PK HER

Conducted by HERROEJANTO SETIJOSO

 ORIENTATION

LEFT RIGHT
1 2

1 3
2

2 3
1 4

Left to Right
 AIRCRAFT DIMENSION
WING SPAN

WING TIPS

GROUND CLEARANCE

WHEEL TRACK
AIRCRAFT DIMENSION

AIRCRAFT
HEIGHT

AIRCRAFT LENGTH
WHEEL BASE
PART OF AN AIRCRAFT
 PART AIRCRAFT
SLATS

AILEROS

FLAPS SPOILERS
VERTICAL
STABILIZER

RUDDER HORIZONTAL
STABILIZER

ELEVATORS
FUSELAGE
PASSENGER CABIN
PRESSURIZES CABIN

DECOMPREESION

10 000 FT
WING
EMPENAGE
 LANDING GEAR

NOSE WHEEL TAIL WHEEL

RETRACKTABLE WHEEL
FIX WHEEL
LANDING GEAR
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT
( APU )
LAW OF AERODYNAMIC
 NEWTON’E FIRST LAW
A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and
a body in motion tends to remain moving
at the same speed and in the same
direction.

• Inertial;
• Aircraft rest on ramp;
• Aircraft flying in the same ( constant )
speed and direction;
• Equilibrium.
 NEWTON’E FIRST LAW

Stationary Moving
V=0 V and D = c
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

• When a body is acted upon by a constant

force, its resulting acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body and is
directly proportional to the applied force.

• Force = M x a.
M = Mass.
a = Acceleration.
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Equilibrium

Inertial Force Force

Force = Mass x Acceleration

F=Mxa
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

Whenever one body exerts a force on

another, the second body always exerts
on the first, a force that is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

• Action Х Reaction.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

Action >< Reaction

 AIR PRESSURE

Static Pressure ( PS ): Dynamic Pressure ( PD ):

Stationary air. Moving air.

½ ρ V2

Total Pressure ( PT ) = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure .

PT = PS + PD
 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE.

Mass airflow = ρ AV

Venturi tube. ρA1V1 = ρA2V2 = C

V2 > V1

PT1 PT2 PT1

V1 V2 V1

A1 A2 A1

PT = PS + PD

PT 1 = PT2 = C
PS2 < PS1

Increasing speed, reducing air pressure.

 AIRFOIL

Upper / Camber Surface

Chord Line

Leading Edge
Trailing Edge
Thickness Lower Surface
AIRFOIL
 POWER
• Work : is the amount of energy transferred
by force acting through a distance in the
direction of force.
W = Force x Distance.
Energy (activity ) is always equivalent to
the ability to exert pulls or pushes against
the basic forces of nature, along a path of
a certain length.
 POWER

1 Second

550 Lbs
1 FT
 POWER
WORK Force x Distance
POWER = =
TIME TIME

1 HP = 550 Lbs. Ft / Sec.

1 HP = 33 000 Lbs. Ft / Min.

1.34 hp = 1 Kw.

180 HP = 241.2 Kw.

 THE 4 - FORCES
Lift
Part 1 Thrust and Lift
Chapter 3 A. Man-made

Drag

Weight and
Drag
Nature
Thrust

Weight
 THE FOUR FORCES
1. WEIGHT.
• Gravitation.
2. THRUST
• Forward motion;
• Airflow.
3. LIFT
• Dynamic Lift – Action to Reaction.
• Induced Lift – Bernoullies Principle.
4. DRAG.
• Action to Reaction;
• Parasite Drag – Un-smooth surface.
• Induced Drag - because Lift.
 EQUILIBRIUM

T D

Thrust = Drag Weight = Lift

W

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT

 EIGHT

• Gravity is the pulling force that tends to

draw all bodies to the center of the earth.
• The center of gravity (CG) may be
considered as a point at which all the
weight of the airplane is concentrated.
• If the airplane were supported at its exact
center of gravity, it would balance in any
attitude.
 EIGHT

• The weight of an aeroplane varies

depending upon load to carry;
• Aeroplane gross weight  a long the flight
progress and fuel is burned;
• The magnitude there are certain limitation;
• Weight limitation depend on structural
strength of the component;
• The CoG depends on weight distribution;
 EIGHT

• The CG may moves as the weight

changes by fuel burning off;
• The wing loading =
weight of the aeroplane
wing area
WEIGHT ALWAYS TOWARD CENTRE OF
THE EARTH

W
E
I
G
H
T
WEIGHT ALWAYS TOWARD CENTRE OF
THE EARTH

W
E
I
G
H
T
WEIGHT

Centre of Gravity ( CG )
WEIGHT
 IFT

LIFT

INDUCE LIFT DYNAMIC LIFT

( Bernoulii’s Principle ( Action Х Reaction )
- - - - ---
---
--

INDUCE LIFT

DYNAMIC LIFT
 LIFT

L
I
F
T

Centre of Pressure / CP
 LIFT

RESULTANT
LIFT FORCE

Angle of Attack

Relative Wind DRAG

Angle of Attack ( A o A ): The angle between relative wind

and wing chord line.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

- LIFT

+
Centre of Pressure
CP
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Lift

Lift always perpendicular to flight path.

