft. According to require assembly conditions
as show in fig(b).
Note: (1) In the above two basis hole basis system is most commonly used because in hole basis
system, reducing diameter of shaft requires one single point cutting tool and Lathe Machine.
(2) Where as in shaft basis, to enlarge hole if require many number of reamer are required. Which
is costly and difficult to do.
(3) So hole system is mostly preferred.
(4) It is denoted by capital letters in Indian standard A to Z [hole]
(5) It is denoted by small letters in Indian – standard a to z.

Some of the alphabets are missing and some extra alphabets are there e.g. js, za, zb and so on. Value
of fundamental deviation for ‘A’ type hole will be same ‘a’ type of shaft with a difference of sign and
so on. All fundamental deviation has empirical formulas. An assembly is made up of a combination
of hole and shaft. In this assembly if ‘H’ type of hole and appears, the system is called hole basis
system and if ‘h’ type of shaft is present it is called shaft basis system.

Fundamental deviation is also expressed as the distance between zero line and the limit closer to it
i.e. either EI or eS . Any information in capital letters refers to hole and any information given in
smaller letters refers to shaft.
It is common sense that large size shaft and small size hole will have more material. So these limits
are called Maximum material limit and lower limits of shaft or upper limit of hole is called
Minimum material limits. A fit is defined as the relationship between hole and shaft before
assembly.
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1.6.1 Width of Tolerance zone
There are three systems used in the world.
1. British Standard BS-4500-1969
2. International Standard ISO: 286-1988 3. Indian Standard IS – 919
But standards of fundamental deviation and width of tolerance zone are same. As discussed
previously there are 25 different types of fundamental deviation that are standardized. For the
tolerance width initial recommendation was to vary according to cubical expression.

i = 0.45 3 D  0.001D
It can be seen from the fig. 1.17 that as the basic size increases the tolerances will also
increase. For larger basic size it is not possible to control the tolerance preciously. But the major
problem appeared when the basic size increases slightly e.g. from 24 to 24.5mm, there is a change
in tolerance values. So later on it was decided that there will be same tolerances between certain
diameter range. This diameter are standardized as
Above (mm) Upto and Including (mm) Above (mm) Upto and including (mm)
--- 3 80 120
3 6 120 180
6 10 180 250
10 18 250 315
18 30 315 400
30 50 400 500
50 80
The curve of fundamental tolerance ‘i’ passes through the geometric of this diameter range as
shown in fig. 1.18. So in all the formulas of tolerance and fundamental deviation, the geometric
mean diameter will be used. Initially there were 16 grades of tolerance zones. 2 more tolerance
grades were added for precision industries.

These tolerances were arranged in the five step preferred series i.e. every fifth step will be multiple
of 10 and the series approximate geometric series. The calculation is shown in the table.
IT 01 IT 0 IT 1 IT 2 IT 3
0.3 + 0.008 D 0.5 + 0.012 D 0.8 + 0.02 D ar ar2
i a
IT 4 IT 5 IT 6 IT 7 IT 8
ar3 (10)4/5 = 6.31 i 10 i 10(10)1/5 i = 10(10)2/5 i =
ar4  7i 15.8 i  16 I 25.11 i  25 i
IT 9 IT 10 IT 11 IT 12 IT 13
10(10) i = 40 i
3/5 10(10) i 64 i
4/5 100 i 160 i 250 i
IT 14 IT 15 IT 16
400 i 640 i 1000 i
This series does not follow any rule that is why it is called modified 5 step preferred series. At
present
IT 01 to IT 1  Empirical formula

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IT 1 to IT 5  Exact geometric series
IT 5 to IT 16  Preferred series
Suppose a hole and shaft assembly is designated by 25H7d8. 25 indicates the basic size ‘H’ is the
type of hole with of tolerance zone IT 7. ‘d’ is the type of shaft with IT 8 is the width of tolerance
zone. This can be represented by following fit diagram.

When the tolerance zone is only on one side of zero line, it is called unilateral. When tolarence zone
is on both side of zero line it is called bilateral.

Example: 1.4
A hole and shaft have a basic size of 30mm and are to have a clearance fit with
maximum clearance of 0.04mm and a minimum clearance of 0.2mm. The hole tolerance is
to be 1.5times the shaft clearance. Determine limits for both hole and shaft using:
Solution: (1). Hole basis system X+0.02+1.5 = 0.04
X = 0.008mm  1.5X = 0.012mm
Hole  Max = 30.012mm, Min = 30.00mm
Shaft  Max = 29.98mm, Min = 29.972mm

(2). Shaft basis system

X + 0.02 + 1.5X = 0.04
X = 0.008mm
 1.5X = 0.012mm
Hole  Max = 30.032mm
Min = 30.02mm
Hole  Max = 30.00mm
Min = 29.992mm
Example: 1.5
Calculate the fundamental deviation and tolerance and hence the limits of the size
for the shaft and hole following fit 64mm H8f7. The diameter steps are steps are
50mm and 80mm. For shaft designation f, upper deviation is assumed as – 5.5 D0.41:
Data: For Tolerance
H8 25 i
F7 16 i
Sol: Since 64 falls between diameter range of 50 to 80 so.
D = 50  80 =63.24mm
Fundamental tolerance i = 0.45D1/3 + 0.001D =1.856microns
We should note here that although input
D is in mm but I is in microns.
IT 7 = 16 i = 29.69microns = 0.0296mm
IT 8 = 25 i = 46.4microns = 0.046mm
Fundamental deviation for ’f’ type of shaft
1 = - 5.5D0.41=5.5(63.24)0.41=-30.11microns = - 0.03mm
Hole  Max = 64.046mm, Min = 64.00mm 640.046
0.0

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 Shaft  Max = 63.97mm, Min = 63.941mm 640.03
0.059

