MOTIVATIONS

 Motivation
An inferred process within a person or animal that causes a movement towards a goal or away from an
unpleasant situation.

i) Intrinsic Motivation
Desire to do something for its own sake and the pleasure it brings.
Eg – A runner may be motivated to exercise simply because it makes them feel good.

ii) Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to do something for external rewards, such as money, good grades or other external
enticement.
Eg – A runner is motivated to exercise to prepare for the race so they could win a medal/prize.

 Biological Influences on Weight

- Initially it was believed that being overweight = emotional disturbance. You were fat because you feared
intimacy or hated your mother and filled that emotional hole with food. However, these conclusions were
drawn from self-reports. (Myth)
- Fat people on average are no more or less emotionally disturbed than an average-weight person.
- Being overweight doesn’t always come because of overeating. Some thin people eat a lot but don’t get fat.

Eg – In a study, slender people put on weight whilst fat people tried losing it. After the study was over, the
slender people lost all the weight that they gained, and the fat people regained all the weight that they lost.

1) Genetic Influences on Weight and Body Shape

- Biological mechanism keeps your body at a genetically influenced weight known as the ‘set point’.
- Set Point refers to your genetically influenced weight range which is maintained by fat reserves, metabolism
and biological mechanisms that regulate food intake.
- Obese people have 2x the number of fat cells as compared to normal-weight adults. These fat cells are also
bigger in size. So when these people lose weight, they don’t lose fat cells which is why it is easier for them to
regain it.
- When fat person diets, BMR slows down to conserve energy.
- When thin person bulks, BMR speeds up to expend energy.
- Genes are responsible for setting your set point.

Eg – Identical twins who grow up in different families are similar in body weight to twins that are raised
together.

- Obese people also lack ‘Brown Fat’ which is an energy burning type of fat. The production of this ‘Brown Fat’
occurs due to cold and exercise. And in Mice this turns white fat into brown fat which is good for burning up
the calories consumed. When they go out of energy they suck energy out of the rest of the body to keep you
warm.
 2) Gene Mutations and Leptin
- Mutation in genes that regulate normal eating and weight control = obesity.
- ‘Obese’ is a gene that causes fat cells to secrete a protein known as Leptin.
Leptin travels to the Hypothalamus which is involved in regulation of appetite.
- Leptin level = normal, people eat maintenance calories.
- Mutation can cause Leptin level to be low, due to which hypothalamus thinks body lacks fat reserves and
signals the person to overeat.

Eg – In Mice, injecting them with Leptin caused them to reduce appetite and shed weight however this does
not produce much weight loss in Humans.

- During a critical period in infancy, leptin influences the formation of neural connections that reduce appetite
and weaken circuits that stimulate it. This is how the SET POINT is set.
- Some researchers think that due to early neural plasticity, overfeeding infants whilst the hypothalamus is
developing may produce childhood obesity.

3) Other Factors
- Lacking a gene that modulates production of a protein that converts excess calories into heat rather than
fat.
- Receptors in your nose and mouth urging you to eat more.
- The hormone ‘Ghrelin’ makes you hungry and eager to eat more. If Leptin production isn’t adequate to
counter it, you end up over eating.
- Leptin deficiency makes it hard for dieters to keep the weight off.
- Sweets increase dopamine levels and make you crave more of it.
- Some obese individuals have underactive reward circuitry so they have to overeat to boost their dopamine
levels. (Addicted to food)

 Environmental Influences on Weight

1) Abundance of Fast Food and Processed Food

- Inexpensive, readily available and high in sugar, starch and carbs.
- Genetically predisposed to gain weight when rich food is available due to evolutionary past where starvation
was a very real possibility. Therefore, storing calories as fat has a survival advantage.

Eg – Ninth grade school children were found to be more susceptible to gaining weight once a new fast food
restaurant opened near them.
- Proximity to fast food.
Eg – In a study at two different universities, one in the Midwest and the other on the East Coast, more than
70 percent of all first-year students gained significant amounts of weight.

2) Widespread Consumption of high-sugar, high calorie soft drinks

- Human body did not evolve a mechanism that would compensate for fluid intake by lowering food intake as
proportion of calories consumed in beverages was low.
- Now drinks are loaded with sugar and calories and people who drink 2-3 sodas everyday have gained up to
14 pounds per person.

3) Sharp Decline in exercise and other expenditures of energy

- Rise of video games and TVs
 4) Increased portion sizes of food and drinks
- Babies are being 30% more calories than they need.
- Serving sizes have doubled or tripled. (Upsize)
- Cultural variations can be seen
Eg – In France, people eat rich food but not as much as Americans.