- -
- - -- - - -- - -
-
- -- -
+ + + + + +

Centre of Pressure
CP

Flight path always reciprocal to relative wind

LIFT ALWAYS PERPENDICULAR TO
FLIGHT PATH

L
I
F
T

Flight Path
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION CHANGE
WITH ANGLE OF ATTACK

-
Small Angle of Attack +
-
Relative wind
+

Relative wind - +
Negative Angle of Attack
+
-
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION CHANGE
WITH ANGLE OF ATTACK

-
High Angle of Attack
+
Relative wind

> Stalling Angle

+

Relative wind
MOVEMENT OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE

- Angle of Attack   Center of Pressure moves forward.

- Angle of Attack   Center of Pressure moves rearward.

MOVEMENT OF THE CENTRE OF
PRESSURE

40% Low AoA

20%

High AoA
 ANGLE OF ATTACK

Flight Path

Angle of Attack
Rel. Wind

Relative wind:
The airflow which is parallel to and opposite the flight path of the airplane.

Angle of Attack ( AoA ):

The angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind.
 ANGLE OF ATTACK

AoA , Lift 
ANGLE OF ATTACK – BURBLING AIR ( EDDIES)
 AIRFLOW AROUND THE WING ( AIRFOIL)

Contamination or damage to wing will disrupt airflow over and decreased lift
 ANGLE OF ATTACK VS SPEED

120
60
30

FP FP FP

RW RW RW

LEVEL – HIGH SPEED LEVEL – CRUISE SPEED LEVEL – LOW SPEED

AoA , Airspeed 
 STALL
Coef. Of Lift
CL

1.8
< CL Max:
1.6
65KT AoA , Lift , Airspeed 
CL MAX

1.4 75 KT
≥ CL Max:
1.2 AoA , Lift 0, Airspeed 
80 KT
1.0

90 KT
0.8 STALL

100 KT
0.6

0.4

0.2

AoA ....0
-4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
 ANGLE OF ATTACK - LIFT
ANGLE OF ATTACK LIFT
( … 0)

0 Cambered airfoil

-4 Dynamic Lift (CL) = 0;

- 4 up to Stalling angle CL increases

≥ Stalling Angle CL drop, no streamline over upper

surface and breaks up into eddies
 ANGLE OF ATTACK

+ +
 ANGLE OF ATTACK

α
Same AoA
 ANGLE OF ATTACK

• Angle of Attack respect to relative

wind;
• Relative wind opposite flight path;
• Angle of Attack increases, Lift
increases until CL Max;
• Angle of Attack increases, Burbling Air
increases until CL Max;
• Angle of Attack increases, Airspeed
decreases;
• Beyond CL Max. STALL.
 LIFT FACTOR

CL = Coefficient of Lift ρ = Air Density

LIFT

A = Wing Area V = Velocity

LIFT ( L ) = ½ ρ CL A V2
PITCH ANGLE >< ANGLE OF ATTACK
DESCEND

Angle of Attack

Pitch Angle
PITCH ANGLE >< ANGLE OF ATTACK
STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Angle of Attack

Pitch Angle
PITCH ANGLE >< ANGLE OF ATTACK
CLIMB
Pitch angle ( Attitude ):
Angle between chord and horizon
 ANGLE of INCIDENCE

Chord
Longitudinal axis

Angle of incidence

Angle between aircraft longitudinal axis and wing chord line

AoI  in the Root Section.

AoI  in the Wing Tip.
 WING DESIGN

Chamber

Symmetry No Pressure Difference

 LIFT FROM A SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL

• Upper and lower surfaces (cambers) are

same curve;
• Chord line and mean camber line identical;
• Vertical and Horizontal Stabilizer.
LIFT FROM A SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL

Cambered

Symmetrical

CL

0
-4 0 4 8 12 16
Angle of Attack
 WING DESIGN

Wing Span
Aspect Ratio =
Average Chord

36 FT
5 FT

Wing Area = 180 FT2

Chord = 180FT2 : 36FT = 5 FT

Aspect Ratio = 36 : 5 = 7.2

Higher Ratio Less Drag

WING DESIGN

Elliptical form:
-Difficult in construction;
-Less drag.
Three plane
Rectangular form:
-Stall at wing root;
-Aileron effectiveness.
Bi-plane
Tapered form:
-Less drag;
-High lift
-Good low speed;
-Less weight;
-High aspect ratio. High wing
Mono plane

Sweep back and delta form:

-High speed;
-Less drag.
Low wing
 ANGLE OF ATTACK

Higher AoA

Root section

Lower AoA Wing tip

 PILOT CONTROL OF LIFT

Change of AoA and

Airspeed

PILOT CONTROL
OF LIFT

Wing shape

Airspeed  AoA  AoA  Airspeed 

Same Lift
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Krueger Flaps

Leading Edge Slat

Slot

High Lift Devices

Plain flap

Split flap
Trailing Edge
Slotted flap

Fowler flap

Basic principle : increase chamber curvature and or spread the wing area.
LEADING EDGE