Allowance = 0.03mm
Example: 1.6 A medium force fit H7p6 is specified for an assembly of a hand wheel on a
shaft of 50mm nominal dia. Calculate
1. The dimensions of hole
2. The dimensions of shaft
3. Maximum interference
4. Minimum interference
Given the following:
The fit diagram of above problem is

Nominal Limits of tolerance for p6 shaft in microns

Over Upto and including es ei
+ +
40 50 42 26
50 65 51 32
Limits of tolerance for H7 hole in microns
Over Upto and including ES EI
30 50 25 0
50 80 30 0
Solution:
The fit diagram of above problem is
1. Hole  Max = 50.025mm, Min = 50.00mm 500.025
0

Shaft  Max = 50.042mm, Min = 50.026mm 500.042

0.026

2. Maximum interference = 0.042mm

3. Minimum interference = 0.026 – 0.025 = 0.001mm
Example: 1.7 Determine and sketch the limits of tolerance and allowance for a 75mm
shaft and hole pair designated H7s8. The basic size lies in the range of 50 – 80mm. The
multipliers for grades 7 and 8 are 16 and 25 respectively. The fundamental deviation for
‘s’ shaft is (IT 7 + 0.4D) microns.
Sol:

D = 50  80 = 63.24mm
Fundamental tolerance i = 0.45D1/3+0.001D = 0.45(63.24)1/3+0.001(63.24)=1.85microns
Hole  Max = 75.029mm, Min = 75.00mm
Shaft  Max = 75.10mm, Min = 75.054mm
Allowance = Maximum interference = 0.054 + 0.046 = 0.10mm
Example: 1.8For each of the following shaft and hole pair, calculate shaft tolerance, hole
tolerance and analyze whether the pair is,
1. Clearance fit
2. Transition fit
3. Interference fit

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 Pair 1: Hole - 50+0.50 -0.02
+0.00 mm Shaft - 50+0.005 mm

Pair 2: Hole - 50+0.25 +0.05

+0.00 mm Shaft - 50+0.005 mm

Pair 3: Hole - 50+0.04 +0.07

+0.00 mm Shaft - 50+0.04 mm

Sketch the three fits on the same zero line.

Sol:

Hole tolerance = 0.5mm Hole tolerance = 0.25mm

Shaft tolerance = 0.005 + 0.002 = 0.025mm Shaft tolerance = 0.05 – 0.005 = 0.045mm

Hole tolerance = 0.04mm

Shaft tolerance = 0.07 – 0.04 = 0.03mm
Example: 1.9 A 35mm diameter shaft and bearing are to be assembled with a clearance
fit. The tolerance and allowance are as under.
Allowance = 0.003mm
Tolerance on hole = 0.007mm
Tolerance on shaft = 0.002mm
Find the limits of size for the hole and shaft if
1. Hole basis system is used
2. Shaft basis system is used
The tolerances are disposed of unilaterally.
Sol: Allowance = Minimum clearance
1. Hole basis system
Hole  Max = 35.007mm, Min. =35.00mm
Shaft  Max = 34.997mm, Min. = 34.995mm
2. Shaft basis system
Hole  Max = 35.01mm, Min. =35.003mm
Shaft  Max = 34.00mm, Min. = 34.998mm

Example: 1.10
The hole and shaft assembly of 30mm nominal size have tolerance specified
30+0.02 -0.04
-0.00 mm for hole and 30-0.07 mm for shaft. Determine

1. Maximum and minimum (interference) attainable

2. Allowance
3. Hole and shaft tolerance
4. Fundamental deviation
5. MML for shaft and hole
6. Type of fit.
- 165 -
Sol: 1. Maximum clearance = 0.09mm
Minimum clearance = 0.04mm
2. Allowance = Minimum clearance = 0.04m
3. Hole tolerances = 0.02mm
Shaft tolerances = 0.03mm
4. Fundamental deviation of shaft = 0.04mm
5. Maximum Material Limit for hole = 30.00mm
Maximum Material Limit for shaft = 29.96mm
6. Clearance fit
Limit gauge:-
The gauges used for inspecting the limits of a component by a method called as inspection by
attributes. It is called as limit gauges.
Methods of Inspection:-
1) Inspection by variable
2) Inspection by attributes.
If each and every dimension of a component is measured physically by some equipment
based on the dimensions obtained. If it is falling within the limits of a component specified. The
component is said to be acceptable and if it is falling out of the limit of the component is said to be
rejectable. This is called as inspection by variable method.
Without measuring the dimensions of a component, physically the component can be inspected by
using GO and NO GO gauges. If the GO gauges is entering into the component and NO GO gauge is
not entering into the component. The component is said to be acceptable. If both the gauge are
entering (or) both the gauges are not entering the component is said to be rejected. This is called as
inspection by attributes.
The gauges are designed according to Taylor’s principle:-
Statement - 1
Go gauges are designed on maximum material condition. No Go are designed on minimum
material condition.

Plug gauges :- Holes will be inspected by using gauges having a shaft shape. It is called plug
gauge.

If the GO plug gauge goes inside the hole. It means size of hole is greater than go gauge.
When NO GO plug Gauge does not go inside hole. It means size of hole is less than NO GO gauge it
is means hole is in correct tolerance.
Note:
1) If GO Gauge does not goes inside hole. It means undersize hole
2) If NO GO Gauge is goes inside the hole. It means over size.
Statement – 2
GO and NO GO gauge must be designed to check size as well as shape of the component.
Ring Gauge:- Shaft will be inspected by using gauge having ring shape. It is called ring gauge.
The limit gauge also has to be manufactured by the worker in the industry. It is required to
provide some amount of limits and tolerance on limit gauges.
Gauge tolerance = 10% work tolerances.
Since gauge moving in the complete working length to check size as well as shape of hole (or)
1
shaft. There will be wear on the GO Gauge. In some cases wear allowances which is th of gauge
10
tolerance are provided on the gauge. Wear allowance is provided on the gauge only when work
tolerance is greater than 0.1mm.
Wear allowances = 10% Gauge tolerance.