5) Abundance of highly varied foods

- Diets aren’t predictable as food has become highly varied.
Eg – People will eat more M&Ms when they are available in 10 colors as compared to when they are
available in 7 colors.

6) Other Factors
- Sleepless. ~ Sleep is important in regulating weight
- Women gaining excessive weight during pregnancy ~ produces kids of a higher birth weight than normal and
is linked to obesity in the future.
- Central heating and air conditioning, which keep people from shivering and burning brown fat in WINTERS
and sweltering and eating less in SUMMERS.
- Exposure to cold viruses.
Eg – Children exposed to ‘Adenovirus-36’ are more likely to become obese than those who are not infected.
Link has been found in adults in Korea, Italy and the USA.

 Study by Brian Wansink

a) Package Size: People eat more from larger containers

b) Plate Size: People eat more when they serve themselves on large plates
c) Cues to how much has been eaten: People eat more from a buffet when the waiters quickly
replace dirty dishes thereby eliminating signs of how much food has been consumed.
d) Kitchen and Table Layouts: People eat more when food and snacks are displayed prominently,
are varied and accessible.
e) Distraction: People eat more when they are distracted by friends or the environment.

 Eating Disorders
People develop eating disorders that reflect an irrational terror of being fat.

1) Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating followed by forced vomiting or use of
laxatives.
Cultural factors at play. It is rare in non-Western cultures and has only become a problem in Western
cultures with the rise of the thin ideal for women.
It was found media exposure to such ideals can increase the risk of it.
American culture is also very critical about people’s bodies.

2) Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption
of food and skinniness. (Culturally diverse phenomenon)
Anorexia has the highest mortality rate out of all mental disorders. Many of its sufferers die of heart or
kidney failure or complications brought on by weakened bones.
Genes play a role in its development.
 - Both of these occur most often among young white women.

- However, more than 40% cases of eating disorders occur among men, older adults, ethnic minority groups,
young children and athletes AND do not fit the diagnostic criteria for bulimia or anorexia.
These can include binge-eating disorders without purging, chewing whatever food they want but spitting it
out and others are normal weight but take no joy in eating because they are scared of gaining weight.

- Most eating disorders are brought on by psychological factors such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem,
perfectionism and a distorted body image.
- Just like Anorexic women, men think that their muscles are puny so they abuse steroids. (American Culture)
- In contrast, Chinese men in Taiwan do not promote media images of muscular male body and thus are less
likely to develop these disorders linked to body image.

Motives to Love
1) Passionate Love
Characterized by a whirl wind of intense emotions and sexual passions
- Love at first sight.
- Early stages of love affairs.
- May burn out or evolve into companionate love.
- Experience is universal, and this type of love is not regarded as a proper basis for anything serious.

2) Companionate Love
Characterized by affection and trust.

 Biological Influences on Love

- Olfactory cues in a potential partner’s scent that can turn you on/off.
- Similar physical cues in body shape and voice and how similar their face is to yours.
- Jolts of dopamine involved.
- Arousal and excitement provided by Adrenaline.
- Hormones involved in attachment and bonding.

 Where does love begin?

- Origins of passionate love begin in infancy; in the baby’s attachment to the mother.
- According to evolutionary psychologists, MATERNAL and ROMANTIC love share a common purpose of
‘Preserving the species’ and this is why they share common neural mechanisms that make attachment and
pair-bonding feel good.
- Key neurotransmitters involved in mother-baby pair-bond as well as in the pair-bond of adults are the same.

- Two Important Hormones include: Vasopressin and Oxytocin

These are involved in the ‘attachment-caregiving’ system – influencing feelings and expressions of love both
between adults and mother-baby.
 Eg – In a study, volunteers who inhaled oxytocin were more likely to trust each other in risky situations.
Eg – Oxytocin, increased the nonverbal expressions of love in couples as compared to the ones given a
placebo.
Eg – Prairie Voles, a monogamous species, don’t get attached to partners when their oxytocin is blocked.
(they still mate)

- However, giving people doses of Oxytocin can increase defensive aggression against outsiders.
- High levels of Oxytocin in WOMEN and high levels of Vasopressin in Men are markers of Relationship
Distress.
- Impact of Oxytocin also depends on your love and attachment histories.
Eg – Better attachment to mother = better impact of Oxytocin. Remembered their mothers as being
unusually kind and supportive.
Vs
Poor attachment to mother = Remembered their moms as much less caring.