Krueger flaps

Slat

Slot
LEADING EDGE
Slat

High angle of attack  Stall

TRAILING EDGE FLAPS

Plain flaps

Split flaps
TRAILING EDGE FLAPS

Slotted flaps flaps

Fowler flaps
 SLATS
Automatic - the slat lies flush with the wing leading edge until reduced aerodynamic
forces allow it to extend by way of springs when needed.
Fixed - the slat is permanently extended. This is sometimes used on specialist
low-speed aircraft (these are referred to as slots) or when simplicity takes precedence
over speed.
Powered - the slat extension can be controlled by the pilot. This is commonly used on
airliners.
 SLOTS
SLOTS
A leading edge slot is an aerodynamic feature of the wing of some aircraft to reduce
the stall speed and promote good low-speed handling qualities.
A leading edge slot is a span-wise gap in each wing, allowing air to flow from below
the wing to its upper surface. In this manner they allow flight at higher angles of attack
and thus reduce the stall speed.
A leading edge slot is a fixed (non-closing) gap behind the wing’s leading edge.
Air from below the wing can accelerate through the slot towards the low pressure
region above the wing, and exit from the slot moving parallel to the upper wing surface.
This high-speed flow then mixes with the boundary layer attached to the upper surface
and delays boundary layer separation from the upper surface.
 SPOILER
L

Reduce speed and / or steepen descent path without increasing speed

L=W

W
L<W

W
 SPOILER

Dump lift and get all the weight on to the wheel

W
 HRUST

• Before the airplane begins to move, thrust

must be exerted;
• It continues to move and gain speed until
thrust and drag are equal;
• Constant airspeed, thrust and drag equal;
• Thrust always same direction and parallel to
flight path;
• Power is reduced, the thrust is lessened, and
the airplane slows down;
• The thrust is less than the drag, the airplane
decelerate.
 THRUST

Drag
Thrust

Weight
THRUST ALWAYS SAME DIRECTION
AND PARALLEL TO FLIGHT PATH

THRUST

Flight Path
 PROPELLER

Propeller
Torque
Force

Relative
Airflow

Thrust

Direction of Rotation
PROPELLER
 PROPELLER

Forces:
-Thrust;
-Centrifugal;
-Torque.
PROPELLER
Slip

Effective Pitch

Geometric Pitch
 REACTION ENGINE
(JET ENGINE )

Exhaust
Hot and fast moving

Intake Compressor Combustion chamber

Suction High pressure Expand
Drag
Thrust
Weight
 THRUST

Drag
Thrust

Increases Power - Thrust > Drag = ACCELERATE

Drag
Thrust

Constant Power - Thrust = Drag = Constant Speed

Drag
Thrust

Decreases Power - Thrust < Drag = DECELERATE

 RAG

DRAG

INDUCED PARASITE
DRAG DRAG
DRAG ALWAYS OPPOSITE DIRECTION
AND PARALLEL TO FLIGHT PATH

DRAG

Flight Path
 INDUCED DRAG
• Induced drag is inherent whenever a wing
is producing lift and, in fact, this type of
drag is inseparable from the production of
lift.
• Consequently, it is always present if lift is
produced.
INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag

Lift Aerodynamic force

 INDUCED DRAG

The pressure on the lower surface of the wing > on the upper surface.
Air flow from the high pressure area (below the wingtip) upward to the low
pressure area above the wing.
On the wingtips, there is a tendency for these pressures to equalize,
resulting in a lateral flow outward from the underside to the upper surface
of the wing.
This lateral flow imparts a rotational velocity to the air at the wingtips and
trails behind the wing. Therefore, flow about the wingtips will be in the
form of two vortices trailing behind as the wings move on.

Angle of attack increases, induced drag increases proportionally.

INDUCED DRAG

Upper surface inward

Lower surface outward

 INDUCED DRAG

Induced Drag

Lift Downwash angle

Lifting ability
α1

Angle of Average local

attack Wing relative airflow
α

α1

Induced AoA
( ½ of downwash angle Downwash
WINGTIP VORTEX
INDUCED DRAG

VORTICES
 WING TIP VORTICES

CATEGORY TOT. WEIGHT EXAMPLE

Heavy ≥ 136 000 KG

Medium 7000 kg – 136 000 kg

Light ≤ 7000 KG
 WAKE TURBULENCE

500 FT
AVOID
900 FT

SINK RATE
200 FT
400 – 500 FT / MIN.
500 FT
WAKE TURBULENCE
 WING VORTICES
(TAKING OFF AND TAKING OFF AIRPLANE)

Safe Area Forbidden Area

 WING VORTICES
( TAKE OFF AND LANDING AIRPLANE )

Forbidden Area Safe Area

 WING VORTICES
(LANDING AND TAKING OFF AIRPLANE)

Forbidden Area Safe Area

 WING VORTICES
( LANDING AND LANDING AIRPLANE )