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Gauge material:-
The properties of material required to make gauge are
(1) Since Go Gauge moves repeatedly over the complete working length so wear should be
minimum.
(2) Lower coefficient of thermal expansion:- since difference in the go and NO GO gauge is very
small. Even slight change in dimension will make the gauge correct.
3. Machinability:-
To finish if to exact size
4. Better corrosion resistances
The commonly used materials are
a) High carbon steel
b) Mild steel
c) Inver (36% Ni) and Elinver(42% Ni)
d) Glass: This material is having specific having application in ordnance factories to check the size
of gun. Sometimes by accident gauge falls from the hand of operator and produces micro burr which
is not visible from naked eyes. When GO gauges with this burr moves inside the barrel it produces
scratches which can be very fatel. So glass is the material which is used in used in such cases
because when gauge falls down it breaks and the operator has to use another one.
Example: 1.12
Design in general type GO and NO GO gauges for components having 255H8/f9 fit.
The basic size falls in the diameter range of 18-30mm. The fundamental deviation for ‘f’
shaft = (-5.5D0.4)microns. The multiplier for 8 and 9 grades are 25 and 40. Take wear
allowance as 10% of gauge tolerance. Sketch the gauge with values.
Sol: Fundamental tolerance i = 0.45(D)1/3+0.001D
D = D max  D min  18  30 =23.23mm
i = 0.45(23.23)1/3+0.001(23.23)=1.30 m
Tolerance of hole = 25i = 32.68  's =0.032mm
Tolerance on plug gauges = 0.0032mm
Tolerances of shaft = 40i = 0.052mm
Tolerance on ring gauges = 0.0052mm
Fundamental deviation of ‘f’ type of shaft is
f =-5.5(23.23)0.4=19.35 m =0.019mm

Since work tolerance is less than 0.1mm so no wear allowance will be given on GO gauge. So
Max  25.0032 Max  24.981mm
GO GO
Min  25.0mm Min  24.9758mm
Plug Ring
Max  25.0352mm Max  24.929mm
NOGO NOGO
Min  25.032mm Min  24.9238mm
1.11 SLIP GAUGES
Slip gauges are rectangular pieces of block used to establish datum for length industries.
These gauges are available in 2 seats.
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 Normal set M 45
Range (mm) Steps (mm) No. of steps
1.001 – 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 – 1.09 0.01 9
1.1 – 1.9 0.1 9
1–9 1 9
10 – 90 10 9
Total = 45
Specific set M 87
Range(mm) Steps(mm) No. of steps
1.001 – 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 – 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 – 9.5 0.5 19
10 – 90 10 9
1.005 - 1
Total = 87
Let us build the dimensions 25.832mm by using normal and special sets. We begin from the
last digit move towards first digit.
Normal set:
25.832  choose slip gauge of 1.002mm
25.832 – 1.002 = 24.83  choose slip gauge of 1.03mm
24.83 – 1.03 = 23.8  choose slip of 1.8mm
23.8 – 1.8 = 22mm  choose slip gauge of 2mm
22 – 2 = 20mm  choose slip gauge of 1.8mm 20mm
So by wringing these 5 gauges the required dimensions can be build up. The facts of the slip
gauges are around and polished so that by wringing there will be fusion between the two
surfaces.
Special set:
25.832  choose slip gauge of 1.002mm
25.832 – 1.002 = 24.83  choose slip gauge of 1.33mm
24.83 – 1.33 = 23.5  choose slip gauge of 3.5mm
23.5 – 3.5 = 20mm  choose slip gauge of 20mm
It can be noticed here that by using special set the dimensions can be build by using only 4
gauges instead of 5. This makes the dimensions more accurate because every slip gauge will have
some tolerance and overall build up dimensions tolerance sink.

So more is the no. of slip gauges used more inaccurate the dimensions will be. That is why it is said
that dimension has to build with minimum no. of slip gauges.
1.12 ANGLE BLOCKS
Angle blocks are hardened steel blocks similar to slip gauges but it is used for angle
measurement. Top and bottom surface of the block is ground and polished. Inclined surface defines
angle from the flat surface as shown in fig. 1.37. In a typical set of angle block following angles are
present.

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 Table
Degrees 1 3 9 27 41
Minutes 1 3 9 27
Fractions of minutes 0.05 0.1 0.3 0.5
By using these 13 blocks and an optical square angle between 00 to 3600 can be made. e.g. if
we want to make 40 angle surface ‘a’ has to be wringed on surface ‘b’. This will make addition of
angles as shown in fig. 1.38 (i).

If subtraction of angle has to be done (e.g. to make angle 20) surface ‘b’ has to be wringed on surface
‘b‘ as shown in fig. 1.38 (ii).
1.13 SINEBAR
It is used for indirect measurement of an angle of a machined surface. High carbon and high
Chromium material are used for sine bar as it gives good surface finish (~0.2  's ). Two rollers of
exact size are attached to the body of sine bar. These exact size rollers are made by turning a shaft
in a single operation and then driving it into two halves.
For calculating angle  initially the dimensions is being build by using slip gauges (as shown in fig.
1.39(ii)). These measurements are conducted by keeping the assembly on a surface plate. In the
h
given figure  can be calculated as sin  =
L

ldh  hdl
Differentiating the above equation cos d =
l2
dh h dl
cos d  
l l l
Where d is the error in angle measurement. dh is tolerance sink un-slip gauge dimensional
build up and dl is error in center and center distance of slip gauge. Since slip gauges are highly
accurate dh can be neglected as compared to dl, so