 The Role of Endorphins.

- Endorphins are the brain’s natural opiates and are released during attachment.
Eg – The chemical seems to be a biological replacement for mom. (Panksepp)
Mice cry out in distress when they are separated from their mothers, but endorphins are released upon
mother’s touch. This effect is heavily reduced when animals are injected with low doses of morphine or
endorphins.

Eg – When mice are genetically engineered to lack opioid receptors then they become less attached to
mothers and do not show signs of distress upon separation.

- This suggests that endorphin seeking euphoria is a child’s initial motive for seeking affection and cuddling.
Adult love may involve the same biochemistry.

Eg – Using fMRI, we have found neurological similarities b/w mother love and adult romantic love. Certain
parts of the brain are activated when people see their sweetheart vs images of furniture. And these same
parts are activated when the mother sees pictures of her own children vs images of other children. Proving
that bonds of attachment are biologically based.

 Psychological Aspect of Love

- Proximity is the first major predictor of who we end up loving. (people who live, study or work near us)
- Similarity is the second major predictor. (looks, attitudes, beliefs, values, personality and interests)
- It is commonly believed that ‘Opposites attract’ however we tend to choose friends or loved ones that are
most like us.
- Online matchmakers are a scam because they make their studies public, sites may be faulty especially those
based on fake personality, neurotransmitter and anecdotal testimonials.

 Why are old-fashioned methods of meeting people more successful in generating long term
relationships?
1) People lie on questionnaires and their self-reports are inaccurate and distorted. (Lying about height)
2) How partners cope with decisions, stresses and conflict are more important for the long haul than
simply having matching attitudes.
3) Often you don’t understand why you like a person, and online websites can have you matched up
with a person who has the exact characteristics you’re looking for but there is little connection in
person.
 4) The qualities that you want in a person can often shift and change to fit a person that you like who
might have a few of the qualities you initially wanted. But now you shape your perception towards
liking the other things too.
5) Online apps can also encourage casual sex and superficial relationships. (Finkel)

 The Attachment Theory of Love – after you find someone, how do you love?
- According to Shaver and Hazan, adults just like babies can be
a) Secure – rarely jealous or worried about abandonment.
b) Anxious – agitated, fear abandonment and clingy.
c) Avoidant – distrust and avoid intimate attachments.
In their attachments.

- Attachment styles as adults are largely derived from how much a person’s parents cared for them.
- Children form internal ‘working models’ of relationships
If parent is cold and rejecting, they expect other relationships to be the same.
If parent and child form secure attachments, they become more trusting of others.

- However, a child’s own Temperament and Genetic Predispositions can account for consistency of these
attachment styles from childhood to adulthood.

Eg – A child who is temperamentally fearful, whose rewards circuits do not function normally, may reject
even the kindest parent’s effort to console them. Therefore, becoming anxious and ambivalent in adult
relationships.

Eg – Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaption found that people who are poorly treated in early
life LACK secure attachments and end up on a pathway which makes it difficult for having committed
relationships. As children, they have trouble regulating negative emotions, as teens they have trouble
dealing with and recovering from conflict with their peers, and as adults they tend to ‘protect’ themselves
by becoming the less-committed person in a relationship.

- These vulnerabilities in maintaining a stable partnership can be overcome if these people are lucky enough
to get into a relationship with a securely attached partner.

 Ingredients/Components of Love
Mix of PASSION, INTIMACY and COMMITMENT.

- Intimacy is based on deep knowledge about the other person which grows gradually.
- Passion is based on emotion, which is generated by novelty and change.
This is why passion is highest at the start of a relationship and lowest when knowledge of other person’s
beliefs and habits is at its maximum.

Eg – According to a number of studies, romantic love is strongly associated with a couple’s happiness and
can persist for many years. However, ‘Obsessiveness’ does end up diminishing among happy couples that
are in romantic love.

- Biological factors such as the brain’s opiate system contributes to early passion however maintaining it is
more down to the couple’s attitudes, values and balance of power.
- Psychological Predictors of Satisfaction:

1) Perception of the relationship.

Couples that think that the relationship is fair, balanced and rewarding lasts longer.
Partners who feel over benefited tend to feel guilty
Vs
Those who feel under benefited tend to feel that they deserve more.

Issues of balance in relationships are usually seen when a stressful event (arrival of children, illness,
unemployment or retirement) occurs.

2) Nature of Primary motivation to maintain the relationship.

Is it positive? – to enjoy affection and intimacy
Is it negative? – to not be alone or insecure

Former goal tends to get you more satisfaction.