Safe Area Forbidden Area

 WING VORTICES
Airborne before lift off point
TAKE OFF preceding airplane

TAKE OFF

Airborne after touch down point

LANDING preceding airplane

Land before lift off point preceding

TAKE OFF airplane

LANDING

Land after touch down point

LANDING preceding airplane
 ASPECT RATIO
Wing Span
Aspect Ratio =
Chord

High Aspect Ratio Less Wing Tip Less Induced Drag

Long
Tapering Delta
Narrow
 WASH OUT
Wash Out: Root Section AoA  - Wing Tip AoA 

Higher AoA

Root section

Lower AoA Wing tip

 WING TIP MODIFICATION

Relative wind

Winglet Modified Wing tip

Wing Fence Wingtip
Tank
 INDUCED DRAG

NORMAL SPEED SLOW SPEED

Airflow

Induced Drag
Induced Drag

Induced Drag increase greatly as the Angle of Attack is Approached

Induced Drag is most significant at

Low Speed and High Angles of
Attack
 INDUCED DRAG CURVE

Induced
Drag

The greater the lift produced,

The greater the induced drag
Airspeed  ,
Induced
Induce Drag  Drag

Induced drag is STALL

significant at
low speed.
Slow Airspeed Fast
 INDUCED DRAG
L

W L

W
L

W
W
 VORTEX GENERATOR

Vortex
Airflow generator

Vortex generator:
-Delay separation of boundary layer;
-Increase flight control surface effectiveness
INDUCED DRAG AT LOW AIRSPEED
AND HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK
Reduced
airspeed

Straight
and level

AoA 

Downwash
angle 

Lifting ability
Backward 

Down Great
wash  Vortices
 REDUCING INDUCED DRAG

• High aspect ratio;

• Tapering wing;
• Wash out wing ( high AoA at root section
and lower AoA at wingtip);
• Wingtip modification ( wing let, fence, etc).
 PARASITE DRAG

• Form drag:
Resulting from the disruption of the
streamline flow.
• Skin friction:
The resistance of skin friction.
• Interference drag:
If two objects are placed adjacent to one
another.
FORM DRAG

AIRFOIL : stream lining the air flow

SKIN FRICTION – BOUNDARY LAYERS

Transition

Laminar Turbulent

Surface
 THE BOUNDARY LAYER Turbulent
Boundary
Layer

Laminar
Boundary Transition Region
Layer

Velocity Low thickness Greater thickness

Low velocity next to surface Higher velocity next to surfac
Gradual velocity change Sharp velocity change
Low skin friction Higher skin friction
SKIN FRICTION

Rough surface

Smooth surface
 INTERFERENCE DRAG

D Comp. = Drag per components D Assemb. = Drag after assembled

D Assemb. > Drag Comp.

 PARASITE DRAG CURVE

Parasite
Drag

Parasite
Drag

Airspeed  ,
Parasite Drag 
Parasite drag is of
greatest significances
Airspeed 2 x, at high speed.
Drag Doubling (2).

Slow Airspeed Fast

 TOTAL DRAG

Total Drag

Total Drag

Slow Airspeed Fast

Drag
Drag

Drag
IAS TOTAL DRAG
120

HIGH SPEED,HIGH DRAG

IAS
90

MINIMUM DRAG SPEED

IAS
60

LOW SPEED,HIGH DRAG

DRAG FROM AN AIRFOIL

Normal flight range

CD

-40 00 Angle of Attack 160

DRAG ( D ) = ½ ρ CD A V2
 LIFT DRAG RATIO

Normal flight range Normal flight range

CL CD

-40 00 160 -40 00 Angle of Attack 160

Angle of Attack

AoA  , CL  AoA  , CD 
 LIFT / DRAG ( L/D ) RATIO.
Max. L/D
Fast Slow
12 The AoA best L/D
 most efficient AoA

10
The most efficient
angle
8

L/D Ratio 6 Stall

0
- 40 00 40 80 120 160
Angle of Attack
 L/D RATIO
Best L/D ratio Maximum Cruise Range and Maximum power-off glide range

IAS IAS IAS

120 90 60

AoA=20 AoA=40 AoA=80

Same Lift at different cost in drag

LEVEL FLIGHT AT A CONSTANT WEIGHT

IAS = IAS =
150 KT
L IAS = L 65 KT L
85 KT

W W W
A of A 20 A of A 80 A of A 120

LIFT = WEIGHT = ½ þ CL AV2.

A of A , IAS 

A of A , IAS 
LEVEL FLIGHT DECREASING WEIGHT
SAME IAS

AoA = 40 AoA = 20

IAS = IAS =
150 KT 150 KT

Same IAS – Weight  - AoA 

 SAME ANGLE OF ATTACK, LOWER
WEIGHT HAS LOWER IAS AND DRAG.

AoA = 40 AoA = 40

IAS = IAS =
150 KT 140 KT

Same AoA - Weight  - IAS 

CHANGING CRUISE ALTITUDE

SAME IAS --- Altitude  - TAS 

Higher Alt. ( Less Dens. )

IAS = 125 KT
TAS = 175 KT

TAS = IAS + (2%) X Alt./1000

ISA ( sea level )

IAS = 125 KT
TAS = 125 KT
 GROUND EFFECT

Ground Effect = reduces upwash and downwash  air cushion  Lift 

GROUND EFFECT
TAKE OFF PHASE

Wing Tip Height

 GROUND EFFECT
LANDING PHASE

Wing Tip Height

 GROUND EFFECT

Wingtip vortices , power , speed .

Ground Effect : Height < wing span.

Effect of
Air cushion
 GROUND EFFECT

• Increased lifting ability of the wing;

• Reduction in drag
PAY ATTENTION:
• ASI and ALTIMETER inaccurate.
Increase pressure near static source.
• Change in stability characteristic.
 CONTROL OF FLIGHT

Lateral axis

Longitudinal axis Elevators

Vertical axis
Ailerons
Rudder (s)
 CONTROL OF FLIGHT

FLT.
AXIS MOVEMENT
CONTROL

Longitudinal Ailerons Roll

Lateral Elevators Pitch

Vertical Rudder (s) Yaw

ROLLING
PITCHING
YAWING
 ROLL

Aileron act in opposing cause , one going up as the other goes down.
Sideways movement control column.