- 169 -
 h dl dl
cos d     sin 
l l l
dl
or d   tan 
l
It can be seen in the above expression that error in angle measurement is directly proportional to
tan  . The value of tan  increases suddenly and approaches infinity when the angle increases above
450. So sine bars are not used measurement angle beyond 450. Also holes are made in the body of
sine bar to make the entire assembly light.
1.14 PRECISION BALL MEASUREMENT
Standard size of balls and rollers are available for measurement. With the help these balls
along with venire, taper of any Machined component can be measured. This procedure can be
understood by the below examples.
Example: 1.13
Determine the taper of the v grove on a machined component as shown in fig. 1.41.
Sol:

1) Initially keep a roller a radius r1 in the groove and by using height gauge measure h1as the block
is kept on the surface plate. So the reference for all the measurement will be same.
2) After removing the first roller, a large size rollers of radius r2 is kept and height from the top
surface h 2 (as shown in fig. 1.41) is measured.
The angle  is calculated by mathematical calculation as shown:
In O1 O 2 A
O1A = r2  r1
O1O2=  h 2  r1    h1  r1    h 2  h1    r2  r1 
O1A
sin  
O1O2
 h 2  h1  r2  r1 
cosec 
r2  r1
 h  h1 
cosec   2  1
 r2  r1 

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Example: 1.14
Identically the taper of the plug gauge as shown in figure 1.42.

Sol: O2A=h
O1A=(L2-2r) – (L1 – 2r) = L2 – L1
OA
tan   2
O1A
L  L2
tan   1
h
It is understood that there can be many ways to calculate these taper by using precision ball
and rollers but all the methods should be practically feasible and mathematically correct.
Example: 1.15
Determine the taper of internal cavity of a machine part as shown in fig. 1.43.

Sol: By putting 2 different size balls the length L2 is calculated and in both the cases distance AB is
equalized i.e. AO1C
r1 
 tan  
AC 2
AB = L1 + 2r1 + 2AC

=L1 + 2r1 + 2r1 cot  
2
r2 
AO2C  tan  
AD 2

AB = L2 + 2r2 + 2r2 cot  
2
Equating equation (1) and (2)
 
L1 + 2r1 + 2r1 cot   = L2 + 2r2 + 2r2 cot  
2 2

(L1 – L2) + 2(r1  r2 )  2(r2  r1 )cot  
2
   (L  L 2 )  2(r2  r1 )
cot    1
2 2(r2  r1 )
 L  L1 
  2cot 1  2  1
 2(r2  r1 ) 

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1.15 VERNIER CALIPERS AND MICROMETER
If a Vernier calipers and micrometer is having same least count even then micrometer
will be accurate one. It is because in vernier calipers, Vernier scale is moving over a main
scale and there is an area contact. So the reference plane of measurement keeps shifting. If
the contact points are more than3, immediately it introduces redundancy because of because
of change in change reference plane. But in micrometer since there are balls which produces
a point contact, the reference plane does not change So micrometer are accurate.
1.16 TYPES OF ERRORS
There are three types of errors in measuring instruments.
1. System error (systematic error): These errors in the instrument follow a particular
pattern. These errors can be neutralized by calibrating the system.
2. Short period error: These errors may appear due to change in environmental conditions
like humidity, temperature variations in electric instruments, Fluctuations recorded while
conducting tensile test on UTM. These errors can be taken care of by neglecting the the
irrelevant data.
3. Erratic error; These errors appear due to incompleteness of any link. Such error does
not follow any pattern. Their magnitude is also uncertain. So these error does not follow any
pattern. Their magnitude is also uncertain. So these errors have to be eliminated by
inspecting the instrument before starting the experiment.
There are 2 types of mathematical errors that appear during measuring:
X
1. Sine Error:  tan  
d/2
d
X =  
2
Error = M – D = 2X = 2  (d / 2)  
Error = d  

2. Cosine Error: M = L cos 

Error in length = L – M
= M cos  - M
Since  →0 cos  →1
Error  0

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 So cosine error has no significant in measurement. It should also be noted down that to
minimize errors in measurement; spherical ends should be used to measure flat surfaces and
vice versa. It is because we are sure that measurement is done only between 2 points.

1.17 INTERFEROMETRY
A source of monochromatic light is kept at A. two rays are coming out through holes B and C
and their interference is observed on the screen. At the point O the distance moved by both
the rays is same so both the rays will be in phase [Fig. 1.47(i)]. Which results in constructive
interference this produces white band at O. At a point M or N over the screen the distance covered
by both the rays is path difference of  2 . So both rays will be in opposite phase [Fig. 1.47(ii)]. This
results in destructive interference which produces dark band. So alternatively with every  2
path difference there will be dark and white fringes over the screen. This concept can be utilized in
the measurement by using optical flat. Optical flat is a disc made of quartz with thickness of 8 –
10mm and diameter between 25 – 300mm. The top and bottom surfaces of the flat are parallel.

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 As shown in fig. 1.48 an optical flat is kept over a tapered surface under examination which
cannot be seen by naked eyes. L1 is a ray of monochromatic light, a portion of this ray will be
reflected from B and a portion will be transmitted ray will reflect back from the surface and
come out of optical flat from F(as shown). Ray BC and EF. There will be path difference
equal to (BD + DE). If this path difference is equal to  2 there will be a dark band and if
this path difference is  , a white fringe will appear. It should be noted here that when a
rays reflects back from the surface, a path difference of  2 is automatically created. So on
the other end of optical flat the total path difference is (HK + KL). Suppose there are n
fringes seen in optical flat (we count no. of white fringes), then this path differences is equal
to n  .
HK  KL
 = wave length of monochromatic light
So 2HK = n
(n )
 HK=
2
Since the angle is very small so HK can be approximated to a vertical line. Suppose L is the
HK
length of surface  tan   
L
By this equation inclination angle of the surface can be calculated.
1.17.1 Optical flat as comparator
Using optical flat difference in the size of slip gauge can be calculated from a master
reference. Suppose the difference h has to be calculated:
From the similar triangles
h h

L G
 h   G 
 h =   
 2  L 

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 {If n fringes appear in slip gauge}
From the earlier discussion (Fig. 1.48) it can be used understood that by increasing the angle
between optical flat and surface, the wave lengths will quickly multiply  2 , so number of
fringes over the surface will increase and their thickness will go down and opposite will be
the case when the angle decreases.

