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Big Five personality traits

The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five-
factor model (FFM) and the OCEAN model, is a
taxonomy for personality traits.[1] When factor analysis (a
statistical technique) is applied to personality survey data,
some words used to describe aspects of personality are often
applied to the same person. For example, someone
described as conscientious is more likely to be described as
"always prepared" rather than "messy". This theory is based
therefore on the association between words but not on
neuropsychological experiments. This theory uses
descriptors of common language and therefore suggests five
broad dimensions commonly used to describe the human
personality and psyche.[2][3]
The big five personality traits
The five factors are:

Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious)

Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless)
Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved)
Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. challenging/detached)
Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident)
The five factors are represented by the acronym OCEAN or CANOE. Beneath each proposed global
factor, there are a number of correlated and more specific primary factors. For example, extraversion
is said to include such related qualities as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth,
activity, and positive emotions.[4]

Family life and the way someone was raised will also affect these traits. Twin studies and other
research have shown that about half of the variation between individuals results from their genetics
and half from their environments. Researchers have found conscientiousness, extraversion, openness
to experience, and neuroticism to be relatively stable from childhood through adulthood.

Contents
Overview
Descriptions of the particular personality traits
Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
History
Early trait research
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Hiatus in research
Renewed attention
Biological and developmental factors
Temperament vs. personality
Heritability
Non-humans
Development during childhood and adolescence
Development throughout adulthood
Personality change from disease
Group differences
Gender differences
Birth-order differences
Cultural differences
Relationships
Personality disorders
Common mental disorders
Health
Education
Work success
Romantic relationships
Political identification
Scope of predictive power
Measurements
Critique
Limited scope
Methodological issues
Theoretical status
Evidence for six factors rather than five
See also
References
External links

Overview
The Big Five personality traits was the model to comprehend the relationship between personality
and academic behaviors.[5] This model was defined by several independent sets of researchers who
used factor analysis of verbal descriptors of human behavior.[6] These researchers began by studying
relationships between a large number of verbal descriptors related to personality traits. They reduced
the lists of these descriptors by 5–10 fold and then used factor analysis to group the remaining traits
(using data mostly based upon people's estimations, in self-report questionnaire and peer ratings) in
order to find the underlying factors of personality.[7][8][9][10][11]

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The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961,[10] but failed to reach
an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five-factor model of
personality, which Lewis Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization.[12] These five
overarching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are
assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits.[13]

At least four sets of researchers have worked independently within lexical hypothesis in personality
theory for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same five factors: Tupes and
Christal were first, followed by Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute,[14][15][16][17][18] Cattell at
the University of Illinois,[9][19][20][21] and Costa and McCrae.[22][23][24][25] These four sets of
researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five
factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly
inter-correlated and factor-analytically aligned.[26][27][28][29][30] Studies indicate that the Big Five
traits are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more
numerous facets or primary traits.[31][32]

Each of the Big Five personality traits contains two separate, but correlated, aspects reflecting a level
of personality below the broad domains but above the many facet scales that are also part of the Big
Five.[33] The aspects are labeled as follows: Volatility and Withdrawal for Neuroticism; Enthusiasm
and Assertiveness for Extraversion; Intellect and Openness for Openness to Experience;
Industriousness and Orderliness for Conscientiousness; and Compassion and Politeness for
Agreeableness.[33]

People who do not exhibit a clear predisposition to a single factor in each dimension above are
considered adaptable, moderate and reasonable, yet they can also be perceived as unprincipled,
inscrutable and calculating.[34] Depending on how much of each trait a person has, it could make
someone more susceptible to participating in certain activities.

Descriptions of the particular personality traits

Openness to experience
Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity,
and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to
emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed
people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold
unconventional beliefs. High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus, and more
likely to engage in risky behaviour or drug taking.[35] Moreover, individuals with high openness are
said to pursue self-actualization specifically by seeking out intense, euphoric experiences. Conversely,
those with low openness seek to gain fulfillment through perseverance and are characterized as
pragmatic and data-driven—sometimes even perceived to be dogmatic and closed-minded. Some
disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness factor.

Sample items
I have excellent ideas.
I am quick to understand things.
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I use difficult words.

I am full of ideas.
I am not interested in abstractions. (reversed)
I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)
I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)[36]

Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self-discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement
against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate,
and direct their impulses. High conscientiousness is often perceived as being stubborn and focused.
Low conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity, but can also appear as sloppiness
and lack of reliability.[34] High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for planned rather
than spontaneous behavior.[37] The average level of conscientiousness rises among young adults and
then declines among older adults.[38]

Sample items
I am always prepared.
I pay attention to details.
I get chores done right away.
I like order.
I follow a schedule.
I am exacting in my work.
I never forget my belongings.
I always end up being helpful to most things.
I often remember where I last put my things.
I give attention to my duties. [36]

Extraversion
Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external
activity/situations, and energy creation from external means.[39] The trait is marked by pronounced
engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived
as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals. They possess high group
visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves. Extraverted people may appear more dominant in social
settings, as opposed to introverted people in this setting.[40]

Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem quiet,
low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not
be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than
extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation, and more time alone than extraverts. This does not mean
that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social situations.[1]

Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion, with personality psychologist
Eysenck suggesting that these traits are connected somehow to our central nervous system.[40]:106
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Sample items
I am the life of the party.
I don't mind being the center of attention.
I feel comfortable around people.
I start conversations.
I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
I think a lot before I speak or act. (reversed)
I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
I have no intention of talking in large crowds. (reversed)[36]

Agreeableness
The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony.
Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous,
trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others.[1] Agreeable
people also have an optimistic view of human nature.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally
unconcerned with others' well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people.
Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and
uncooperative.[41] Low agreeableness personalities are often competitive or challenging people, which
can be seen as argumentative or untrustworthy.[34]

Because agreeableness is a social trait, research has shown that one's agreeableness positively
correlates with the quality of relationships with one's team members. Agreeableness also positively
predicts transformational leadership skills. In a study conducted among 169 participants in
leadership positions in a variety of professions, individuals were asked to take a personality test and
have two evaluations completed by directly supervised subordinates. Leaders with high levels of
agreeableness were more likely to be considered transformational rather than transactional. Although
the relationship was not strong, (r=0.32, β=0.28, p<0.01) it was the strongest of the Big Five traits.
However, the same study showed no predictive power of leadership effectiveness as evaluated by the
leader's direct supervisor.[42]

Conversely, agreeableness has been found to be negatively related to transactional leadership in the
military. A study of Asian military units showed leaders with a high level of agreeableness to be more
likely to receive a low rating for transformational leadership skills.[43] Therefore, with further
research, organizations may be able to determine an individual's potential for performance based on
their personality traits. For instance,[44] in their journal article "Which Personality Attributes Are
Most Important in the Workplace?" Paul Sackett and Philip Walmsley claim that conscientiousness
and agreeableness are “important to success across many different jobs."

Sample items
I am interested in people.
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I sympathize with others' feelings.

I have a soft heart.
I take time out for others.
I feel others' emotions.
I make people feel at ease.
I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
I insult people. (reversed)
I am not interested in other people's problems. (reversed)
I feel little concern for others. (reversed)[36]

Neuroticism
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or
depression.[45] It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional
stability. According to Eysenck's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low
tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli.[46] Neuroticism is a classic temperament trait that has been
studied in temperament research for decades, before it was adapted by the FFM.[47] Those who score
high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress, also tending to be flippant in the
way they express emotion. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and
minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for
unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. For instance, neuroticism
is connected to a pessimistic approach toward work, confidence that work impedes personal
relationships, and apparent anxiety linked with work.[48] Furthermore, those who score high on
neuroticism may display more skin-conductance reactivity than those who score low on
neuroticism.[46][49] These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person
scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. Lacking
contentment in one's life achievements can correlate with high neuroticism scores and increase one's
likelihood of falling into clinical depression. Moreover, individuals high in neuroticism tend to
experience more negative life events,[45][50] but neuroticism also changes in response to positive and
negative life experiences.[45][50] Also, individuals with higher levels of neuroticism tend to have worse
psychological well being.[51]

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are
less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative
feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low-scorers experience a lot of positive
feelings.[52]

Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis.) Some
psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the
term neurotic in a career test.

Sample items
I get irritated easily.
I get stressed out easily.
I get upset easily.

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I have frequent mood swings.

I worry about things.
I am much more anxious than most people.[53]
I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)
I seldom feel blue. (reversed)[36]

History

Early trait research

Historically preceding The Big Five personality traits (B5) or the Five Factors Model (FFM), was
Hippocrates's four types of temperament— sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholic. The
sanguine type is most closely related to emotional stability and extraversion, the phlegmatic type is
also stable but introverted, the choleric type is unstable and extraverted, and the melancholic type is
unstable and introverted.[54]

In 1884, Sir Francis Galton was the first person who is known to have investigated the hypothesis that
it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits by sampling language:
the lexical hypothesis.[7]

In 1936, Gordon Allport and S. Odbert put Sir Francis Galton's hypothesis into practice by extracting
4,504 adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable and relatively permanent traits
from the dictionaries at that time.[55] In 1940, Raymond Cattell retained the adjectives, and
eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171.[9] He constructed a self-report instrument for the
clusters of personality traits he found from the adjectives, which he called the Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire.

In 1949, the first systematic multivariate research of personality was conducted by Joy P. Guilford.
Guilford analyzed ten factors of personality, which he measured by the Guildford-Zimmerman
Temperament Survey. These scales included general activity (energy vs inactivity); restraint
(seriousness vs impulsiveness); ascendance (social boldness vs submissiveness); sociability (social
interest vs shyness); emotional stability (evenness vs fluctuation of mood); objectivity (thick-skinned
vs hypersensitive); friendliness (agreeableness vs belligerence); thoughtfulness (reflective vs
disconnected), personal relations (tolerance vs hypercritical); masculinity (hard-boiled vs
sympathetic).[54] These overlapping scales were later further analyzed by Guilford et al., and condense
into three dimensions: social activity (general activity, ascendence, sociability), introversion-
extraversion (restraint, thoughtfulness), and emotional health (emotional stability, objectivity,
friendliness, personal relations).[54]

Based on a subset of only 20 of the 36 dimensions that Cattell had originally discovered, Ernest Tupes
and Raymond Christal (1961) claimed to have found just five broad factors which they labeled:
"surgency", "agreeableness", "dependability", "emotional stability", and "culture".[10] Warren Norman
subsequently relabeled "dependability" as "conscientiousness".[11]

Hiatus in research

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