Right Aileron
Left Aileron
Neutral Neutral
Down Down
Up Up

Roll right Roll left

Wing level
 ADVERSE YAW
Lift

Drag

Lift

Drag

Yaw right
 DUTCH ROLL

L
Rolling to the right i
Left wing more Lift
f
Drag Increases
t
Drag
 DUTCH ROLL

Continuous back-and-forth rolling and yawing.

Dynamically stable for along time.

 OVERCOME ADVERSE YAW

• Differential Ailerons;
• Frise-type Ailerons;
• Coupling of Ailerons and Rudder.
 DIFFERENTIAL AILERON
Roll Left
Turn

Adverse Yaw

Symetrical Aileron Travel

Adverse Yaw Reduced

Differential Ailerons

Down going angle < up going aileron

 FRISE TYPE AILERONS
Wing Level
Wing Up

As aileron goes up, its leading protrudes

Into the airstream beneath the wing
Wing Down Causing increased drag
COUPLING AILERONS AND RUDDER

Roll Right.

Up Down
 PITCH
Up Pitch Up

Neutral Level Flight

Down Pitch Down

 YAW
Left Straight Right

Left Right
Neutral
YAW FOLLOW ROLL

Faster
L

Slower
Yaw left
CONTROL PRESSURE ON THE PILOT
 TRIM TABS

• Maintain a steady state of flight without the

pilot having exert any steady pressure on
the particular control surfaces.
• Do not use trim to change the attitude of
the airplane.
• Stay in trim until power changes, the
airspeed or CG position changes, then re-
trim.
 TRIM TAB

Balance tab goes up

Trim tabs

Elevators goes down

Control column forward Elevator trim wheel forward

Control column backward Elevator trim wheel backward

 CONTROL ON THE GROUND
• Directional Control:
Rudder;
Nose-wheel steering;
Power;
Brake.

• Speed:
Power;
Brake.
CONTROL ON THE GROUND

Airflow over the rudder increases effectiveness.

 TAXIING

Elevators neutral  nose heavy  steering difficulties.

Elevators down  nose heavy  steering difficulties.

CROSS WIND TAKE OFF
CROSS WIND LANDING
 SLIDESLIPPING APPROACH

On approach airplane into the wind and tracking toward runway centre line

Near the ground yaw the airplane straight and aligned to the centre line.
 CROSS WIND
 Weathercock Principle.

Push Right pedal  Rudder Right  Tail Section Left

 CROSS WIND 10 O ‘CLOCK.

UP DOWN

UP
CROSS WIND 8 0’ CLOCK

DOWN UP

DOWN
SUMMARY THE USE OF CONTROL WHEN
TAXXING IN WINDY CONDITION.

Control wheel neutral or back

and into wind

Wheel forward out of wind

 TORQUE

Propeller Turn
Action

Torque
Effect : Reaction Taxi :
High power and RPM; More load left wheel;
Slower airspeed but high AoA. Yaw to the left.
 P FACTOR
( TAIL WHEEL)

Relative airflow to
Down-going blade

High A o A
Relative airflow to
Up-going blade

Low A o A

Airplane movement
 P – FACTOR
(TAIL WHEEL)

Strongest:
-High power;
-High Angle of Attack.
 SLIPSTREAM

In clock wise propeller rotation airplane tend yaw left

 GYROSCOPIC EFFECT

Yaw left

Tail lifting on take off causes force.

Fast spinning propeller follows gyro-precession
Principle. Effect at 900 in direction of rotation- Yaw Left
Part 1
Section 3 B
 AIRCRAFT DESIGN
• Stability—The inherent quality of an airplane to
correct for conditions /equilibrium.

• Maneuverability—The quality of an airplane

that permits it to be maneuvered easily.

• Controllability—The capability of an airplane to

respond to the pilot’s control.
 STATIC STABILITY

Positive Static Stability :

The initial tendency of the airplane to return to the original state of
equilibrium after being disturbed.
 STATIC STABILITY

Neutral Static Stability:

The initial tendency of the airplane to remain in a new condition after
its equilibrium has been disturbed.
 STATIC STABILITY

Negative Static Stability:

The initial tendency of the airplane to continue away from the original
state of equilibrium after being disturbed.
 DYNAMIC STABILITY
Positive Stability – Positive Dynamic
Displacement

Time
 DYNAMIC STABILITY
Positive Stability – Neutral Dynamic
Displacement

Time
 DYNAMIC STABILITY
Positive Stability – Negative
Displacement Dynamic

Time
 AIRCRAFT STABILITY

AXIS STABILITY MOVEMENT

Lateral Longitudinal Pitch

Longitudinal Lateral Roll

Vertical Directional Yaw

PITCHING MOMENT
L

Nose up

Nose down

W
 PITCHING MOMENT

Nose down
D

Nose up
D

T
PITCHING MOMENT
PITCHING MOMENT
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

CG CP

CP
AoA 
AoA

T
CG
 CG MOVEMENT

100%

CG range

Forward Aft
CG limit CG limit

Within CG range  aircraft controllable and longitudinal stability satisfactory

CG range close forward or aft limit maximum elevator deflection

Beyond CG range  elevator deflection exceed

 CG POSITION
Approved CG range

Longer take off roll;

Difficult to flare approach to land;
Possibility nose wheel strike runway before main wheel.