When the optical flat is kept over a convex surface, from the center towards outward
direction the angle between optical flat and surface will increase. So centeral fringes will be
broad and in the outward direction the fringes will become thinner. Opposite will be the case
when the optical flat is kept over a concave surface. Optical flats are having wide
applications e.g. when it is kept over a slip gauge which has broken edge, the fringes will
converge towards the edge as shown in fig. 1.51.
1.18 STRAIGHTNESS
It is defined as the deviation of surface from ideal straight line. This straightness can be
measured in 3 ways.
1. Straight edge: Straight edge is a piece of block of which one surface is exactly straight.
By keeping this surface on the machine part under investigation, the amount of light coming
from the other side is being observed. If very small amount of light is coming from the
interface, it means measured surface is straight.
2. Spirit level: Surface under examination is divided into number of segments equal to the
size of spirit level. Spirit level is there kept from one segment to another and position of
buddle in it is noted down. The deviations of buddle from the center position are recorded.
Spirit is used in it due to its low viscosity.
3. Autocollimator: As shown in fig. 1.54 the reflector of autocollimator is moved on the
surface and the deviations  are recorded in terms of S  2f . Hence the characteristic
can be plotted on the paper. By joining first and last point, an straight line can be formed
and the deviation of the surface from this ideal straight line can be noted down.

1.19 FLATNESS
Flatness is defined as the departure of surface from ideal flat surface autocollimator or spirit
level is moved along 3 different directions AB, BC and CA as shown in Fig. 1.15. These
movements will identity 3 reference points A, B and C. Through these points a plane can be
defined. Now autocollimator is now move practically in all the possible directions and

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 characteristic of surface is noted down. The deviation of surface from the reference plane is
called flatness.

1.20 COMPARATOR
Comparators are used for measuring the dimensions from a reference value. This is
generally established using slip gauges. To precision in the measurement comparator are not
allowed to move large distance.
Mechanical comparator: The characteristic of mechanical comparators are:
a) Unusually cheaper than the other devices
b) Does not require external power supply to operate.
c) Accuracy in inspection is independent of accuracy in manufacturing different linkages.
d) Usually it has linear scale.
e) More moving linkage linkages which bring down the accuracy.
f) Range of the instrument is limited.
g) Due to the inertia of moving linkages makes the comparator sensitive to machine
vibrations.
1.20.1 Sigma Comparators

Helical springs are not used in metrological instruments because residual stresses develops
in the spring during deflection and it takes time for the system to come back to its original
position. So diaphragm springs with C-slots are used as restoring device. These springs are
in the form of a sheet and C- slots are being provided so that if any amount of residual stress
develop, it is relived. As shown in Fig. 1.56 measuring link is connected with a knife edge to
have a point contact. This edge resets over moving part of floating fulcrum. This ensures a
positive contact between link is connected with the floating fulcrum and on the other side of
which there is metal ribbon and a drum rotates over this ribbon due to the variations of this
ribbon. Due to the variation of size of work pieces, measuring link will move up and down
which will make the cylinder over ribbon to rotate and this results in the deflection of
pointer. A magnet is placed above the link to have uniform pressure over it. By the
movement of link an attractive force will develop between the magnet and measuring link
and upon removing the work piece, sudden jerk will not appear over it.

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1.20.2 Mikrokator
A thin metal strip is given left hand twist on one side and right hand twist on the other, The
central portion will remain neutral. As shown in Fig due to pivot, movement of the
measuring link converts into horizontal increment of the twisted spring. Due to that right
hand side of the spring is either twisted more or twisted less. Due to this imbalance in the
twist causes the central portion to rotate and the deflection can be noted down. The function
of the magnet here is similar to sigma comparator. The twisted spring is perforated all along
its length so that if any amount of residual stresses appears it will be relieved.

1.20.3 Pneumatic comparator:

Pneumatic comparators work on the principle that of an air jet. Upon decreasing the stand –
Off distance, the pressure on the back ground of jet will increase. This pressure is called
back pressure and can be directly related to the measurement. This comparators can be
further be divided into

Two types:
1. Flow type:

The design of head is decided by the geometric feature

under measurement. As shown in Fig. 1.60 depending upon
distance there will be back pressure ‘P2’ and the difference
between (P2 – P1) decides the position of the float. This float
is having aerofoil shape blades so that due to the flow of air it
rotates. If it is stationary, it will stick to the wall of rotameter and
due to static friction between float and tube, the system will become
insensitive to small change in black pressure’P2’. The3 tube is
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slightly tapered to maintain linear relationship in the measurement because air is compressible.
2. Differential type
This comparator is used to compare the two surface i.e, which surface is at higher level and
which is lower. Two pressure streams P1 and P2 does not mix with each other as shown in
bellow. One stream goes inside the bellow and other remains on the outer surface. Depending
upon the position of below from the neutral position it can be known that which surface is higher
and which is lower.

1.21 SURFACE FINISH

A machined surface is having 2 types of irregularities i.e. roughness and waviness. Small
wavelength fluctuations are called roughness (primary texture) and large wave length
deviations are called waviness (secondary texture). Waviness is being produced by machine
vibrations, chatter, errors in guide ways etc. Roughness appears due to improper selection of
cutting fluid development of temperature on rake face etc.
1.21.1 Lay and flaw
Predominant surface patterns produced by feed marks is called Lay and the surface
irregularities present which are random is known as flaw.

Lay indicates the plane of projection of the view of symbol where finish is observed. The
different types of lays are as under
Symbol Diagram Description
Parallel lay: Surface is
produced by shaping planning

= etc.