Approved CG range

Tail strike during take off roll;

Stall and spin.
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
Neg. AoA Longt. axis Chord line
 LATERAL STABILITY

Vertical Lift
Lcomponent

Resultant force
producing
sideslip
into the turn

Sideslip
component of
Relative Airflow

W
LATERAL STABILITY

Dihedral
LATERAL STABILITY

Unwanted roll

Dehidral correct uninvited roll

 LATERAL STABILITY

Lift
Effective span

Effective span

LIFT
Direction of slip

Relative Airflow
 LATERAL STABILITY
( High keel surface and log CG)
Effect

CG
LATERAL STABILITY
 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
YAWING

Relative
Wind

Area
Forward Area
CG Aft of CG
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
( Roll followed by yaw)
LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
( Yaw followed by roll)

L
PILOT CONTROL AFFECTED BY STABILITY
Poor Directional Stability Good Lateral Stability
( Small vertical stabilizer) ( Dihedral)

Rudder input

Significant yaw and slip

Bank direction of yaw

Bank turn no aileron

PILOT CONTROL AFFECTED BY STABILITY
Good Directional Stability Not Strong Lateral Stability
( Large vertical stabilizer) ( Dihedral)

Bank with aileron, no

rudder

Sideslip toward lower

wing

Turn nose into sideslip

Little sideslip
 FLAPS
( Increased lift)

Balloon

Lowering flaps can cause a balloon unless adjust the pitch

Flap extended
 FLAPS
( Nose to pitch)

Flap extended

Lift moves aft, longer moment. W

L-W Pitching down

T-D Pitching up
 FLAPS
( Increased drag)

Flap extended
L
L KIAS
KIAS
70 55

W
W

More thrust or steeper descent.

 FLAPS
( Lower Angle of Attack)

Full flap Staling angle

Full 300

Full 200

Flaps up

Extending flaps – the stall angle is less

 FLAPS
( Take off)

With / High flaps

Without / Less flaps

With / High flaps Less take off roll Less climb-out

Without / Less flaps Longer take off roll Better climb-out

 FLAPS
( Landing)

With / High flaps

Without / Less flaps

With / High flaps Steeper descent Slower app. speed Less ground roll

Without / Less flaps Swallower descent Faster app. speed Longer ground roll
 FLAPS
(Visibility)

With / High flaps

Better

Without / Less flaps

Restricted
 STRAIGHT AND LEVEL
( Attitude in Level Flight )
 STRAIGHT AND LEVEL
( The Effect of Weight)

T T

D D
W

Same AoA Lighter airplane must be slower

 STRAIGHT AND LEVEL
( The Effect of Weight)

T T

D D
W

Same Power Lighter airplane less AoA and faster

 POWER
( Straight and Level)
Total Drag

= Thrust

Velocity

Slow Faster

High thrust – high speed and low AoA Parasite drag

Minimum thrust – minimum speed ( Min. L/D ratio)

High thrust – low speed and high AoA Induced drag

 POWER
( Straight and Level)
Total Drag

= Thrust

Velocity

Slow Faster

High thrust Minimum thrust High thrust

 POWER
( Straight and Level)
Total Drag Engine-prop.

= Thrust
Power
= Power

Thrust

Velocity

Slow Faster
High thrust Minimum High thrust
thrust
Power :
-Thrust required
- Flight velocity ( TAS ).
 POWER
( Max. Level – Flight Speed)

Power

Power Avail.

Stall

Power req.

Slow Max. Speed S. a L. Faster

 MAXIMUM RANGE SPEED
Maximum range in still air is achieved which TAS:
- Maximum air distance (AD) for given fuel burned-off
(FBO) or conversely
- Minimum FBO for given air distance (lowest FBO /
air distance ratio).

FBO / Time FBO / Time Power Thrust / Drag x TAS

Fuel rate = = = =
AD / Time TAS TAS TAS

POWER / TAS = DRAG

 L
I
F
T

DRAG
THRUST

W Flight Path
E
I
G
Relative Wind H
T
 L
I
F
T

DRAG
D
+ THRUST

W Flight Path
E
I
G
Relative Wind H
T

AoA increases, lift Drag increases, speed

increases slower
 C
O
M
P
.L
I
F
T THRUST

W
E
I
G
H
T
 CLIMB SPEEDS

Cruise Climb

Best Rate of Climb Speed-

VY
Best Angle of Climb Speed
- Vx
 CLIMB SPEEDS

1. Maximum gradient ( angle ) climb – Vx .

Altitude gained for horizontal distance;
To clear obstacles;
The lowest climb speed;
High power for only sufficient time;
Low speed lead to less engine cooling.
Best Angle of Climb Speed.
 CLIMB SPEEDS

1. Maximum gradient ( angle ) climb .

Best Angle of Climb Speed – Vx.
 CLIMB SPEEDS

2. Best Rate of Climb Speed - VY.

Altitude gained in the shortest time;
To get to cruise altitude as soon as
possible;
Near the speed for best L/D ratio
 CLIMB SPEEDS
2. Maximum a rate climb.
Best Rate of Climb Speed - Vy
3000 FT 01.02

2000 FT 01.01

1000 FT 01.00

Rate of Climb: 1000 FT/ Minute

 CLIMB SPEEDS

3. Cruise Climb.
High speed airplane;
Climb without pilot interference;
Better cooling;
Low pitch, better visibility;
The most swallow climb.
 CLIMB SPEEDS

3. Cruise Climb
 CLIMB PERFORMANCE

Weight 

Climb Performance 

Air Density 
CLIMB PERFORMANCE
Same airplane different weight

Climb performance decreases

Which one is heavier ?

Climb performance increases

CLIMB PERFORMANCE
EFFECT STEADY WIND ON THE CLIMB

The worst climb gradient

The best climb gradient

REMEMBER

1. Flight Path opposite direction with

Relative Wind;
2. Thrust, Lift and Drag associated with
Relative;
3. Thrust same direction to Flight Path;
4. Lift perpendicular to Flight Path;
5. Drag opposite direction to Flight Path;
6. Weight always act toward the center of
the Earth
 TURNING

LIFT L
VERTICAL LIFT COMP.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

HORIZONTAL LIFT COMP.

W
 STEEP TURN
Pull
control
( > 450 )
column

L Lv L
AoA 

Drag 

LH

Power 

Maintain
altitude

Maintain
aileron

Maintain
bank angle
 TURNING

L LV
L L LV

LH LH

W W W

W > LV AoA 
L=W

W = LV
Descend

Level Turn
 TURNING

L L L

W W W

L=W 300 L>W 600 L >> W

Steeper the Bank – Lift 

 LOAD FACTOR
Load factor is the ratio of the maximum load an aircraft can sustain to the gross
weight of the aircraft. The load factor is measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity),
a unit of force equal to the force exerted by gravity on a body at rest and
indicates the force to which a body is subjected when it is accelerated.

Centrifugal Force

Gravity = Weight
Load Factor = > G
 7

LOAD
FACTOR 4
( G UNITS )

00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

BANK ANGLE ..0
 OVERBANKING
( In level and climbing turn )

Faster

Slower
UNDERBANK / OVERBANG
( Descending turn)
 COORDINATING TURN
Slipping Turn Coordinated Turn Skidding Turn

L R L R L R

Too much aileron - Too much rudder –

More rudder required. Comfortable Turn
More aileron required.
 TURNING RATE.

• Rate one turn = 1800 in One minute;

• One Second = 30.
• Airspeed , steeper bank angle.

200 KT
150 KT
0
220 Bank angle
15 Bank angle
TURNING RATE.
CONSTANT – RADIUS TURN
80 KT
100
90 KT
200.

120 KT
300.

Speed  , Bank Angle 

Constant Radius of Turn
CONSTANT – ANGLE - TURN
FASTER

SLOWER

Same Bank Angle –

Different Radius of Turn
 CONSTANT - SPEEDS TURN
80 KT
200

80 KT
350
Steeper Bank Angle –
Smaller Radius of Turn
 ANGLE OF BANK

• Angle of Bank =
( KIAS : 10 ) x1.5.

• Angle of Bank = (100 KT :10 ) x 1.5 = 150.

 RADIUS OF TURN

• Faster airspeed, at same angle of bank

greater radius of turn;
• Same radius of turn at higher airspeed ,
requires greater bank angle;
• Different airspeed require different angle
of bank to maintain same Radius of Turn;
• Constant airspeed, greater bank angle,
smaller radius of turn and greater rate of
turn.
 RADIUS OF TURN

• Radius of a Standard Rate Turn in NM is

½ x TAS X 1%

• Example:
TAS = 100 KT
½ x 100 x 1% = 0.5 NM.
 LOAD FACTOR AND STALLING SPEED

40
5
Rated of acceleration VS to unaccelerated VS

50

60

Unaccelerated stall speed

4
70

80
3

100

2 120
150

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
“G”Load Accelerated stall speed
 STALL
7

6
Structural damage
5
Maneuvering speed
4

Never exceed Speed

Structural failure
Load Factor

2
Normal stall speed
Normal operating range / ≤ 1 G Caution range
1

-1

-2

-3

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

IAS (KT)
STALL
 STALL

1.8

1.6 CL MAX 100 KT

1.4

1.2 110 KT

120 KT
1.0
STALL
0.8
150 KT
0.6

0.4
200 KT

0.2
300 KT

0.0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
 STALL
CL

STALL

CL MAX

LIFT
DECAYING

2 10 16 AoA
STALL
 STALLING ANGLE

β
STALLING ANGLE
 STALL
It can be happened in any
- Airspeed;
- Attitude;
- Power setting.