Perpendicular lay: Surface is

 produced by shaping and

planning

Crossed lay: Such surface can

be produced by knurling

X operation

Multidirectional lay: Such

surface are produced by

M grinding

Circular lay: The surfaces are

produced by operation

C
Radial lay

R
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1.21.2 Methods of Establishing Datum
1. M – System: After plotting the characteristic of any surface a horizontal line is drawn by
joining 2 points. This line is shifts up and down in such a way that 50% area is below the
line and 50% area in above the line. This line is called mean line which acts a datum in the
measurement.

2. E – system: A sphere of 25mm diameter is rolled over the surface and the locus of its
center is being traced out called envelope. This envelope is shifted in downward direction
till the area above the line is equal to the area below the line. This is called mean envelope
and the system of datum is called E – System.

1.21.3 Numerical Values to represent surface finish

1. Peak to Valley height (Rt or Rmax): It is that difference between highest peak and
deepest valley. This measurement may not give the true characteristic any surface of any
surface because due to some sudden jerk peak to valley height is high in a very small region.
Otherwise the entire surface is quite all right.
2. Center line average value (CLA, Ra): n number of points are taken on hills and valleys
and their distance from the mean line y1, y2, y3, ……..yn is taken. Their average called CLA
value.
y  y 2  ..............  y n
Ra = 1
n
Cutoff length is one in which measurement of roughness is being carried out (or length of
travel of stylus). So Ra value can also be represented as

Ra =
a  b
L
Where  a = area above the line
b = area below the line
L = Cutoff length

If y = f(x) is the characteristics equation of the roughness, Ra value can be expressed as

1 L
R a   ydx
L 0
H
The approximate value of Ra is max
4
Maximum height of unevenness can also be expressed as
f2
H max 
8R
If complete tool signature is given

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 f
Hmax=
tan   cot 1
Where f = feed
 =side cutting edge angle
1 = end cutting edge angle
4. 10 point value (Rz). It is the average of 5 highest peaks and 5 deepest valleys
1.21.4 Representation of surface Finish
a: Machining allowance
b: Roughness value
c: Direction of lay
d: sampling of cutoff lengths
e: Production method

Symbols used in drawing

Symbol CLA value
8 - 25 m

1.6 - 8 m

0.025 – 1.6 m

< 0.025 m

1.21.5 Talysurf
Diamond point comes in contact with surface through a flexible skid for protection to the
diamond point. As the diamond point moves up and down the position of core in the coil
changes. This changes the effective resistance and it is measured by a wheat stone bridge.

1.22 SCREW THREAD METROLOGY

The methods of measuring different parameters of screw thread are give as under:
1. Major diameter:
a) External Micrometer b) Bench Micrometer
c) Optical Projector d) Tool Makers Microscope
2. Minor Diameter:
a) Optical Projector b) Tool Makers Microscope
c) Pointed anvil Micrometer
3. Pitch:
a) Pitch gauges b) Optical Projector
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 4. Angle: Optical Projector
5. Pitch circle diameter (effective diameter) can be measured by 2 or 3 wire (rolles) method.
These wires are lapped within 0.0025mm. Best size wire is one which coincide at pitch circle
point but it will be a rare case when the wire used is best size wire but this has very little
effect on the accuracy of measurement 3 wire method is used when pitch is very large 2
wires are held together as shown in Fig 1.70dw is the diameter of wire and it can be seen
from Fig 1.70 and 1.71 that:
T = M – 2dw
PCD = T + 2CD
CD = OC – DO
DO = OB – DB

P4
ADB  tan 
DB
P
DB = cot 
4
OA
OAB  sin 
OB
dw 2
 sin 
OB
d
So OB = w Cosec
2
d p
So DO = w Cosec  cot 
2 4
dw  dw p 
CD =   Cosec  cot  
2  2 4 
d p
CD = w  1  Cosec   cot 
2 4
So effective diameter is
p
PCD = T + d w 1  cosec    cot 
2
For best size wire from OAD we get
p
d w  sec 
2

Example: 1.16
While measuring the effective diameter of an external metric screw thread gauge
of 3.5mm pitch, a 30.5mm diameter cylindrical standard and 2mm diameter wires were
used. The micrometer reading over the standard and wire was 13.3768mm. The
corresponding reading over the thread gauge and wire was 12.2428mm. Calculate thread
gauge effective diameter.

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Solution:

Wire over cylindrical standard

dw = 2.0mm
pitch = 3.5mm
Since micrometer are used with some attachments correction factor must be considered to be
calculate the exact dimensions. So from cylindrical standard are know that
Correction = (2.0 + 30.5 + 2.0) – 13.3768
= 21.1232mm
Actual value of m over thread gauge is
m = 33.366mm
T = m – 2dw= 3.366 – 2dw
T = 29.366mm
p
PCD = T + dw(1 – cosec  ) + cot  2 =60
2
PCD = 30.39mm  = 30

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 Chapter-8: Advanced Machining
Difficulties (or) Limitation of normal machining methods:-
1) The accuracy of the components produced depends on the efficiency of operator
2) Consistency in manufacturing is not present. Hence 100% inspection of component is
required.
3) The personal needs of the operator are reducing the production rate.
4) Because of large amount of man power is involved. The Labour law problem will be
present.
5) The complex shapes like the parabolic, curvature components, cubical curvature
components, is difficult to manufacture.
6) Frequent design changes in the component cannot be incorporated in the existing layout.
To overcome the above disadvantages, the advanced machining methods like NC, CNC,
DNC, ANC, FMS etc has been developed.

NC MACHINE:-
If each and every axis of a machine tool is controlled by using number. It is called
numerically controlled machine.
Basic Parts:-
1) MCU (or) CPU
2) Drive Unit
3) Feedback Device
4) Tape Reader System
5) Manual Controls
1) MCU (or) CPU [ Machine Control Unit (or) Central Processing Unit]
The MCU is working like brain of human being MCU is taking input information
from the input device available in NC machine, Analyzing the data (or) Information,
taking the decisions and all these decisions will be implemented by using output device
available in the NC machine.
The Input information given by the human being through tape reader system (or)
manual controls is in the form of decimal system. But the machine can understand only
the binary system of information [low level language].
Therefore a device is required in “MCU” to convert the decimal to binary and vice
versa. The device used is Arithematic logic unit [ALU].