≥CL

The wing stall at particular

angle of attack.
NOT upon airspeed
 STALL

Weight increment :
-Load Factor AoA Close to Max CL
-Load 
HIGH-SPEED STALL

80 KIAS
 STALLING SPEED WITH LOAD FACTOR
 VS =√ L

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0
2.0 3.0 Load Factor 4.0
Bank Angle
000 300 450 600 700 750
STALL SPEED INCREASES WITH WEIGHT
( STALL ANGLE STAYS THE SAME
Same
L Stall Angle

W 65 KIAS

75 KIAS
STALL ANGLE IN LEVEL TURN
L
Lift increases
Angle of Attack
increases

W
 STALL ANGLE IN LEVEL TURN
100
Bank Angle 
Stall Speed 
% Increases
Stall Speed

50

300 450 600

Bank Angle
 STALL SPEED WITH ALTITUDE

Same Stall Speed in any

Altitude

5000 FT

45 KIAS

3000 FT

45 KIAS
STALL SPEED IS LESS IN POWER-ON STALL

Power
ON

Kinetic
Energy

Delay
Separation

Stall in
Lower IAS
STALL SPEED IS LESS IN POWER-ON STALL

L
i
f
t

Power ON

Stream air from the propeller wash moving faster than the aircraft speed.
 STALL
Icing condition over wing

More weight
Stalling speed increases
More drag
 STALL

Situation Stall Attitude

Power On Power Off

Accelerated Stall

Secondary Stall

Crossed-control Stall

Elevator Trim Stall

 ACCELERATED STALL
Accelerated stall are caused by abrupt or excessive control movement.

Stalling speed is most affected by load factor.

In any situation involving increased load factor, such as
a rapid pullout from A dive , the stall speed increases.
 SECONDARY STALL

• Too quickly pull-up during recovery from

stall;
• During hasten stall recovery
 CROSSED-CONTROL STALL

• Poorly executed turn to final approach for

landing;
• Flight control are crossed;
• Excessive inside rudder to tighten the turn;
• Opposite aileron to keep the bank
becoming to steep;
• Nose pitch down and the wing inside of
the turn suddenly drop;
• Recovery watch skidding-turn to
coordinate the control and go around.
 ELEVATOR TRIM STALL

During slow speed approach, trim nose up.

During go around the nose continuing up than stall

 STALL RECOGNATION.

• Stall warning;
• Audio or light indicator;
• 5 to 10 KT before stall;
• Stake shaker;
• Sinking feeling;
 STALL RECOVERY
• Reduce angle of attack;
• Forward elevator;
• Excessive forward can impose negative
load factor and delay recovery;
• Smoothly apply maximum power to
increase airspeed and minimize loss
altitude;
• Un-coordinated flight control input can stall
and spin;
• Avoid exceeding airspeed and RPM.
 THE SPIN
Spin Axis
Rudder Right

Elevators up

Yaw Left.

The airplane in motion all three axes.

 THE SPIN
The airplane condition: Recovery:
• Stalled; • Using opposite rudder;
• Rolling; • Forward control column
• Yawing; to un-stall.
• Pitching,
• Slipping;
• Rapid sinking.
 SPIN
Flat Spin
Steep Spin
 SPIRAL INSTABILITY

Directional stability > Lateral stability Right Yaw

Yaw > Roll

Left wing moves faster than right wing

Lift from left wing > Lift from right wing

Roll right , Yaw right

Nose drop
SPIRAL INSTABILITY
 SPIN

Loosing altitude per turn 500 – 1000 FT

Airspeed close to stalling speed

Nose down 450-600.

 SPIN

Primary cause:
• Unbalanced lift over wing;
• CG unbalanced fuel load;
• Crossed-control stall;
• Uncoordinated maneuver , pitot/static
instrument unreliable due to uneven
distribution of pressure;
• Airspeed unreliable close to stalling speed,
without warning.
 PHASES OF SPIN

Lower wing increase angle of attack.

Lower wing increase lift. Increase lift, increase drag.

Yaw to the lower wing.

 WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Heavier weight Slower initial spin rates Spin rates increase

Recovery need higher angular turn and extend time and altitude

CG position Forward CG Higher stalling speed

Aft CG Easy to stall Flatter spin attitude

Extreme yaw rate and high rate of descend

Upward flow over tail

Rudder and elevator ineffective

DESCEND

Glide path angle

 DESCEND

Steeper glide
Low L/D

Low L/D
Not glide very far (poor)

Swallower glide
High L/D

High L/D
Glide long way
DESCEND SPEED

Recommended
speed

Too slow

Too fast
 DESCEND FLAPS SETTING

Flaps down
Steeper glide

Less flaps
Swallower glide
 DESCEND WEIGHT

Reduces weight does not change the glide path,

But reduces the best glide speed

95 KT

Same glide 85 KT
angel

Light Heavy
Weight Weight
GLIDE DISTANCE OVER THE GROUND
 LANDING GROUND ROLL
( Normal Approach Speed )

Short = Normal – 20%

Normal

Long = Normal + 20%

 APPROACH AND LANDING RULE OF
THUMB

• 10% Airspeed  Change 20% stopping

distance;
• Rate of descent 30 glide slope  GS x 5;
Rate of descent 2.50 glide slope  GS x 4;
Rate of descent 3.50 glide slope  GS x 6.
• Visual Descent Point:
HAT (in hundred) :3
 POWER AND GLIDE PATH

Adding power will flatten the descent.

Sinking beneath desired flightpath, to correct is apply some power.

Raise the nose worsened the situation.

Steepen the descent by reducing power or increasing drag.

Descending above desired descent path:
-Reduce the thrust and or;
-Increase drag (extend flaps) and lower nose attitude.
 LIFT-DRAG EFFECT ON A DROPPING
WING

-40 00 40 80 120 160 200