Drive Unit:-
The drive unit are electric motor.
Electric Motor are 3 types
1) Induction
2) Stepper
3) Servo
Induction Motor:-
In case of induction motor whenever the power supply is given to motor, if always starts
rotating at only one particular rpm. But in case of NC machine if is required to rotate the motor at
different rpm for performing machining at different cutting velocities. Hence induction motor
cannot be used as drive as drive unit in NC machine.

Stepper Motor:-
In case of stepper motor, when the poised electrical energy will be given as input to motor,
the motor starts rotating. Changing the number of poises of electrical energy. Automatically the
speed of motor at the required destination. Therefore accuracies of component produced is poor.
Servo Motor:-
Servo motor is also working similar to stepper motor. It is taking the poised electrical energy
as input and produces the mechanical energy required for travelling the axis at different rpm. The
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servo motor also consist of quick action braking system. To stop the axis of motor exactly at the
position. Wherever it is required. Therefore high positional accuracies of the machine can be
obtained. Hence accurate (or) close dimensional tolerance component can be produced.
Drive Unit Design:-
150 Pulse = 1 Revolution of motor
= 1 Revolution of lead screw
= 1 Pitch
= 5 mm
150 Pulse = 5 mm
5
1 Pulse =  0.033mm
150
1 Pulse = 1 BLU
BLU- Basic Length Unit
Feedback Device:-
The feedback device is a displacement measuring equipment mounted on the axis of a
machine tool for measurement & actual distance travelled by the axis and sending it as feedback to
the MCU. So that the MCU will compare the actual distance travelled by the axis, determine the
differences in distances. Corresponding to this difference in distance the MCU will again generate
the electrical energy pulses and send it to the motor. So that motor will generate the mechanical
energy required for travelling the remaining distance. Once again the feedback device will measure
the actual distance travelled by the axis and send it as feedback to MCU. This process continues
until the differences in distance travelled is less than (or) equal to 1 BLU.
Tape Reader System:-
Whatever the information is given to NC machine. The first converted into the punched
paper tape and there instruction will be read by the MCU using tape reader system.
The punched tape is divided into 8 tracks

Track 1 to 4 [ALPHABETS]
1-N = Block Number
2-X = X-Axis
3-Y = Y-Axis
4-Z = Z-Axis
5 = Position Check [ For proper Indexing ]
6&7= We used only decimals
8 = End of block
In NC Machine program, one block of information means one complete instruction Is given to the
machine for travelling the axis from present position to next position.
Manual Controls:-
Even though the above device is available in the NC-Machine. Since some manual
intervention are required for
1) Switching ON and OFF
2) Loading and Unloading of work piece.
3) Loading and setting of the tool
4) Loading and Unloading of tape
Classification of NC machines:-
1) Based on the control system
a. Point to point control system
b. Straight line control system
c. Contour control system
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 2) Based on feedback device
a. Open loop system
b. Closed loop system
3) Based on number of simultaneous axis used.
2D, 2 ½ D, 3D, 4D, 5D…………..11D D=Dimensional

1.a) Point to Point control system

If end point of movement of tool is only important and path followed by the tool between end
point is not important. It is called point to point control system.

Point to Point (PTP) is used during, Reaming, Tapping etc

1.b) Straight line control system
In addition to end points of movement of tool. If the path followed by the tool in between end
points is a straight line path, the control system used is called as straight line control system.

A straight line control system. Atleast 2 axis simultaneous movements are required. It is
used in turning, milling, shaping, grinding, planing etc.
1.c) Contour Control System:-
In addition to ends points of movement of the tool. If the path followed by tool In between
end points is a contour path is called as contour control system.

For contour control system atleast 3- axis simultaneous movements are required. It is used
in turning, milling, grinding etc.
2.a) Open Loop System:-
NC machine without the use of feedback device is called open loop system. Because of non
availability of feedback device, the dimensional accuracies is poor.
2.b) Closed Loop System:-
NC machines with use of feedback device is called as closed loop system. It is a fully stable
system and produces accurate components.
3.a) 2-D Axis System:-
If two axis of one tool are moving simultaneously, it is called as 2-D machine tool.
3.b) 3-D Axis System:-
In addition to two axis simultaneous movements of one cutting tool, if the rotation of job is
also considered as a axis, called as 3-D machine tool.
Limitations of NC Machine:-
1) Making the tape is difficult and life of punched tape is limited only.
2) Design modification of the component cant be incorporated In existing tape.
3) Unless one component is manufactured physically. It is not possible to know whether the
program written is correct (or) not.
To overcome above disadvantage scientist introduced the CNC machine.
CNC Machine:-
CNC = Computer Numerical Controlled.
Main parts of CNC Machine:-
1) MCU (or) CPU [Machine Control Unit]
2) DU [Driving Unit]
3) FBD [Feedback Device]
4) Mini Computers
5) Very few manual controls

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Advantage of ‘CNC’ over ‘NC’ :-
1) Use of servomotor, the accuracy of the product is good.
2) Due to usage of mini computers, the program can feed into machine very easily. The
program is stored in the memory. So that many number of time can be copied and used.
3) Design modification can be easily incorporated in the existing program.
4) By using graphic stimulator the cutter point is possible to identify weather it is correct or
not.
5) Automation & mechanization of CNC machine is easier
DNC [ Direct Numerical control system ]
DNC is a system consist of more than one CNC Machine connected to the host computer.

Through tele communication lines in the DNC system. The host computer is downloading
the program corresponding to the component to be manufactured on different machine.
In this one single operator sit at the host computer and control the all CNC machines and
given program by downloading. The speed of the system is increased, large files can be handled and
number of machine tool used is increased.
FMS:-
FMS- Flexible Manufacturing System
FMS consist of a number of manufacturing cells, each containing an industrial robot and an
automated material handling system, all interfaced with a central computer. This system is highly
automated and is capable of optimizing each step of the total manufacturing operation. These steps
may involve one or more processes and operation, as well as handling of raw material, inspection
and assembly.
Basic Elements of Flexible Manufacturing System:-
1) Workstations
2) Automated handling and transport of material and parts.
3) Control system
It is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system
changes.
Two categories of flexibility:-
1) Machine Flexibility:-
System has ability to changed program and to produce the new product types and ability
to change the order of operation.
2) Routing Flexibility:-
System has ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as
well as system has ability to absorb large scale changes such as in volume, capacity etc.
CAD:-
CAD- Computer Aided Design
Design of components using computer is called Computer aided design.
Basic difference between conventional design and computer aided design:-
In computer design the solid body is divided into number of elements. So it is easier, in
conventional design the body is considered as a single element. So in computer design accuracy is
very high.
In case of CAD the body can be divided into many number of small size. Finite elements and
analysis is continued as a elemental analysis. Because of elemental analysis used CAD the design
of component will be easier and more accurate and because smaller size of elements has been taken
near to change in cross section the stress concentration factor need not be taken. In CAD because of
most of the uncertainities has been considered during the analysis, the maximum factor of safety to
be used is 1.2. whereas in the conventional design to account for the uncertainities present during
the usage of component minimum factor of safety to be used is 2.
Inputs Required:-
1) Loading condition [Tensile, Shear, Compression]

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 2) Approximate shape [ ]
3) Material properties [ Ductile, Brittle etc]
4) Allowable Strains [ Latitude strain, longitudinal strain]
Process steps:-
1) Generation of 2-D drawing
2) Import into the analysis package
3) Convert into solid models
4) Divide into number of finite elements
5) Apply Loading Condition
6) Obtain Max stresses and strain
7) Compare with allowable valves
8) Change the material and dimensions until the stress and strain are nearly equal or less
than allowable stress and strain.
9) Finalize the dimensions
Outputs Obtained:-
1) 2-D Production Drawing
2) BOM [ Bill of Material]
3) Stresses and strains
The output obtained is given to CAM.

CAM:-
CAM means computer aided manufacturing.
CAM = FMS + ASRS + CMM
FMS = Flexible manufacturing system.
ASRS = Automated storage and retrieval system
Automated material handling system used in stores for retrieving the raw material and
storing the finished goods.
CMM = Co-Ordinate measuring machine.
Co-Ordinate measuring machine is used for measuring more than one dimension
simultaneously.
Inputs of CAM:-
1) 2-D Production Drawing
2) BOM [Bill of material]
3) Raw Material
Process:-
1) Generate CNC Part program
2) Retrieving raw material from stores
3) Machining
4) Inspection using CMM
Output :-
Acceptable finished goods
CAD- CAM is an integral approach used for design and manufacturing of components together as a
manless manufacture.
NOTE:- Extension of CAD-CAM is CIM
CIM:- [Computer Integrated Manufacture]
Any industry can be divided into four departments

Integrating different departments present in manufacturing industry by using a computer such

that
manless manufacturing is possible is called as computer integrated manufacturing.

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EX:- DELL company has implemented CIM system.
Part Programming of CNC machine:-
Part programming is a coded programming written based on the standard codes available in
CNC machine.
Each code is indicating the name of the program, written for the specified movement of the
tool. Whenever the code is used in writing the part program. The program corresponding to
specified movement of tool will be automatically executed.
G Codes [Preparatory Codes]
Goo = Rapid Transverse
Whenever the tool is travelling In ideal condition. It is required to travel at maximum
possible speeds. But the machine programmer cannot remember the maximum speeds available in
each and every machine tool of a shop floor. In such cases, if the programmer indicates Goo. The
machine is automatically adapting the maximum possible velocity present in machine tool. So that
ideal motion time is minimum and the machine is also safe.
GOI [Linear interpolation] :-
Whenever the tool is required to travel linearly to produce the linear dimensions on the
components.
G02 = Circular Interpolation clock wise
G03 = Circular Interpolation Anti clock wise
Whenever the contoor shaped components are to be manufacture the circular interpolation
will be used.

Go4 = Dwell:-
Dwell is temporary stoppage of machine for specified duration
Go5 = Hold:-
Temporary stoppage of machine for unlimited duration
Go8 = Acceleration
G09 = Retardation
G17  XY Plane 

G18  YZ Plane  Plane Section
G19  ZX Plane 
G33 = Thread cutting with constant pitch
G34 = Thread cutting with increasing pitch
G35 = Thread cutting with decreasing pitch
G41 = Cutter compensation left
G42 = Cutter compensation right
G40 = Cutter compensation cancel
G70 = English programming [inches]
G71 = Metric Programming [mm]
G81 = Drilling
G82 = Counter boring G-80=Boring
G85 = Reaming
G86 = Boring
G90 = Absolute mode of programming
G91 = Incremental mode
For each and every movement of tool the programming is done with reference to only one
reference point is called absolute mode of programming.
If the present position of tool can be taken as a reference point for programming to the next position
of tool. It is called as incremental mode of programming.
M-CODES [Machine or Mislleneous]
M00 = program stop
Temporary stoppage of machine for unlimited duration
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M01 = planned stop
Temporary stoppage of machine for specified duration
M02 = end of main program without use of sub program
M17 = end of sub program
M30 = end of main program written with use of sub program
M03 = spindle on clockwise
M04 = spindle on counter clockwise
M05 = spindle stop
M06 = tool change
M07 = coolant pump 1 ON
M08 = coolant pump 2 ON
M09 = coolant pump OFF
M10 = clamps ON
M11 = clamps OFF

The End
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